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AUTHOR Dougherty, Neil J., IV, Ed. TITLE Principles of Safety in Physical Education and Sport. INSTITUTION American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. REPORT NO ISBN-0-88314-345-3 PUB DATE 87 NOTE 186p.; Photographs will not reproduce well. AVAILABLE FROMAAHPERD Publications, P.O. Box 704, Waldorf, MD 20601 ($12.95). PUB TYPE Reports Descriptive (141) Guides Non-Classroom Use (055) -- Collected Works - General (020)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Athletics; Elementary Secondary Education; First Aid; Injuries; Legal Responsibility; *Physical Education; *Safety; Teacher Role

ABSTRACT This book was designed to provide the professional with a straightforward and complete resource for those factors that must be considered in the provision of safe units of instruction in the commonly taught sports and activities. Twenty-one chapters provide essential information, checklists, and outlines, as well as ways to ensure student safety. Chapter topics are:(1) the injury problem; (2) legal responsibility for safety; (3) administration of safety; (4) first aid and sport safety policies; (5) archery; (6) ; (7) coed flag football; (8) dance; (9) field hockey; (10) fitness and weight training; (11) golf; (12) orienteering; (13) racquet sports; (14) self-defense; (15) soccer; (16) softball; (17) swimming; (18) track and field; (19) tumbling; (20) volleyball; and (21) wrestling. (CB)

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURcES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

in Physi Educafon and Sport

4re, Principles of Safety in Physical Education and Sport

Neil J. Dougherty IV, Editor Rutgers University

sponsored by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education

an association of the American Alliance for H&'th, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Copyright 1987 The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance 1900 Association Drive Reston, Virginia 22091 ISBN 0-88314-345-3 4 Purposes of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

The American Alliance is an educational organization, structured for the purposes of supporting, encouraging, and providing assistance to member groups and their personnel throughout the nation as they seek to initiate, develop, and conduct programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities for the enrichment of human life. Alliance objectives include: 1. Professional growth and developmentto support,encourage, and provide guidance in the development and conduct ofprograms in health, leisure, and movement-related activities which are basedon the needs, interests, and inherent capacities of the individual in today's society. 2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional understanding and appreciation of the importance and value of health, leisure, and movement-related activities as they contribute toward human well-being. 3. Researchto encourage and facilitate research which will enrich the depth and scope of health, leisure, and movement-related activities; and to disseminate the findings to the profession and other interested andcon- cerned publics. 4. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous development and evaluation of standards within the profession for personnel andprograms in health, leisure, and movement-related activities. 5. Public affairsto coordinate and administer a planned program of professional, public, and governmental relations that will improve education in areas of health, leisure, and movement-related activities. 6. To conduct such other activities as shall be approved by the Board of Governors and the Alliance Assembly, provided that the Alliance shall not engage in any activity which would be inconsistent with the status of an educational and charitable organization as defined in Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 or any successor provision thereto, andnone of the said purposes shall at any time be deemed or construed to bepurposes other than the public benefit purposes and objectives consistent with such educational and charitable status. Bylaws, Article III Table of Contents

Purposes of the Alliance iii Preface vii Authors ix

Chapter 1

The Injury Problem David Feig;ey 1 Chapter 2 Legal Responsibility for Safety Neil Dougherty 15 Chapter 3 Administration of Safety Patricia Barry23 Chapter 4 First Aid and Sport Safety Policies Phil Hostler39 Chapter 5 Archery Claire Cham' erlain51 Chapter 6 Basketball James Bryant57 Chapter 7 Coed Flag Football Maryar n Domitrovitz63 Chapter 8 Dance Lynne Fitzgerald69 Chapter 9 Field Hockey Barbara Belt77 Chapter 10 Fitness/Weight Training Clair Jennett 81 Chapter 11 Golf DeDe Owens89 Chapter 12 Orienteering Arthur Hugglestone 101 Chapter 13 Racquet Sports John Smyth 111 Chapter 14 Self-defense Kenneth Tillman 121 Chapter 15 Soccer Jchn Fellenbaum 127 Chapter 16 Softball Diane Bonanno, Sonia Regalado, Patricia Peters 133 Chapter 17 SwiLiming Ralph Johnson 143

v 6 Chapter 18 Track and Field LeRoy Walker 159 Chapter 19 Tumbling Diane Bonanno 165 Chapter 20 Volleyball Barbara Vtera 179 Chapter 21 Wrestling Douglas Parker 185

7

vi Preface

In 1983 the National Association for Sport and Physical Education pub- lished Physical Education and Sport for theSecondary School Student. This completely updated and revised edition of the earlierPhysical Education for High School Students met with immediate andcontinued success. Although designed primarily for useas a student textbook, the quality and accuracy of the content as well 's the clear and directapplication of teaching and learning progressions has led to its widespreadacceptance as a teaching guide as well. The same quality of authorship and validity ofcontent which led to the broad acceptance of Physical Education and Sportfor the Secondary School Student has led to another use which althoughnot planned for, probably could have been anticipated. It is frequently introducedas evidence either supporting or condemning the actions ofa teacher who is being sued for an accidental injury which arose in his/her class. Theeverpresent threat of litigation in connection with student injuries;the inescapable fact that the guidelines and recommendations of the Associationare frequently consid- ered in assessing potential liability and;most importantly, the desire to promote the safest programs possible have, therefore,precipitated the development of Principles of Safety in Physical Educationand Sport. This text is designed to provide the professionalwith a straightforward and complete resource of those factors whichmust be considered in the provision of safe units of instruction in the commonly taughtsports and activities. Using a format which relies heavilyon checklists and outlines, the authors have provided the essential information ina manner which facili- tates its use in the development of detailed unit and lesson plansas well as for quick pre-class safety checks. It is the intention of the National Associationfor Sport and Physical Education that this book, like Physical Education andSport fer the Secondary School Student, will the teacher in the developmentand implementa- tion of a safe and well balancedprogram of activities from which today's youth can benefit throughout their lifetime. Neil J. Dougherty IV Editor

vii 8 Authors

The Injury Problem Orienteering David A. Feigley Arthur Hugglestone Rutgers University Smith Environmental Education Center New Brunswick, NJ Rockville, MD Legal Responsibility for Safety Racquet Sports Neil J. Dougherty John P. Smyth Rutgers University The Citadel New Brunswick, NJ Charleston, SC Administration of Safety Self-Defense Patricia E. Barry Kenneth Tillman Montgomery Couaty Public Schools Trenton State College Rockville, MD Trenton, NJ First Aid and Sport Safety Policies Soccer Phil Hostler John F. Fellenbaum, Jr. East Brunswick High School McCaskey High School East Brunswick, NJ Lancaster, PA A rchery Softball Claire Chamberlain Diane Bonanno University of Lowell Rutgers University Lowell, MA New Brunswick, NJ Basketball Sonia Regalado Az Patncia Peters James Bryant East Brunswick High School San Jose State I Tniversity East Brunswick, NJ San Jose, CA Swimming Coed Flag Football Ralph Johnson Maryann Domitrovitz Indiana University Pennsylvania State University Indiana, PA University Park, PA Track and Field Dance LeRoy T. Walker Lynne Fitzgerald North Carolina Central University Morehead State University Durham, NC Morehead, KY Tumbling Field Hockey Diane Bonanno Barbara Belt Rutgers University John F. Kennedy High School New Brunswick, NJ Silver Spring, MD Volleyball Fitness/Weight Training Barbara Viera Clair Jennett University of Delaware San Jose State University Newark, DE San Jose, CA Wrestling Golf Douglas Parker DeDe Owens at Springfield College University of Virginia Springfield, MA Charlottesville, VA 9 CHAPTER 1

The Injury Problem

DAVID A. FEIGLEY Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ

10 2 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Accidents just happen. Or do they? rates for athletes are difficult to make While accidents and the injuries because of the lack of information and resulting from them, by definition', are because the data that is available has not caused by someone's purposeful been collected using different criteria. actions, a moment's reflection will indi- According to the National Safety Coun- cate that most accidents have a clear cil (1984), approximately 100,000 acci- cause-and-effect relationship between dental deaths of all types are reported some preceding event, action, or cir- annually in the United States (an aver- cumstance and the accident itself. Sys- age of one death every five minutes!). tematic recordkeeping has frequently Using an estimated population of 226.5 shown that accidents occur more regu- million (1980 census estimate), the fatal- lar!y in some circumstances than others. ity rate indicates that 441.5 people per Unfortunately, those causalrelation- ships often become obvious only after TABLE I the fact. Relative Frequency of Accidents and Other Causes of Death in the United States SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM Rank Cause of Death Sports injuries are only a small part of the national statistics describing pre- 1 Heart Disease ventable illness a id injury. According 2 Cancer to the National Safety Council (1984), 3 Stroke more than 100,000 accidental deaths 4 Accidents and approximately 9 million disabling Motor Vehicle injuries are reported annually. At an Falls Drowning April 2, 1986 news conference, Alvin R. Fires, Burns Tar lov, president of the Henry J. Kaiser SuffocationIngest Object Family Foundation, stated that, "Pre- Poisoning by solids and liquids ventable illness and injuries claim near- Firearms ly 1.3 million American lives and cost Poisoning by gases and vapors the nation more than $300 billion each 5 Pneumonia year." Table 1 compares the relative 6 Diabetes Mellitus rank of accidents with other major 7 Chronic Liver Disease, Cirrhosis causes of death in the United States. 8 Atherosclerosis While sports injuries represent only a 9 Suicide small portion of these deaths, the fact 10 Homicide 11 Certain Conditions Originating in that sports fatalities are likely to occur Perinatal Period early in the potential life span of the 12 Aephritis and nephrvis victim magnifies their impact on the lives of the victims and their families. Source: National Safety Council, Accident Table 2 presents data from the National Facts, 1984, p. 8 Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) representing reported deaths in million die each year from accidents of 15 sports totaled from 1973 to 1980. all types. In baseball and softball com- Comparisons of injury or fatality rates bined, an estimated 11.5 to 13.6 million for the general population versus the players between the ages of 5 and 14 years participate in the U.S. each year (U.S. Consumer Product Safety Com- mission, 1984). The National Electronic I Once intentional harm is assumed, the Injury Surveillance System recorded 51 incident can no longer be defined as an total deaths between 1973 and 1983, for accident but rather becomes classified as a an average of 6.4 deaths per year in crime. baseball and softball combined. Thus,

11, THE INJURY PROBLEM 3

TABLE 2 TABLE 3 Sports Related Fatalities to Persons Estimated, Sports-Related, Medically 5-14 Years ot Age Attended Injuries to Persons 5-14 Years January 1973December 1980 of Age During the Calendar Year 1980

Sport Fatalities Sport Medically Attended Injuries

baseball 40 Football 499,400 Football 19 Baseball 359,400 Golf 13 Basketball 295,300 Ball Sportsa 7 Gymnastics 209,200 Basketball 6 Ball Sports 133,200 Soccer 6 Soccer 107,400 Trampoline 6 Wrestling 55,100 Wrestling 2 Volleyball 46,500 Ice Hockey 2 Ice Hockey 28,900 Track and Field 2 Track and Field 22,600 Racquet Sports 1 Racquet Spoi is 17,100 Tetherball 1 Golf 11,600 Lacrosse 0 Trampoline 7,200 Volleyball 0 Tetherball 5,500 Gymnastics 0 Lacrosse 2,100 Total 105 Total 1,800,500 aSports for which the specific activitywas not aSports for which the specific activity was not specified specified. Source: U.S. Consumer Product Safety Com- Source: U.s. Consumer Product Safety Com- mission/Epidemiology, Division of mission/Epidemiology,Division of Hazard Analysis, 1981 Hazard Analysis, 1981 the rate of fatalities in baseball and soft- ries. While many assume that most ball ranges from .5 to .6 deathsper sports injuries are the result of "acci- million participants. While this compar- dents," these accidents are frequently ison is clearly limited by the fact that the the result of factors which lead predict- recording systems were different and ably to injuries. For example, different the rates were compared across differ- sports have different frequencies of in- ent age ranges (all ages for national rate jury (see Table 3). Often these accidents vs. 5- and 14-year-olds in baseball/soft- and injuries can be traced directly to ball), the magnitude of the rate differ- social, environmental, and behavioral ences is so great that there is almost factors which, if regulated, would result c"rtainly a dramatically lower fatality in dramatic reductions in deaths and rate for the sports of baseball and soft- injuries. The fact that injuries are often ball than for the national average. Since considered "accidental" or as part of the bas.-_,ball is the most dangerous sport inherent risk of sports is one of the in terms of fatalities (See Table 2), major reasons why these social, envi- the conclusion appears warranted that ronmental, and behavioral factors re- sports have a relatively low fatality rate main uncontrolled and, thus, why acci- compared to the national general popu- dents and injuries continue to occur. If lation average. si_ :h accidents and injuries were per- Nonetheless, according to experts in ceived as predictable results of the lack epidemiology and public health, nearly of public health and accident control two-thirds of all illnesses and injuries policies, actions would likely be taken to could be prevented. Nowhere is this reduce "accidents" in terms of both fact more relevant than with sports inju- frequency and severity. 12 4 PRINCITLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

DEFINING AN ACCIDENT the body caused by exchanges with en- vironmental energy that are beyond the All of us have undoubtedly experi- body's resilience" (page 1). Two practi- enced "acci..1cmts" at time throughout cal considerations are often part of inju- our lives and h- 'e a general under- ry definitions. First, an injury is deemed standing of the term. When attempts to have occurred if the victim loses time are made to measure and understand from an activity such as work, school, or accidents withinthe context of the play. For example, the National Ath- study of safety, however, the need for a leticInjury/Illness Reporting System specific definition becomes obvious. (NAIRS) defines a reportable injury as Definitions serve two functions: first, "any injury/illness which causes the they provide a specific focus as to what is cessation of an athlete's customary par- to be studied; second, they provide pe- ticipation throughout the participation- ripheral boundaries concerning ..vhat to day following day of onset." Thus, time include and what to exclude from the lost from practice is often used as the topic to be analyzed. threshold to determine whether dam- Agencies which collect data on sports age sustained by an athlete is consid- injuries have a variety of definitions of ered severe e..ough to be classified as an sports injuries resulting partially from injury. The second practical consider- the fact that different agencies have dif- ation is referral to a medical profes- ferent purposes for such data (e.g., sional such as a trainer, nurse, physi- knowing what injuries require treat- cian,or emergency staffer.Bumps, ment vs. determining the cause of such bruises, and chronic stiffness which do injuries) and because agencies differ in not necessitate a visit for medical treat- their organizational responsibility to the ment are rarely counted in injury statis- participating athlete (national survey tics. Only if their ,severity prompts a systems3. the local coaching staff). formal visit to a meLical professional do The two major defining charactens- they typically become classified as an tics of accidents are that they have unin- injury. tended causes and undesirable effects kThy- Within the context of sports, distinc- gerson, 1986). For example, the Nation- tions are often made between injuries al Safety Council defines an accident as directly or indirectly attributable to partic- "that occurrence in a sequence of events ipation in a sport. Damage sustained which usually produces unintended in- from mechanical energy tends to be jury, death, or property damage" (Acci- more commonly associated with inju- dentFacts,1984). Thygerson(1986) ries resulting from accidents termed points iy.it that two frequently included "directly attributable" to sport than to subfactors defining an accident are that: other fo:ms of energies. For example, .1) the event is relatively sudden (mea- an accident caused by being hit by a ball sured in seconds or minutes); and that or bat likely to be seen as directly b) the damage results from a form of physi- attributai..e to sport while heat stroke cal energy (e.g., mechanical, thermal, caused by a lack of water while training chemical). The former characteristic dis- in hot, humid conditions is more likely tinguishes accidents from chronic c"er- to be classified as an inc irect sports use injuries while the latterdistin- injury. gui hes between accidental injuries and illness and disease. ACCIDENTS VERSUS INJURIES These distinctions in definitions are more than simply semantics. Safety ex- DEFINING AN INJURY perts, for example, often distinguish The term injury is often defined inde- between accident prevention and injury pendently of accident. Haddon (1980) prevention. Injury is viewed as only one defined injury as "damage or trauma to of many possible outcomes of an acci- 13 THE INJURY PROBLEM 5 dent. Efforts toward 4- :cident preven- glove with nine ounces of padding is tion are focused on education, prohibi- considered to be more risky than a glove tions, and regulation while efforts to- with twelve ounces of padding. some- wardinjurycontrolfocusonthe times a rating scale is adopted to reflect lessening of injury and a prevention of the approximate degree of risk. For ex- death by using rescue, safety belts, ample, in women's artistic gymnastics, emergency medic& care, helmets, and athletes select skills rated from level "a" similar techniques. (easy) to level "d" (extremely risky). DEFINING SAFETY 2. Probability of occurrence. The likeli- hood of future injuries can be accurately While the term "safety" is generally estimated if records have been kept over understood, its scientific meaning is of- reasonable periods of tiroe for sizable ten quite vague. According to Lowrance populations which will continue theac- (1976), an activity is safe if its risksare tivity under similar conditions. Just as deemed acceptable; and acceptability is the National Safety Council can predict a matter of personal and societal value the number of fatalities for a gi% en holi- judgements. Thus, what isjudged day period,the AmericanFootball "safe" varies horn time to time and Coaches Association Committee on from situation tosituation.Further- Football Injuries can predict the number more, Lowrance argues that what is of football related fatalities for theup- typically measured scientifically is not coming season. Both groups have corn safety but degree of risk. An activity is piled a long history of fatality statistics judged safe if the risks associated with Nhich permit such prediction. If the that activity are judged acceptable. Stat- futurecircumstances were changed ed differently, risk involves the calcula- from the situation upon which the origi- tion of the pro ability of ha-ma scien- nal data were based, the estimates tific measurement. Safety involves the would differ from the actual observed judgement of the acceptability of those fatalities. For example, if the weather risksa value judgement. Thus, risks changed (e.g.,itrained) or a rule are something we measure while safety is change were implemented (e.g., spear- something we must judge. ing was eliminated in football), the actu- DEFINING RISK al number of deaths or injuries would change. Table 4 reports the number of Thygerson (1986) defines "risk" as deaths directly attributable to participa- "possible loss or the chance of a loss" tion for high school and collegiate foot- (page39).Theoretically,measuring ball across a 25-year period. While it is risks is quite straightforward. Taking clear that tatalities were already on the into consideration the population data, the exposure data, and the injury data, the calculations for determining risk are TABLE 4 Direct Football Fatalities from High quite simple. From a practical stand- School and Collegiate Programs , measuring such risks is rarely 1961-1985 carried out because gathering the ap- propriate data is often quite a substan- 5-Year High Schoo' tial task. There are three general meth- College ods of measuring risk: (1) relative risk 1961-65 75 12 methods; (2) probability of occurrence 1966-70 103 12 methods; and (3) relative exposure rate 1971-75 61 7 methods. 1976-80 44 2 1. Relative risk methods. An activity or 1981-85 24 4 hazard is rated according to a standard Source: National Federation News, National which can be ranked along a dimension Federation of State High School As- of more cr less. For example, a boxing sociations, June, 1986 14 6 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

decline, there was a decided additional overuse injunes were restricted to adult drop in fatalities during the period after activities, often in the form of bursitis the 1976 rule change which eliminated and tendonitis afflicting the construc- spearing;i.e., making initial contact tion worker or the weekend tennis play- with the head). er. Now, they are seen with increasing 3. Relative exposure. Risks may be por- regularity in highly trained children. trayed in terms of exposure rates in According to Micheli (1986), children order to compare different risks. For are particularly susceptibile to these example, during the, ive-year period types of injuries for two reasons. First, between 1959 and 19E,, 820,000 youths the growing cartilage or the joint sur- played football and 86 deaths were re- faces may be more susceptible to stress, corded. During the period from 1971 to especially shear stresses both in terms 1975, 77 deaths were reported but the of single impact trauma (e.g., growth exposureraterosesubstantiallyto plate fractures) and repetitive micro- 1,275,000 players (Torg, 1932). Thus, trauma (e.g., Osgood Schlatters dis- the actual risk appeared to have de- ease, patellofemoral stress syndrome). creased during the early 1970s (1.0 x Second, the process of growth itself 10-4 vs. 6.0 x 10-5 respectively for the renders children more susceptible to two 5-year periods). Exposure rates can certain injuries. As growth occurs in the take into consideration not only tne bones, the muscle-tendon unit span- number of participants, but also the ning the bones and the joints becomes number of practices, number of hours progressively tighter with growth, par- per practice, and the number of actual ticulariy during growth spurts. This re- sporting attempts, depending on the duced flexibility heightens the child's degree of sophistication of the measure- chances of both single impact injuries ment of exposure. An advantage of this and repetitive microtrauma because of technique of expressing risk is that dif- the increased tension across the joints ferent sports or different dimensions can and growing surfaces. be compared on a rate basis. For exam- ple, Reif (1981) estimates that, while the risk of death in collegiate football is one UNDERSTANDING in 33,000 exposures, the risk of injury or THE INJURY PROBLEM long-term disability is as high as 1 in 18 exposures2. Effective understanding and control If the injury problem in physical educa- tion and sport requires a multistep ap- OVERUSE SYNDROME INJURIES proach. Figure 1 describes a possible A relatively new category of pediatric model for analyzing injuries in sport. injuries specific to organized sports pro- grams for preadolescent and adolescent athletes has developed recently. These DEFINE EXISTING PROGRAMS injuries are called overuse injuries and First, the specific programs to be ana- are the result of purposeful, repetitive lyzed must be designated. While, at first training. They are clearly injuries al- glance, this step may seem obvious, on though they are not accidental. In fact, closer inspection, a variety of complicat- they are clearly predictable anti often ing factors become evident. If, for exam- endured specifically in the quest for ple, you wish to analyze football in higher levels of performance from phys- terms of injury occurrence, you must ically immature athletes.Previously, decidewhatconstitutes"football." Does your study include only organized programs, or any game, formal or infor- 2 Exposures were based on a per year mal, in which the participants play foot- basis in which 25 days of participation per ball? The problems associated with col- year were assumed. lecting data from organized programs 15 THE INJURY PLOBLEM 7 re likely to differ from those encoun- severity of injuries as well as the circum- tered while collecting data from parks, stances uncle: which they occur. Here playgrounds, and "sandlot" football. In again, the problem of definition arises. addition, you must decide if you are What constitutes an accident or an inju- interested in injuries both directly and ry? Depending on the purpose of the indirectly attributable to the activity or monitoring institution, the definitions sport. For example, an injury resulting of injuries may differ dramatically. A from tackling is likely to be directly the coach concerned about the welfare of result of playing football, while a stroke young athletes may define an it jury as a occurring to an athlete on the sidelines braise which creates discomfort. An or- may be unrelated to the individual's ganization concerned about medical participation insport. Other injunes treatment may define injury as any may be caused by a combination of physical problem which requires medi- factors, some direct and some indirect. cal treatment. A le, gue concerned about Heat exhaustion may be both attribut- the severity of accidental injury may able to weather conditions and to the define an injury as any physical prob- wearing of heavy uniforms and intense lem which requires the athlete to miss a training regimens during high heat/hu- clay or more of training or competition. midity conditions. ?'he data collected under each of these examples may be quite different and MONITORING AND DATA reflect decidedly different patterns. COLLECTION The collection of accident and/or inju- Once the conditions defining the ry statistics appears deceptively simple. sport have been specified, an analysis of Even assuming that clear and adequate injury patterns requires an accurate definitions of axident and injury have monitoring of the frequency, type, and been established, the substantial prob-

Define Monitor & Observe Search Existing Record Patterns for Programs Data in Data Causes

Establish Priorities

Resources

Develop Accident and/or Evaluate Injury Control Modifications Impact Programs

Fig. 1. Injuryanalysis and control model. X16 8 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT lems of collecting, storing, and retriev- (1981) concluded that injuries in high ing data remain. Not only mustat school sports were more likely to occur forms be developed and provided, but during the first 3 to 4 weeks of practice the responsibility for reporting the data because athletes frequently lack flexibili- must be assigned to specific individuals ty, are overweight, or have little cardio- who have the authority to obtain the vascular conditioning when they first appropriate descriptive data. Data col- report to practice. The Little League's lection requires many costs in terms of analyses of injury patterns in organized time, effort, and material supplies, not youth baseball have revealed a number to mention time away from other tasks of obvious and non-obvious factors con- often thought to be more pressing. tributing to injury. "The result has been Subtle and not-so-subtle distortions the elimination of steel spit -es and the of injury data are quite common. Coach- on-deck-circle, screening dugouts, man- es and administrators often feel pres- dating the use of face and head protec- sure to portray their programs in as tors for the batters, and installing break- positive a light as possible Document- away bases, all of which have resulted ing injuries often appears to be self- in a decrease in injuries" (Klafs & Arn- defeating to people held responsible for heim, 1981,p.9). One of the most safety. An administrator who intro- startling injury findings in recent years duces an effective injury reporting sys- has been the observation that baseball tem should be prepared to explain to and softball have the highest incidence superiors why a dramatic increase in of fatalities in youth sports, predomi- iritnies is now being recorded! Even the nantly due to young children being athletes themselves often minimize the struck in the chest by a baseball and re ing of injuries in order to avoid suffering cardiac arrest (U.S. Consumer playing restrictions. Failure to complain Product Safety Commission, 1984). and direct avc lance of reporting inju- ries is a majc ctor distorting accurate DETERMINE CAUSES injury surveiliance data. Once the descriptive data have indi- cated certain patterns, the cause of the PATTERN ANALYSIS patterns must be determined. Why do An examination of the data often re- injuries typically occur during the third flects patterns which are not obvious to and fourth week of tr.-Lilting? One possi- the casual participant because these pat- Ee explanation might be that this is the terns occur over long periods of time or period during which athletes are shift- across large populations of athletes. For ing their training emphasis from condi- example, Sands (1984) found that wom- tioning to sport specific game skills. An en collegiate gymnasts were significant- equally plausible explanation might be ly more likely to be injured in Novem- that during the fall sports season, the ber and January than in any other third and fourth weeks are a period months of the season and that the most during which the 'thletes are more tired common types of injuries occurred from and distractible; they have switched the knee down. Further, heavier, taller from a summer schedule to a winter gymnasts were more prone to injury schedule in which they are attending than lighter, shorter gymnasts. Some of academic classes as well as training c. these findings are obvious. Few coaches the athletic field. In fact, both of these would be surprised to find that heavier reasons, in combination with others, gymnasts are more prone to injury. might be causing the increased rates of Other findings are not so obvious or injuries. Multiple causation of a class of easily interpreted. The answer to why injunes is more often the case than not. injuries occur more often in November Attributing the "cause" of injuries to a and January requires further informa- single, antecedent event is often incom- tion and analysis. Klafs and Arnheim plete, if not directly misleading. 17 THE INJURY PROBLEM 9

Some safety experts believe that the While careless human behavior may human elementisthe fundamental often be the culprit in creating accidents cause of virtually all accidents. Such a and injuries, perceptive analyzers of belief focuses on controlling human be- safety should also be alert to opposing havior as the main basis for reducing points of view. Robertson (1983) points accidents and injuries. Safety education out that although many "experts" insist programs, reward and punishment con- that the injury problem is essentially a tingencies for safe and unsafe behaviors human behavioral problem, some of respectively, and the identification of these opinions may be deliberately self- accident prone individuals are all safety serving. That is, such opinions are of- approaches which rely on the assump- fered by those who manufacture or pro- tion that human frailties create acci- 'ride the hazardous equipment and/or dents and injuries. Clearly, there are activity and, thus, who may wish to circumstances in which human error avoid regulation and being held respel l- leads to increased accident and injury sible. Such biased pe.Jectives may also rates. Individuals who lack knowledge come from the "human services" sec- of accepted safety practices may be tors such as educators, behavioral scien- more prone to injury. For example, ath- tists, police, and others who benefit letes who have not been taught the from labor-intensive behavior-change fundamentals of falling safely appear to programs. be at a higher risk than athletes who As Robertson states: possess such skills. Nonetheless, the assumption that teaching falling auto- The wide-spread acceptance of the matically leads to reduced risk is unwar- premise of correctable human error ranted. Athletes who feel in control of cannot be entirely attributed to brain- the risk because they believe their skill washing by those with obvious self- at falling protects them may actually interests, however. The assumption attempt more risky maneuvers and that human beings are for the mos'. thereby increase their exposure to nsk. part rational actors in complete con- The fact that as many accomplished trol of their actions is imbet:ied in our swimmers as nonswimmers drown each mores and laws. To question the as- year suggests that increased skill does sumption is to question both a cultur- not guarantee a reduced accident rate. al theme and a basis for self-esteem. It Furthermore, unsafe behavior may is true that in many contexts this occur even though the individuals pos- cultural myth isharmless. Where sess an awareness of what constitutes split-second decisions mean the dif- safe behavior. When safe behavior is ference between life and death or inconvenient, uncomfortable, "unhero- health and disability, however, as is ic," or reduces one's effectiveness at the frequently the case in handling highly sport, unsafe behavior becomes predict- concentrated energy, reliance on the able. Often the value of behaving safely myth of the rational, fully informed, is less prominent than the value of the constantly alert, lightning quick hu- unsafe beha' :or. For example, the ab- man being is, paradoxically, an irra- sence of injury is more difficult for a tional act. (Robertson, 1983, p. 65- soccer player to observe than the fact 66). that he or she can run faster without shin guards. In such cases, coaches and ESTABLISH PRIORITIES administrators must arrange the circum- Clearly, some types of injuries war- stances so that the athlete realizes that rant more concern than others. Fatali- safety is important. For example, a rule ties need to be dealt with at a higher which bars any soccer player from play- priority than minor cuts and abrasions. ing unless proper equipment is worn Some injury prevention is also more will demonstrate the need to wear shin feasible a.id/or requires less investment guards. of resources. Providing access to water 18 10PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT during training in order to reduce heat tually eliminated diving boards from stroke requires less of a resource invest- their recreation swimming pools. ment than building a foam pit for safe landings in high-risk gymnastic skills. 2. Reduce the amount of the hazard. Of- While the arguments over the value of a ten, sports have been modified to re- human life have both philosophic and duce the amount or degree of risk in- practical overtones, the issueis one curred by the participant,especially which goes beyond the scope of this younger, less expenenced participants. chapter. (The interested reader is re- Young platform tower divers train and ferred to Thygerson, 1986, Chapter 6.) compete on 5, 6, and 7 meter platforms Any reader who feels that practical val- rather than the 10 meter tower required ue considerations are not a current issue by international rules. A "softer" ball is invited to sit in on a jury trial in civil has been introduced into age group litigation following an accidental death. baseball as a result of the knowledge that being hit in the chest with a hard ball is a major cause of death. Limiting DEVELOP EFFECTIVE the degree of vertical drop on novice ski trails to intentionally curtail the speeds PREVENTION PROC,RAMS which beginner skiers can attain re- Haddon (1980) outlined ten strategies duces the amount of hazard. Similarly, for controlling injuries once the causes shortened playing periods, ege catego- of those injuries have been determined. ries, and weight classes for young, less Those who use this list to analyze injury experienced players provides a degree control options should realize that effec- of hazard reduction. tive analysis requires that all options be 3. Prevent or reduce the likelihood of the initially considered. While some options release of already existing hazards. Coeffi- are already in use or can be easily ap- cients of friction .vhich create injuries plied, others appear difficult, if not im- can be improved. Baseball bases which possible to implement and are often slide instead of creating barriers which casually dismissed during theinitial "snap" ankles and the use of magne- stages of injury-control analysis. The sium carbonate ("chalk" or "mag") by practicalaspectsofimplementation gymnasts to reduce the likelihood of should be set aside until after all possi- slipping are two examples. oilities have been outlined. 4. Modify the rate or spatial distribution 1. Eliminate the hazard. Sports injuries of the release of the hazard from its source can certainly be reduced by eliminating The use of seat belts in midget racing the sports or activities which cause inju- cars and the rapid release bindings on nes. While few would advocate the skis are examples. wholesale elimination of sport, there are a variety of examples where steps have 5. Separate, in time or space, the hazard been taken to eliminate specific sports. and the participant. Providing bicycle and In 1977, the Amencan Academy of Pedi- jogging paths which are isolated from atrics advocated that trampolines be streets and highways separates the haz- banned from instructional programs ards (faster vehicles) from the partici- and eliminated as a competitive sport. pants (cyclist and joggers). The separa- Periodic cries for the elimination of box- tion of spectators, benches for nonplay- ing (usually prompted by a death) are ing athletes, and equipment storage relatively commonplace. The swinging area from the playing field also reduces rings in gymanstics have been eliminat- the likelihood of injuries caused by col- ed both in physical education classes liding with other players or objects after and in competition. In a different ven- running out of bounds. Likewise, isolat- ue,commercialmotelsandhotels ing playing fields from such potential throughout the United States have vir- hazards as streams, roads, and con- 19 THE INJURY PROBLEM .11

struction sites reduces the potential for IMPLEMENT SAFETY accidents and injuries. MODIFICATIONS 6. Interpositioning of material protective Knowing the cause of a type of injury barriers. The us: of football and lacrosse may suggest a variety of prevention helmets, gymnastics mats, chestprotec- techniques, not all of which are equally tors in baseball and fencing, protective effective. Knowing, for example, that eye glasses in racquetball and squash, being hit in the chest with a baseballor and mouth guards in contactsports are softball is the major cause of death prime examples of theuse of such a among basebail/softballplayerssug- strategy. gests that chest protectors may bewar- ranted. Getting players to actuallywear 7. Modify the basic relevant qualities of such protective devices is yet another the hazard. The surfaces of playgrounds matter. Implementing programs often and playing fields can be covered with requires much lead-time and substantial materials which are softer than asphalt, resources. Resistance to change also im- concrete or crushed stone. Theuse of brt kaway goalposts or foam yard pedes the effectiveness of prevention markers in football illustrate protective programs. While the use of helmets is now accepted in ice hockey, during the changes introduced into the basic char- early stages of its implementation it acteristics of the hazard. was resisted by players and coaches alike. 8. Make what is to he protectedmore Paradoxically, the implementation of resistant to damage. Conditioning ath- effective injury reductionprograms is letes to be stronger and more flexib;c most difficult in areas in which the indi- decreases their susceptibility to certain vidual participant carries the mostre- types of injuries. Providing unlimited sponsibility for his or her ow afety. access to water and gradually increasing workout intensity dunng periods of high temperatures allows the athletes to ASSESS THE INFLUENCE OF becLme acclimated and more resistent PREVENTION PROGRAMS to heat disorders. Again, the monitoring of ongoing 9. Counter damage already done. Emer- programs is required in order to assess gency first aid training to stop bleeding the effectiveness of preventionpro- and CPR training to restore heart func- grams. Often, the frequency of injury tion and breathing are fundamentalto experienced by an individual instructor, effectivesports medicine programs. participant, or program is so small that Recognizing potential spinalinjuries patterns are difficult to detect without a and knowing that immobilization of recordkeeping system which extends such injured athletes is essential topre- over a period of years and across many vent further injury is a prime example of similar programs. preventing further damage resulting ResearchersattheUniversityof from a sports injury. Well situated, North Carolina have compiled statistics well-trained and well-equipped profes- of football fatalities annually since 1931. sionals ready to respond quicklycan Table 4 describes the pattern of injuries make substantial differences in the fatal- in high school football programs plotted ity rate and the severity of damage in 5-year blocks since 1961. There has occurring from traumatic injuries. been a steady decrease in the number of fatalities directly related to football since 10. Stabilize, repair, and rehabilitate the the peak observed between 1961 and damage. Rehabilitative physical therapy 1965. A similar decline has occurred in programs, reconstructive surgery, and indirect fatalities during thissame peri- the use of knee and ankle braces to od. While a variety of factors havecon- facilitaterecovery from sprains and tributed to this steady decline, a signifi- strains illustrate this approach. cant rule change was implemented in 12 PRINCIPLES OF SA,'ETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

1976. Initial contact with the head while in their particular sport? Have the basic blocking and tackling (spearing) was safety regulations been taught to them ruled illegal. This rule change was intro- in terms they can understand? Has the duced because of an awareness, not instructor /coach clarified exactly what is only of fatalities in football, but because expected of the athlete during the learn- statistics revealed that the vast majority ing and/or performance stages? of fatalities since 1960 were due to inju- ries to the head and neck. This informa- 2. Is the instructor prepared to teach the tion led to the development of a preven- skill and supervise the activity? Does the tion program involving protecting this instructor have the prerequisite knowl- area of the body via improved equip- edge of the biomechanical and teaching ment and rule changes to eliminate the progressions of the skill? Is the instruc- use of the head as a tackling technique. tor capable of individualizing the learn- Continued monitoring of injury fre- ing sequence and teaching progressions quencies indicated that such programs to accommodate the needs of the ath- have achieved the desired effect of re- lete, both real and imagined? Is the ducing injuries and fatalities. Penalties instructor aware of the common errors for spearing and rigid enforcement of made by beginners and the likely haz- thosepenaltiesplusanincreased ards to be confronted by both the stu- awareness on the part of coaches and dent and the instructor during the athletes regarding the nature and sever- learning of the skills? Is the instructor ity of injuries produced by spearing familiar with the level of mental and have all contributed heavily to the re- physical preparation of the athlete and duction of fatalities resulting from head can the instructor modify the learning and neck injuries. Data continue to indi- progressions to match the learner's cate that deaths in football are still pri- preparation with the difficulty of the marily caused by head and neck inju- task? ries. Efforts continue to develop even 3. Isthe t ivironment adequately pre- mare effective prevention of such inju- pared for the performance of the skill? Is the ries. protectiveequipmentavailableand properly positioned? Is the apparatus and/or protective eqt.ipment properly adjusted for the athlete? Has the activity A PRACTITIONER'S ANALYSIS been properly designed for the space, The professional in sport and physical lighting, facilities and number of ath- education can gain an understanding of letes available? Have the athletes been the factors which should be controlled properly matched for size, skill and ma- by using a simple, yet effective ap- turity? Have activity areas been clearly proach to analyzing the safety require- defined and separated fromtraffic ments of the program. While the num- lanes, resting stations and teaching sta- ber ofspecificconcernstowhich tions? attention must be focused can be overwhelming, virtually all can be sub- Clearly, the number and type of ques- sumed under the following classifica- tions which one can ask under each tion plan. When analyzing a specific heading has not been exhausted. They program, ask the following three ques- depend on the specifics of the activity tions: taught and the degree of associated with that activity. This strategy does, 1. Are the athletes prepared for the activi- however, provide direction in terms of ty? Have they been properly condi- systematically examining the three pri- tioned for the demands of the sport? mary areas in which teachers and ad- Have they been taught the appropriate ministrators are responsible for provid- prerequisiteskills? Have they been ing adequate care and supervision for taught to appreciate the risks inhere2 their students. 1 THE INJURY PROBLEM 13

REFERENCES National Safety Council. (1984)Accident Farts. Chicago- Author. Reif, A. E (1981). Risks and gains In P. F Clarke, K. S. (1962). An epidemiologic view Vinger & E. F. Hoerner (Eds.), Sports inju- In J. S. Torg (Ed ), Athletic injuries to the ries The unthwarted epidemic (pp 56-64). head, neck, and face (pp. 15-22). Philadel- Littleton, MA: PSG Publishing. phia: Lea & Febiger. Robertson, L S. (1983) Injuries: Causes, con- Football injey survey: Number of deaths in trol strategies, and public policy Lexington, high schc of football hits all -time low with MA. Lexington Books. only five fatalities. (1986). National Federa- Rutherford, W., Kennedy,), & McGhee, tion News, 3, 6-9. (Available from the L. (1984). Baseball and softball related injuries National Federation of State High School to children 5-14 years of age. Washington, Associations, Kansas City, Missouri) DC: L.S. Consumer Product SafcfyCom- Hadden, W. Jr., (1980). The basic strategies mission for reducing damage from hazards of all Rutherford, G. W., Miles, R. B,Brown, kinds. Hazard Prevention, 16, 1. V R., & MacDonald, B. (1981). Overview of Hadden, W. Jr.,(1980). Advances in the sports-related injuries to persons 5-14 years of epidemiology of injuries as a basis for ageWashington, DC. U.S. Consumer public policy. Public Health Reports, 95, Product Safety Commission. 411-421. Sands, B. (1984). Injury data NCAA female Klafs, C. E., & Arnhem, D. D. (1981). Mod- gymnasts 1983-84 Data reveals potential ern principles of athletic training (5th ed.). St patterns. Technique The Publication Louis: C. V. Mosby. of the United States Gymnastics Association, Michell, L. J(1986). Pediatric and adoles- 4, 7. cent sports injunes: Recent trends.In Thygerson, A. L(1986). Safety (2nd ed.) K. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and sport sa- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. encPs reviews. New York. Macmillan Torg, J. S (1982). Problems and prevention. Morr;s, A. E. (1984). Sports medicine Preven- In J. S Torg (Ed ), Athletic injuries to the tion of athletic injuries. Dubuque, IA. Wm. head, neck, and face (pp. 3-13). Philadel- C Brown. phia: Lea & Febiger

22 CHAPTER 2

Legal Responsibility for Safety in Physical Education and Sport

NEIL J. DOUGHERTY IV Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ

1

23 16 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT he number of lawsuits brought guarantee freedom from injuries and Tagainstphysicaleducators and subsequent lawsuits, a thorough under- coaches has reached an unprecedented standing of the legal process and the high point and, from all indications, will elements of risk management can great- continue to rise in the foreseeable fu- ly increase one's chances of success ture. Consider the following reasons when such a situation arises. This chap- why this may be the case: ter will, therefore, examine the funda- The overwhelming majority ofall mentals of the legal process as they school-related injuries occur in con- relate to physical education and sport. junction with physical education and Those factors which most commonly sport. give rise to lawsuits will be discussed in A tort is a legal wrong for which one an attempt to lay a foundation for the may seek recompense through legal sport specificsafety principles dealt action. with in the remainder of the text. Under the civil laws of the United States, it is possible for practically any THE LEGAL PROCESS person to sue any other person at any time for any reason. While the out- Tort claims in physical education and come of the suit is, by no means, sport are primarily the result of personal guaranteed, the right to initiate it is injuries caused by the alleged negli- virtually unquestioned. gence of the teacher or the coach. In The overwhelming majority of all neg- order for the plaintiff or injured party to ligence suits are settled prior to the prevail in sucii a suit, several elements completion of the trial process. must be proved by the greater weight of Both the number of lawsuits and the evidence. size of the settlements or awards has Duty. The defendant must be shown increased drastically in the last five to to have had a responsibility to provide ten years. This has, of course, been for the safety and welfare of the plain- reflected in the cost and availability of tiff. If the injured party was a student in liability insurance as well as the na- the defendant's class, or a player on ture and continuation of many pro- his/her team, then the duty is virtually grams. assured. The field of physical education and Breach of Duty. It must be shown that sport unquestionably carries with it a the defendant failed to provide the stan- higher risk of injury than most cf.:: dard of care which could reasonably be areas of th.: curriculum. The relative expected of a professional under the ease with which one can institute a same or similar circumstances. A duty lawsuit and the high likelihood of some can be breached either by omission or form of settlement, regardless of the by commission. That is, the defendant strength of the case, has led to an in- either failed to do something that he/she creasing level of professional concern should have done, or did something over issues related to risk management he/she should not have done. and liability. Damage. In order to institute a tort While there are many negative as- claim, the plaintiff must have suffered pects to the liability problem, such as an actual loss to his person, property, or spiralling insurance costs and the loss of interest. some programs and activities, the in- Foreseeability. It must be shown that creased concern over liability has also the defendant should have been able to resulted in safer programs and has been predict the likelihood of an accident or used by knowledgeable teachers and injury arising out of the specific circum- administrators as a highly persuasive stances in question. argument for program and facility im- Proximate cause. The mere presence of provements.Further,althoughno an act of negligence is not sufficient amount of planning or preparation can grounds to allow the plaintiff to prevail. '44.) LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 17 It must be shown, further, that the Mary Addams was seeking $250,000 injury for which recompense is sought damages for an injury sustained in a was actually caused or aggravated by soccer class, and if the jury found her to the specific act of negligence in ques- have been comparatively negligent in tion. the amount of 45%, then the maximum A point in this entire process is award she could receive would be 55% the establishment of the standard of of $250,000, or $137,500. Obviously the care required of the defendant. In this amount of responsibility which a stu- regard, the prudent person principal is dent can assume for his/her own wel- most commonly employed. We are obli- fare is a function of age, intelligence, gated to perform as would a reasonably skill, and background in the activity. In prudent individual under the same or general, the more thoro,,gh the instruc- similar circumstances. While this state- tion, the more explicit the warnings, ment is essentially correct, remember and the more consistent the feedback, that it is also very superficial. The yard- the more the students will be expected stick by which professional conduct will to assume some reasonable share of the be measured in court is the established responsibility for their own safety. standards and practices of the profes- Assumption of risk. It is often argued sion as applied and explained by a pru- that an individual who takes part in dent professional ... an expert. It is certain types of vigorous physical activi- essential, therefore, that we take every ties must assume the risk of accident or reasonable precaution to guarantee that injury which isnormally associated our teaching and coaching behavior al- with that activity. Assumption of risk, ways meets or exceeds the currently however,is a technical term which accepted practices and procedures of many feel has no validity as a separate the profession. defense.' Reduced to simplest terms, no one can be expected to assume a risk of LEGAL AND QUASI-LEGAL which he/she is unaware. If the teacher DEFENSES fails to warn the student of the dangers involved in the activity and/or fails to There are several legal arguments and guarantee the level of instruction, skill, professional procedures which can help and feedback necessary for the student to form the basis cf a. defense in the to reasonably protect him/herself from event of a lawsuit. While these are use- those dangers, then the teacher may ful tools in the litigation process, they very possibly have been negligent in the are even more valuable as indices of fulfillment of his/her duties and the stu- administrative and supervisory respon- dent cannot be held to have assumed sibilities with regard to risk manage- any risk or responsibility.If, on the ment. other hand, the student was properly Contributo, glcomparative negligence. In instructed, warned, and provided with states which adhere to the principle of reasonable feedback regarding his/her contributory negligence, the plaintiff is performance, and despite this, acted in barred from recovery if it is proved that a manner which increased the likeli- his/her own negligence helped to cause hood of his/her own injury, then there or aggravate the injury. In the majority may be grounds for a valid claim of of states, however, the doctrine of com- contributory or comparative negligence. parative negligence is now applied. In In either case, however, the assumption such a situation, the jury will be asked of risk terminology is merelyexcess to apportion a relative percentage of verbal baggage which has no real place responsibility to the plaintiff and to the as a separate defense in today's law. defendant(s). The size of the award Informed consent. While written docu- which the plaintiff could receive would then be diminished by his/her percent- , Mentrich v. Casino Arena Attractions, Inc,, age of responsibility.If,for instance, 31, NJ, 44 (1959). 25 18 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ments such as waivers and permission 3. The possible dangers inherent in slips cannot provide absolute legal pro- the activities must be spelled out in tection f-om our own acts of negligence, detail, along with the consequences of they can, when properly understood possible accidents to the participants. and executed, be very useful tools in the 4. The participant must sign after a reduction of liability. statement expressly assuming the risks For our purposes as physical educa- of the participation.2 tion teachers and coaches, the most While a participation agreement will commonly used informed consent doc- not prevent a lawsuit or absolve the uments can be grouped into two major teacher or coach of the responsibility for categories: release forms, often called his/her negligence, it clearly establishes waivers, and participation agreements, the awareness level of the participant which include permission slips. and his/her willingness to assume rea- A releaseor waiver isa contract, sonable responsibility for his/her own signed by the participant and/or his/her welfare and compliance with appropri- parents, which purports to absolve the ate rules and procedures. It can, there- teacher or coach from liability in the fore, be a very valuable tool in the event that an accident or injury arises establishment of a contributory or com from some specifically named activity. parative negligence defense. Waivers have very little absolute legal value for seve.al reasons: (a) the courts RISK MANAGEMENT are reluctant to allow one to be contrac- tually protected from the consequences The best possible means of avoiding of his/her own negligent actions; (b) costly liability claims and judgements is since no person can legally waive the by recognizing those circumstances in rights of another, parental waivers exe- which injuries are most likely to occur cuted on behalf of a minor child cannot and by tcking appropriate steps to elim- be held valid; and (c) the requirement of inate or minimize the chances of their a release prior to participation in a pub- occurrencethat is, through a carefully lic program is frequently I, eld to be a applied process of risk management. of public policy ana, therefore, Most activity-related lawsuits allege invalid. that the teacher or coach was negligent A participation agreement is of particu- in the fulfillment of his/her professional lar value in circumstances where a re- responsibilities with regard to one or lease or waiver cannot apply. It is, in more of the following areas: supervi- essence, a signed statement indicating sion, selection and conduct of the activi- that the participant and/or his/her par- ty, and environmental conditions. This ents understand the dangers which are is not surprising since itis possible, inherent in the activity, know the rules through careful analysis of these areas, and procedures and the importance of to identify virtually all controllable inju- following them,fully appreciate the ry causing factors within an activity. For possibleconsequences(i.e.specific this reason, the areas of supervision, types of injuries or even death) of the selection and conduct of the activity, dangers involved and, knowing all this, and environmental conditions provide requests to participate in the activity. an exceller t organizational focus for a Van der Smissen has indicated that, in general program of risk management ordertobeeffective,participation and prevention as well as for identifying agreements should meet the following specific safety principles within individ- criteria: ual activities. 1. They must be explicitly worded. 2. If there are rules that must be 2 Betty van der Smissen (1985, March). followed, it is preferable that the rules Releases, waivers, and agreements to partic- be listed in the agreement or listed on ipate. National Safety Network Newsletter, 1 the reverse side of the paper. (4), 2. 2-.. LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 19 Supervision. The structure of the edu- ed periods of time with only general cational environment and the nature of supervision can be expected to de- the students dictate the absolute neces- crease. sity for effective supervision. A skilled Decisions regarding the relative pro- supervisor (teacher, con, group lead- portion of general to specific supervi- er, etc.) can, in the normal course of sion are, of course, dependent upon the his/her duties, prevent many needless particul r group and situation inques- accidents.effectivesupervisionis, tion. It should be remembered, howev- therefore, recognized as an essential el- er, that the need to provide specific ement in the delivery of safe and suc- supervision to one or more individuals cessful programs of physica: activity does not remove the need to provide and is called into question virtually ev- general supervision for the remaind7r of ery time a negligence suit is instituted. the group. The teacher cannot, there- in developing educational programs, fore, become so engrossed in providing literefore, it is necessary to provide a individual feedback to students in the sufficient number of supervisory per- northeast corner of the gym that he/she sonnel to manage the group in ques- fails to detect and correct the hazardous tion, and to insure that the supervisory situation which may be occurring in the personnel employed possess the neces- southeast corner. sary knowledge and skills to fulfill their Thefollowinggeneralguidelines responsibilities. should prove helpful as you seek to The individual teacher or coach is provide effective supervision for all ac- responsible for the provision of both tivities: general and specific supervision. The 1. Take whatever steps may be neces- broad overall supervision of a class or sary to guarantee your own competence team is referred to as general supervi- in the activity being taught. You must sion. In providing effective general su- be the expert! pervision, one is expected to maintain 2. Establish general safety rules for visual contact with the entiie group, to the gymnasium, locker rooms,etc. be immediately accessible to them, and Rules should be explained to the stu- to apply a high level of professional skill dents, posted, reinforced, and consis- in the detection and remediation of de- tently enforced. viations from safe and prescribed proce- 3. Develop the habit of writing de- dures Specific supervision, on the oth- tailed lesson or practice plans. The act Jf er hand, refers to situations of direct planning will help to identify andcor- interaction between the teacher and one rect many potential hazards. Moreover, or more students. Direct supervision the plans themselves can serve as valu- might be required in order to correct ab'legal evidence of your preparation some noted deviation from safe prac- and knowledge with regard to the sub- tices or procedures, to provide individ- ject matter as well as the preparation of ual feedback, or to lend direct assistance your students. when a student is about to attempt a 4. Never leave your class or team new or particularliv dangerous skill. The unsupervised. A quick phone call in the intensity and specificity of the supervi- office, or a brief stop in the equipment sion is inversely proportional fo the room to retrieve some forgotten item ability of the student to under id and presents a period of supervisory ab- appreciate the dangers of the activity, to sence and, thus, is a potential source of assess his/her performar :e and skill negligence. In such a case, if it is deter- level, and to adhere to required safety mined that the presence of the teacher procedures. Generally speaking, there- would have resulted in the correction or fore, the age and ability of the stu- the prevention of the injury causing dents derreases, the need for specific behavior, then the injury sustained by supervision can be expected to increase the student can be proximately related and the advisability of allowing extend- to the negligence of the absent teacher. 20 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 5. Take care to arrange your classes of successful participation and was so that the entire group is within your properlypreparedandinstructed. field of vision. Move about the area in a While certain risks may be deemed nec- manner NA hich maximizes student con- essary in the interests of good program- tact and minimizes the length of time ming and total student development, during which your back may be turned such risks must be well thought out and to any portion of the group. justified, and the potential for f_ udent 6. Be sure to secure the facilities and injury must be minimized. The follow- equipment when they are not in use. If ing guidelines should be considered facilities are left open and equipment is when selecting and developing any ac- left out, it is reasonable to expect people tivity. to use them. Unplanned and unsuper- 1. Always select activities which are vised activities of this nature frequently within the reasonable ability limits of lead to injuries and lawsuits. the students. 7. In the event of an emergency, you 2. Readiness is an individual mar-en will be expected to render necessary Pre-testing and screening, careful re- first aid until appropriate emergency cord keeping, and the development of personnel (trainer, nurse, doctor) ar- individualized progressions are, there- rive. Be sure that you are adequately fore, essential to safety and success. prepared to do so. 3. The development and mainte- 8. Establish a list of emergency proce- nance of comprehensive lesson piano, dures to be followed in all accident and curriculum guides is essential both cases. This will prevent student confu- to instructional success and to a sound sion, unnecessary delays in treatment, legal defense in the event of a lawsuit. and supervisory breakdowns. Who They provide evidence regarding the goes for help? Who supervises the nature anki organization of the instruc- class? How is he/she contacted? What tion as well as previous student experi- do the unafferted students do? ences and background. 9. The action,- of one or more stu- 4. Always have planned rainy day dents should never be allowed to en- activities to correspond to planned out- danger the safety or interfere with the door activities. It is both difficult and learning of others. embarrassing to try to justify an injury Selection and conduct of the activity. As which occurred in an ad libbed activity professionals we are expected to select which had to be pulled together because activities which are appropriate for the an outdoor lesson was rained out. age and ability levels of our students. 5. All activities should be justifiable Having selected an appropriate activity, within the context of the educational we are further expected to provide objectives of the school. Tou frequently, instruction whichisfactuallyaccu- activities selected solely on the basis of rate and which is presented in a manner expressed student enjoyment are nc, In hich maximizes the likelihood of stu- particularly enjoyed by all and result in dent success. This instruction should be needless injuries. Such injuries are very supplemented by warnings with regard difficult to justify. to any potentially hazardous conditions 6. Procedures should be developed involved in the activity, the provision of for the acceptance of medical excuses appropriate safety devices and protec- and for return to activity after serious tive measures, and the provision of injury or illness. Never allow an injured feedback through which the student can or ill student to participate without a gauge and modify his/her performance. medical clearance. The courts have been relatively con- 7. Do not attempt to coerce students sistent in their recognition of the fact to perform when they are, by their own that very few activities are inherently admission, fearful or unequal to the unsafe. The issue in question, therefore, task. Such action is almost impossible to should an injury occur, is whether the justify when it results in an injury. injured student was physically capable2 8 8. Provide all necessary protective LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 21 measures and devices, and require their the facility was used. Similar situations use. can be seen where one fails to provide a 9. If adequate protective measures sufficient buffer area around a playing cannot be provided, then the activity, field or court. Participants must be ex- itself, should be modified. pected to run out of bounds and beyond 10. Be sure that all -struction is Lon- finish lines. A sufficient buffer zone is, sistent with the most professionally ac- therefore, essential to safe play. Other cepted information and procedures and teacher imposed and easily corrected includes warnings regarding the dan- environmental hazards include: relays ge s involved and the manner in which where the turning directions and run- ',:tey can be avoided or minimized. ning lanes have not been clearly speci- H. Take whatever steps may be nec- fied;theuseof impropersubsti- essary in order to avoid mismatch situa- tute equipment such as candy wrappers tions in activities where there is a strong for bases; or the use of equipment likelihood of physical contact. It should which requires a level of skill beyond be remembered, however, that a mis- that of the participants. An example of match is a function of size, strength, the latter circumstance would be the use skill, and experience. The sex of the of fixed post bases with unskilled partic- participant is not a controlling factor. ipants where sliding is allowed. While 12. Above all, remember that the fo- these bases offer distinct advantages cus of the educational process is the with skilled sliders who recognize their student, not the activity. Our responsi- unyielding characteristics, they are un- bility, therefore, is to tailor the activity safe for those who lack such skill and according to the skills of our students in knowledge. !f, therefore, they were to order to provide the safest and most be used with an unskilled group, sliding productive learning experience for all. should be disallowed in the interest of Environmental conditions. In addition safety. to providing a safe activity under com- Thefollowinggeneralguidelines petent professional supervision, one should prove helpful in reducing the must also take appropriate measures to number of injuries due to hazards with- provide for the safety of the facilities in the environment. and equipment used. Before allowing 1Start every thy with an inspection students to use an instructional area or a of the facilities which your classes will piece of equipment, it should be careful- be using. Note any hazards such as ly inspected for safety and proper func- broken glass, slippery surface, loose fit- tion. Such things as debris or potholes tings, etc., and take steps to eliminate on playing fields or loose racquet heads them. can lead to participant injuries. When 2. Make appropriate planning modi- this occurs, the teacher/coach will, al- fications to keep students away from most invariably, be called upon to ex- hazardous areas until repairs can be plain the procedures he/she followed in completed. If a problem is located in a order to prevent injuries due to unsafe general use area, consider some form of environmental conditions. marking as a warning to others. While obvious hazards such as water 3. All equipment in use should be on a court surface or a cracked bat inspected daily. usually result in immediate remedia- 4. Teach studey is to inspect equip- tion, many teachers unknowingly create ment and reqtdre them to do so each environmental hazards by the manner time itis issued. This double check in which they use an otherwise safe system virtually eliminates the possibili- facility.Instructing students to ru- ty of teacher negligence associated with across the gym, tag the far wall at td equipment failure. return, for instance, is simply inviting 5. Under no circumstances should an injury due to a collision with the students be allowed to use equipment wall. This is not the fault of the facility. which is in a state of disrepair. It is a function of the manner in which 6. Be sure all facilities and equipment 22 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT meet or exceed recommended size and it is healthy and should be cultivated. safety specifications, e.g. thickness of Care must be taken, however, to pre- mats, free area around courts, and land- vent overreaction.It is one thing to ing pits. eliminate unnecessary nsks; it is quite 7. Do not hold running activities on another to eliminate programs or activi- an uneven or slippery surface. ties entirely because some risk happens 8. Provide and require the use of ap- to be involved. Risk is an unavoidable propriate safety equipment. Post signs component of sport. It cannot be elimi- and reminders to keep the importance nated, but it must be controlled. The of this issue clearly in the minds of the task of the teacher is to eliminate all students. unnecessary risks, and to reduce as We are living in an age of litigation. much as possible those that remain. it, Disputes and losses, whether real or after doing this, the educational value of imagined, are commonly brought be- the activity can be shown to substantial- fore the courts for adjudication. It is not ly outweigh the risks, then the activity surprising, therefore, that in a profes- has a valid place in the curriculum and sion such as physical education and should be retained.If, however, the sport, where the possibility of partici- potential risks cannot be justified in this pant injury is present, there should be a manner or if all reasonable steps have great concern for matters of legal liabil- not been taken to guarantee the safety ity. To the degree that this concern of the participants, then program modi- manifests itself in careful attention to fications must be implemented in order standards of safety and professionalism to prevent needless injuries and costly andthoughtfulprogramplanning, lawsuits.

30 CHAPTER 3

Administration of Safety in Physical Education and Sports

PATRICIA E. BARRY Montgomery County Public Schools Rockville, MD

0" v 41.4 -.11 11111.111"16

WS.

31 24 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT rr he administration of safety in phys- The primary administrative responsi- ical education and sport cannot be a bilitiesfor physical education and/or fragmented effort. It must be part of a athletics may be accomplished by sever- total school safety program with the full al persons or, in fact, may be the task of participation of the district administra- one person in a small school district. tion and the local school. A safety pro- Regardless of the size or type of edu- gram must be designed which is in cation institution, several areas must be concert with all aspects of the philoso- addressedbythoseprofessionally phy, administration, and management trained in the field of physical education of the entire organization. and sport. Some things to keep in mind Regardless of the organization, an are the following: effective safety program must encom- Physicaleducatorsandcoaches pass: should not become overly concerned 1. Maximum production. aboutlegalissues.Rather,they 2. Maximum cost effectiveness. should take positive measures to pre- 3. General . vent accidents. The goal is to mini- 4. Safety for all involved (this in- mize the frequency and severity of cludes students, employees, and other injuries. persons and patrons who are involved Accidents will never be eliminated. in the asAlvities of the institution). The term "safety measures" in physi- Within the educational setting, gener- cal education should not necessarily ally accepted ingredients of a safety signal elimination of an activity. Tak- program include: ingactionstoenhanceactivity, 1. Policy development. health, adventure, and fun should be 2. Safety committee (a physical edu- the primary goal. Activity elimination cation teacher or physical education and as a means of accident prevention is a sport administrator should serve on this negative and often counterproductive committee). approach. 3. Accident reporting and investiga- Recommendations for the purchase of tion. equipment and supplies designed and 4. Safety inspections. constructed for optimal safety in the particular situation must be made by trained physical educators or by the ROLE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR athletic administrator. Proper maintenance and recondition- The physical education and/or athletic ing of physical education and athletic administrator serves primarily as a fa- equipment and supplies must be reg- cilitator of the official safety policies of ularly completed in compliance with the school or school district by insuring the manufacturer'specifications. that proper communication channels to Regardless of the activity, careful and each employee, student, and patron are constant supervision of students in constantly open and operating. physical education and athletics is a Responsibility for the overall safety of must. the organization resides in the hands of General supervision is also important the institution's chief administrator who and this responsibility may fall upon appoints general and specific safety co- all professionals regardless of their ordinators and committees. Specific ar- specific assignments.Locker room eas of responsibility must be identified. coverage, for example, is often shared Physical education and sport are, of by teachers and coaches. course, two very important aspects of Skill classification and proper assign- the total safety structure and should be ment of the individual physical educa- delegated to a specific individual who tion student and athlete are very im- has the training and expertise necessary portant. Assigning of students to spe- to succeed at the task. 32 c.is positions or mclifying the rules ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 25 are two methods of managing this such source is Planning Facilities for Ath- responsibility. letics, Physical Education and Recreation Class size is of major importance in (Flynn, 1985). physical education. Both the activity and the facility are influencing factors. SAFETY AWARENESS AND In general, physical education class FORESEEABILITY size should match that of other sub- jects, as approved by the school or Although the ultimate responsibility system. for the safety of students, employees, Budget constraints can never be justi- and patrons lies within these groups fied as reasons for not providing rec- themselves, the search for existing and ommendedprotectiveequipment. potential safety hazards is a continuous When protective equipment is avail- process in which all physical educators able, teachers must require its use. and coaches must constantly partici- pate. Everyone must be encouraged to ACCIDENT REPORTING carry an awareness and foresight of safety issues into every aspect of their We live in a data-oriented society. lives, whether at home, in the class- Ti .. accessibility of today's computers room, at work, at the beach, in the has -reated the demand for detailed mountains, or on the highway. repei flog and analyzing of all aspects of Professional safety awareness and health and safety. Completion of acci- foreseeability are not limited to seeing dent reports is necessary in order to the broken glass on the playing field. properly interpret information and to Safety begins much earlier with some- eliminate avoidable accidents. The pur- one picking up the unbroken glass bot- pose, however, is not to eliminate the tle which may have been littering the activity or to reduce the resultant health field for days. It includes insuring that benefits and fun. Figures 1 and 2 are there are trash receptacles in app opri- examples of effective forms for report- ate locations and that the receptacles are ing student or employee injuries. serviced regularly. If littering is a severe and a constant problem, then there is a ROUTINE MAINTENANCE need to ask for cooperation from the local school and nearby commercial es- Routine preventative and emergency tablishments that serve as vendors of maintenance requests with safety impli- bottled beverages. Consideration could cations should be submitted as soon as even be given to limiting beverage sales they are identified. Copies of these re- to cans and paper cups. quests should be sent to all appropriate Investigating the cause of problems persons and kept on file by the depart- and providing measures for the preven- mental chairperson/teacher or coach. tion of future ones are far more impor- tant steps than trying to determine BUDGET IMPLICATIONS whose responsibility it is to remove the broken glass from the field after the fact. Budget planning is necessary for the The broken glass must be removed; successful maintenance and renovation however, the glass is only a symptom of of existing facilities. Safety projections a greater problem that needs to be for new facilities must be made in ad- solved with a more long term solution. vance. These "capital budget" requests can usually be projected several years in SUPPORT MATERIALS advance. At the same time, accurate justification for need must be docu- A number of reference publications mented. are available to asc:st the concerned There are a number of publications administrator.TheNationalSafety which can be helpful in this area. One uncil and the Association of School 33C OSHA Cate Number (School Number plus edditionei dept foe nand... on calendar year)

Mom. el Ineareners and Reareinent MONTGOMERY COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS EMPLOYEE ACCIDENT REPORT 660 Hamlet MI Orme Reellyille, Maryland 213650

INSTRUCTIONS RON tOspecsal onstruebran on the ravers. lode before completing the (OM Send original and one copy to the Oriono of bowmen and Rearement, Edumbonal Sermon Center, one copy to your rwe offrte end moan one copy on the *choral

TIME AND PLACE I Locationof School or place whereMcdent or osPosar a Ottred Code 1 Employers premises -Yes -No Data of noel or annul dregnOsrs of OCCuPerrOnra ono..Imi Nei I I I car of week 2 OE)TY Hour of day III I IAMI I I I IPM 3Dem domboloty begen 19 AM PM 4 gam yawed pad on full I. day of rolory 7 ---w Yes -No 5 WhenCod YOU or Your scOecsisOr fire, know of idlorY1 6 Name of regrachta lopervoOr

INJURED PERSON

7 Nome of cal ml LIIPIRIll (Type or Print) First Meddle Lest Sooeer Securoty Number

8Addrtu No na Street City or Town State Zip Code

9Check 14 ---,Awned _Single -Widowed -Wodower-Dovorced _Male _Femme '0Age

11 OccuPatoonwhen onwred [11=1=1Was this his/her reguoar occ upaban 7_Yen._No Code 2 If not WM regular occupation 12 How long employed Wage per hour

Wageper cloy A e age weekly earnings No hours worked per der No hours worked per nook If board iodgong I um or other advantageswere furnished on addition to wages gore estimate of valve Cer day week or month

CAUSE OF INJURY

13 Machone Injury Li 11 14 Was safety applianceor reguIenon prowded? Yes NoWas of on use at ten..? LJ Yes U No C,de 3 15 WK., was employee doong when on oared' Be spomoltcII he wm utong tool, or eaudament Or hendlong material wrathy,and tell what he was doong froth them

17 Did dombolity arose out of end ,n the court, of clamant s lost employment? _ Yes _No

NATURE DF INJURY

I 19 N., cfe CO InIchc or OCCupinonel downs r Code 4 Part of Body I I Type of en,ury 1111 Cod. 5 Code 6 t9Probable number of work days away Iron WOr 4 20 Has oniured returned to work t-Yes-No II no date and hour At what wog*? At whet occupation? -Pandirne _F It net -Lght Duty -TemporaryReassognmen, 21 Name and ddrst ofphysc an

Name and address of hospital Innit.ent -0 utPnt nt

WITNESSES

Wdnessin In ccodoent Name Phone or Address

Name Phone or Address

MOTOR VEHICLES

23 If motor wohocles are Involved pies na.e and address of onsoranc terriers

PERSONAL PROPERTY LOSS

21 Clothing or other genre.) property damage ea the result of enforcementofSchoolfeguletionsIf to describe

(Proof of ices roust accompany this form)

25 Has injured doled? In Tat CD No

26Dataofthee upon 27 School or Department &geed by T tie PrinelpadDePrtment Detector

MCPS Form 266 1, Roomed May 1980

Fig. 1. Employee accident report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, FOckville, Maryland (1985). 34 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS

COMPLETE ENTIRE FORM PROVIDING ALL APPROPRIATE INFORMATION THE ITEMS BLOCKED MUST BE COMPLETED FOR COMPUTER PROCESSING FORM WILL BE RETURNED TO ORIGINATOR IF NOT CORRECTLY PREPARED AND CODED

ITEM I Enter name and Iourd,on code esboned to the department or school where the injury occurred

ITEM 2 .-tour of day 12 1100A enll be entered el 1200 AM 12 rm.:Intent will La lettered as 1200 PM

ITEM 11 Enter Occupation and tow the MOPS Personnel Positron Claw code suprood to the occupation of the injured employeeII the mimed baron Ma volunteer worker, enter VOLLY for Mit code

ITEM 13 Enweetenty of mum, and app. oP me code from list below

ITEM 113 Ent*r nature of injury sad of body type of injury and &mop..., code for each from bO below

CODE 3 AGENCY OF INJURY CODE 3 CONTINUED COOE NATURE OF INJURY MACHINERY MATERIALS/EOUIPMENT, CONTINUED CONTINUED

BUFFER CO1 KITCHEN EOUIPMENT, STOVES MULTIPLE lB GRINDER 002 OVENS 311 UNKNOWN 98 JOINTER CO3 KITCHEN FOODS 312 OTHER 99 LATHE CO4 KILNS OVENS 313 LAWN MOWER 005 LOCKERS 330 CODE 5 PART OF BODY INJURED PLANER 006 MEOIA EOUIPMENT 327 ABDOMEN 01 SAW, BAND 007 PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 315 ANKLE 02 SAW CIRCULAR 30B PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 316 ARM 03 SAW, JIG 0013 POLES ROOS 317 BACK 01 SEWING MACHINE 010 PAINTS LACOUERS ANO VISE CHEST/RIBS 06 011 SPRAYS 318 EAR 07 PAPER CUTTER 012 WINDOW DOORS 319 EYE 60 METAL SHEARS 013 WOOD LUMBER 320 FACE ORILL PRESS 014 10 METAL 321 FINGERS/THUMB WE LOER 015 PENS PENCILS 322 FOOT PRINT PRES' 016 12 STEEL WOOL 325 HAND SAW RADIAL 017 TRASH CANS 324 OTHER KNEE 16 099 VENETIAN BLINDS 329 LEG 17 OTHER 399 HANDTOOL MOUTH LIPS TONGUE IB NECK THROAT 19 AXE 100 PLAYGROUND APPARATUS 400 SHOULDER /COLLAR BONE 31 CHISEL VEHICLES 101 SKULL SCALP BRAIN 32 DRILL HAND 102 AUTO 500 TEETH 33 FILE BICYCLE 501 103 WRIST 35 HAMMER 104 BUS SCHOOL 502 TOES 34 MOTOR BIKE 503 KNIFE 105 MULTIPLE MOTORCYCLE MOTOR SCOOTER 36 NEEDLES 106 INTERNAL ORGANS 5CmOC1. OWNED OR 98 PAPER CUTTER 107 UNKNOWN LEASED 99 SAW NANO 106 504 SPINE HIPS 38 PUBLIC CARRIER 508 SCISSORS 109 GROIN TRUCK 39 SCREWORIVER 110 509 OTHER 599 WRENCH I 1 I CODE 6 TYPE OF INJURY OTHER 199 MISCELLANEOUS FALL FROM ELEVATION 101 WALKING/WORKING SURFACES PERSON INVOLVED 601 FALL ON SAME LEVEL 102 OTHER PERSON OR PERSONS 602 STRUCK AGAINST 103 INTERRIOR FLOOR (NEC/ 201 SKATEBOARDS 603 STRUCK BY 104 EXTERIOR GROUNOS 206 SCOOTERS 604 CAUGHT IN UNOER BETWEEN 105 INTERIOR STAIRS 207 TOYS OTHER 605 OVER EXERTION/ST RAIN 108 EXTERIOR STEPS 212 ANIMALS INSECT BITEr 607 CONTACT w/ELEC CURRENT 107 SCAFFOLDING 214 TREES SHRUBS 60B CONTACT w/EXTREVIE TEMP 108 LADDER 220 OTHER NEC 899 MOTOR VEHICL: ACCIOENT 109 OTHER 299 ASSAULT 110 CODE 4 NATURE OF INJURY ANIMAL, INSECT BITE 111 MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT OCCUPATIONAL SKIN OISEASE 210 ABRASION/BRUISE oi ATHLETIC EOUIPMENT NEC 301 DUST OISEASE OF LUNGS AMPUTATION 720 BASEBALLS FOOTBALLS 02 RESPIRATORY CONDITION DLE ASPHYXIATION 03 VOLLEYBALLS AND THE TO TOXIC AGENTS 230 BITE 01 LIKE 300 POISONING/SYSTEMATIC BURNS/SCALDS 05 BIOLOGICAL SUBSTANCE 3171 EFFFrTS OF TOXIC CONCUSSION u6 BOXES 32F MATERIALS 240 CUTS/LACERATION 07 CEMENT CONCRETE 32E DISORDERS OUE TO PHY OIS LOCATION 08 CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AGENTS 250 DROWNING 09 INCLUDING POISONS 304 OISOROERS ASSOC WITH ELECTRICAL SHOCK 10 COROS REPEATED TRAUMAS 260 323 FOREIGN BODY FENCES AND WALLS 305 ALL OTHER OCCUPATIONAL IMBEDDED 11 FLAMMABLES SUCH AS ILLNESS 290 FRACTURE MAT^ 4ES GAS 12 303 POISONING FURNITURE SUCH AS 13 PUNCTURE 14 OESKS CHAIRS 30P SPRAIN/STRAIN 15 GLASS AND GLASSWARE 309 TEETH DAMAGED 16 HOT LIQUIDS SUBSTANCES 310 INTERNAL INJURIES 17

Fig. 1 (continued). Employee accident report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985). 35 28 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Diadem of Insurance and Ratiramant MONTGOMERY COUNTY PL tIC SCHOOLS STUDENT ACCIDENT REPORT Radtyi 11*, Maryland

Plasm read this Instruct OM on the back of the Goldenrod copy before completing the following

SECTION A

11) Name of Injured Last Name -Sint Nam* M.6dla Name

12) Home Address Snirsi Cr Sone Zip (Coda 13) School Name (4) School Number1 1 1 1

I 15) GradeI I I 16) Age', I 17) Sex1 1

(8) Date Occurred / / (9) Time Occurred AM PM Montt, De, vs.,

(10)Date Accident Reported / / (11) Type of Actnity 1 I .I Montt, Dar 'row

(12)Specific Activity1 I 1 I 113) Location of AccidentI I I I

(14)Description of Accident

115)Was an adult present at scene of accident, Yes No

(16)Name of Individual

SECTION B

(1) Natue of InjuryI I 1.1 I I I I I 121 Part ofBody1 I 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 Immediate Action Taken

(31 First Aid 0 Yes 0 No, By

(4) Sent to Health Room Yes No, By

15) Sent to Doctor Yes No, By Name of Doctor

(6) Sent back to Class Yes No, By

171 Sent to Hospital Yes No, By

Name of Novas;

Was Parent, Guardian, or Neighbor Notified (8) Yes 0 No,Date Notified __./ ___/_ Month Oat Year How Notified Time Notified AM PM

By Whom

(9) Total Number of Days lost from School I I I I I I

110)Student has Accident Insurance Yes No

AUTHORIZATION

rrinripsiSanshirs Dais term S2S-2 Awned September 1975 ClatrIbution White /Unary /Pink to the (Mellon of insurerce and Retirement Goldenrod - File Fig. 2. Student Accident Report. FromSafety Handbook,Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

36 ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 29

INSTRUCTIONS FUR COMPLETING THE STUDENT ACCIDENT REPORT FORM

GENERAL

Complete WI of the questions and the authorication sectionIf not complete the Corns will be returned Send the White/CanaryTink copies within tWo121sumks to -The 3mrPon of Intluren. end Retirement' Wnhington Center Keep the Goldenrod copy for your hie E Kemple, of reportable moldiest reports are All imuriM to the heed eye, nick or some env bone or loot tniury that results in swelling any puncture wound burn or Imeratinn that looks as though it oleorequire sutures innetion of any drug, chime* or New matersak end other such eccidenb

SECTION A

ITEMS 1 THRU 4 Must be completed as indicated ITEM 5 - Indicate the grade level such es 01 02 03 12 for Grade one I thru twelve 1121 Heed Start should be Warn at "24' Kondewarten at 25Sar-ie tducabon at 26and Ungraded as27 ITEM 6 -AGE State aen of student on lest birthday ITEM 7 - SEXIndicate M" for male and 'F" for femalet fEM S - DATE OCCURRED - Indicate date per trample 06/1071 June 10 1971 ITEM I TIME OCCURRED - Indicate the east boa Ito =Went occurred ce mamma 02 10 Ten 117111y.es pan two 0 ul.k Check whether AM IMo sng) or PM lAftnnoonl ITEM 10 - DATE ACCIDENT REPORTED - Inhere per sea vie 06/21/71 k June 21 1971 ITEM 11 - TYPE OF ACTIVITY Indicate using one 111 of the following codes 01 Elam I./wave Educ 03 Eke, Non-Phys Educ 6 Ron Noon Recess 05 &maniere NonsPhw Educ 02 Elam Kam Recess IN Secondary Physical E due 06 Varsity & Jr Varsity

ITEM 12 - SPECIFIC ACTIVITY Inchoate using one 111 of the following codes

101 Archery 109Fenc,ng 117Parallel Bars/Horizonte 125Tennis 102Badminton 110Feld Hockey 118Physical Fitness/Calisthenics 126 Track and Find

11:0 Baleen Been 1 1 Football 119Ringe/Ropn 127 Trampoline/Mini Troop 104 Bewbe11 "12Games 120SIae/See Sew 128 Tumbling 106Baked:ell 113Golf 121 Snow afX.1 be Sports (Skiing) 129 Vaulting Boa 106Cheer Leader 114 Jungle Gym 122SOccer/F told Ball 130Volley Ball 107Dance 115 Kickball 123Softball 131 Weight Lifting and Training 10B Dodge Bail 116Muscleman 124Swing, 132WrestlingiSelf Defense

ITEM 13 - LOCATION DF ACCIDENT INDICATE BY USING ONE IIIOF THE FOLLOWING CODES

201All Purpose Room 207Corridor 213Levatoon 219Pedestrian 202Athletic Field 208Grounds/Non Playground 214 Library 220 Playground 203Auditorium Stage 209Gymnasium and Auxiliary Gym 215Locker Room 221 School Bus Passenger 204Been* 210Horne Arts 216Motor Vehicle Passenger 222 Special Activities IF old Tops Clubs Class Trips etc I 205Cafeteria 2t1Industrial Education shops 217 Music and Bard Room 223Stairs 206Clamoom 212 Laboratories 218Outdoor Education Site 224Conference ROOT 225Caren Programs/ ITEM 14 - DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENT - Briefly describe how the accident occurred Off Campus ITEM 15 - WAS AN ADULT PRESENT AT SCENE OF ACCIDENT - Check yes or No ITEM IS - NAME OF INDIVIDUAL - Print the individual I full name

SECTION S

ITEM 1 - NATURE OF INJURY - Indicate using one 111 and not more than three 131 of the following codes that xem describels1 theinsurylies/

37 Abrasion/Brune 24 Contusion 31 Foreign Body Imbedded, Loose 35 Otnect in MouthiPoisomng 23 Amputation 21 Death 26 Fracture /Chipped 30 Puncture 25 Aiplhopetion 28 Dental 22 Internal Injuries 36 Sprain/Strain/Pulled Muscle/ 38 Bite 27 Dislocation 29 Laceretion,Cuts Torn Ligament 32 BurnsiScakedChermcal 33 Electrical Shock 34 Oblect in Eye

ITEM 2 - PART Of BODY Indicate using one (II and not more than three 131 of the following codesIf more thn 3 parts of the body here been allured indicate the most venous

Ankle 68 5.1bow 6i Genital Area 66 Knee 64 Shoulders/Collar Bone 65 Arm 53 Eye 72 Hand c7 Leg 61 Stomach 55 Beck 56 Face 52 Heed 58 Mu, Mil_ los, Torque 73 Teeth 60 Chest/Ribs 75 Fingers/Thumb 63 Hip 54 Neck 'Throat 74 Toes 57 Ear 71 Foot 51 Internal Organs 59 Nose 70 Wrist ITEM 3 - FIRST AIDCheck Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate who gene inc student Fin! Aid INurse Secretory etc 1 ITEM 4 - SENT TD HEALTH ROOM Check Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate who tent the student to the HeaCh Room ISeorelary Teacher etc I ITEM S - SENT TO DOCTOR Check Yes. No If Yes Is checked indicate who sent the student to the Doctor ISecretmy Teacher Nurse etc IPont the Doctor s name ITEM B - SENT RACK TO CLASS Check Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate by whom

ITEM 7 -SENT TO HOSPITAL - Check Yes or No If Yes is checked iicate .To sent the student to the Hospital Nurse Teacher etc IPrint the Hospital s name ITEM S - WAS PAkENT GUARDIAN OR NEIGHBOR NOTIFIED or No DATE NOTIFIED Indicate date Per example 05/21'71 Mk./ 21 1971 HOW NOTIFIED - By telephone etc TIME NOTIFIED - Indicate the eon sample 10 50 10 Minutes before 11 0 Clock Check whether AM IMorning1 or PM (Aftern0010 I/ WHOM - Print full name of person who notifed the parent guardian ITEMS - TOTAL NUMSER OF DAYS LOST FROM SCHOOL - Indicate per following examples 000 5 9. day 001 0 1 day 100 0 100 oasis 023 5 x 23', days ITEM 10 - STUDENT HAS ACCIDENT INSURANCE - Check Yea or No

AUTHORIEAT10114 This form mat to lined by the Principal also indicate Wa date this report was signed

Flg. 2 (continued). Student Accident Report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 30 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Business Officials of the United States student accident reports and Canada have published the School employee accident reports Safety Handbook (Haering, 1986). It pro- reporting student accidents vides, perhaps, more detailed informa- fire safety for schools tion than the typical physical education emergency and disaster procedures and sport administrator may need on a health care for allergic children daily basis. However, it encompasses all emergency care for pupils subject to aspects of school safety programs. For anaphylactic reactionto an insect example, a few categories of specific sting or ingestion information of interest to the physical emergency first aid educator, sport administrator, teacher, reporting and caring for an animal bite and coach are: dogs on school grounds accident reporting/record keeping Other general administrative policies emergency action guides including and regulations of the school system to many disasters, severe weather, light- be considered in the local manual might ing conditions, and evacuation plans include: physical education facilities administration of interscholastic ath- physical education apparatus letic programs tumbling, track and field, trampoline interscholastic athletics in the state eye protection (state regulation) showers extracurricular activities rifle club policies with regard to showering football insurance pupils excused from physical educa- seasonal safety tion classes student accident and football insurance policies with regard to equipment use of trampolines in physical educa- LOCAL SAFETY HANDBOOKS tion classes AND POLICIES rifle club activities and control of rifle ranges Each school district should have an The following excerpts (see Figure 3) official collection of its school safety typify elements of a local safety hand- policies and regulations. Further, each book(MontgomeryCountyPublic local school should have a safety com- Schools, 1985). mittee and specific procedures for han- dling its needs. Within the overall safety plan for the district are such general categories as: WHERE TO START safety education and accident prevention risk management If your school does not have a formal traffic and bus safety safety handbook, several established fire safety references exist which can be helpful in plant and eyeglass safety developing a schematic plan to be com- emergency and disaster preparedness pleted as your local situation dictates. health The entire physical education and ath- instructional and special activities area letic staff should work together on this (It is in this section that safety in project in order to guarantee the best physical education and athleticsis and most useful handbook possible. generally addressed.) The following general questions for Local school system handbooks gen- physical education teachers and coaches erally quote school board and official should be considered in the develop- institutionalregulations.Somethat ment of the handbook: might be of particular interest to physi- 1. Does your school district, institu- cal educators would pertain to:' tion, or school have an overall safety 38 ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 31

8-61 SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AAdministrative Responsibility for Safety in Physical Education Safety must play an integral part in physical education instruction Thereare certain controls that will aid in eliminating or minimizing accidents B Orientation

Making teachers aware of established rules regulations and procedures containedin the Ph:,sical Education courses of studyin the Montgomery County Public Si. hook Poll( les and RelzulatIons Handbook and in this handbook C Unique Situations Policies should he formulated to cover xanations in physical layout

D. Rules and Regulations All rules and regulations pertaining to the use of facilities and equipment should he brought to the attention of the staff E Perodic Inspection All physical education facilities, equipment. and grounds should he checked periodically to eliminate hidden hazards or unsafe conditions

8-62 INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FACILITIES A There shall he continuous evaluation and research on the safety aspects of facilities equipment. and supplies B Only approved eq iipment shall he installed on playgrounds or gymnasiums C The school administration shall confer with the physical education supervisor regarding the 'vocation of physical education equipment and apparatus before installation D All relocation of equipment must he approved by the school administration, supervisor of physical education. and director of the Division of Maintenance E All physical education equipment shall he installed according to the standard specification for that equipment or grade level

F Playing surfaces should he free of obstructions. uneven surfaces, and slick spots and should beon level ground when possible

C Equipment found to he faulty should be labeled with a red tag and immediately withdrawn fromuse

8-63 SAFETY INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Adequate instruction relative to the many facets of physical education aLtivities will eliminate many' needless accidents Instruction should he provided in proper skills and attitudes while in the locker room, gym, shower room, etcDefinite procedures should he set up to cover before-class activities and supervision of those arriving e irly Activities should he organized so that skills will he progressive Care should he taken not to place students in activities or situations for which they are not structurally or functionally prepared Certain activities require large and more secluded areas for safe execution. these areas include archery, golf. etc

Fig. 3. Excerpted from Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

39 32 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

8.64APPARATUS, STUNTS, AND TUMBLING AInstruct students in

1 The safe use of equipment 2 The dangers inherent in each stunt 3 Thz proper mechanics of each stunt B Condition the student in advance of each apparatus stunt C. Present a good demonstration either by teacher or capable student D Provide sequential instruction allowing for mastery of fundamentals before attempting more complex moves E Make sure that students have a clear understanding of what they are attempting F Remember that the proper uniform is an important aspect of safe, pleasurable gymnastics I. Remove all jewelry, bracelets, pencils, pens, etc 2 Use sneakers or gymnastic shoes LIinsist upon proper warm-up period before any stunt is attempted H Magnesium carbonate should be available and used

8.65 SHOWERS AShower rooms shall be used under strict supervision of a teacher B Runningor playing in the shower room is prohibited C Standing on locker room benches is prohibited D Snapping of towels at other students is prohibited E Use ofthemaster shower control is the responsibility of the teacher Students shall not he assigned this responsibility F.Swinging or chinning from bars or pipes in the locker room is prohibited G Benches should be inspected frequently for splinters, protruding nails sharp corners. etc

8-66SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR TRACK PRACTICE ATeams will not use corridors as practice areas until 45 minues after the end of the school day B Teams will practice outside when weather permits C Signs will be posted stating when and where teams will he prancing D Monitors should be stationed at all corners and intersections to wain persons who may he in the halls while students are running E Announcements will be made over the public address system making faculty and students aware that practice has begun FTeams that have safe areas may practice earlier than the 45-minute limit

Fig. 3 (continued). Excerpted from Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

40 ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 33 program with an assigned supervisor? c. your physical education pro- Do you know who that person is? gram? 2. Are safety policies and practices d. your athletic program? dynamic and changing as facilities, cur- 15. How are injuries reported? ricuIa, and other 'actors change? a.Is a written report made? 3. Does your institution provide b. What information is included? teachers with written updates, work- c. Are reports reviewed and ana- shops, and in-service programs in the lyzed regularly? areas of general and specific ,,afety con- d. Arerecommendationsmade cerns? based on the reports? 4. Does your local school have spe- 16. Has your school developed a cific safety guidelines and a safety com- working relationship with: mittee? Is a physical educator on that a. local fire and rescue squad? committee? b. local hospitals,clinics and/or 5. Are emergency first aid proce- physicians? dures known by all staff members in the 17. Does your school maintain up-to- school? date health records on staff and stu 6. Are there regular documented in- dents? spections of all physical euucation and a. Are these records for people athletic facilities? with special needs specially cod- 7. Is your maintenance department ed? or system responsive to saff con- b. Are the physical examinations cerns? filed for athletes'.' 8. Is documented accident reporting c. How does important health-re- (for students and employees) completed lated data get to physical educa- in a timely fashion? tion teachers and coaches? 9. Are all students and employees informed about student insurance and SAFETY CHECKLISTS workman's compensation policies and procedures for reporting accidents? Checklists are of use to teachers and 10. Does the school physical educa- coaches if they are directed to specific tion and athletic administration insist real. Individual teachers and workers that all students be properly supervised should add to the checklists as appro- not only in the actual teaching of the priate. The following are suggested ar- activity but also in the locker room prior eas of concern in the development of to and following class? individual safety chec_dists: 11. Are all federal, state, and local security and stability of hanging appa- laws, codes, and ordinances followed? ratus bleachers (indoors and outdoors) 12. Are the sport-related safety regu- showers and locker areas lations required in the "official" rule- floor surfacesclean, nonslipping books used by the school enforced? (Ex- field conditions (free from rocks and amples: National Operational Comm. glass, adequate turf) tee on Standards for Athletic Equipment warning labels, padded volleyball stan- tennis court surfaces dards). fire exits fire drill procedures for classes and 13. Does the climate in your area athletic events warrant cold or hot weather procedures generalmaintenance(preventative to be followed for specific activities? and necessary) regularly documented 14. Do you know who is directly in proper indoor alid outdoor lighting as charge of overall general safety in: needed a. your school district? proper securitygym, locker rooms, b. your 41 outdoor facilities 34 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

J Safety and Locker Room Standards For Students in Physical Education

In physical education, students participate in a regular program of vigorous exercises and activities which require that consideration be given to attire, personal hygiene, and locker room procedures. The following standards are recommended to protect each student and enable him/her to obtain the maximum benefit from the program:

1. Students will have a complete change of clothing for physical education. A T-shirt and shorts or a school physical education uniform are appropriate for most classes. Sweat suits are recommended for outdoor classes conducted during cool weather.

2. Appropriate kithletic shoes will be worn to class. This is important for the safety of the student and for the protection of various surfaces. The shoes should have flat soles (not elevated in any way) and should be properly laced or fastened.

3. All personal belongings are to be locked up during class time. Gym clothing is to be locked in the assigned short locker at the end of class. Locks left on long lockers will be removed.

4. Students are to limit their use of the locker room to physical education class time and as appropriate for athletic teams.

5. Students are expected to arrive and depart from the locker rocm at the appropriate time.

6. All injuries are to be promptly reporteo to the teacher. The nurse will be notifiod as required.

7.To prevent loss, damage, or personal injury, students should not wear i6welry during physical education class.

8.Safety glasses with elastic head strap or other eye protection are recommended when wearing prescription glasses or contact lenses.

9. Students are to remain off the bleachers, stage, and equipment unless otherwise directed by the teacher.

10. Food, gum, beverages, and glass are to be kept out of the entire physical education a Please do not litter. A Fig. 4. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

42 ADMNISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 35

windows secure and unbroken proper ventilation appropriate safety padding weighttrainingandgymnastics equipment regularly checked and re- paired as needed all National Operational Committee DO NOT SIT on Standards for Athletic Equipment requirements met OR all appropriate rule books used for specific sports adhered to in the areas STAND of safety equipment appropriate information given to sub- ON BLEACHERS stitute teachers not familiar with ei- ther the school, subjected area, or WHEN THEY ARE activity being taught. CLOSED HAZARDOUS MATERIALS A number of federal and state ordi- nances have strict guidelines which re- quire manufacturers of any potentially caustic or toxic materials to provide the consumer with a Material Safety Data N. 5.From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland Sheet. It is most important to have this (1985). information on all materials used within the physical education and athletic pro- grams which may have ha-lous po- tential. Hazardous materials may frequently accidents. It can, however, serve as an be found in physical education and ath- everpresent reminder that precautions letic areas. Some of them may be: need to be taken in a particular area or swimming pool chemicals activity. training room and first aid room sup- Signs may be professionally pro- plies duced. However, with the advent of field pa...As inexpensive and creative graphics soft- mat and ball cleaning agents ware programs for personal computers, gym floor cleaners and sealers signs can also be easily made at the local Administrators, coaches, and teach- level and be very specific to the situa- ers should be aware of all hazardous tion. and toxic substances used. A list of Some manufacturers of equipment these materials should be developed are now voluntarily providing warning and a safety data sheet on each item labels which must be placed on equip- should be requested from the manufac- ment and supplies. These labels are turer. Some state laws require that this genera"-7 inexpensive or free. Adminis- information be maintained on file. trators should provide teachers with such materials, and if no administrator for safety in physical education and POSTING SIGNS AND athletics exists, the teacher and coach WARNING LABELS should assume this responsibility. Figuies 4-9 are examples of both local- The posting of signs and decals cer- ly produced signs and manufacturers' tainly does not remove the possibility of warning labels. 43 36 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

r USE OF THIS EQUIPMENT IS RESTRICTED TO STUDENTS ACCOMPANIED BY A TEACHER.

THIS LOCKER ROOM IS FOR THE USE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS AND TEAM MEMBERS DURING THEIR ASSIGNED PERIODS EXCLUSIVELY.

Fig. 6. From Saf-ty Hpr-j!-- Montgom, y County Public Schouls, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

4 4 ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 37

WARNING Participation in gymnastic activities involves motion, rotation, and height inan unique environment and as such, carries with it a reasonable assumption of risk.

This equipment is intended for use ONLY by properly trained and qualified participants under supervised conditions. Use without proper supervision mud be DANGEROUS and should NOT be undertaken or permitted.

WARNING Catastrophic injury. paralysis, or even death can result from improper conduct of the activity.

GERSTUNG/GYM-THING, INC.

Flg. 7. Gymnastics warning label. From Gerstung/Gyn1ining, Baltimore,Maryland.

WARNING WARNING Do not strike an opponent with any Do not use this helmet if the shell is part of this helmet or face mask. This is cracked or deformed of if interior a violation of football rules and may padding is deteriorated. Do not clean cause you to suffer severe brain or or shine with any agent except plain neck injury, including paralysis or soap and water. The prolonged use of death. other chemicals may cause serious Severe brain or neck injury shell degradation. may also occur accidentally while playing football. THIS BATTERS HELMET CANNOT PREVENT ALL HEAD INJURIES IN NO HELMET CAN PREVENT ALL BASEBALL OR SOFTBALL SUCH INJURIES USE THIS HELMET AT YOUR OWN RISK

Fig. 8. Helmet warning labels.

45 38 PKINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

IFEN--1.11, WARNING Any activity involving motion or height creates the possibility of serious injury, including permanent paralysis and even death from landing or falling on the head or neck. You assume a risk of serious injury in the use of this equipment, but this risk can be significantly reduced by always following thesesimple rules: 1) Use ONLY under the supervision cf a trained and quakfied instructor. We recommend instructors certified by the United States Gymnastics Association or United States Gymnastics Federation. 2) KNOW YOUR OWN LIMITATIONS. Follow USGSA or IISGF progressive learning techniques. Always consult instructor. 3) The equipment MUST be used with proper mats, spotting equipment, and qualified spotters SUITABLE to the activity or skill. Always consult instructor. 4) Always INSPECT for loose fittings, damage, and proper positioning before each use. 5) TEST STABILITY before each use.

EN 9837 97520

WARNING 1. Misuse and abuse of this trampoline is dangerous and can cause serious injuries. 2. Read instructions before using this trampoline. 3. Inspect before using and replace any worn, defective, or missing parts

Flg. 9. Your gymnasium mats, apparatus, trampolines, and highjump/polevault landing pits should bear current warning labels. Please inspect your equipment. These are sample labels available from Nissen, Inc., Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

REFERENCES Haenng, Franklin C., project chairman znd principal author. (1986). School safety hand- Flynn,Richard B., editor and contributing author. (1985). Planning facilities for athlet- book. Reston, VA: Association of School Business Officials in cooperation with Na- ics, physical education and recreation. North Palm Beach, FL: The Athletic Institute; tional Safety Council. and Reston, VA: American Alliance for Safety handbook. (1985). Rockville, MD: Mont- Health, Physical Education, Recreation gomery County Public Schools. andDance. 46 CHAPTER 4

First Aid and Sport Safety Policies

PHIL HOSSLER East Brunswick High School East Brunswick, NJ

1is

47 40 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The field of first aid in physical edu- injuries can be prevented, others cannot cation and sport is a vast one that be foreseen, therefore, it behooves each encompasses many general and specific department, department head, and all concerns. Entire books and courses of persons responsible for governing the study have been devoted to this subject. physical activities of youth to remember This chapter deals with the basic admin- the infamous Murphy's Law which istrative and procedural concerns in the states "anything that can go wrong, will implementation of emergency care and go wrong." prevention of injuries in physical educa- The following items should be ad- tion classes and sporting activities. dressed in an emergency medical sys- There is no other field where the tem master plan: adage, "an ounce of prevention is worth proper supervision of activities a pound of cure" carries greater weight adequate medical preparation and than in medic'ne and related medical supplies fields. The health care afforded physical adequate training in injury recogni- education classes and athletic teams has tion and first aid treatment by staff become as much a concern of the legal frequent appraisal of facilities and profession as the education profession. e ,ipment The provision of adequate, systemati- cally reviewed, and continually updated SUPERVISION OF ACTIVITIES health care for physically active youth is clearly an area in which the physical The best method of h !Idling injuries education andathleticdepartments in phys. -al education classes and athlet- must do their homework. An effective ic teams is to anticipate and prevent their sports medicine program educates as occurrence. Supervision is more than well as alerts coaches and teachers to just a visual surveillance of the activity, the relevance of proper training, pre- it involves vocal clues to hazardous situ- vention, and handling of activity inju- ations. Students and athletes should be ries. reminded of, and if necessary repri- According to the American Assoc:. manded for, actions which produce a tion for Health, Physical Education and hazardous situation for themselves or Recreation, "The extent to which socie- others. Prior to each activity or new ty views an event as serious and unex- skill, the instructor should indicate the pected determines whether it will call desired objectives as well as the possible that event an accident. What one group detrimental results and dangerous be- calls an accident may not be regarded as havior patterns inherent in the activity. such by another group." (Sports Safety, It is assumed, and it should be re- 1977) Being injured, therefore, may be quired, that any coach or instructor who different than being in an accident. The is introducing, conducting, or merely difference is based on causal factors in overseeing an athletic or physical activi- the setting, possibilities for prevention, ty is knowledgeable in that area. Physi- and the seriousness of the harm. cal educators are often schooled in the An injury may occur at any time and correct manner to teach skills, but too in any location. There is no sport or often are not schooled in the myriad of physical education activity which is im- ways in which students can be injured. mune from injury 100% of the time. Athletic coaches should make certain Steps can be taken, however, to deal that they study not only their "game with any injury which may occur and to plan" for success but also the possibility ensure as adequate and proper care as is of a "lame plan" for injury. possible in any given situation. There is no substitute for experience. Reasonable and prudent forethought Coaches and teachers who have be. n will enable one to produce a predeter- practicing their craft for years have mined master plan for dealing with this learned how to anticipate and prevent possibility of injury. Although many many accidents. The "volunteer" or 48 FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 41

"walk-on" coaches or the novice teach- ATHLETIC MEDICAL PREPARATION er, however, often are not experienced AND SUPPLIES and may fall prey to enthusiastic "short vision." Some basic guidelines for su- Both the physical education depart- pervision to prevent injuries would in- ment and the athletic program must clude: demonstrate forethought in their prepa- ration for athletic injuries. The follow- 1. Never leave the site where the activity ing criteria may be used to determine is being conducted. Rapid response to the degree of thoroughness shown in severe bleeding and head injuries may anticipation of both life threatening and be the difference betweenlife and non-life threatening situations. This list death. is not complete in all aspects for every 2. Be in a position to supervise. This situation, but rather is a guideline for the d- 'velopment of one which is specif- may require some adjustments in activi- ic to the individual situation. ties such as aoss country and fitness 1. Employ an athletic trainer certi- trails. fied by the National Athletic Trainers 3. Anticipate problems. As a profes- Association. A certified athletic trainer sional you are expected to identify po- can provide not only quality injury care, tential dangers and take precautions but can also provide the athletic depart- against them. Included here are such ment with better evaluation and dispo- concerns as: sition of injured athletes, and in-house treatment and therapy for injured ath- a. defective equipment such as fenc- letes under the direction of a physician. ing foils with no protective tips, bats A certified trainer is a valuable resource which are cracked or have slippery in the prevention of possible injurious grips, and mats which are worn or situations. thin 2. Provide each team with a first aid b. lack of safety measures such as kit (including a separate kit for junior water on the gym floor, improperly varsity and varsity teams). These kits secured nets and debris on the play- should be checked periodically and sup- ing field plies replaced as needed. c. equipment/clothing which is poor- 3. Place in each first aid kit an emer- ly-fitted or defective gency contact card (see Figure 1) for d. activities which are inappropriate each athlete and manager associated for the capabilities or conditioning with the team. level of the participants. 4. Place in each team's first aid kit a list of those team members who have 4. Never permit horseplay allergies, special conditions, or any oth- 5. Never knowingly permit rules, regula- er noteworthy medical condition. This tions, or safety procedures to be violated information can be obtained from the (Continuing Responsibility of Instruc- athletes' medical histories or from the tors for Student Injuries, 1984). nurse's office. 5. Providi each member ofthe coaching staff and place in each first aid MEDICAL PREPARATION kit a card containing important emer- AND SUPPLIES gency phone numbers such as first aid, -.olice, and hospital. There is a difference between the han- 6. The use of ice in first aid is of the dling of injuries during the school day utmost import.nce. Every athletic team and those that occur during after school should have tn_ capability of athletics. For this reason, they will be ice in some form with them to all games, addressed separately within this sec- both home and away, and to practices. tion. 49Every school should have enough ice 42 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

ATHLETIC EMERGENCY CONTACT

NAME DATE OF BIRTH ACE LAST FIRST

PARENT NAME PHONE MOTHER AT HOME AT WORK

PHONE FATHER AT HOME AT WORK

If you cannot be reached, is there someone you wish to be responsible for your child'?

NAME PHONE

FAMILY PHYSICIAN PHONE

INSURANCE COMPANY POLICY NUMBER

KNOWN ALLERGIES TO MEDICATIONS

Fig. 1.Emergency contact card.

for first aid for all teams as well as ice for report them to the proper authority. the team's drinking purposes. Even a This will greatly help the attending phy- minas injury, if allowed to go unattend- sician as well as avoid entanglements ed, may delay the athlete's return to and delays with the insurance compa- activity. The application of a cold mo- nies. dality (ice bags, ice towels, chemical 9. It is desirable to obtain a system cold packs) is accepted as essential ini- of communication by which those teams tial first aid for virtually every athletic practicing on fields which are an appre- injury. Nurses, coaches, physical edu- ciable distance from the training room cation teachers, and athletic trainers or nurse's office may be in instant com- should instill in their student-athletes munication with the proper person. the practice of "when in doubt, apply Walkie- talkies may be carried in each ice." Generally ice is applied for 20-30 team's first aid kit and a base stat:on minutes and then removed for 30-60 kept in the training room, nurse's office minutes; this process is repeated several or main office. In the event of a serious times daily. The techniques for the use injury, the time saved could be crucial. of ice in the first aid treatment of inju- In some situations, it may 13: more prac- ries should be known by all coaches, tical to provide telephones which are athletes and parents. connectedtoamainswitchboard. 7. it is essential to provide water Regardless of the method used,itis for those teams practicing indoors as important that needless loss of time be well as outdoors. Heat related disor- avoided when dealing with a serious ders may be precipitated in a poorly and/or possibly life threatening injury. ventilated, humid gymnasium or wres- 10. There arespecies. items which tling room just as easily as those which may be deemed advisable to cbtain, occur outdoors in the heat of August. however, these require special training 8. All injuries should be properly to use and should not be used by un- and promptly reported. In the absence trained personnel. Oxygen cylinders are of an athletic trainer, the coach mu t beneficial in certaia emergency situa- record the details of the injury 4...I tions which might occur in an athletic 50 FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 43 setting. Their use should be confined to instances when such a disposal of an only those persons who have been in- injury would not suffice is inexcusable structed by medical personnel since, ,'. and negligent. Remembering that "any- .. oxygen isa medication. This thing that might go wrong, will go means that you will hay 2 to decide if it wrong" should encourage departments is needed, how much to provide, what of physical education to make prepara- results are expected, and what harm tions to prevent and handle activity may be done. The use of oxygen is a injuries. special responsibility that can be given Most physicaleducationteachers only to someone of professional status." have had minor injuries in their classes (Oxygen, 1980) sometime duringtheirprofessional Splints have long been a mainstay of lives. Most of these are easily handled first aid procedures. Their use has di- by sending the student to the nurse's minished over the past years due to office and later signing the accident re- three reasons: first; a decreased number port. But what about that time when the of coaches who have training in their student walks into the swinging bat of application; second, the increased avail- another student, or when the student ability of first aid and rescue squads; steps in a hole and cannot bear any and third, fear of possible legal ramifica- weight on an ankle, or when a fight tions due to improper application and occurs and one of the combatants is transportation of the injured. Splints bleeding profusely? What forethought have value in the athletic setting, and was given to communications, transpor- their use should not be overlooked. tation, and preparation by the physical Their application is best left to persons education department? What prepara- who have been properly trained. tions were made for that one time when The following flowchart (see Figure 2) the life of the student may actually be demonstrates a typical manner in which endangered? a physical education or athletic depart- Each physical education department ment may handle an injury. In the flow- must take steps to ensure adequate chart, the words "coach" and "trainer" preparation to prevent and handle an may be interchanged with "teacher" injury that may occur. and "nurse" respectively. The Emer- 1. Provide all staff members with in- gency Medical System includes injury service opportunities to obtain and/or recognition, first aid procedures, cardio- renew basic first aid and CPR certifica- pulmonary resuscitation, and proper tion. It is vital that all teachers take steps disposal of the victim. This disposal via courses, in-service clinicmember- may be to the parents, the nurse, the ship in professional organizations, etc., first aid squad, or the physician. It is to remain current in their knowledge paramount that r.^^1- ,,hysical education and ability. and athletic department develop an 2. Project the attitud . that hazardous emergency medical system such as this situations should be reported and that one and ensure that all necessary per- steps will be taken to eliminate them as sons are aware of the system. quickly as possible. It is very discourag- ing for teachers to report areas of con- PHYSICAL EDUCATION MEDICAL cern and then have the reports ignored. PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES 3. The school system should work in cooperation with the schoolphysi- In most school systems the prepara- cian(s) to assess the existing capabilities tion demonstrated by the physical edu- of the physical education department, cation department to handle injuries nurse's office, and building administra- during classes might be characterized tion to handle both minor and major by the phrase, "Go see the nurse." In injurysituations.This assessment the majority of cases this may suffice, should be periodically reviewed and up- however, failure to prepare for those fated.

,1 ; 44 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

LIFE THREATENING SITUATIONS

INJURY OCCURS

COACH IS AWARE OF THE INJURY

COACH CONTACTS ATHLETIC TRAINER

ATHLETIC TRA NER TRAINER UNAVAILABLE

INITIAL FIRST AID AS NECESSARY

ACTIVATE EMERGENCY MEDICAL SYSTEM

CONTACT POLICE TO DISPATCH FIRST AID SQUAD

LCONTACT PARENTS

PARENTS MEET ATHLETE AT HOSPITAL

IF PARENTS ARE UNABLE TO MEET ATHLETE, AN AUTHORIZED PERSON WILL ACCOMPANY THE ATHLETE

Fig. 2. Emergency medical procedures 52 FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 45

NON-LIFE THREATENING SITUATIONS

INJURY OCCURS

COACH MADE AWARE OF INJURY

L___ COACH REFERS ATHLETE TO 1 ATHLETIC TRAINER

TRA NER TRAINER UNAVAILABLE EVALUATION

FIRST A''' AS ACTIVATE PER PROTOCOL EMERGENCY MEDICAL SYSTEM

PARENT NOTIFIED, IF CONTACT POLICE NECESSARY TO DISPATCH FIRST AID SQUAD

PHYSICIAN REFERRAL, IF CONTACT PARENTS NECESSARY

PARENTS MEET ATHLETE SENT HOME ATHLETE AT OR PICKED UP BY HOSPITAL PARENT

IF PARENTS ARE UNABLE TO MEET ATHLETE, AN AUTHORIZED PERSON WILL ACCOMPANY THE ATHLEE

53

Fig. 2. Emergency medical procedures (continued) ; 46 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 4. The money spent to purchase a 5. The nurse telephones the parents system of small walkie-talkies would be telling them what has occurred; the par- well worth the expense if the time saved ents will meet the first aid squad at the was responsible for the saving of only school or the hospital. one student's life. 6. The student is positioned to treat for possible shock. WHAT WOULD YOU DO IF. ... 7. The class is instructed to join the adjacent class under the supervision of Your class is outdoors playing soft- another teacher. ball. You are more than 1/4 mile from the 8. A vehicle such as the athletic de- building. One of the students hits the partment's golf cart is used to transport ball and releases the bat by throwing it the nurse to the scene to await the over his shoulder. (You have warned ambulance. the students against this practice, but it 9. Th, rudent is transported by the happened anyway.) The bat strikes the first aid squad. next batter across the bridge of the nose. 10. You fill out the necessary forms The student immediately falls to the as soon as reasonably possiblemaking ground bleeding profusely from the certain to include statements by stu- nose and upper lip. When youreach dents in the class that indicate that you him he is conscious but in great pain. did indeed instruct them in proper safe- What do you do? ty procedures. There are several options and deci- Which of these two reactions would sions to be made, but they can be make the parents feel better about the grouped into two gen,.ral categories: care afforded their child? Whichof these two reactions would stand up better in a Solution #1 -Oops! court? Is it necessary to go to the ex- 1. Try to stop the bleeding with the treme in all situations? Probably not, palm of your hand. but it is impossible to know beforehand 2. Send a student to the nurse's of- which situations will be routine and fice. which will be life-threatening. It is vital 3. Do you know CPR if the student that preparations be made to ensure the should need it? highest degree and greatest amount of 4. How is the nurse going to get to quality care in all situations. you? 5. Does the nurse know if you need an ambulance? INJURY RECOGNITION AND 6. What do you do with the rest of El 3T AID the class? 7.: low mi.:h time is all this taking? One should not be fooled into believ- ing that the hiring of a certified athletic Solution #2-Planned! trainer should relieve the coaches of all 1. Using the cleanest material avail- first aid responsibilities. There will be able, e.g. a white T-shirt, try to stop the times when the athletic trainer will not bleeding with direct pressure. be available, for example, during away 2. While another student holds the games. Therefore, every member of the bandage in place, you communicate coaching staff should have a minimum with the nurse's office via your walkie- of advanced first aid and cardiopul- talkie. monary resuscitation certification. It is 3. You inform the nurse what has recommended that the athletic depart- happened, that the student is conscious ment, in cooperation with the health and cognizant but that e first aid squad classes or local first aid squads, provide will most likely be needed. in-service opportunities for all coaches 4. The nurse telephones for an am- in the district to obtain and/or renew bulance. their certifi,ations. The athletic trainer 54 FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 47 can provide in-service education on in- ty, and the degree of normal function jury recognition for the coaching staffs. that the joint possesses. It is often diffi- The Committee or. the Medical As- cult, if not impossible, to categorically pects of Sports of the American Medical determine the exact nature of an injury. Association recommends that in order For example, if a student forces a finger to protect the athlete at times of injury, into hyperextension when hitting a vol- the following steps for aid should be leyball, it would be impossible to deter- followed: mine the presen_o, -bs- ice of a frac- 1. Stop play immediately at fIrst indi- ture. General rules of thumb which ap- cation of possible injury or illness. ply to such injuries would include: 2. Look for obvious deformity or other 1. Asking the athlete if he/she can deviation from the athlete's normal move the finger is not a valid question structure or motion. to assess the presence of a fracture. It is 3. Listen to the athlete's description of possible to move and bear weight on his complaint and how the injury oc- fractured bones. curred. 2. Check for obvious deformity and 4. Act, but move thea .Mete only after loss of tunction. serious injury is ruled out (The Profes- 3. Tapping the end of the fingermay sionally Respor,' ble Coach, 19(2). produce a dui! "thud" in an intact finger It is important to remember that first and a feeling of "pins and needles" in a aid is t "e immediate and temporarycare broker finger. given .J someone until the services of 4. The degree of stiffness and swell- advanced medical care can be obtained. ing is not directly proportional to the One of the cardinal rules of activity severity of the ii;jury. injury care is characterized by the acro- 5. If there is any doubt as to tne nyms ICE, PIE, RICE, and ICES. TIte nature, severity or the athlete's ability to common members of all these neu- function, the services of a physician monic devices are the letter "I" which should be obtained. stands for ice and the letter "E" which Table 1 ILseveral mechanisms of stands for elevation. The letters "C," injury which may occur in physical edu- "P," and "5" represent similar ideas of catic-r athletic settings. Note that the compression, pressure and support re- care listed for each injury is of a first aid spectively. The "R" denotes rest. These nature; follow -uF ewe and treatment simple words represent the proper should be left to those individuals who method of dealing on a same day basis are trained in athletic therapy. with athletic in uries. If the teacher, coach or trainer did not actually see the injury it is impor- APPRAISAL OF EQUIPMENT tant to obtain an accurate description of AND FACILITIES the mechanism of injury either from the victiror a witness. It is also crucial to Physical education classes have an determine the exact location of the inju- advantage over -thletic teams in terms ry, usually by asking the victim to touch of appraising the condition of the equip- the location. Using these two parame- ment since the equipment is used as ters mechanism and exact location of often as eight to ten times each day by the injury, the medical personnel are different instructors. A variety of super- better able to assess the nature and visors will enhance the chances of de- severity of the injury. For example, if an fective equipment being fi.ed or n_ athletic steps in a hole while running, it placed before it might be used and re- is important to assess the speed that the sult in possible injury. Once a defective athlete was running, the depth of the piece of equipment is located, it is im- hole, the weight of the athlete, the loca- portant that it be reported and removed tion of the injury, a previous history of from use. This extends beyond pieces of injur: to this joint, any signs of derormi- equipment which are handheld; it in- 48 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

TABLE 1 First Aid and Emergency Procedures Bones and Joints DislocationSupport joint. Apply ice bag or cold cloths to reduce swelling, and refer to physi- cian at once. Bone BruiseApply ice bag or cold cloths and protect from further injuryIf severe, refer to physician. Broken NoseApply cold cloths and refer to physicipn. Heat Illnesses Heat StrokeCollapse WITH DRY WARM SKIN indicates sweating mechanism failure and rising oody temperature. THIS IS AN EMERGENCY: DELAY COULD BE FATAL Immediately cool athlete by the most expedient means (immersion in cool water is best meth- od). Obtain medical care rt once. Heat Exhaustion Weakness WITH PROFUSE SWEATING indicates state of shock uue to depletion of salt and watIr. Piece in shade with head level or lower than body. Give sips of di- lute salt water, if conscious. Obtain medical care at once. SunburnIf severe, apply sterile gauze aressing; refer to physician. Impact Blows HeadIf any period of dizziness,headache,uncoordination, or unconsciousness occurs, dis- allow any further activity and obtain medical care at once. Keep athlete lying down; if uncon- scious, give nothing by mouth TeethSave teeth if completely removed from socket. If loosened, do not disturb; cover with sterile gauze and refer to dentist at once. Celiac PlexusRest athlete on back and moisten face with cool water 1_-iosen clothing around waist and chest. Do nothing else except obtain medical care if needed. Testicle Rest athlete on back and apply ice bag or cold cloths. Obtain medical care if p -.n persists. EyeIf vision is impaired, refer to physician at once. With soft tissue injury, apply ice bag or cold cloths to reduce swelling. Muscles and Ligaments BruiseApply ice bag or cold cloths and rest injured muscle Protect from further aggrava- tion. If severe, refer to physician. Strain and SprainElevate injurer part and apply ice bag or cold cloths. Apply pressure ban- dage to reduce swelling. Avoid weight beanng and obtain medical care.

Open Wounds Heavy BleedingApply sterile pressure bandage using hand pressure if necessary. Refer to physician at once. Cut and abrasionHold briefly under cold water. Then cleanse with mild soap and water. Ap- ply sterile pad firmly until bleeding stons, then protect with more loosely applied sterile ban- dage. If extensive, refer to physician. Other Concerns BlisterKeep clean with mild clap ar.d water and protect from aggravation. If already broken, trim ragged edges with sterilized equipment. If extensive or infected, refer to physician. Foreign Body in EyeDo not rub. Gently touch particle with point of clean, moist cloth and wash with cold water. ! ;insuccessful or if pain persists, refer to physician.

Source: Prepared by the AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports in cooperation with the National Athletic Trainers Association and the National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations. 56 FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 49

dudes larger pieces such as wire back triangular bandage stops, surfaces on floors and tracks, emergency contact cards for all ath- fields, zid other activity areas. letes and managers Surfaces that are hazardous include money for pay phones fields with extremely uneven terrain, paper and pencil and smooth surfaces such as tracks or blacktop which become covered with a layer of water or sand. Some floor sur- faces, in the presence of high humidity and/or air conditioning, fail to provide CONCLUSIONS normal traction and can become hazard- ous. During any athletic activity there is Athletic coaches often are able to pur- the possibility of an injury occurring. It chase equipment of the highest quality is the responsibility of those persons due to greater availability of funds charged with the governing and imple- and/or to the increased demands placed mentation of the activity, whether it is on the equipment in a competitive situa- interscholastic, intercollegiate, Pop tion. The coach, athletic trainer, equip- Warner, Little League, recreational, or ment manager, athletic director, and physical educCion, to try to prevent athlete should work cooperatively to injuries through (a) proper condition- ensure that all pieces of equipment: ing, (b) observation of rules, (c) proper are maintained according to manufac- use of equipment, and (d) elimination of turer's in sti actions hazardous practices and situations. Su- are properly fitted to the individual pervisors, coaches, and teachers aiso are periodically checked for defects have the responsibility of knowing what that are required by national or local to do wher an injury occurs. This does rules to be worn during participation not imply that everyone involved in the are worn by all athletes activity must know how to treat some of that are subject to recertification by the more serious injuries, but it does the National Operating Commi'iiee on mean that everyone should know how to activate an effective emergency medi- Standards forAthletic Equipment cal plan. (NOCSAE) are recertified annually The first aid kit provided for each All activity injuries, regardless of se- athletic team is a piece of equipment venty, are best handled by preventing that should be periodically checked and their occurrence. Prevention requires updated as needed. Although there are forethought and planning. Within the some sports which require specialty organizational structure of the school items in their first aid kit, the following system, there should he input from items should be included in all first aid physicians,nurses,athletictrainers, kits: teachers, coaches, first aid personnel, and ari-:.iiiistrators to ensure a properly adhesive tape planned and adequate system for han- tape adherent dling both minor and serious injuries. underwrap The emergency medical system must ace bandages (4-inch is the most ver- take into consideration the respective satile size) first aid training and competencies of band-aids those persons working within it and extra large band-aids must include considerations for proxim- lubricant (e.g. vaseline) ity of medical personnel within the sys- analgesic cream (heat cream) tem and those individuals outside the tongue depressors immediate system. Communication area pieces of foam rubber with varying transportation limitations must be con- thicknesses sidered and steps made to correct areas sterile gauze pads 57 of weakness. 50 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

REFER:NCES Sports safety. (1977). Washington, DC: Amer- ican Association for Health, Physical Edu- Continuing responsibility of instructors for stu- cation and Recreation. dent !Tunes. (1984). Phoenix. AZ: Univer- The professionally responsible coach a seminar on sal Dimensions, Inc. the batty of coaches and the .-afety of athletes Oxygen. (1980). (Vol. G-4). Arlington, VA. (19,,)Phoenix, Arizona- Athletic Insti- The Compressed Gas Association, Inc tute of Continuing Education.

58 CHAPTER 5

Archery

CLAIRE CHAMBERLAIN The University of Lowell Lowell, MA

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59 52 PRINCIPLES or .FETY IN PHYSICAL. EDUCATION AND SPORT Archery is an exciting, challenging c.If you are outside, consider sport. Because of the equipment bringing a first aid kit with you. If used, however, it can also be a danger- the target range is a considerable. ous and potentially lethal activity.For `ance from any phone, per- this reason, it is imperative that both the haps you could obtain a walkie- supervisor and the participant know talkie to call for assistance. and appreciate the risks. Simple care- d. Have current first aid certifica- lessness with a bow and arrow can tion. result in serious injury. Safety, then, 6. Establish clear directions, either must become a stringent habit for all by voice or by whistle, to begin shoot- concerned. ing, to cease fire, and to retrieve arrows. The recent rise of lawsuits due to 7. Emphasize that each participant negligence has focused the public's at- shares the responsibility for safe con- tention on the need for qualified super- duct of him/herself and of others. The vision, appropriate emergency proce- warning cry is "hold your arrows!" dures, proper equipment and facilities, Teach it and practice it so that there is and attention to detail. It is the teacher's instantaneous response. responsibility to provide a safe environ- 8. If you wish to have several ar- ment in which archery can be taught. chers shooting at different distances at Not only must the student understand the same time, always move the targets, what to do and why, but also what not never the people. Never have more to do and why not. Failure to explain than one shooting line at any given the dangers involved could result in a time. lawsuit. A person who has "failed to 9. Assign specific equipment to each warn" adequately can be held liable for student after checking it carefully, par- resultant injuries. ticularly arrow length. It is helpful to Archery is a rewarding activity. In- post the student's names and which fuse respect for safety in your students, equipment has been assigned for their and you will have a safe, enjoyable future reference. program. 10. Keep all unused tackle locked up. SUPERVISION: CHECKLIST 1. Only qualified people should su- INDOOR RANGE: CHECKLUT pervise archery. 1. Locate the range away from other 2. Keep the class size small. Have simultaneous activities. no more than four peopleshoot per 2. Have easy visibility within and target. A partner system can work well, around the area. and classes may shoot in flights. 3. Any doors to the target range 3. Never instruct from in front of the should be closed during class.Post line when arrows are nocked. signs "Archery in progress." It is help- 4.If correcting someone, do not put fulit the locks on the doors permit your hand or arm in betweentheir bow- people t10-r..? the area but not to enter string and bow. They may release the it.Unsuspecting people may wander arrow, and you may get hitby the into the area and unknowingly become string. a target. If possible, have entries limited 5. Emergencies. to behind the shooting line. a. School, club, or camp emer- 4. Put up an appropriate backdrop to gency procedures should be de- catch those arrows which miss the tar- lineatedwellinat., iance and get. It can be a specialized archery back- posted. drop curtain or bales of hay. b. Know the location of the near- 5. Haveclearlymarkedshooting est telephone. If it is a pay tele- lines. The archers will straddle the line phone,havetheappropriate while shooting. A good set-up is to have change availahle as well as tele- one shooting line with targets placed at phone numbers needed. different distances. ARCHERY 53 6. Any obstacles or other activity was hit by another arrow. Look for a equipment should be removed from the puncture mark and test the arrow's ri- area. gidity. it the h.)le is too deep, and the 7. Targets should be mounted se- arrow begins to crack, destroy the ar- curely. If target mats are placed on roll- row. a-way stands, archers should check 3. Tips and nocks should be whole. If their sturdiness after each end. An un- not, some can be removed and replaced balanced target of any type could Oct with glue. forward and injure participants and/or 4. Blunt tips should be sharpened arrows in the target. check with your maintenance depart- 8. Post safety rules. ment. Arrows hitting hard objects can cause the tip to be driven into the shaft. OUTDOOR RANGE: CHECKLIST If there are any resultant splintering on 1. Use natural terrain when possible. the arrow shaft, sand off those splinters. Having a grassy hill behind your targets 5. The fletching (feat!_ers) should be eases the task of looking for arrows. whole and secured. If they are not, it 2. As much as possible, choose an can cause the feathers to penetrate the area free of obstacles: trees, telephone bow hand when shot. wires, rocks, goalr/osts, and the like. A 6. Students must shoot with the considerable area behind the targets proper length arrow. Too short an ar- should also be cleared. row can be overdrawn which is ex- 3. Mark the target area well. Rope it tremely dangerous. Either the arrow off and post signs. Access to the range could be shot into the bow hand or, if should be limited to participants. drawn far enough, could hit the inside 4. Haveclearlymarked shooting of the bow and shatter in the archer's lines. face. It is better to shoot with an arrow 5. Targets should be secured. that is a bit too long than one that is too 6. Keep grass mowed well. Long short. grass hinders the archer from locating 7. Excessdriedglue aroundthe missing arrows. jeathers should be sanded to avoid any 7. Post safety rules. abrasion (feather cuts) on the bow hand as the arrow is released. EQUIPMENT SAFETY If the archery equipment is kept in BOW SAFETY: CHECKLIST good condition, then chances for acci- 1. Limber up each bow gradually, if it dents and injuries lessen, and learning has not been used for several days, with is enhanced. Poorly-maintained equip- gentle quarter or half draws. This re- ment represents an accident waiting to duces the chances of the bow breaking happen. Equipment failure can be due due to too much stress too soon. to a manufacturing flaw, abuse, aging, 2. Bows are designed to bend in a or just plain neglect. It is imperative that certain direction and on a pari.cular equipment be inspected when pur- plane. When stringing, brace the bows chased, before and after each season, carefully on the desired plane to avoid and, in some cases, before each end damaging or breaking the bow. Make shot. Share this responsibility with the sure bows are not strung inside out. archers, and the job can be done quickly 3. Before bracing, make surethe and efficiently. string is secured in the bottom notch. ARROWS: CHECKLIST Inspect the bi- w foT splits, tears, cracks, or any suspicious damage. Stress marks 1. Any arrow that has a split, crack, in fiberglass bows appear white in color. or a deep puncture should be destroyed Stringing a damaged bow can cause the and discarded to prevent its use. Do not bow to break. shoot damaged arrows. 4. As you brace the bow, use suffi- 2. Before each end, check carefully to cient pressure on the bow to bend it so see if any arrow that missed the target 6.'that you have enough room to move the 54 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT string up the bow and not get your dents per target. Check to see that the fingers caught. Secure the loop into the bows are right-side up. upper notch. If the string goes beyond 6. Shooters will straddle the clearly the bow and comes off, the bow may defined shooting line and will wait for into the archer's face. the signal to begin shooting. Review, 3. Check the strings for undue wear also, the warning cry of "Hold Your and tear. Replace them immediately Arrows!" (In field archery, cry "Tim- wi4h strings of proper length that match ber" before shooting.) the poundage of the bow. 7. When finished, all shooters will 6. Apply bee's wax to any strings step back from the shooting line and which are separated. (Rub with a towel wait until the command to retrieve ar- to create heat. Do not put bee's wax on rows has been given. All arrows are the serving; use paraffin, if needed.) retrieved at the same time. 7. All bows must be strung to their 8. Beginning students will tend to proper fistmele, or distance between support their arrow with their bowhand bow and string. Too little can cause a index finger. Instruct them to wrap that severe wrist slap; t Jo much may result finger around the grip before releasing in a broken bow. the string; otherwise, they will experi- 8. Do not go into full draw position er...e a feather cut and impede arrow and release without an arrow on the flig string. Either the bow or string might eginning students will tend to break. extend or to hyperextend their bow arm elbow. Unless they turn that elbow CLASS ORGANIZATION: slightly out, the string will slap the CHECKLIST elbow and/or get caught on the top of 1. Wear simple, comfortable cloth- the arm guard. ing. Secure long hair away from the 10. All shooters should wear arm Dowstring. Remove bracelets,neck- guards and finger tabs or gloves to laces, watches. Bulky articles in shirt protect them from string slap or string pockets such as pens, pencils, and eye- abrasion. Check to see that they are on glassesshouldbe removed before the correct arms and hands. shooting. Sleeves, sweaters or jackets 11. Avoid using high-poundage which are pushed up at the bowarm bows at short distances, as the arrows elbow should be smoothed out. The will tend to go through the target, caus- released bowstring could be caught and ing damage to the arrow and to the impeded by any of the aoove. target. 2. Flat, rubber-soled shoes are best 12. Never point an arrow at anyone. for indoor shooting, not only to protect Nock and draw arrow only in the direc- the floor, but also to assure a constant tion of the target. height when shooting.Appropriate 13. Shou!cl an arrow fall from the footwear is important when shooting bow in front of the shooting line, the outdoors. When on a club range, ar- archer may attempt to retrieve it w:th chery golf course, or when hunting, the bow. If he/she cannot reach it, it is more sturdy shoes are advisable for sure considered a shot. Shooters may never footing and for protection from thorns, step in front of the shooting line to underbrush, and poison ivy. retrieve any arrow unless the command 3. Watch students brace their bows. to retrieve has been given. -;e sure they do it correctly. Have them 14. If an arrow is hanging from the check that the bow is not strung inside- target, cease fire. Have the student in- out. sert the arrow properly into the target. 4. All arrows must be checked for Should it be left hanging, it br'comes a safety. (See previous section.) target itself and could become dam- 5. Assign no more than four stu- aged. 62 ARCHERY 55 15. Inexperienced shooters tend to punctures,missingnocks.Replace overdraw. Bows are designed to be those arrows immediately. If outside, pulled a certain distance. If they are wipe moisture and dirt from arrows cr% '.drawn, injury could result: the bow before shooting again. can break; the arnw can break against 9. Count your shooters. Make sure the belly of the bow; or the arrow can be all have returned before firing again. If shot into the bow hand. Emphasize the alone on the range, lean your bow correct anchor pint. against the front of the target as a signal 16. All students must shoot from the you are up there looking for arrows. same line.If you wish different dis- 10. Never stand and instruct from in tances, move the targets, not the peo- front of the shooting line when students ple. have arrows flocked. 17. Bow hands too high on the grip 11. Allow no horseplay, running, or can be too close tc the arrow rest. When loud noises on an archery range. Shoot- the arrow is released, feather cuts can ing safety is serious business. result. 18. Remind students of the shared EQUIPMENT CARE: CHECKLIST responsibility for safety. If they see any- thing unusual they should call out 1. Hang bows up, unstrung, when "Hold Your Arrows!"immediately. not in use or place in bow cases. It is Once the situation is corrected, the sig- helpful to group bows by poundage. nal to resume firing may be given by the 2. Arrows should be stored vertically instructor. and separately, to prevent warping or damage to feathers. Store arrows by RETRIEVAL: CHECKLIST length for easy reference. 1. No one will retrieve his/her ar- 3. Keep all tackle in a cool, dry place. rows until the command is given. 4. Periodically, wax the string with 2. One person, the target captain, bee's wax and the serving with paraffin. should remove the arrows carefully. All 5. Wooden bows and arrows can be others should stand away to avoid be- cleaned with Butcher's wax. Fiberglass ing poked by the withdrawn arrow. equipment needs to be wiped with a 3. Arrows driven into the target so clean, damp cloth and then wiped dry. that the feathers are wholly or partially 6. Treat leather tackle with any stan- covered should be retrieved by pulling dard leather cleaner/preservative. from behind the target. Those buried in 7. Keep all tackle locked up when not grass should he pulled from the tin end in use. to avoid further feather damage. 8. Dry the matts before storing. 4. Control arrows by holding the REFERENCES tips down. Fan out the arrows slightly Klann, Margaret L. (1970). Target archery. to prevent feather damage. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publish- 5. Do not run with any archery tackle. ing Company. 6. No oneshouldreturnfrom McKinney, Wayne C. (1985). Archery. Du- his/her target until all arrows at that buque, IA. William C. Brown Publishers. target have been located. This is both Niemeyer, Roy K. (1967). Beginning archery, for safety and for courtesy. 2nd edition.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 7. Looking for lost arrows outside in Publishing Company. the grass can be difficult, particularly if Pszcola,Lorraine.(1984).Archery. New they are buried. Advise students to York: Saunders College Publishirg. keep track of approximate locations of Rowe, Ruth E. and Bowers, Julia H. (1983). missed arrows. Aichery. In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education and sport for the seco, Lary school 8. Back at the shooting line, have student (pp. 35-44).Reston, VA: The the students check all their arrows for American Alliance for Health, Physical splits,cracks,blunttips,splinters, Education, Recreation and Dance. 63 I

CHAPTER 6

Basketball

JAMES E. BRYANT San Jose State University San Jose, CA

1 4 i 61 I 58 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY :1\1 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

asketball is an American game, and QUALITY OF SUPERVISION Bas such, has earned a reputation as an easy, safe game that everyvody knows The quaFty of supervision of a basket- how to play. In reality, there are count- ball class requires that the instructor less :`.-uclents who really don't know have a knowledge of the following. how to play the game skillfully and 1. The mechanics of basketball. It is im- safely, and that situation creates poten- portant that the instructor understand tial problems. how correct execution maintains a safe Basketball requires physical stamina, participation experience for all students. speed, strength, explosive leg power, 2.Skillprogression. The instructor agility, and gracefulness. It is a nJn- must be knowledgeable enough to place contact sport with the potential for ex- skill acquisition experiences in perspec- tensive physical contact. Playing on a tivethroughawell designed and hard surface in a confined space always thought out progression. involves a certain degree of risk. The 3.Student readiness. The instruct-1r extent of that risk is determined in part, must comprehend :he wide variety or however, by the instnictor's skill in the readiness levels of students and be ca- supervision of students as they engage pable of placing each student in a safe in the basketball activity. The ability of environment. the instructor to select appropriate skill 4. Student capabilities. The instructor experiences for the student is essential. must understand the student from a A logical class lesson with learning pro- physiological, psychological and psy- gressions must be developed and imple- chomotor perspective. mented.Finally,the environmental 5.Student I;ehavior. The instructor conditions must be controlled to mini- must encourage behavior that will en- mize risk. able the class to operate in a safe and It is imperative that the physical edu- efficient manner. cation instructor has both a knowledge 6. Injuries associated with basketball. The of the mechanics of basketball and an instructor should have a background appreciation of the risks associated with that permits recognition and first aid the activity. The instructor must be in a treatment of injuries, as well as an un- position to anticipate safety problems derstanding of their causes and their and to plan strategies that wili eliminate seriousness. This background should or reduce potentially serious situations. include the following common problem areas: blisters and the treatment and pre- vention of blisters calluses and the treatment of the SUPERVISION callus A typical basketball class will consist sprains and the treatment and pre- of 25 to 40 students in a gymnasium vention of a sprain facility that includes a 50' x 84' basket- eye injuries ball floor. The facility can be further finger injuries (e.g. jammed fingers) divided to accommodate game play by trauma injuries using the width of the court rather than Quality supervision also requires that the length, yielding a court size of 42' x the instructor sense the "messages of 50'. The role of the instructor isto the gym." An example of this would be provide safe supervision for each stu- recognizing the potential for alterca- dent in that confined space. Strategies tions between students, due to frustra- associated with the quality of supervi- tion, the t..--thysical contact that occurs in sion, the form of organization and con- basketball or their general behavior. The trol required, and effective planning are instructor must create,enforce, and identified below. modify rules based on the physical, 65 BASKETBALL 59 psychological, and emotional readiness provide supervision and assistance of the students. for students practicing skills. logical progression. As an example, ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL blockingout when rebounding should precede simply going to the The organization and control of a bas- basket and attempting to jump up ketball class also centers on the skills of and rebound the ball. the instructor. Following are require- proper varm up and cool down ments for maintaining this aspect of activities based on the most recent supervision. appliedexercisephysiologyre- 1. The instructor must always main- search. tain a visual and physical presence with organized drips that are designed each student.Itis not acceptable to for the particular age and skill level simply be in the area. There must be of the class. These drills should interaction with the students in the reflect the elimination of situations class, and the instructor must establish that would create a frustration level a position in the basketball area so that leading to physical altercations. the total class can be observed even aninstnrtionalexperiencede- when he/she is working with a single signed to enhance learning without student or a small group. fear of injury. Elimination of drills 2. The instructor must develop a set which place students in jeopardy of safety rules to be distributed to stu- (e.g. loose ball drills have a poten- dents and posted. In addition, these tial for injury beyond the norm, and safety rules must be conveyed verbally should be controlled or eliminated. to siudents on a regular basis. These Rebound drills have risks, and play- rules should include: ing five-on-five half-court basket- no one may engage in a basketball ball also has a greater potential for activity r.nless the instructor is pres- injury than a reduced number). ent specific instructions on the execu- all are to be removed tion of a drill or the play situation. from the playing court area and A good example would be the need placed on the ball racks unless be- for definitive directions to describe ing used by a student the path players should run during basketball shoes are to be worn dur- a drill in order to avoid collisions ing class (e.g. running a drill down abusive use of elbows and other court mu then returning to the start forms of illegal contact are not per- in an organized fashion by running mitted by basketball rules and will on the outside of the sidelines). not be tolerated in class

PLANNING SELECTION AND CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY Planning of a basketball class is cru- cial to the safety of all students. Plan- The instructor's ability to select the ning should include the following. proper class content and develop the 1. A detailed lesson plan must be devel- safest possible experience for the stu- oped for each instructional cla s. The dent is dependent on several variables. plan should relate directly to the day's These variables are bases on the stu- class and specify safety strategies relat- dent's maturation level, ability level, ed to that class period. and readiness. 2. A lesson plan should reflect an effort Maturation level is of extreme impor- to provide a well supervised situation tance in a basketball class environment. that would include the identification of: In a class with a variety of physical sizes organized teaching stations that (i.e. height, weight, and age) the poten- 66 60 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT tial for injury increases. Following are dents not only with a variety of skill some examples of how to reduce the levels, but also various levels of motor potential for injury through grouping. readiness,interest,and motivation. 1. Group based on height, weight and age. Safety concerns associated with motor One method of grouping requires the readiness include the following. establishment o; a component system 1. Stressing of body awareness. Basket- that assigns a point value to each size ball requires extensive jumping and factor which then provides a balance for movement skills. Students must often any learning experience the student be taught how to be aware of what tney may be involved in during class (e.g. all are capable of doing. They need to be students with a component value of 20- aware of their surroundings: where 24 are placed in a grouping, 25-29 in they are on the floor, how close they are another grouping, etc.). to other players, and where they are 2.Select instructional experiences that supposed to be during a given circum- meet the maturation level of the student. stance. Using a drill that requires a student to 2. Stressing of how to fall properly. For exceed his or her physical capabilities example,ifthe student is knocked can result II. injury (e.g. a 5'2" student down when re pounding under the bas- placed in a rebound Grill with a 6'1" ket or falls while dnbiAirg the ball down student places both students in jeop &r the court, the student needs to be at an dy). appropriate readiness level to avoid The ability level of a student is also of most injuries in those situations. importance and needs to be considered 3. Awareness of the physical fitness level when planning a basketball class. Mix- of students and the selection of appropri- ing highly skilled students with less ate skill experiences that match fitness skilled students can create a safety prob- levels. lem. Again, grouping is needed, partic- Safety concerns related to student in- ularly if a class with mixed ability levels terest or motivation also must be con- isassigned,rather than designated sideredwhenteachingbasketball. classes of beginning basketball, inter- These considerations include the fol- mediate basketball, and advanced bas- lowing. ketball. Two methods of reducing safety 1. Assisting students on how to deal with problems 3ciated with ability levels fears associated with basketball. Those are: fears include fear of failure, resulting in tentativeness on the court which can ability group by balancing the skill contribute to injury, not only to the level of each group during drills or student with the fear but other students play situations as well. ability group by separating skill lev- 2. Reduction of the pressures. The pres- els of each group (i.e. highest skill sure of performing and possibly failing level in one group, next highest in a game situation is severe and should skill level in another group, etc.). be controlled. Remember, that "every- one is supposed to know how to play Within any ability grouping the in- basketball" and it is embarrassing not to structor needs to instill in the students perform well. Another example of pres- an attitude of responsibility for one an- sure reduction is the elimination of the other. Highly skilled players need to be need to excel on a skill test as the aware of their peers who areless requisite for a "good grade." skilled, and learn to serve as a mentor during instruction rather than attempt ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS to dominate a learning situation. This can lead to a reduction of injuries. There o-e a variety of environmental Student readiness is also of impor- conditions that affect the safety of a tance. A basketball class may have stu- basketball class. These environmental 6 7, BASKETBALL 61 conditions are related to the facility and gymnasticsapparatusorother the equipment used. Being aware of physical education equipment lo- these environmental conditions and cated in proximity to the instruc- eliminating those that have potential to tional area (even padded and se- be a safety problem is of extreme impor- cured apparatus belong in an area tance. away from a basketball instructional Facility requirements to meet safety area) standards are listed below. non-class students wandering 1. There must be buffer zones be- through the instructional area tween teaching stations and playing ar- shirts and other clothing tossed on eas. Players who are concentrating on the court in proximity to the in- the skill or the game will pursue a loose structional area ball Into an adjacent court. A buffer zone of at least six feet must separate Equipment requirements associated courts to avoid collisions. with the instruction of a safe basketball 2. Large padded mat should be af- class include the following. fixed to the wall behind every baseline 1.Protection of the students' eyes of a . Typically, there through the wearing of safety glasses. are pads behind the baseline of regula- This is highly recommended to reduce tion courts, but seldom are there pads eye injuries that may include detached behind the makeshift baselines of courts retinas. where students play the width of the 2. Protection of teeth by the use of court. These areas are actually the side- mouth guards. Again, this is a preven- lines of the reglAlation court and are tive piece of equipment that is highly often ignored. Pads must be placed be- recommendedtoavoidpermanent hind these makeshift baselines as well. damage to teeth. 3. Padding on the bottom of rectangu- 3. To avoid scratches that could devel- lar backboards is needed to eliminate an op infection, it is advisable that nails be injury when a student with excellent trimmed and that jewelry that might jumping ability jumps and risks hitting also harm the wearer or participant be part of the body on the bottom of the removed by the student (e.g., rings, . bracelets, etc.). 4. Break away rims should be in- 4. Basketball shoes help to prevent stalled and maintained. A break a, ,'ay serious ankle and foot injuries. It should rim dramatically reduces the potential be requireu that a barl!?tball shoe be of a glass backboard shattering. This worn in a basketball class, and a recom- type of rim also eliminates any jumping mendation of appropriate shoes should up and hanging on a rim. be made. There are at least 3 quality 5. Nets for the basket must be in good basketball shoes produced that reduce repair. minor ankle and foot injuries. A good 6. Floors rust be cleaned on a period- basketball shoe has: ic basis. Both hardwood and synthetic a high collar on the high top shoe. surfaces should be cleaned of dirt on a a Y band, which is a leather strap periodic basis during the day just as the around the ankle that holds the floor is swept at half-time of an inter- ankle in the shoe scholastic contest. Also, wet surfaces a heel counter that reinforces the should be dried immediately with tow- ankle as the ankle rolls in and out. els. a full air mid sole that absorbs shock 7. Allobstacles ,Andequipment a wide base of the sole that prevents should be placed away from the basket- minor ankle sprains. ball teaching area. Examples of these Students should be informed of the obstacles and equipment are: advances in the shoe industry and en- basketballs randomly strewn on the couraged to select a shoe that has the:..: floor features. 68 62 PRINCIPLES OF SAFFIY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

CONCLUSION REFERENCE Doane, G. (1983). BasketballIn N.J. Dou- There are potential hazards in basket- gherty (Ed.), Physical Education and Sport ball, and with each hazard, there is a for the Secondary School Student (pp. 63-75). preventive safety measure. Proper plan- Reston, VA: The American Alliance for ning, anticipation of potential safety Health, Physical Education, Recreation problems, and capable supervision by and Dance. the instructor will ,I contribute to a safe environment for students ,,-.,drticipating in a basketball class.

69 CHAPTER 7

Coed Flag Football

MARYANN DOMITROVITZ The Pennsylvania State University State College, PA

i

At

e

8 F: PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Als D SPORT he popularity of the game of foot- mine its suitability for class must be ballis not only reflected by the regulnly scheduled. Bare spots, rocks, attendance at high school, college, and holes,glass,and obstructions near professional games, but also by its fre- boundaries are hazards to safe playing quent appearance in the physical educa- conditions and must be removed before tion curriculum. Although in physical approval fl r use is issued. education classes the game appears in a Although attention to each of the modified version such as flag football, aforementioned isessential, perhaps the skills and strategies inherent in for '- the most important in,,,retnt is the ball, exclusive of physical contact, app.y selection of a qualified and conscien- equally to flag football. tious physical educator who is knowl- Prior to participation in this activity, it edgeable and qualified to teach the ac- is imperative that students differentiate tivity and who will devote the Time and between the game as played with pro- effort necessary to provide a safe and tective equipment and that played with enjoyable experience for the students. flags. Further, since some aspect of the game can appear from the elementary level through the senior high school CONDUCT OF ACTIVITY level, it is critical that the skill level and the physical differences and capabilities Prior to designing a unit for coed flag of the students are kept in mind when football it is essential to identify the skill designing the unit and lesson plans. In and ability level of the students for many situations the activity classes are whom the unit is planned. This is a coeducational, therefore, this musi also consideration that must be dealt with beaconsideration when selecting not only in the preparation of the unit and programming skills, progress'ons, plan, but with each daily lesson as well. drills, lead-up games, and the regula- One question that must be asked is, tion game. "Do these students possess the qualities The attention to appropriate equip- necessary to allow them to safely and ment must also be deliberate. The size, successfully participate in this lesson?" weight and composition of the football The following checklist has been com- will vary from the modified equipment piled to assist in the development of a appropriate for the elementary level to safe and successful plan. the regulation football appropriate for 1. Assess the abilities of the class. the high school student. Do they possess the skill level to allow Because students may be unaware of tht n to participate in the day's activity? or ignore the potential for injury in this 2. Assess the physical attributes of activity, it is imperative that a safe learn- the class. Organize the distribution of ing and playing environment be a ain- participants for equitable practice and tained. Although the correct execution competition. of the activity skills and their applica- 3. Develop your unit pl. n and les- tion in practice or game play is a priori- son plans with cognitive, psychomotor, ty, enforcement of the rules of the game and affective objectives. is of the utmost importance. Inconsis- 4. Develop content appropriate for tency in officiating and rule interpreta- the age and skill level of thepc_:tici- tion or enforcement, particularly with pants. the non-contact rules, has the potential 5. Organize yuir activity so all di- to contribute to a wide range of injuries. rectional flow is similar.( Example: all The supervision must be of the highest students throwing in the same direc- quality. tion.) The impact that daily use and the 6. Allow adequate distance between weather have on the activity area must drill groups when accuracy and execu- also be taken into consideration. An tion may not be consistent. (Example: inspection of the playing field to deter- punting.) 7/.. COED FLAG FOOTBALL 65

7. Consider thedirectionof the take place without hindering your vi- wind in drills when the ball will be sion of other activity areas. thrown and kicked. 5. Determine if the student behavior 8. Be aware of the location of the in the activity is what you had intended sun in drills involving catching and and initiate coti,_^tive action where ap- tracking the football. propriate. 9. Emphasize the rules interpreta- 6. Observe the offir4- ling and correct tion for the day's activity. any improper interpretation or enforce- 10. Demonstrate, describe, and teach ment of the rules. the correct skill technique and provide 7. Specify a pn-cedure for dismissal. feedback to the students regarding their Check to see that the area has been execution. vacated by all students. 11. Remind students of boundaries and limitations of the drill, leadup, or regulation game. ENVIRONMENTAL AND 12. Review your expectations for the SAFETY CONDITIONS lesson. Prim to any activity, it is imperative To help you develop and organize that a procedure be established for the your unit or lesson plan, the chart in inspection, maintenance and reporting figure i maybeof assistance. The three of hazards. This inspection should oc- levels can be interpreted as beginning, cur on a regular basis and any reported intermediate, and advanced skillor hazard must be attended to before knowledge. granting permission for resumption of The use of the chart for each activity the use of the facility or equipment. class should enable you tev late the The following checklists have been class and modify your lessons accord- compiled to assist in the inspection of ingly. Suggested drills and ..ctivities for the f. -ility, the equipment, and proper the individual skills may be found in activity attire. PhysicalEducation and Sport forthe Secondary School Student (Domitrovitz, EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST 1983). 1. Inspect the condition of the flags and belts and repair when necessary. SUPERVISION 2. Inspect the condition of the foot- balls. The importance of proper supervision 3. Order a variety of sizes and types cannot be overly emphasized, particu- of footballs to accommodate the various larly wiCi an activity such as coed flag levels of ability. football. To insure the needed supervi- 4. Inspect all markers and determine sion for he lesson, it is imperative that whether they are safe for the activity. the physical educator be well organized 5Gather and place unus.xl equip- and prepared. Following is a checklist ment off the tieki of play and a safe that should assist the planning and distance from the activity area. preparation of the lesson with particular 6. Collect all equipment at the con- emphasis on supervision. clusion of the cla-and store it in a 1. Specify the area where the class secure space. should meet. 2. Establish a procedure for dispens- FACILITY CHECKLIST ing equipment. 1. Inspect the fields for holes, glass, 3. Organize the warm-ups,drills, poles, sprinklers, and obstructions. lead-ups, etc., so all the activity will be 2. Inspect the turf for suitability of within your field of vision. play. 4. Establish a pattern of rotation so 3. Lay out adjacent fields with en- instruction and specific supervision ca ough space between fields to minimize 2 66 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Class (Gr..-23 & Period)

Number of Students. Girls. Boys

Overall Ability Level: I , II , i:I

Skills/Knowledges Level I Level II Level III Safety Rules

1. Rules 2. Body Control

3. Blocking/Screening

4. Passing 5. Receiving r 6. Place Kicking 7. Punting

8. Center-1g

9. Tagging I

10. Lead-ups 11. Ball Carrying

12. Bail Handling

13. Regulation Game

14. Team Offense

15. Team Defense

Skii. Exceptions (List students of extreme levels of skill)

High Low

1 1.

1 2

3. 3

4. 4

5. 5.

Fig. 1. Class ability levels can be recorded for reference 73 COED FLAG FOOTBALL 67

the potential for collision between par- REFERENCES ticipants on neighboring activity areas. Bayless, M and Adams, S H. (1985). A PARTICIPANT CHECKLIST liability checklist. JOPERD, 2, 49. Bucher, C A. and Koenig, C. R. (1983) 1. Check for proper footwear. Do not Methods and materials for secondary school allow metal cleats. physical education (6th ed.). St Lows, M& 2. Check for students weanng glasses C. V. Mosby and provide appropriate glass guards. Domitrovitz, M. (1983). Coed Flag Football. 3. Stress the rules governing play for In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education the day's activity. Reinforce the non- and sport for the secondary school student (pp. contact rule. 115-126). Reston, VA: The American Alli- ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- 4. Assign appropriate stretchir.g ex- reation and Dance. ercises for the weather conditions and Dougherty, N. J. and Bonanno, D. (1979). the activity to be presented. Contemporary approaches to the teaching of 5. Establish a procedure for the re- physical education. Minneapolis, MN. Eur- porting and treatment of injuries sus- gess. tained in the activity. Henderson, D H. (1985). Physical educa- If the necessa ,. attention is devoted tion teachers: How do I sue thee? Oh, let to (a) the condu.., of the activity, (b) the me count the ways! JOPERD, 2, 44-48. supervision, and (c) the environmental Siedentop, D., Mand, C, and Taggart, A. and safety conditions, the inclusion of (1986). Physical education, teaching and cur- riculum strategies for grades 5-12. Palo Alto, coed flag football in the physical educa- CA: Mayfield tion curriculum should allow for enjoy- Vanderzwaag, H. J. (1984). Sport management able participation that is relatively free in schools and colleges New York: John from injuries and incidents. Wiley and c,ans.

74 CHAPTER 8

Dance

LYNNE FITZGERALD Morehead State University Morehead, KY

75 70 PRINCiPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Fr he variety of programs that fall un- responsibility for both general and spe- der the label of "dance" is ever cific supervisory concerns. In general, expanding. Most recently,the new the teacher of dance must be prepared dance-fitness form has emerged, per- to teach a variety of skills and move- meating our cultureand renewing ment patterns as they relate to the Americas' interest in exercise. Many framework of a particular dance form. schools have now added some version More specifically, the teacher of dance is of dance-fitness to their already estab- responsibleforpresentingawell lishedfolk,square,social, modern, planned prouram in a safe and positive jazz, and afro-american dance curricula. learning environment. Following is a With these new programs and renewed checklist which should be referred to in interest, physical educators are provid- the planning and evaluation of the su- ed with an excellent opportunity to re- pervisory aspects of dance programs. evaluate all of the programs in the dance curriculum. TEACHER PREPARATION AND Some questions need to be addressed ADEQUATE SUPERVISION in the planning stages of any new dance A. Content. Those aspects of dance program. Are th 2 members of the physi- one must be aware of, fully understand, cal education department prepared to and be able to communicate and ac- design and teach a quality dance-fitness count for: program? Do they understand the con- 1. The movement skills. cepts and principles of fitness, and the 2. The movement and rhythmic workout framework options? Is anyone qualities and characteristics asso- certified? Has a sa.e program, which ciated with a dance pattern or will promote positive learning opportu- form. nities for the students, been construct- 3. The movement principles that ed? Physical educators today are being are used to support effective, effi- held accountable for their teaching, and cient, and safe learning. must be able to demonstrate responsible 4. Specific techniques or methods planning and decision making in the the 4- are used to enhance the learn- event of an accident or injury. It may ing process. seem that dance is not a high risk activi- 5. The movement, dame, and/or ty, yet muscles do get strained, ankles fitness concep s that must be clari- get sprained, toes broken, and feet blis- fied and fulfilled. t''cl. These kinds of injuries are corn- 6. The specific nature of common , to dance, but can be controlled by dance injuries and the first aid taking responsibility for the safety as- treatment prescribed for these in- pects of each dance program. juries Our task, therefore, is twofold. First, B. Individualreadiness.A teacher we must increase our awareness of the must know his or her students: supervisory concerns of the dance pro- 1. Their physical,mental, and gram; and second, we must clarify our emotional potential and character- obligation to carefully sehct and con- istics. struct dance activities to be taught in a 2. The relationship between their safe learning environment. A teacher abilities,goals, and images of who addresses each of these concerns themselves. by meeting and maintaining the stan- 3 Any specific medical or learn- dards set forth in this chapter can signif- ing disabilities or problems which icantly reduce the risk of accidents. might affect a student's progress. C. The environment. To provide a safe SUPERVISION learning context, a teacher must be fa- miliar with: Dance, like all other forms of phys. 'al 1. The care and maintenance pro- activity, requires the instructor to take7 6- cedures for a dance facility. DANCE 71 2. The principles of equipment the use of support systems. Eliminate and prop maintenance and use. the need to impiovise! B. The lesson plan should clarify GENERAL ORGANIZATION AND specific methods to be used to increase ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES the students' awareness of themselves A. An instructor must be inthe and their position in space relative to dance facility during the entire class. others as they dance. Leaving the dance facility, for any rea- C. The lesson plan should identify son, regardless of duration or proximi- and clarify specific movement risks or ty, would be negl; -nt. environmental hazards, as well as the B.An instructor must position him methods to be used to eliminate these or herself so that the entire class cart be elements. within his or her field of vision, even when offering corrections or feedback to SELECTION AND CONDUCT a single student or small group. OF THE ACTIVITY C. When using audio-visual equip- ment, the instructor must continue to Conduct refers to the decisions a provide supervision for the class. teacher makes in regard to the organiza- D. The instructor must be constantly tion and presentation of all aspects of a aware of the individual student's safety dance class. Selection refers to the proc- as the whole class moves through ess of determining, for example, which space, performing imposed movement dance forms and what content areas are patterns or solving creative dance prob- to be addressed in the framework of lems. each dance for n. The scope of decisions E. The boundaries of a designated made in regard to conduct and selection safe area of the dance facility must be in dance activities is broad Two general established. categories serve as the organizir g center F. The instructor must be clear about for this section: a) general concerns, that the direction, pattern, starting and end- is, those principles which should be ing points of each movement being considered in the selection, planning, or taught. This helps to organize students conduct of any dance activ ,i; and b) effectively and reduce the number of specific concerns, those factors which careless collisions, as well as increasing should be addressed when teaching a the students' potential to move fully in a specific dance form. The following safe environment. guidelines should be followed when G. A clear set of procedures to be planning and presenting a safe and suc- followed in the event of an emergency cessful dance experience for all stu- or accicient should he established. The dents. instructor must: 1. Communicate these to the stu- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS dents. A. Program selection. 2. Run through the procedures 1. Identify a clear purpose for with the students so that they each dance activity so that each understand theirresponsibility. has a clear role in the curriculum. This is particularly important if 2. Be sure instructors are quali- the students are very young and/ fied to devc lop and teach each or cannot read. dance activity included in the cur- 3. Post a list of the procedures, riculum. stated in clear and simple terms. B.Planning. A clear, well organized, and thorough plan will improve one's LESSON PLANS effectiveness, reduce or t.- -ninate the A. Construct a detailed lesson plan neod to improvise, and if necessary, for each class period. Account for con- p-ovide documents for a liability de- tent development, organization, and fense. 77 72 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 1. Identify a specific goal or pur- 1. Motor skillthe level of readi- pose for each class. These should ness and ability to perform the reflect the goals for the dance ac- basic locomotor, non-locomotor, tivity. and movement skills inherent in 2. State objectives which will cl dance activity. ify the specific intentions of the 2. Body awarenessunderstand- activity. ing one's ability, limitations, and 3. The dance activity content tendencies -s a dancer. warmup, cool down, skill devel- 3. Movement principlesunder- opment,improvisation,dance standing and ability to embody making, etc.should be designed the conditions associated with the to fulfill the intentions of the ob- following will promote the effi- jectives. cient and safe use of the body 4. Methodologies should be se- when dancing: centering, ground- lected according to the learning ing, balance, landing, and align- process which will promote a pos- ment. itive, informative, and safe learn- 4. Spatial awarenessan under- ing experience for the students. standingofselfasa mover 5. Specify movement pathways through shared space which has direction,level,facing, tempo, natural or prestated movement and any other element which boundaries. might need to be clarified to as- 5. Comprehension levelunder- sure the safe movement of stu- standing the terms, concepts, and dents through space. characteristic movement frame- 6. Identify options. Students with works inherent in the dance activ- learning disabilities may need to ity. have a choice in regard to the D. Personal safety. Monitor students' movement itself, speed of execu- preparation for each class. Students will tion, goal.;, etc. By planning alter- be ready to dance safely if these policies natives, the teacher can provide have been accounted for and followed: disabled students with movement 1. Footwearrequire appropriate choices that will allow them to footwear for the dance activity. participatefully and safely in Account for the conditions in the dance activities. environmentandthespecial 7. The level of thi teacher's ex- needs of any students when mak- pectation and his or her system of ing decisions about footw' ar. evaluationshould accountfor 2. Attireclothingshouldbe both the students' growth and the non-restrictive so that the student quality of their performance. This can breathe and move fully. Lay- will allow students to develop at ers of clothing should be worn so their own rate and provide them students can adjust the amount of with clear goals, enhancing their clothes they are wearing accord- level of personal safety and suc- ing to the temperature of their cess in dance. bodies. ever heating or being cold C. The studer'Identify the level of can create personal health and understanding, ability, and awareness safety problems when dancing. that each student has in're following 3. jewelry sharp, dangling, or dance movement categoric s. This infor- protruding objects should be re- mation will help the teacher to provide moved because these are poten- students with a positive dance experi- tially harmful to the dancer. ence because they will be prepared to 4. Gum and candy should not be safely explore, learn, and create move- allowed. ment incarefully considered c'ance 5. Long hair should be tied back. frameworks. 78 6. Glasses should be secured to DANCE 73 the student's head so they don't the number of accidents that re- fall off when bending or turning. sult from moving when disorient- ed or confused. DANCE FORM SPECIFIC C. Art forms: ballet, modern dance, jazz, CONSIDERATIONS afro-american dance. A. Dance -k' tness Activities. 1. Orient students for the day's 1. Pre- students to deter- dance activity by presenting them mine their level of fitness. with a warmup which will pre- 2. Each student should be in- pare them to succeed physically, formed about his or hei fitness emotionally, and mentally. level and be supported in the clar- 2. Be sure the technical aspects of ification of appropriate personal the movement and dance skills dance fitness goals. are demonstrated and performed 3. Plan for a warmup, workout, correctly. and cool down segment for each 3. The development of each class class period. should be progressively sound. 4. Clarifypersonal optionsas 4. When teaching a complex or these pertain to the intensity, fre- long dance sequence or pattern, quency,duration,and move- ask students to "mark" through ments selected for the dance as- the sequence first so they have an pects of each class. Informed stu- understanding of all its parts prior dents can monitor their own to performing it in its entirety. safety when the choices are clear. 5. Identify any typical problem 5. Continually scan the students areas in a sequence or in a stu- as they move and make personal dent's performance so they can corrections when a studentis monitor themselves as they move, moving in a way that is not struc- enhancing their potential to dance turally sound. fully and safely. B.Folk, square, and social forms. 6. BE prepared to modify a task 1. Warm students up. for any or all students who have 2. Introduce new dance skills pri- difficulty understanding or doing or to the teaching of a dance. a dance task so Al have an oppor- Students will feel more able to tunity to participate and succeed perform a dance when they are at their own level. familiar with all the movement 7. Clarify any specific movement elements of that dance. qualities or characteristics the stu- 3. Orient students to the move- dentsareexpectedtofulfill ment patterns inherent in a specif- through their dance. ic dance. This will reduce the level of confusion and therefore the ENVIRONMENT number of collisions. 4. Each student should know his There are two general areas of re- or her role and the related move- sponsibility which must be fulfilled ment responsibilities te.g., lead when providing students with a safe couple). and positive dance learning environ- 5. When using a musical record- ment. First, the facility in which the ing, identify starting cues and in- dance classes are conducted must be troduce listening techniques so well maintained. Second, the equip- students can effectively execute ment, for example, audio-visual or any the cce in relation to the music. props being used, must be mechanically 6. Provide students with a cue sound and safe. The following guide- %..hich can be used to stop a part- lines are provided to help the teacher ner, square, line, or circle when plan for an maintain a safe environment confusion occurs. This will reduce a dance program. ,Jor97 74 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

FACILITY duration of the activity may be warranted. A. The condition of the floor 1. Is it clean? This is especially EQUIPMENT important when students dance in A. Audio-visual aids are often used in bare feet. conjunction with dance programs. The 2. The floor must be free from instructor must take responsibility for splinters, cracks, chips, or holes. the following: If any of these conditions exist, 1. The record player, tape deck, the spec isarea(s)should be and video equipment should be in marked off. If the general condi- good working order. tion of the floor is bad, dance 2. The plugs for the equipment shoes should be worn at all times and the outlets inthefacility and dance activities should be should be electrically sound and modified appropriately. in good working order. 3. The floor surface should be re- 3. The instructor must be trained silient, and have some "give." If to operate the equipment safely the floor is hard (wood or tile over and effectively. cemer.i), the amount of jumping, 4. Operation of the -'udio- visual hopping, running, and leaping equipment is the sole responsibil- that the students are asked to per- ity of the instructor, unless a stu- form should be reduced or elimi- dent has been specifically trained nated. This will reduce the poten- for this duty. tialfor such problems as shin 5. Be prepared with an alternative splints and the leg, foot, and an- lesson plan. Mechanical problems kleinjuries which result from are unpredictable. stress induced by dancing on a 6. Class time should not be spent hard floor surface. in honing an instructor's equip- 4. Check the floor for sticky or ment skillsor making repairs. slippery conditions. The instruc- Proper supervision of students tor should test the floor with each cannot be given if all the teacher's kind of acceptable dance foot- attention is on the equipment. wear. Extremely slippery or sticky B. Props and performance items. floors are dangerous and may in- 1. When using props, be sure that terfere with performance success. all students are clear about how Accountfortheseconditions and when they are to be used. when planning by either adjust- 2. Make sure that students under- ing performance speed or the stand the proper ways to handle movement elements of a dance and move props. Accidents and pattern. injuries can occur when props are B.Other considerations. misused. 1. Whenever possible, move all 3. Inspect all props (e.g. tinikling unnecessary equipment off the or bamboo poles) prior to use. dance floor or out of the area. If Any damaged equipment should thisisnot possible, move the be eliminated or repaired before equipment to one side of the facili- students are allowed to handle it. ty, pad and/or mark off the area. Make sure that students recognize CONCLUSION the boundaries of the safe dancing area. The suggestions made in this chapter 2. Note extremes in temperature. have been presented as guidelines to When a facility is extremely hot or support the teacher's efforts to provide cold, modifications of the warm- a safe learning experience and environ up, cool down, and intensity or stuntfor the dance program. Meeting DANCE 75

and maintaining these standards will REFERENCE help to reduce the risks associated with Fallon, D. (1983). Dance in education. In N. dance. Students who feel safe will feel J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education and more comfortable, and therefore will be sport for the secondary school student (pp. 93- more likely to move and express them- 101). Peston, VA: The American Alliance selves fully while dancing. A safe dance for Health, Physical Education, Recrea- experience will bring joy and satisfac- tion, and Dance. tion 'io the student.

81 CHAPTER 9

Field Hockey

BARBARA J. BELT John F. Kennedy High School Silver Spring, MD

82 78 lUNCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT rfield hockey is a snort for boys and enforcingguidelinesforsafe game .1." girls, men and women of all ager play, and providing the necessary safe- There are organized opportunities to ty equipmmt are pal tof the proper play in elementary and secondary phys- conduct of a field hockey unit. Written ical education programs, interscholastic lesson plans are essential. and intercollegiate programs, recreation Maintaining safe playing areas and al.d club programs, and competitive re- equipment is another concern when 0-ional, national, and international pro teaching field hockey. Playing areas grams. As a physical education activity, must be free of obstructions or loose field hockey can be a positive coeduca- impediments and the grass must be tional experience in which students de- kept short to allow for better stickwork. velopc. ordination,speed,stamina, If adjacent fields are used, space should and teamwork skills. be left between them to avoid an over- As in any physical activity involving lap of activity from field to field. Protec- an implement, a propelled object, and a tive equip_ lent such as shin guards confined area of play there is a need for should be provided and used by every careful consideration of safety.Field student. Goalie leg pads and kickers hockey can be a safe, fun-filled experi- should be used for protec,,on if the ence if common and specific problem goalie is a designated position during areas are c'onsilered before introducing class play . the activity to students. Areas of con- Risk manarrent comes through an cern include proper supervision, the awareness of the potential problems or selection and conduct of the activity, hazards associated with a specific activi- and the car and mai-. ince of facili- ty A teaches who is aware of such ties and equipment. Thorough planning problems can plan activities that mini- and preparation are the keys to provid- mize 4hr, risks to 11- e participants. Sound ing a positive learning experience all planni,. and,.;ood judgment are impor- participants. tarbackgroi...d elements in a positive Competent supervision is a very im- learning experience. portant element in any teachini, unit. The following checklists have been The more qualified the staff member, developed to provide a quick reference the more effective the supervision. A for tr.:achers as they plan an instruction- teacher with experience as a player, al unit in field hockey. They cover t'- coach, or umpire in field hockey is more areas of supervision, selection of con- likely to have a complete knowledge of tent and conduct of activity, and the the sport and to be aware of potential care and maintenance of facilities ar dangers. If an inexperienced staff merit- oquipment. ber is assigned to teach this activity, ample time should be given to become familiar with the sport. The quantity -Ind quality of supervision improves as a SUPERVISION teacher becomes more familiar with the activi:, . 1. Only qua'ified instructors should Proper conduct of a field hockey un:t .each field hockey. Qualifica`lonsi,. includes the appropriate selection of dude: specific activities for the age and ability a. thoroughknowlec4, ofthe levels of the students. The scoop and sport the flick are difficult skills to control b. up-to-date techniques and during game play and they can he omit- teaching methods ted from an instKtional unit io, safety c.first aid and emergency training purposes, thus placing the focus or 2. Main. lin visual contact with all keeping the ball on the ground during groups in the class during the entire skill instruction and game play. Provid- class period. Do not leave the activity ing correct instruction in various skills, area. 83 FIELD HOCKEY 79 3. Maintain awareness of total class to continue working on field hockey activities while givi-tg instruction or as- cl,ilis or game tactics if space is avail- sistance to individual students. able. 4. Students should not have direct 9. Stress the non-contact aspects of access to the equipment. Equipment left the game. out is an invitation to participate in 10. Include student officiating as a unsupervised activities. skill activity that facilitates game play 5. Establish policies and procedures during class. for safety during the class. 11. Warn students of the risk of inju- 6. Students should have access to the ry if the hockey stick is used for pur- instructor at all times. poses other than those intended or if 7. Lesson plans should be detailed to the stick is raised too high during skill- show supervisory efforts used to main- work and game play. tain a ;afe learning environment (see 12. Develop a personal safety check- . ext section). list for student that includes removing 8. Be prepared to provide both gener- all jewelry, eli.ninating gum chewing, al and specific supervision during the and securing eyeglasses in some way. course of each class. 13. Group students according to size, strength, and skill. 14. Following are suggested modifi- SELECTION ANL _ itions to skillwork and game CONTENT OF ACTIVITY play in physical education class- es. 1. Use an established cumculum a. Do not teach the flick or the guide as a cornprehensi. erefc-ence for scoop. These are aerial strokes course content. An excellent resource is that increase the potential for chapter 8, by Belt and Reimann, of dangerous play. Physical Education and Sport for the Sec- b. Limit the backswing and fol- ondary School Student (Dougherty, 1983). low-through to waist height. 2. Select tasks that am, appropriate c. Limit the game play to 5 v 5, 6 for both the ages and abilitu levels of v 6, or 7 v 7. Small games develop students. the larger game concepts and al- 3. Prepare and maintainwritten low students more opportunities unit and lesson plans for all activities. to be involved in the activity. Specific plans include objectives, learn- d. Eliminate the goalie position ing experiences, teaching methods, and unless proper protective equip- assessment measures. ment can be provided. If using a 4. Individual lesson plans should in- player to cover that position with- dicate a progression of appropriate out protective equipment, limit skills and learning experiences. Sample shots on goal from outside a cer- drills and suggestions for s-lf-evalua- tain distance in front , 4 the goal. fion may be found in Physical Education This will avoid chaotic play in and Sport for the Secoadary School Student front of the goal. (Dougherty, 1983). e. Use playing areas as small as 5. Provide warm-up sequences that 30 X 50 yards depending on the include fitness activities such as jogging size of the teams. and flexibility exercises. f. Discourage the use of reverse 6.:eep accurate records of all class sticks when playing because it activities. leads to over-reaching and com- 7. Prepare procedures for dealing mitting such fouls as obstruction with accidents and/or other emergency and stick interference. Students situations. should be taught to move into 8Prepare lesson plans for indoor proper position to avoid the re- activities that provide the opportunity0, verse play. 0 80 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPOFT

g. Substitute cones or other field EQUIPMENT markersformgulationgoals 1. Apply linseed oil to cleaned and when using smaller fields (or if san-i?d sticks to prevent dryirL am, goals are not available). cracking during storage. 2. Discard sacks that are splintered and cracked 3. Replace torn or frayed grips on CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF sticks. FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 4. Provid -.: plastic (inside-the-sock) or canvas and cane shin guards for every FACILITIES student. Buckles of cane shin guards 1. Playing areas must be kept free of must be worn on the outside of the leg football and to prevent chafing. obstructions (examples: 5. Provide protective equipment for soccer goalposts, bleachers, drainage goalie if that position is designated dur- grates). ing class play: helmet, leg guards, kick- 2. Remove loose impediments (rocks, ers, chest protector. sticks, broken glass). 3. Goal cages (if used) must be as- 6. Discard cracked hockey balls. sembled properly and anchored to the 7. Clean or paint hockey balls (whit .) periodically for better visibility. ground. 4. Adjacent fields must be separated 8. Provide cones or corner mark s by open space to avoid an overlap of for designated playing areas. Bound- aries for available playing space must be activity from field to field. 5. Sidelines and goal lines must be marked and visible to all participants. marked with field white and/' 1. cones. 9. Select sticks of a proper length for 6. Scoring circle must be marked in each individual student (26"-38"). front of each goal or activity modified to REFERENCE omit these areas. Belt, B. and Reimann, B. J(1983). Field 7. rtuvide space for non-participants Hockey. In N. J. Doughe::y (Ed.), Physical that prevents interference with class ac- education and sport for the secondary school tivities. student (pp. 103-113)Reston, VA: The 8. Provide easy access for emergency American Alliance for Health, Physical first aid personnel. Education, Recreation and Dance.

85 CHAPTER 10

Fitness/Weight Training

CLAIR JENNETT San Jose State University San Jose, CA

86 82 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPOFT r xercise programs have been in exis- propriate exercises based upon the A'- tence for centuries. There remains, sessment is essential. however, a great need to reach more C. Inst -actors must possess a knowl- people of more i-:ge groups with these edge of p-- egressions in exercise pre- programs. One questionfrequently scription in terns of frequency (how asked by those contemplating the devel- often), intensity (how stressful), dura- opment of an exercise program is, tion (how long), and mode (type of "How shall I begin?" The stfety ramifi- exercise). cations of this question must be consid- D. A thorough knowledge of first aid ered when answering. Too frequently, procedures including cardiopulmonary mistakes have been made in answering resuscitation (CPR) is required. the question by la', persons, health spa E Instructors must be familiar with employees, g) mnasium directors, the proper use of the equipment com- teachers, physicians, and others. Those mon to exercise programs. persons, lacking an understanding of F. A knowledge of the current and the specific safety hazards which exist past research concerning exercise pro- in the conduct of programs of exercise grams is necessary. and fitness, may unwittingly be putting G. Safety procedures for the conduct the participant at risk. of exercise programs mest oe estab- The purpose of this chapter is to pre- lished and implemented by the instruc- sent the risks involved in exercise pro- tor. grams, and to suggest procedures for conducting safe programs of exercise for FACILITIES MANAGEMENT all. When the elements of risk have A. Exercise rooms or gymnasiums been considered during program plan- must be supervised by qualified instruc- ning, exercise programs can provide a tors. valuable addition to one's recreational B. The instructor must be aware of and profes -ional life. The following ma- the space demands of each exercising terial is, 'Before, pi zsented as a guide person as well as the space demands for for safety in exercise programs. Supervi- each piece of exercise equipment. sory concerns, conduct of the activity, C. The instructor must be aware of and environmental conditions are pre- the movement patterns of each exv_rcise sented with a focus on the prevention of activity in order to allocate adequate injury. Safety procedures for exercise space. F rograms whichinclude cardiorespira- D. R...lesofconductandsafety tory endurance activities, flexibility ac- should be dev, loped by staff and stu- tivities, and strength activities(e.g. dents, including: weight training) are presenter! within 1. When the area is to be used each of the three areas. (hours and days). 2. Who may use the area. 3. Who is in charge of the area. SUPERVISORY CONCERNS 4. How each piece of equipment is to be used. A. Knowledge of the subject matter 5. Where exercise:, occur in the dealing with exercise is essential. Cei ti- area. fication programs are available which 6. Where equipment is placed and include both study and supervised in- stored. ternship,. for exercise specialists. 7. What equipment can be used in strength training specialists, and aero- the area. bic specialist;. Completion of an ap- 8. What pa `ems of movement proved course of study in exercise can be used in the area. physiology is highly recommended. E. Each exercise area should have B. The ability to assess the fitness rules of conduct and safety posted. level of each student and prescribe ap- F. In addition to the proper posting 7 FITNESS/WEIGHT TRAINING 83 of rules, students should be informed activities such as walking, swimming, verbally of the rules of conduct and bicycling,rowir, dancing, jogging, safety. rope jumping, and large PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION muscle exercises with the whole body moving are activities commonly used A. Teaching plans should include: for the improvement of cardiorespirato- 1. Consideration for safety mat- ry endurance. Calisthenics exer-cises ters. are used for strength, flexibility, bal- 2. Placement of equipment. ance, and agility improvement. In addi- 3. Placement of students for exer- tion, a large number of weight training cise activities. devices 'lave been develc ied toim- 4. Placement of the instructor for prove strength and flexibility. Assessing teaching and supervision. the readiness of an individual for each 5. Assessment of students' physi- exercise is a difficult task. Assessing t:,e cal status and plans for mode, readiness of a class of students presents frequency, intensity and duration an even greater challenge. Some general of the activities. rules of readiness are suggested in the B The teaching plan should be pre- following four areas of concern. pared after consideration of the risks A. Physical readiness. involved in the activity and procedures 1. Review medical records for JI by which the risks can be reduced and students before activityExercise avoided. limitations may be necessary in the presence of some medicalcon- ditions. Medical records should CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY provide historical data as well as the results of recent examinations. Everyone can improve their cardio- 2. Determine the level of endur- respiratory endurance, flexibility, and ance,strength and/or flexibility strength. When a perso 1 begins anex- slowly, allowing ample time for ercise program, the body adapts. The assessment and recording the lev- adaptive responses are the "training ef- el for each activity. Begin theexer- fects" of thek '"ogram. Everyone, there- cise program at a relatively low fore, is physically ready for exercise, but level which offers the safety of everyone is ready at a different level. readiness and the mon ration of Assessing illat level is essential to prop- achievement. er exercise prescription. An increasced 3. Allow parent participati'n in potential for injury exists whenever an the assessment by discussing re- improper assessment is made. While sults of any medical examinations underassessing participant capabilities or early assessments which indi- may not present an immediate physical cate a deviation from standard ex- hazard, the resultant loss of motivation pectations. can easily lead to a multitude of other 4. Keep records of initial and sub- problems. The dangers of overassessing sequentassessmentsanduse a participant's capabilities are obvious. them for individual advising and The instructor must, therefore, refer to guidance. accurate assessment measures when as- 5 Use a continuous activityas a signing the frequency, intensity, dura- warmup to the exercise program tion, and modes of exercise. Following each day. Vary the warmup to is a guide for assuring safe conduct for maintain motivation. Include exercise programs. strength and flexibility activitiesas PARTICIPANT READINESS well as cardiorespiratory activities. Students should begin to experi- A variety exercise programs are encesweatingbeforedifficuit used to improve fitirss. Continuous strength,flexibility,balance, or 68 84 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL )UCATION AND SPORT agility activities are added to the dent. This should be a written routine. statement in language that all s' 6. Requirewrittenpermission dents can understand. After the from a physician to begin activity students read the statement, dis- after an injury or serious illness. cussion and an opportunity for Special activities for the injured questions should follow. These and low-fitness students are im- documents, called informed con portant. It is essential, however, rent forms, should be used to in- that the aid of a physician be en- form the pare.its as well as the listed in the development of such student. While they do not relieve programs. any party of responsibility, stu- 7. Provide individual programs dents, parents, and school person- for au students who have special nel will have a better understand- needs. All students can benefit ing of the program and their re- from some type of exer.ise. Modi- sponsibilities and will feel free to fications of intensity,duration, consult with the program direk.zor fi luency, or mode facilitate the when given the opportunity to adaptatior of exercises for individ- read and sign consent forms. Fig- ual needs. ure 1 provides an example of an B. Skill readiness. appropriateinformedconsent 1. Review the skill level of ail ac- document. tivities to ensure a sequencing D. Social readiness. from easy to difficult. 1. Group activitiesareusually 2. Be sure that thorough instruc- more motivating than working tion and feedback are provided alone. Students should be taught with regard to all skills and tech- to support each other in their exer- niques. cise activities. This support should 3. Start the class at an appropriate not be pressure; it should be en- level of skill tc, ensure safety and couragement and acceptance. motivation. 2. Studentsshouldhavefun C. Emotional readiness while working hard. Group sup- 1. Provide sufficient activity levls port enhances the enjoyment. to ensure success. 2. Keep interest high by provid- CURRICULAR CONCERNS ing variety in frequency, duration, A. The aim of thefitness / weight intensity, and mode. training unit should be to meet "le 3. Pressure to increase the fre- needs of the Students enrolled. quency, duration, and intensity B. Objectives should be established should come from the student which lead to fulfillment of the aim. rather than from the instructor. C. The exercise activities should -e- 4. Self-regulationof frequency, late to the objectives. duration, and intensi.y should be D. The following general guidelines instilled in each student. Recogni- fc r the fitness/weight trainirg unit may tion of preliminary signs of over- also be used to further assess the indi- stress or injury shculd be taught. vi,...1 exercise activities. The activities Students should learn to under- should: stand their bodies and how to rec- 1. Increase tone, stability and con- ognize when more or less intensi- trol of the body. ty, requeney, or duration is need- 2. Prepare the student for more ed. strenuous exercise activities. 5. A statement of the risks in- 3. Meet student needs. volved in exercise programs and 4. Be good for overall fitness. techniquesfor avoiding injury 5. Beprogressivelysequenced should be presented to each stu- 89 from easy to difficult. FITNESS/WEIGHT TRAINING 85

In the prevention of injury in exercise programs, it is importantto understand the causes of injury presented below. Injury prevention procedures are listc-i aftereach causal factor. Be aware of risks and conduct your personal program in a safe manner.

Causes of Injury Pr;ientive Techniques Lack of adeque' ) warmup Use related rather than unrelatedwarmup activities Use active rather than passive warmup activi- ties s Bnng the tcd.iy to sweating temperature grad- ually &ding warmup activities Lack of adequate cool down penod Keep moving at a gradually slower pace after exercise Avoid hot showers, hot tubs, and saunas after exercise Lack of adequate rest (overexertion) *Use a frequency of 3-4 days per week for beginning exercise programs Use low intensity)r beginning exercise pro- grams Use short duration for beginningexercise prog.ai ns Avc:d corroetition for beginning ex Imre. pro- grams Overextendir; range of (cants Use short rango of movement for beginning exercise programs Avoid painful stretching for beginning exercise program:, Excessive heat, humidity, pollution, or altitude *Decrease intensity and duration in these con- ditions Drink water freely dung exercise Using sudden stops or starts or exercising on Use smooth movements hard surfaces * Avoid hard surfaces and sudden stops Failing to use progression or increasing intensi- Slow progression avoids ifilury ty and duration too early Increase intene'', and duration ivhen it feels good to the body Reduce intensity and duration when soreness c.r pain are felt Failing le listen to the body Avoid overexertion when sick, fatigued, or injured Avoid being compelled into activity because of habit, fiends, or competitive reasons Avoid r:dinuing Er:ease or cGmr,:eting a^ activity when the bady says stop Failure to dress for the activity Dress for warmth an cooling as dictated by temperature *Avoid restrictive clothing Use shoes that fit the activity and protect the foot and leg joints Failing to check equipment before use Check all equipment beire exercising Use all equipment as specified Clear area for equipment use

Figure 1. Statement of informed co, sent. Continued 90 86 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Causes of Injury Preventive Techniques Lack of eating habits *Allow digestive time after meals before begin- ning activity Maintain good nutntional balance to prevent problems of vitamin and mineral deficits Lack of proper adjustments in restarting activity *Adjustthe exercise program to lower intensity after a layoff period and t'ration after layoff Adjust the exercise program to lower intensity and duration even when fatigue level seems acceptable (fatigue may not appear in early activity stktsions after layoff) Failure to seek exercise specialist's advice on Seek specialist's advice over "quacks" with questions pertaning to exercise prescnption quick remedies Seeks specialist's advice regarding myths prevailing in some exercise groups Failure to recognize injury Be aware of types of injunes (blisters, joint imtation, muscular soreness, stress fractures, shin splints, tendonrks, etc.) Pra Vent chronic injunes by caring for all inju- nes at the first sign Avoid injuries by knowing and avoiding the CallSeS Failure to exercise with proper form and rhythm Use rhythm in performing activities Use smooth, full-range movement Use proper form and alignment for each exercise Avoid "cheating" on exercises Failure to breathe properly dunng exercise Use the mouth and nose in breathing Inhale on exertion and exhale on return (don't hold your brer,th) Failure to use spotters for exercises requinng Avoid working ak ,ne them Use spotters in weight lifting exercises Be surf. that spotters understand their duties

I have read and understand tne preceding guidelines.I agree to fellow the injury prevention procedures contained therein.

student name date

Fig. 1. Statement of informed consent (continued).

6. Be fun and suited to the age for each lesson. anti abilityof students. 2. Safety consideration should be 7. '.- safeconducted without in- part of each lesson plan. jury to students. 3. Plans and procedures for safe E. The lesson plans should be devel- use of the equ';ment should oe oped from the unit plan and the lesson part of each lesson plan. objectives should grow out of the unit 4. Questionable movement pat- plan objectives. The following should terns (deep knee bends, straight- be considered in the development of knee leglifts,straight-kneesit individual lessons. ups,botalcing toe touch,etc.) 1. Progressively more difficult ex- should not be included in the exer- ercise activities should be planned 91 program. FITNESS/WEIGHT TRAINING 87 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Bars, plates and machinery are free of rust. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS All free weight bars have proper A. Exercise areas must be supervised fastening hardware. by qualified persons when in use. Security of all joints and fasten- B. All equipment should be returned ings. to the proper storage area after use. Stability of all benches and plat- C. Safety rules for each exercise area forms. should be posted in highly visible loca- Security of all chains, cables, tions. pulleys, and other moving parts. D. Only proper use of the facilities Cleanliness of mats, benches, and equipment is allowed. seats, etc. E. Safety inspections of facilities and 9. N3ted deficiencies should be equipment should be planned on a reg- immediatelycorrectedorthe ular time schLiule and records of the faulty equipment taken out of ser- inspection should be kept on file. vice. F. Regular cleaning of the equipment 13.Exercise rooms or gyms. and facilities is an important safety mea- 1 Ventilation and lighting must sure. be adequate for the exercise pro- gram. EXERCISE AREAS 2Storage space for all equipment A.Weight training room. should be clearly marked and the 1. Placement space for all equip- storage space should be secure if ment should be clearly marked. the room is used foi other activi- 2. Space allocations for all equip- ties. ment should meet the manufac- 3. Space limitations and number turer's specifications. of participants should be posted in 3. The maximum number of par- highly visible areas. ticipants that can safely use the 4. Traffic patterns for some exer- space should be posted in highly c:seactivities should be estab- visible locations. lished before students begin the 4. Emergency procedures incase activity. of injury should be posted in high- ly visible areas. CONCLUSION 5. Ventilation and lighting must be adequate for the exercise activi- There are a great many ways for peo- ties. ple to become physically fit. In conjunc- 6. Traffic patterns should be clear- tion with the attainment of fitness goals, ly designated. howc-:er, safety considerations must be 7. Equipment shouN be used for a planning priority. The guidelines pre- specified exercise only. sented in this chapter should help attain 8. Equipment and facilities should both fitness and safety goals so that be inspected daily. Careful inspec- everyone can enjoy a safe, healthy and tiPn records ust be maintained worthwhile experience indicating: Security of all floor and wall REFEREt' CE anchor points. Ward, Bob. (1983). Weight training. In N.J. Safety stop pins present on ex- Dougherty (Ed ),Physical education and ercise machines and weight racks. sport for the secondary school student (pp. 365-380). Reston, VA. The American Alli- Floor surface free of dust, debris ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- and moisture. reation, and Dance.

92 DEDE OWENS . University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 90 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

he nature of the game of golf invites t!'ese areas is needed, regardless of how Tpotential safety hazards. Swinging much or how little experience an indi- an implement in excess of 90 mph in an vidual has had in golf instruction. attempt to propel a solid sphere 1.68 Students. Students are the third link in inches in diameter and weighing 1.62 safety. They should be made aware of ounces can be both exhilarating and safety concerns and required to assume dangerous. The manner in which the a major role for their personal safety game is introduced and organized for and the safety of others while in a golf instruction and practice can greatly re- class. This is critical if safety is to be duce the danger and enhance the exhil- practiced when students are on their aration. The key to safety in golf is own dunng actual course play. awareness. Awareness must be devel- oped through three levels: the adminis- tration, the golf instructor, and the stu- dent Each has a major responsibility in COMMON INJURIES IN GOLF regard to safety considerations. Administration. Golf is Lecoming more The potential for injuries during golf popular in physical education curicula instruction is far greater than the a:tual and in recreational programs. How severity of most injuries which occur. the question of whether qualified person- The most common miror injury in golf nel are on staff to supervise and/or in- classes is blisters. These are caused by struct golf is rarely addressed by admin- excessive movement of the club in the istrators.Often,an individual who hands. A faulty grip or improper grip plays golf *IF assigned to the activity with size is usually the problem (sec figure the assumption of instructional ability. 1). Both can be remedie I by awareness This may be a faulty assumption and of individual hand size and grip tech- could lead to safety hazards. nique relative to the size and condition The administration must determine if of the club grip. an individual is qualified to teach golf. If The less frequent and more serious not, adequate time must be provided for injuries occur when individuals are hit training to insure that technical, organi- by a club or golf ball. Being hit by a club zational, and safety skills are acquired. usuallyoccurs when an individual If a person accepts the responsibility walks into the path of a swinging club. for teaching golf, he or she is acknowl- Such injuries can be avoided by estab- e,..:ging the preparation to do so. If the lishing and enforcing rules which gov- teacher does not feel prepared, addi- ern where and when a club may be tional training should be secured before swung. Each instructional area should assuming those responsibilities. havedesignatedareasforstudent Golf Instructor. The greatest resnonsi- movement in the instructionkpractice bility for safety awareness resides with environment and hitting field (see fig- the instructor. Readiness to instruct re- ure 2). qu'res the technical knowledge to in- Injuries due to golf balls occur more sure the understanding and develop- frequently on golf courses with paralk' ment of eff. :ient and effective swin.-, fairways than in physical education or mechanics; organizational knowledge recreational golf classes. In fact, they for safe student practice and movement _nould nevi:. occur dunng instruction if in the instructional and practice area; an appropriate safety rules are followed. understanding of individual needs and This is especially true if individuals are contraindicationsforgolfdrills and properly instructed never to retrieve techniques; knowledge of the selection balls prior to a designated signal by the and care of equipment; and knowledge ins' -uctor. Walking in front of the desig- of appropriate prom cedures for the care nated area or into the hitting field and maintenance of facilities. Constant should never be allowed while anyone awareness of the safety issues in each of else is swinging a club. GOLF 91 1

*

*. 11. iter :pg.; 4r***:*:;;'. ';%;4!.

Fig. 1(a). Proper grip size. Fig. 1(b). Grip size too small---unsafe.

ahartiamea..

qr-- .1#7trt't-:-,:ii,

Fig. 2. Safe practice environment. 95 92 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

FIg. 3(a). Proper position for one - legged drill. "lg. 3(b). Potentially unsafe modification of oise-legged drill.

CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY effective in skill development. Safety, however, must be instilled in the orga- Student information sheets. Student in- nizationalstructureandinstruction formation is important for establishing a regardless of the selected progression. safe and effective environment. The fol- Drills. Golf drills greatly enha ice the lowing type of information is particular- learning process and are beneficial for ly beneficial in golf: group instruction. There are, however, 1. Experiences in golf. drills which are contraindicated for par- grouping by ab'lity ticular indi, iduals due to pre-existing selectionofpeerteachers/ conditionssuchasback problems, aides shoulder or knee dislocations, and ar- determination of starting level thritis. 2. Disabling conditions. As an instructor, it is important to be potential equipment and tech- aware of the potential good or harm nique modifications specific drills may cause. Drills should contraindicationsofspecific be expiained clearly, demonstrated cor- drills rectly, and used appropriately. Figure 3 3. Allerg: s. (a) is an example of the "one-legged" awareness to potential allergic drill which has become popular for reactions helping students develop an arm swing. medication side effects Note the position of the rear foot placed Progressions. Skill progressions in golf up on the toe. This allows the lower are not always based on safety consider- back to be free of tension. Figure 3 (b) is ations as in gymnastics or swimming. a dangerous position. It shows a modifi- The progression selected is determined cation of the basicdrill which has by instructor preference with regard to caused back problems to occur in people beginning with the long game and pro- with no previous history of back trou- gressing to the short game, or the re- ble. These po.,itions may also exacerbate verse. No specific progression has been or irritate already existing problems, or supported by research as being more back weaknesses. 96 GOLF 93

TABLE 1 Examples of Safety Rules In Golf Where Clubs may be swung arr' balls hit only in the designated area. Note: Designated areas should be clearly delineated with visual markers, and verbally described to students. When Clubs may be swung and balls hit only when indicated by the instructor. Balls are to be retrieved only when indicated. Note: The "when Indicated" should be an established signal such as a whistle or verbal command. DirectionClubs are to be swung and balls hit toward the designated target(s) only. Note: Targets should be set toward which balls must be hit. They should be placed toward the center of the hitting area and at a variety of distances to accommodate for swing lengths.

The use of the student information hance the visibility of the rules and sheets is a valuable tool in the selection provide subliminal reinforcement. Ex- and omission of drills when problems amples of such signs are provided in are noted. Know your students and the figures 4 and 5. When laminated, the drills you select. signs can be used for both inside and Safety awarenessshould begin as the outside activity areas. activity is introduced. Similarities and differences relative to safety and equip- ment in other activities need to be ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS stressed. The length of the club, subse- quent differences in the space required Golf can be taught effectively in a gym to swing, and the potential speed of the or on a playing field. Larger areas are swing should be noted and compared more conducive to safety because stu- visually and verbally by demonstration dents can be provided more space in with bats, tennis Jackets, and/or other established hitting areas and stations implements familiar to the students. Anytime space becomes restrictive or Rules should be established to help less than three yards of space is allowed the students become familiar with their for a swing station, safety becomes a responsibility in promoting the safety of prcblem. the game for themselves and others. It is important to relate the rules for your INDOOR PLAYING AREAS class activity to specific implications at a The designated swing stations should driving range, golf course, or practice in be marked and safety rules clearly post- the park or backyard. The safety rules ed. The swing stations should be free of should specifywhere, whenand thedirec- extra clubs, bags or ball baskets. tionin which clubs can be swung and Mats. Brush mats with rubber mat balls hi Once set, the rules should be supports should be usedwhenpossible strictly followed. for safety. The brush mat provides a Table 1 is an example of a rules format thick protective hitting surface (particu- that may be used in your classes. The larly for beginners) while the rubber noteinsertions are clarificatjons provid- mat creates a non-slippery surface for ed for instructors, and not for inclusion stance and brush support. in the handouts. Full swing stations in which plastic Copies of the n,- . should be dated balls are hit against walls should be and distributed to each student as well ',Laced away from doorways and a mini- as posted in areas which are clear- mum of 7 to 8 yards from the wall. ly visible to the students. Computer There should be a minimum of 3 yards graphics and attractive posters can en- between stations (see figure 6). This , , 4 97 94 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

gorill11111 S

000

Fig. Sample safety awareness poster

allows ample roc.,:n for the plastic ball ing cuss, and between classes.Itis to bounce c" the wall and roll safely particuk-ly important to check the dis- back toward the mats. If the mats are tance between stations, and be sure to placed too close co the wall, students maintain the 3 yard minimum. may become swing-shy, feeling too Traffic flow. Traffic flc N needs to be cramped consideredinthe gym, partcularly The physical arrangement of the sta- when various stations are implemented. tions 3hc.I.uid be :hecked frequently di.r- Des.gnated pathways can be marked 98 GOLF 95 602 2 fi@g7 It Illm WHERE? Swing & Hit only in Designated Areas. WHEN? Swing & Hit only on Signal. DIRECTION? Swing & Hit only to Targets.

Retrieve only on Signal.

Fig. 5. Sample safe, rules poster.

usingcones,jumpropes,chairs, of movement. Once the change is com- brooms, etc. plete, activity should be allowed only Changing stations should be done on on a signal from the instructor. a signal and it, a single direction. This Stations.The swing stations should be systematic procedure, under the control marked clearly as putting, chipping, of the instructor, helps to assure safety and full swing. This will help the stu- 96 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

STATION 1FULL SWING

Plastic Ball Container , 8 yards 4 1 III IIII 5 yards minimum 44 A A ALWA 4 A 5 yards [> >

I> STATION 4 STATION 5 CONDITIONING STATION 2 CHIPPING (No Clubs or Balls) PITCHING > obstacles I > 3 yds V V VC' VVV V V-7 V V

Hard Ball Container

STATION 3 PUTTING Code =Swing Station :_. Safety Cones no swings -- = Swing Direction toward wall only

Figure 6.Illustration of a safe indoor practice area.

dent understand the proper swing be aware of the ball he orsheis about to length i. the given area. For example, a hit. full swing should not be made in the Dress. Loose fitting clothing and ten- putting or chipping areas. It should be nis shoes should be required. Tight indicated that this is also true when clothing can be uncomfortable as well as practicing at a golf course. restrictive in the swing. Street shoes are Balls. When using plastic balls for unsafe in that they lack support and are swing practice and hard balls for put- sorr,.....nes slick on the floor. ting, the ball containers need to be clear- Cleaning up. The area in which you are ly marked. It would also be helpful to practicing should be clean and neat. It have different colored balls (e.g. blue should be dust mopped each day, and stripe on hard balls). The plastic ball preferably between each class. Brush container should be carefully checked mats and rubber mats create a dust film before each class to assure that hard on the floor which can be hazardous to balls have not been mixed in. Students others using the gym. should be made aware of the differences Equipment. The clubs and balls should and instructed to check each ',allfor be collected at the end of each class and type prior to hitting. It is easy for a secured if the gym is left open or with- beginner to become engrossed and not out supervision. Each area should be 100 GOLF 97 checked frequently to assure that the to be retrieved. This takes time, but is stations are the proper distance apart. critical to the safety of others. Most secondary education facilities OUTDOOR PLAYING AREAS do not have appropriate outdoor space for safe use of hard balls. Plastic balls Hitting Surface. Mats may or may not can be stiffed with cloth to produce a be used in outside hitting areas. A grass firmer feel and flight similar to the hard area is preferable to mats if at all possi- ball. An advantage of the plastic or ble. Grass provides the best learning stuffed ball is that they require less time environment and will assist in the direct to retrieve since they can not be hit as transfer of the skills to the actual golf far. They are also much saferjust be course. Whether mats or grass are used, careful not to use tightly stuffed balls the hitting surface should be free of inside the gym if space is restri_ted. rocks or any obstacles which could be hit accidentally. RESTRICT THE AREA Swing stations. Swing stations and the safety considerations discussed earlier When golf classes are in session, are equally important outside. The open signs should be posted around the area. space may tend to give students a false This is needed particularly in areas sense of security. When students are where the fields are used by community not swinging or awaiting their turn, joggers or others as a thoroughfare. there should be an area designated in which they should stand or sit. This EQUIPMENT area should be away from the swing Appropriateequipment.Golfclubs stations. should be purchased which vary in Balls used outside. As with indoor prac- length, weight, and grip size. If the club tice, plastic balls and hard balls should is not appropriate for the learner, it can be separated and not used simultaneously have a negative effect on the rate and at any one station. A hard ball hit acci- progress of learning, as well as compro- dentally in a confined area could be mise safety. If you are not sure how to dangerous. "size" clubs for a class, be sure to check Hard balls are fun to hit, howe er, with a local professional, or ask the golf they need to be used with discretion club manufacturer for advice when or- when instructing the full swing. Ade- dering equipment. quate space, both length and width, is The students in figure 7 could be in a needed to accommodate the novice who golf class in the 10th grade. The golf lacks control of distance and direction. club held by each is the same club, a The grass space should be clear and standard men's 7-iron which is general- cut close to the ground. This will help in ly longer and heavier than a woman's finding golf balls. Balls which are not club. The same students in figure 8 are found can be hazardous to others using holding a woman's standard 7-iron. the fieid for activity classes and after Will they benefit in a golf class using the school sports. The same is true when clubs they are holding? practicing in parks or other fields. Clubs which are at the extremes in The total number of golf balls should weight or length for individuals affect be counted at the beginning and end of their ability to swing the club effectively each class. Students should be instruct- and efficiently. These extremes decrease ed to cou- c the number of balls they the potential for success. have before hitting and pick up as many Grip sizes in the extremes can cause balls as they hit. Students should pay blisters.Sore hands from trying to particular attention to any misdirected maintainclubcontrol,and"flying shots (i.e. balls that go an unusual dis- clubs" can both be the result of a grip tance or direction) and be instructed to which is too large or too small for the pick them up when it is time for all balls hand size. These are safety hazards 101 98 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Fig. 7. Men's 7-iron. Fig. 8. Women's 7-iron.

which can easily be prevented, but not club heads can snap without warning. without awareness. Frequent checks are needed and often Maintenance of clubs. Three areas of a weaknesses can be detected by holding club should be checked for wear and the head of the dub and trying to turn damage: thi grip, shaft, and hosel. the shaft. A squeaking sound indicates Grips which get worn or fray id can a potential weakness and it should be cause blisters and slippage in the hands. repaired (by a club repair expert) or These should be checked and cleaned destroyed. frequently. Compos.tion grips are rec- Inspection.An equipmentrecord ommended for use in most classes be- should be kept. As golf equipment is cause they are safe' on the hands and received it should be numbered and the easy to clean and replace (inexpensive). date noted. A wntten record should be Grips should be cleaned with soap and established for a periodic inspection of water on a frequent schedule since they all equipment. This is in addition to the become slippery when dirty. daily inspection which should be noted Clubs receive unavoidable wear and in lesson plans or logs of activity ses- tear through extensive use. Shafts can sions. bend as a result of hitting the ground An ongoing ecord of equipment may repeatedlyduringswings,getting provide information relative to the lon- stepped on, or improper storage. They gevity of equipment purchased from should be checked daily. If a shaft is vanous companies. Clubs which are in- bent it should be broken completely. A expensive and therefore often attractive bent shaft is much weaker and if used, for purchase may not be as durable, or could snap in two. This is quite danger- safe, when they receive excessive use. ous. Depending on the condition of the Such records may later be used to justify head, including the hosel, it can be used budgets when ordering a different qual- again by having it re-shafted. Other- ity club. wise, if it is too worn, it should be Students should be encouraged to thrown out. If a shaft is only slightly help in checking and inspecting their bent, it can be straightenedjust be golf clubs. Before hitting balls, all stu- sure to check it frequently. dents s)uld check theclubs. This The head of the club, where the shaft aids in r, ising their awaren2ss to the enters the hosel, receives tremendous care and maintenance c I clv' s, and the abuse and may weaken over time. The importance of safety. 102 GOLF 99

SUMMARY stations indoors minimum of 7 yards from wall and away from Safety issues in golf instruction are doors and hallways (check keyed on developing awareness through periodically dunng activity) classroom organization and instruction- warning signs posted around al procedures. Awareness to safety in outside area if thoroughfare and beyond the school program is criti- signal established for beginning cal to the students themselves and oth- and end of hitting ers. As a teacher, your task is to set the environment for learning and continued Equipment involvement beyond the school setting. file established for periodic T. following checklist is provided as checks a tool for developing a safe golf pro- daily check for condition and gram. repair of clubs storeroom and gym secured or GOLF SAFETY locked between classes REVIEW CHECKLIST Balls Instructor containers marked and _____ previous instruction/training separated for hard versus plastic Knowledge of: balls group techniques check plastic ball container drills before each class selection/care of equipment instructor directs students to adaptation of facilities check balls before hitting count hard balls prior to hitting Environmental Conditions and after each class Rules rules handouts (e.g. discuss/date) rules poster Fality (indooroutdoor) REFERENCES hitting surface cushioned/ secured Owens, D (1983) Golf In N.J Dougherty area free of obstacles (Ed ), Physical education and sport for the traffic flow established/discussed secondary school student (pp 129-148). Res- ton, VA The Amencan Alliancefor stations minimum of 3 yards Health, Physical Education, Recreation apart (check during activity) and Dance

103 CHAPTER i 2

Orienteering

ARTHUR HUGGLESTONE Smith Environmental Education Center Rockville, MD

IP^

104 102 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION' AND SPORT rr here comes a point in most orien- ably still be usable. Too large a bubble teering programs when the stu- can, however, obstruct the free move- dents are out on the course ar d you find ment of the needle. It this is the case, yourself alone with the feeling that the the compass should not be used. program you planned is now well un- Our school system lost a lot of com- derway. It doesn't take long, however, passes until orienteering maps were to begin wondering what is really hap- glued on boards, varnished, and then pening out there on the cowseis ev- had a compass tied to one end and a erything all right? Will each o. .tie stu- whistle tied to the other. Even if every- dents make the correct decisions? Why thing is not tied to a board, the compass hasn't anyone finished the course yet? If and the whistle can be tied to a cord and only you could see them. At this point, worn around the neck or wrist. Stu- ycu have three alternative courses of dents should be instructed that the action: (a) sit and worry; (b) run out and whistle is to be used only in an emer- spot check the course which will, at gency. Three repeated short blasts are a least, keep you busy; (c) plan for the summons for help, while a single short next "bring 'em back alive" orienteering blast identifies the searcher who has class which will stress safety and "lost- heard the three short blasts and wants proofing" the students. How much bet- them repeated. ter it would have been to have included A small brightly colored daypack or safety planning and instruction in the fanny pack equipped with some emer- program from the outset. gency supplies should be carried at all times except in competition. There are good first aid kits on the market. One of EQUIPMENT these should be chosen and supple- mented from the follcwing list, depend- Begin the safety planning process by ing on the area and time of year. checking your equipment. Any com- pass can be used for orienteering, and bandaids regardless of the type that is used, you butterfly closers for large cuts (prac- must first verify that each is in working tice using) order. The easiest way to check a com- sanitary napkinforlarge wound pass is to ask the students to point in dressing the direction that the north seeking ar- plastic adhesive, wide roll row is pointing, then turn 180° and do safety pins the same thing again. The most com- medicated soap, small bar mon problem with a new compass is matches, waterproof in waterproof reversed polarity, that is, the north ar- container or magnesium fire starter row points south. When this is found to tinder in ziplock bag (practice being be the case, either return the compass to able to build fires under any circum- the vendor or dispose of it. You may stances) wish to keep one compass with re- water in canteen and/or clear, plastic versed polarity for use when demon- detergent bottle with push-pull cap strating compass handling. A reversed insect repellent polarity compass can be used while fac- sting swab ing the students, thus allowing you to sunscreen #15 easily maintainvisual contact with magnifying glass them. Keep a special lanyard on this woolen sweater or down vest compass for easy identification and to garbage bagsuse as rain gear, sleep- prevent confusio:i with the properly ori- ing bag, or even litter bag ented compasses. 3 signal mirrorsavailable from marine With older compasses, there is often a and surplus stores (practice using) loss of dampening fluid. If it is a rela- freeze dried food tively small loss, the compass will prob- candle 105 ORIENTEERING 103 whistle that is loud but does not re- you reproduce because if you do not, it quire much wind is likely that students will draw magnet- small flashlight with alkaline batteries ic north/south lines using the diagram knife or, worse yet, confuse magnetic north heavy fishing line and true north. extra socks and bread wrappers or plastic bags (put on dry socks and SUPERVISION plasf c bread wrappers and you will not know shoes are wet) Because of the nature of orienteering, extra compass, map, paper, pencil it is impossible to maintain visual con- (glasses if needed) tact with all students at all times. After The list could go on depending on how the initial learning experiences, during much you ale willing to carry. which the students can and should be Although it is possible to pu 'ease grouped in an open area and constantly maps with declination lines already in observed, the students will, of neces- place, it will often be necessary to draw sity,bereleased ontoorienteering them yourself. When drawing magnetic courses of gradually increasing size and north/south lines on a map, use a pro- difficulty. Once this phase of the activity tractor or Silva type compass to lay out has begun, it is no longer possible to the number of degrees of declination. maintain visual contact with the entire The U.S. Geological Survey warns that class. It is important, under these cir- the diagram pictured on the lower left cumstances, that an area be set aside margin of their maps is only an approxi- whew the students can always find help mation of the actual number which is if it is needed or desired. The base area printed next to the magnetic north ar- should be relatively central in location row. This number is accurate for the and easily found. Placement near some year printed just below the diagram. prominent and recognizablefeature Deviation may :hange very little or as such as power lines, or atop an easily much as one degree in five years. You distinguished hill would assist the stu- can get the current deviation for your dents in quickly locating assistance if area by calling the National Cartograph- needed. ic Information Center, Reston, Virginia. The tollfree number is 1-800-USA- CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY MAPS. If you place the magnetic north/south Since the students will be on their lines at a convenient and uniform dis- own for a significant portion of the tance apart (500 feet, or 1,000 feet, or 1/2 orienteering unit, proper preliminary mile), they can aid the orienteer in judg- instruction and safety training is essen- ing distance. Any time when drawing tial.Orienteeringskillsshouldbe lines or making marks on a map, be learned and practiced under supervi- careful not to cover or obscure any im- sion to guarantee full knowledge of and portant symbols. A piece of clear plastic compliance with safe practices and pro- can be used as a straight edge which cedures. Course and safety rules should makes it possible to see whatever sym- be understood and followed by all and bols are along the line. Leave a break in should be printed either on the back of the line where symbols occur. If a 6mm each map board or on a separate sheet hole is drilled in the plastic straight included with it. In addition to orien- edge, it can be used to make the circles teering skills students should be provid- that mark the control points on the ed with an understanding of basic au- map. When making circles, skip a space vival techniques. This will increase their if any symbols would be obscured. Do confidence in the field and provide an not put a dot in the center of the circle. added margin of safety in the unlikely It is important to draw parallel mag- event that someone is lost for more than netic north lines (arrows) on the map a matter of minutes or hours. An intro- 106 104 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PI-IYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ductory survival course should include: mini-course that will take only a few how to use the equipment and sup- minutes and allow them to demonstrate plies in your emergency kit their ability to manipulate a map and how to help searchers find you compass. how to treat an injury or sudden ill- In deciding how difficult or easy to ness make the orienteering course, you must how to build a shelter take into consideration the age, experi- how to conserve energy and tempera- ence, and skill of the participants as well ture as weather conditions and the time of how to signal for help the day and year. If you run a course in how to forage for food the morning and the afternoon,it how to be safe in a storm would be much better for the more how to remain calm and wait for help experienced group to run a more chal- (this will be the adventure that you lenging course in the morning and the talk about later) less experienced group to tackle an easi- It is generally best to send students er course in the afternoon, especially in onto the orienteering course in groups the winter when the days are shorter. of three. If teams of three are used and Courses laid out for beginning orien- one person is injured, another can stay teers should have all stations accessible with him/her, while a third goes for from trails. help. While larger groups provide the Even if you have an alarm that can be same advantage, they tend to become sounded in the event of a problem, unwielc"y and result in lowered involve- everyone won't hear it. It is important ment for individual students. that you establish an understanding If you don't know the students and ahead of time concerning cancellation of would like to send them out in teams of the event due to storms, fahing trees, or two or three with at least one capable other emergency. Trees may fall at any student in each team, use the Beginner time. When the ground is soft after a Compass Game available from Orien- soaking rain, trees may fall even with- teering Services, USA, P.O. Box 1604, out wind. Anyone who sees or hears Binghamton, New York 13902. This two or more trees fall of natural causes game may be played in any open area in a short period of time should take a approximately 100 x 100 feet. To play, direct route to the nearest road or clear the participant must be able to find area and report this information to the directions with a compass. No pacing of person in charge. distances is necessary. Time are 90 Even if students understand all the courses, using eight labeled markers fundamentalsoforienteering,they placed at exact spots in a large circle. should be "lost proofed," or taught to While playing the same, all players are orient themselves to the larger geo- contained in the circle. You can ea: y graphic area before they go out. This identify the students with the most and can be accomplished by using a large least aptitude. As the students complete wall map that covers a greater area than the game they will come to you to find the orienteering map. Prominent moun- out if the courses they've charted are tains with specific shapes can serve as correct. If they are, put their names at gross reference points. Indentify any off the top of a roster and ask them to help limits or dangerous areas and the far- students who do not have everything thest limits they should go. There might right. The list formed this way will rank be a long straight road on one side, a the students from most proficient to river on another, and a power line on least. When it is time to make up the the third. Anyone who goes far enough teams, they cao be made up of one in a straight line will end up at one of person from the top, middle, and the these features which serves as a perime- bottom of the list. Another option is to ter and as a reference point for those send the first time orienteers on an open who get that far. If operating in an area 107 ORIENTEERING 105

\ Search area increasedby a factor of four

Fig. 1.An hour's delay means that the search area will be fourtimes larger. where most of the above features are the western part of the sky will be not 1-o be found, advise students to trust brighter for hours unless there is a their compass. It will get them very bright moon or the reflected lights of a close to where they want to be or back city. to where they started. If some students do not return at the In the event that participants lose expected time, they may be lost, in need their compass or feel hopelessly lost, of emergency care, or if they are unreli- they should be instructed to hike down able, may have abandoned the course hill until they find a trail or stream. and wandered off to their own interests. Water will eventually lead to some sign Schools often run one orienteering of civilization. Instruct them on how to course in the morning and another in ask for help and point out that the the afternoon. If someone is late return- phone number where the instructor cm ing in the morning, you may have the be reached is on the map. (Be sure leisure to wait a while. If someone is always to inc ude a phone number on later in returning in the afternoon, espe- the map.) cially in the winter when it gets dark If students are only going to be out for earlier, time is more critical. An unac- a short time, they 51tould take a bearing counted for person can create an urgent on the sun and notice the direction their situatichi that requires response in the shadows cast. It is a good idea to point form of search procedures. A delay of out the approximate direction the sun two hours instead of one means that the will be in two hours from now and its search area will, of necessity, be four course across the sky. Even after sunset times larger. Figure 1 illustrates the ef- 106 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT feet of time or a search area. articles of found clothing. Pick up arti- In a search situation, do not delay. cles with a stick and put in a clean Decide who is going to be in charge plastic bag and store in a cool place. If (stays in central area and maintains more than one person is lost,store communications), then fill out a nissing items in separate bags and label them. person questionnaire (see sample, fig- The police or sheriff will interview ure 2). you, scan the area, and call a rescue Send out a few people who can patrol team. They will probably have tracking the perimeter of the search area. These dogs that will search for a particular searchers should travel in the fastest scent left on the ground by the lost way possible, car, boat, all terrain bicy- individual. They may have air scent cle, or on foot. dogs that can quickly smell the air for Try to attract the lost person by ring- any human scent, not just the lost per- ing bells, blowing vehicle or air horns, sons. A trained handler and his dog can or using whistles. This "attention get- be as effective as 20 or 30 human search- ting" should be done from an open area ers. If you can keep well meaning but so that sound will travel better. Search- inexperienced individuals out of the ers should be careful nr - to make any area, trained search and rescue person- sounds that could be mistaken for a nel and their dogs will have a much series of three that viild he the call for better chance of finding the missing help from the lost orienteer. It is impor- person. tant to frequently pause to listen for a Initially, all rescue actions are limited call from the lost orienteer. to perimeter patrols, attraction, and sur- Ifthere isa narrow off -road area vey search. The effort is to confine the through which a disoriented person search area by patrolling natural perim- might wander, and thus enlarge the eters or areas that would be outside the search area, this area should b h?avily distance the victim could have traveled patrolled. It is important to confine the since last seen. An exception to going search area to as small a plot as possible. inside this area could occur if a person In off-road areas it is more important to were lost overnight and you could de- look for signs or clues of the missing fine a central area in which a group person. If you are looking only for the could camp. These people would have person, you could very easily miss the to confine themselves to a specific area traces or other evidence that could con- for a specific time and enter and leave centrate the area of search and insure a by the same route. Singing and a camp- quicker discovery. fire might help attract the victim to the If there is a high point from which group. much of the search area can be sur- You and the orienteeis constitute the veyed, assign at least two people to this largest group with the most immediate point so that theyIn take turns scan- knowledge of the area. Should you use ning the area. Binoi.ars should only be Zhis group to try to find the subject or usedtoidentify something aiready use them to confine the search area? spotted. This will always be the dilemma faced In the rare case where someone is nc ` by the person in charge. The National found after a reasonable time, check his Association for Search and Rescue offers or her home, friends' houses, hospitals, training,uata collection,educational F.nd favorite hangout. As a cast resort, programs, and conferences that could the sheriff or police should be called. give you the skills necessary to manage Once this decision has been made, re- a complete search and rescue operation. sist the temptation to go into the general Ifyouareconductingorienteering area where the lost person is suspected meets in areas where participants could of being. Since tracking dogs may be be lost for long periods of time, you used, do not allow anyone to touch any should avail yourself of their services. ORIENTEERING 107

Name _ _ Age Scx Race Ht Wt

Build Hair _ Length Other

Shut Sweater Jacket

Punts Shoes

Hat_ __ Gloves Glasses

Raingear Other

General Condition

Medical Problems

Psychological Problems

Handicaps Medication

Smoke'Dnnk Drugs

Outdoors Interest

Outgoing/Ouiet Hitchhike/ EverALI'Away/

Depression/ __ Give Up Keep Going

StopKsep Moving Other

Last seen Time _ - Place

By Whom - Direction

Reason for Leaving

Destination Pickup')

Unusual Behavior

Pack _ Tent Sleeping Bag

Food Dnnk Map Compass

Matches Flashlight Firearm Camera

Other

Outdoor Skills

Familiar with area/

Eve out overnight/ Ever Lost Before")

Trails/Crosscountry

Talk to Strangers/ Accept Rides/ If Lost

Specific Fears/Interests

Other _ _ _ _

Tendency to Hide') _

Old Haunts, Special Places Other __ _ _

Anything Else

Flg. 2. Missing person questionnaire. 110 108 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT They can be contacted by writing to 4. Have a club first aid kit with a list NASAR, P.O. Box 50178, Washington, of emergency numbers for the nearest DC, 20004. professional medical assistance, ambu- The United States Orienteering Fed- lance, sheriff's department, club mem- eration (P.O. Box 1444, Forest Park, bers with CPR and first-aid training, etc. Georgia 30051) was established in 1971 5. Have a prepared list 01 personnel to promote orienteering in the United able and willing to be part of an emer- States. It can put you in touch with a gency team. club in your area or help you start one if 6. Organize a group CPR and first- none is close by. Their magazine, Orien- aid course for club members. teering U.S.A., is published nine times a 7. Carry equipmenthelpfulina year and contains information on im- search in your car's glove compartment. proving orienteering skills, map mak- Items to include would 1`,e a whistle and ing, rules for competition, safety, and a Night-0 headlamp. orienteeringfordifferentages and 8. Have meet d;:ector know location skills. Belonging to USOF includes auto- of nearest telephone. matic membership in the International 9. Decide on the particular type of Orienteering Federation. At a recent communication control equipment to be convention workshop, the USOF pro- used in the meet area. (United States duced the following document. OrienteeringFederationWorkshop, 1986. Reprinted with permission.) In the event of an actual search it is SEARCH AND RESCUE absolutely essential that a search coordi- To avoid unnecessary searches the nator and a control center be set up. The organizing personnel should: duties of coordinator include coordina- 1. Make sure the meet area has clear tion of efforts with other groups (e.g., forest rangers), exact knowledge of the boundaries such as roads or rivers. search parties' locations, and recall of 2. Make certain that a person not the 3earchers. Knowledge of terrain will only has registered but has started the modify conditions and alter plans. course. 3. Know how manyparticipants As knowledge accumulates in search there are and have a brief individual techniques it should be shared with description, i.e., age, sex. other clubs and USOF. Orienteers at all 4. Make certain to impress upon all levels feel more secure knowing that meet participants the necessity to check their club can demonstrate expertise in searching (USOF, 1986). in even if the course is not finished. Most outdoor emergencies can be Recommendationsforpreliminary dealt with satisfactorily given the prop- meet preparations to insure a successful er training. The fact that students are in search and rescue: the field navigating with map and com- 1. Know your victim! A novice orien- pass means that they have a valuable teer is likely lost and may have wan- survival skill. They are also more likely dered far from the chosen course. An to go out on their own and venture experienced orienteer is likely injured further afield. The teacher who has giv- and near the route. en students the confidence to navigate 2. Require all orienteers to carry a through the wilderness should also be whistle. A different code for victim and sure that they know the importance of searchers must be decided on before- informing someone oftheir where- hand. abouts and carryins, certain emergency 3. Have some emergency instruc- supplies. Whether someone goes out tions for the orienteer incorporating alone or with a partner, a responsible common wisdom of steps to take when person should always be informed of lost. where they are going, what they are 111 ORIENTEERING 109 doing, and when they expect to be back. activity because it is enjoyable as well as Because the emphasis has been on educatijnal, and students find it both safety throughout th!s chapter, one challenging and satisfying. might get the impression that orienteer- ing is dangerous or risky, but this need not be the case. In over 15 years of conducting orienteering activitiesin- REFERENCES volving thousands of students, the au- Hugglestone, A. and Howard, J. (1983). Ori- thor has had no one seriously injured or ontee:ing. In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physi- even lost for a long period of time. cal education and sport for the secondary school However, knowing what to do should student (pp. 191-198). Reston, VA: The American Alliance for Health, Physical such emergencies arise c.^.ngive the Education, Recreation and Dance. teacher confidence to offer activities UnitedStatesOrienteeringFederation such as orienteeringthat otherwise (1986). Search and rescue. Workshop pre- might be avoided. From an instructional sented at the USOF convention, Plym- point of view, orienteering is an ideal outh, NH

112 CHAPTER 13

Racquet Sports

JOHN SMYTH The Citadel Charleston, SC

1 1 3 112 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT D acquet sport participation is grow- Rules should be established, commu- l% ing at a rapid rate. The injuries nicated, frequently repeated, and prom- associated with racquet sports, natural- inently posted. The reading level of the ly, are showing increases proportional students or players should be estab- to the growing participation. The most lished and the rules targeted at that common injuries in racquet sports have level. The rules must be modeled by the been to the eye, elbow and shoulder, instructor and enforced unilaterally. and the strains and sprains related to Where special populations or conditions poor conditioning and/orfailureto exist, rules must be modified to match warm up properly. Direct eye damage the activity to the participant. Printed from the ball, eye and facial damage handouts should be prepared and dis- from the racquet, tennis elbow, rotator tributed to each student. cuff tears, and swing-related bursitis Common sense rules in regard to re- and arthritis collectively form the r+ri- placing fluids, pacing oneself, attending mary concerns for the racquetport to one's body in instances of pain and player. fatigue, and wearing pr4.. per clothing and safety equipment are no less impor- SUPERVISION tant in racquet sports than in any other activity.Proper conditioning for the Proper supervision in racquet sports specific sport is a prerequisite. Other requires adequate planning, risk man- more subtle areas of safety include agement strategies, prudent judgment, knowing the competitive habits of your and elimination of site/equipment haz- opponent and resisting the overly ag- ards. The participant should be warned gressive "big play." Another safety of the inherent dangers of the activity measure might be limiting matches to as and any specific hazards. Pre-activity few players as possible, since cutthroat warning should be followed by regular and doubles generally produce more oral reminders and posted visual aids injuries than singles. listing safety measures in a manner ap- Organizationalcontrolshould be propriate to participants. demonstrated by professionally trained personnel who can observe the playing SELECTION AND CONDUCT OF area to determine that conduct and safe- THE ACTIVITY ty rules are followed. Through plan- ning, the instructor should provide for The instructional curriculum should reasonable participant/space ratios and be educationally sound. One character- practice formations which include ade- istic of good teaching is the identifica- quate space for swing planes and ball tion of and provision for a learning flight. Racquetball and squash courts progression.Racquetsportsrequire are logically supervised from an elevat- proper throwing mechanics which can ed vantage point to provide an overall transfer to hitting mechanics. The par- view, but the instruction generally must ticipant should demonstrate physical be conducted on a court-by-court basis. and psychological readiness in all areas. This can create supervision concerns in Physical readiness should include prop- the remainder of the courts. It is critical, er warm-up, satisfactory health, dem- therefore, that students be taught to onstrated fitness levels, demonstrated accept responsibility for their own wel- performance in prerequisite neuromus- fare, as well as relying on the guidance cular skills, and proper post-activity of the teacher. cool down routines. Psychological read- iness includes the player's ability to act THE PLAYING ENVIRONMENT responsibly in competitive situations, to enjoy the participation, and to grow The playing environment is a primary from positive interactions with part- concern for the racquet sport instructor. ners, opponents, and mentors. The playing courts need to be free of all 114 RACQUET SPORTS 113 extraneous equipment, including main- to the eyes. Tennis balls measure from tenance and sports items. The playing 6.25 to 6.57 centimeters in diameter and surface should be flat, well-groomed, reach speeds of 50 to 85 miles per hour and its composition such that safe foot- as they cross the net. The size of the ing is provided. There should be no tennis ball makes it less likely to enter protrusions from side walls or fences, the eye socket, but the ball's texture and especially at player or racquet level. The the dirt it collects make corneal abrasion court layout should provide for a safe more likely than with a racquet ball. playing area, adequate intercourt space, Racquet related injuries in tennis and and ample baseline area off court. There badminton are not as prevalent as in should be a plan for players and observ- squash and racquetball. This may be ers to move to and from the playing due to the more confined area and courts. Facility guides give official court multi-directional swing planes created dimensions and give suggestions for the by the four wall court games. Ball design of active court areas and the speeds in racquetball can reach 125 necessary inter- and off -court space. miles per hour. The smaller ball in Writtenpoliciesandprocedures squash (1.56-1.75 centimeters) and the should include the court maintenance more pliable racquetball fit into the orbit procedures,safety inspection proce- of the eye and create an increased prob- dures, use policies, equipment mainte- ability of ocular injury. There are more nance procedures, and participation injuries from the racquet in squash than agreement forms. Court maintenance in racquetball because of the great- documents should reveal the surface er racquet length and the somewhat treatment schedule, cleaning or clearing shorter court. schedule, and the itemized mainte- As a result of these dangers, eye- nance checklist. The safety inspection guard lenses and frames have been the procedures should include a time table, subject of considerable investigation. key element precautions, and some in- Although development in the protective dication of the personnel responsible for devices has been an Griping process, safety in the area. Use policies should there is still room for improvement in indicate eligible users, conditions, risks, design and materials. The weakness of hours of use, and user responsibility. the open eyeguards is that they do not The equipment should be checked regu- prevent thepenetration of a com- larlyfor deterioration, damage, and pressed ball between the rims into the compliance with manufacturer mainte- orbit of the eye. Hardened glass, while nancesuggestions.Theparticipant more protective than regular glass, is agreement should include the primary still subject to shattering when the lens risks, inherent safety concerns, and a has been scratched. Plastic streetwear place for the player or responsible adult glasses are not generally break resistant to indicate an awareness of the stated in spite of the widespread perception to concerns and give consent to play with the ccntrary. The wrap-around eye- that understanding. guards with lateral coverage atid protec- tive frame for the nose appear to pro- vide safer protection than the open AVOIDING COMMON INJURIES model. Models utilizing a polycarbonate lens have been demonstrated to resist EYEINJURIES ball contacts up to 100 miles per hour. The aspect of ocular injury is the The CR-39 prescription lens should be greatest hazard in racquet sports. The of industrial thickness (3 mm) at the National Society to Prevent Blindness center, or a polycarbonate lens should reports that 10% of all sports related eye be used. The primary weakness of the injuries are incurred in racquet sports. bubble and wrap-around guards ap- In Malaysia, where badminton is a pop- pears to be one of ventilation. ular sport, two-thirds of all injuries ail Eyeguards suffer from people's per- 1 15 114 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ception of problems with restricting pe- ally tennis players. Tennis elbow is not ripheral vision, being unattractive, and/ a new problem; in fact,it was first or being uncomfortable. It is because of described in medical journals in 1863. these perceptions that players often will Even now it is thought that approxi- not voluntarily wear the guards, with mately '/3 of all tennis players experi- the exception of those who have previ- ence this condition at some point in ously suffered injuries. Predictably, it is their playing careers. Proper swing me- the unprotected player who is injured chanics is good preventive medicine for most often. The teacher,therefore, tennis elbow. The proper swing me- must take the lead in guaranteeing play- chanics should include a backswing in- er safety by requiring the use of proper volving the rotation of the trunk, with eye protection. the upper arm close to the body and the The degree of experience in racquet- forearm in the pronated position. Upon ball play does not seem to affect the impact and during the follow-through, probability of eye injury. One reason for the player should generate external ro- this may be that novice players, while tation with shoulder abduction. As the less controlled in their movement, tend trunk unwinds, the elbow is extended to watch the front wall; more skilled while the racquet is held with a fixed players, while exposed to higher ball wrist from a pronated forearm. fhis speeds, seldom take their eyes away pronated position is thought to be the from the ball. A very common safety most stable for the forearm. The for- problem in racquetball and squash oc ward transfer of weight occurs with the curs when the front court player faces forward momentum ofthe racquet the back wall as his opponent returns a head. The two-handed backhand may shot. Another potential eye injury is a -Iso reduce the incidence of tennis el- richochet from a racquet or off a back or .,ow by forcing the proper shoulder turn side wall. and spreading the shock of contact Players should concentrate on court through both arms, thereby decreasing awareness: their position in relation to the force on either arm. Off center hits, the walls, their racquet, their opponent, frequency of play, grip strength, string and his or her racquet. When there is tension, grip size, racquet head size, any danger of striking an opp-ment, a court surface, shock from returning "hinder" should be called and the point powerful strokes, and ball weight have replayed. Court awareness is particular- all been related to the incidence of ten- ly important in avoiding the hinder and nis elbow. the danger inherent in that situation. The occurrence of shoulder injury in Although eye injuries in tennis are racquet sports is most common in the somewhat less frequent than in the overhead strokes, primarily the serve. closed court racquet sports, awareness In tennis, rotator cuff tears and subacro- of potential eye hazards is important. mial impingement ar' two of the most The probability of eye injury in tennis common injuries associated with this increases as the player approaches the tendonitis-related problem. The throw- net. The speed of the ball and the re- ing action and the trauma of continued duced reaction time are contributing contact can aggravate this condition. factors in this situation.

ELBOW AND SHOULDER INJURIES CHECKLIST FOR SAFETY Recurrent microstress of the elbow is known more commonly as "tennis el- Tables 1-4 should help in developing bow." This name is used even though and implementing a safe and effective probably less than five percent of those instructional program in the racquet who suffer from the condition are actu- sports. 116 RACQUET SPORTS 115

TABLE 1 Tennis Elbow Checklist

STROKE MECHANICS DO DON'T Use a two-hand backhand Lead with elbow on backhand Use a shoulder turn Swing with arm only Use a pronated forearm position Use a supinated forearm stroke

EQUIPMENT TIPS DO Use an oversized racquet (larger sweet spot) Reduce stnng tension Use the proper gnp size (larger grip size reduces wristplay) Use a lightweight ball for practice Play on softest surfaces possible

PLAYING TIPS DO Play less frequently if tennis elbow symptoms appear Play with an opponent who doesn't continually use "power" strokes Work to increase grip strength and flexibility Use a counterforce brace Practice proper stroke mechanics Develop and maintain proper conditioning

TREATMENT NOTES DO Use anti-inflammatory medication as prescribed Heat elbow pnor to playing Ice elbow with massage after playing Waitsurgery is generally not advocated until after a 6 to 9 month rest period followed bya rehabilitative exercise program and possibly prescribed injections Surgery is not a first step

1 1 7 116 PkiNCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

TABLE 2 Badminton Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT Check Racquets proper string tension safe grip tightly wound tacky/not slippery no loose, broken, or missir.g parts cracks in head cracks in shaft Check Shuttlecocks (Birds) no sharp feather quills or sharp protruding plastic balanced shape (proper flight symmetry) proper weight for environment (indoor/outdoor) Check Net and Standards net secured properly standards adequately weightel or anchored Check Court floor clean and dry (adequate traction) lines ^Wady marked plapi.g area free of extraneous equipment

PRACTICE Allow adequate space between players for swing formations Allow for safe distance in stroke practice Use fleece balls when appropriate Stretch the major muscle groups generally and the upper arm and shoulder specifically

GAME SITUATION Match the players by ability Provide recommended space around the court Make eyeguards available and encourage their use Assist the players in gaining and maintaining proper level of conditioning for cc,..wetition

118 RACQUET SPORTS 117

TABLE 3 Racquetball and Squash Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT Check Racquet proper string tension safe griptightly wound, tacky/not slippery no loose, broken, or missing parts cracks in head cracks in shaft check wrist thong (racquetball only) test the tensile strength of the thong test the knot/connection of the thong provide and require eyeguards lens materialpolycarbonate recommended, if CR-39 is used, require 3mm thickness at center do not allow street eyewear for protection do not use eyeguards without lenses type use lens model use wrap-a-round model protect eyes and nose avoid temporal hinges ballcheck for proper pressure, keep ball clean and dry court check door for fit and security leave all non-essential equipment outside of the court be sure the floor is clean and dry

PRACTICE Establish safe drills check swing space for all drills check ball path for all drills establish ball retrieval strategy establish court communication responsibilities Require eyeguards Require thong (racquetball only)

PLAY Require eyeguards Stretch major muscle groups and specific swinging muscles Avoid hinders; Call hinders, if unavoidable Play under control, don't be aggressive beyond skill level Face the front wall Swing under control Use the wrist thong (racquetball only) Use proper swing mechanics Play the ball from low position to low target Play singles rather than cutthroat (3 players) or doubles (4 players) and cutthroat rather than doubles to reduce risk from other players Wear the proper shoes (thick soles) Call waming "coming around" (back corner shot in squash only) Use a short follow through toward the front wall Avoid contact with the walls Communicate with partner and opponents Don't misuse the rule loophole of playing the ball off an opponent Gain and maintain the proper level of conditioning for competition 119 118 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

TABLE 4 Tennis Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT Racquet check string tension (reduce to ease or help prevent tennis elbow) grip characteristics tightly wound tacky /not slippery proper size (increase to ease or help prevent tennis elbow) head size (increase to ease or help prevent tennis elbow) no loose, broken, or missing parts cracked head cracked throat wom or broken strings Balls proper pressure proper nap proper weight (reduce to ease or help prevent tennis elbow) keep clean and dry Net and Standards net secured properly standards adequately weighted or anchored Court surface clean, responsive, and level (slower to ease or help prevent tennis elbow) lines clearly marked sufficient border space around/between courts Shoes suitable tread thick soles

PRACTICE Use proper stroke mechanics Use safe formations adequate swing room in drill iormations safe distance from ball in stroke formations StrOch '.ne major muscle groups general:y and the upper arms and shoulders specifically

PLAY Match the skill levels of the players Approach the net only when under control Use proper swing mechanics Replace fluids lost during play Stretch the major muscle groups generally and the upper arms and shoulders specifically Play within skill and conditioning limits Develop and maintain proper level of conditioning for competition

1 2 0 RACQUET SPORTS 119

REFERENCES Sportsrelated eye injuriesforselected sports. (1980). National Society for the Bemhang, A. (1979). The many causes of Prevention of Blindness. 1. tennis elbow. New York Journal of Medicine, Priest, J. D. (1982). Elbow injuries insports. 79(9), 1363-6. Minnesota Medicine, 65(9), 543-545. Cofield, R. H. and Simonet, W. T. (1984). Smyth, J. P. (1983). Racquetball/Handball. The shoulder in sports. Mayo Clinic Pro- In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education ceedings, 59(3), 157-63. and sport for the secondary school student :pp. Cooney, W. P., III (1984). Sports injuries to 223-233). Reston, VA: The American Alli- the upper extremity: How to recognize ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- and deal with some common problems. reation and Dance. Postgraduate Medicine, 76(4), 45-50. Soderstrom,C. A. and Doxanas, M. T. Doxanas, M. T. and Soderstrom, C. (1980) (1982). Racquetball: A game withprevent- Racquetball as an ocular hazard. Archives able injuries. The American Jot --nal of Sports Ophthalmology, 98(11), 195-6. Medicine, 10(3), 180-183. Easterbrook, M. (1981). Eye injuries in racket Stamford, B. (1986). Can you get fit playing sports. International Ophthalmology Clinic, racket sports? The Physician and Sportsmedi- 21(4), 87-119. cine, 14(1), 208. Feiglman, M. J.,Sugar, J., Jednock, N., Stotlar, D. and Lasley, D. (1985). Racquetball Read, J. S., and Johnson, P. L.(1983). eye injuries: An analysis of student atti- Assessment of ocular protection for rac- tudes and behaviors. National Intramural- quetball. Journal of the American Medical Recreational Sports Association Journal, 10(1), Association, 250(24), 3305-9. 16-18. Kohn, H. S. (1984). Current status and treat- Vinger, P. F. (1986). How Imanage corneal ment of tennis elbow Wisconsin Medical abrasions and lacerations. The Physician Journal, 83(3), 18-19. and Sportsmedicine, 14(5), 179.

121 CHAPTER 14

Self-defense

KENNETH TILLMAN Trenton State College Trenton, NJ

4

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122 122 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT he key to safety in a self- def'inse ing, and throwing are skills that are Tclass is to instill, in each student, used in self-defense.Itis,therefore, the proper attitude toward the activity. iinFortant that students know how to Students must have a different view of fall and develop a good kinesthetic self-defense than they have of other sense. This must precede practicing the activities that are included in a physical advanced techniques. education program. Basketball, tum- bling, wrestling, dance, and other sport SUPERVISION skills are learned to provide enjoyment and develop competency in performing An instructor will significantly reduce an activity for recreational and/or com- the possibility of injury by carefully su- petitive purposes. The goal is to use the per'ising each participant during the skills that are learned. In self-defense it self-defense class. This means that the is hoped that many of the techniques entire class will be in view and estab- will never be used. The skills are not lished practice procedures will be ad- learned f-,t use in a competitive situa- hered to at all times. Strict control is tion with friends or in an interscholastic critical for this activity because the skills athletic setting. The dangerous nature that are being learned are designed to of attacking and retaliatory self-defense disable an antagonist.Itis therefore skills mandates that students know that necessary to enforcepractice proce- these skills are to be used only when dures that provide safety for members someone's safety is threatened and they of the class, both when executing a skill must not be used with full force in the and when simulating the attack. practice situation. Aggressiveness must be controlled Students must have ingrainedin when practicing dangerous tactics. The them an understanding of the serious instructor needs to be in a position to consequences that can resultif they observe all groups as they practice. approach the learning of self-defense Appropriate instructorsupervision skills in a flippant manner. They must requires the following: accept the fact that the skills they are 1. An instructor must be in the activi- learning can cause serious injury and ty area at all times when students are even death. They must follow all safety present. precautions established in the class. 2. P-, activity area that provides an As part of the instructional approach, unoLstructed view of all participants is the teacher must emphasize that self- important. defense skills should be used only as a 3. The instructor must be aware of last resort technique. Avoidance of dan- each student throughout the class. gerous situaii,,ns, fleeing when threat- 4. The instructo- should be with stu- ened, and discouraging an assailant dents who are trying difficult skills for must precede the use of physical force. the first time. This concept is important for students 5. The instructor should be knowl- to accept if they are to participate safely. edgeable in all the skills that are being A macho attitude has no place in a self- taught and insure that proper progres- defense class. sions are being followed. The tenor of the class should be that 6. Students should be taught how to of helping each other develop skills, not assist their partners when practicing competing against another person. The skills. Student understanding of the in- skills are being developed, not for sport, tricacies and dangers of the skills will but for protection Practice must be safe, increase overall class safety and assist even though the techniques will be the instructor in carrying out superviso- damaging to an assailant if they are ry responsibilities. used in a life threatening situation. 7. It is important that the instructor Classes are structured to maximize knows the capabilities of each student safeguards against injury. Falling, strik- in. th..; class and adjusts class require- 123 1 SELF-DEFENSE 123 ments to the psychological and motor The self-defense skill that is being readiness of the students. learned will dictate the safety procedure 8. Students must be comfortable with that should be followed. There are cer- the instructor and be willing to seek tain guidelines that apply at all times assistance when needed. and others that are specific to special- 9. The instructional area must be ca- ized tactics such as delivering a blow or pable of being secured when class is not throwing an attacker. in session. 10. Students should be permitted to practice self-defense techniques only in GENERAL properly matted areas. 1. Each session should begin with 11. Detailed lesson plans should be warm-ups. Many self-defense tactics re- prepared and followed during each quireexplosiveaction and sudden class period. n ovements. Warm-up is important to 12. Potential dangers, both in the en- prevent muscle pulls and ready the vironmental setting for the class and in body for strenuous activity. the class presentation, should be elimi- 2. Students must be physically capa- nated as part of the class planning proc- ble of handling the rigors of executing ess. self-defense techniques. A physical fit- ness unit is a good preliminary step to starting a self-defense class. SELECTION AND CONDUCT 3. Incorporate physical fitness into OF THE ACTIVITY your self-defense unit so the students will have strength, flexibility, and mus- Careful planning needs to be done in cle suppleness to minimize the possibili- the selection of skills that will be incor- ty of injury. porated into a self-defense unit. Self- 4. Competency inbasictumbling defense tactics are designed for protec- skills is a prerequisite to learning falling tion from a violent action and to thwart and throwingtechnique:.Students an attacker; they are not governed by should, at a minimum, be able to do rules designed for safe participation. It forward, backward, shoulder and for- is particularly important, therefore, that ward dive rolls. the activity be conducted using special- 5. Tapping is the universal signal to ized safety procedures. This poses an stop. This signal must be respected by interesting dichotomy. Skills are select- all members of the class and the hold ed because of their potential to disable broken immediately if a participant taps an attacker, and yet the teaching proce- the mat, partner, or herself/himself. dure must be designed to provide extra 6. Establish safety rules and make protection to make the learning process sure e-o rules are understood and fol- safe. lowea. It needs to be further emphasized that 7. Emphasis should not be on trying the student's attitude toward this unit is to prove that moves work, but rather on critical. The student must accept the fact learning the techniques. that self-defense tactics are to be used 8. Proper progression is important. for protection from imminent danger to Start with basic skills and use these as oneself or someone else. The student the basis for more advanced techniques. must treat the skills in a serious fashion 9. Regularly review basic skills to de- before they can be practiced safely. velop a firm foundation for the more Many self-defense skills can never be difficult self-defense tactics. practiced with full force. They are prac- 10. Demand that students follow in- ticed in a simulated fashion and used struction consistently. Horseplay can- with full intensity only in the event that not be condoned. the student is in a situation where per- 11. The only techniques that should sonal safety or life is threatened. 124include contact with a partner are those 129 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT which do not involve inherent risk of BLOWS injury. 1. Do not allow physical contact with 12. Practice in a large area on surfaces a partner. This includes hand and foot having at least the resilency of a wres- blows. tling mat. 2. Use padded dummies and other 13. The instructor should be able to safe substitute targets such as play- demonstrate each skill thatis being ground balls when practicing blows. taught. It is important that the instruc- 3. Use imaginary opponents when tor know the dangers of each skill and using full force. be able to effectively impart this infor- 4 Make extensive use of simulation mation to the students. drillswhenpracticingthevarious 14. Work slowly when learning tech- blows. niques. The skill must be learned before 5. Emphasize the destructive nature movements can be controlled during of the blows that are being learned and practice. Speed should be increased the importance of treating dangerous only as control is developed. techniques with respect. 15. Never force a student to attempt a 6. Remember: never try to prove that skill. Be sure the student has the neces- a disabling blow works. Emphasize sary background before moving to new learning correct techniques for maxi- skills. mum effect. 16. Do not permit the wearing of jew- elry or other assessories during a self- defense class. HOLDS 17. Comfortable physical education 1. Never allow students to apply full clothing that does not have buckles, force to a hold. snaps, or other items that can cause 2. Do not allow the use of fast or injury should be worn. Sneakers are the jerky motions on an unsuspecting part- recommended footwear. ner. 18. Safety and emergency procedures 3. Be sure the partner is aware of the. must be established and understood by hold and knows how to react to prevent the students. There should be access to injury. a telephone and emergency numbers 4. Instruct the class members to al- should be posted. ways go with the leverage when a hold is being applied. 5. Stop immediately when one part- FALLING ner taps to indicate pain. 1. Be sure that the students know how to do forward, backward, shoul- THROWS der, and forward dive rolls before teach- 1. Students should be thrown only ing falls. after they have learned falling tech- 2. Practice on thick mats to protect niques and are able to fall correctly. from injury. 2. Simulate the throws many times 3. Develop proper form by practicing before using a pa tner. Learn proper each fall slowly. Speed up as the proper throwing techniques thoroughly. technique is learn.. Learn the correct 3. Partners should be of a weight that procedures to minimize impact when the student can safely control when landing on the mat. learning a throw. 4. Follow proper progression when 4. Gradually increase the size of op- learnmg to fall. ponents as a student's skill increases. 5. Start falling from a low position 5. Control skills are exceptionally im- (kneeling or squatting) and gradually portant when making throws. Partici- increase the distance until the fall can be pants must be able to control their part- executed from a standing position. fes5body when throwing her/him to SELF-DEFENSE 125 the mat. Throws should be executed 7. Extra mats, including those of 6" gently and never with full force. and 8" in thickness, should be available 6. Instruct students as to when they when practicing falls and throws. should release their grip to prevent a 8. The mat area must be cleaned reg- partner from falling incorrectly. ularly. 7. Gradually increase the pace of the throws. EQUIPMENT 8. Make certain that there is a mini- 1. Partially deflated volleyballs and mum of 75 square feet per pair of stu- playgroundballswithtargetareas dents when practicing throws. Other marked on them should be available for students must stay away from this area practicing various blows. when throws are being pi.? -ticed. 2. Punching bags, hand pads, block- ing shields, tackling dummies, pillows ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS and rolled sleeping bags are examples of equipment that should be available for Safe surroundings are important for students to use when practicing. every physical education activity. The 3. Small exercise mats should be pro- vigorous action that takes place in a self- vided so they can be rolled and used defense class mandates an environment when practicing blows and throws. that will protect each student to the 4. Rules of conduct and safety and highest reasonable degree. emergency procedures should be clearly posted in the practice area. PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS 1. An unobstructed matted area is CONCLUSION needed. It is recommended that the mat have the resilency of at least a wrestling Self-defense techniques are valuable mat. skills for students to learn. Even though 2. The size of the class will determine the emphasis of this class is different the mat size that is needed. For some from other physical education classes activities, such as throws, it might be which key on sport, exercise and/or necessary to rotate groups to provide rhythms, the course makes a significant appropriate safety parameters. contribution to each student's education 3. Ten foot circles, such as those by developing self confidence and pre- painted on some practice wrestling paring them to handle dangerous situa- mats, are ideal to use to keep satisfac- tions. Itis very important, however, tory space between groups when prac- that the safety guidelines that are cov- ticing. ered in this chapter be followed so this 4. Wrestling rooins which have pad- physical education experience will be ded walls make good locationsfor safe as well as benefal teaching self-defense classes. REFERENCE 5. It is best to have one complete mat with the different sections taped togeth- Tillman, K. G. (1983). Self-defense. In N 1. Dougherty (Ed.),Physical education and er. Do not have small individual mats sport for the secondary school student (pp. placed on the floor. 201-220). Reston, VA. The American Alli- 6. Any obstructions in the self-de- ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- fense practice area should be matted. reation and Dance.

126 CHAPTER 15

Soccer

JOHN FELLENBAUM McCaskey High School Lancaster, PA

127 128 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ailed the world's most popular B. Prevention L. sport, soccer, as we know it, is not 1. Avoid dangerous collisions as foreign to the Americas as one might think. Written reports from Boston dur- Blisters ing the 1600s refer to soccer, and actual- A. Area most affected ly ban it from being played in the streets 1. Feet due to the injuries incurred by the par- B. Prevention ticipants. As the years progressed, soc- 1. Conditioning of feet cer went through various modifications 2. Properly fitting shoes tending towards the more violent forms 3. Wearing two pair of socks of rugby and American football. These 4. Tape over the tender areas setbackswereeventuallyovercome 5. Use lubricant on friction area with President Theodore Roosevelt's 6. Use powder to reduce moisture White House conference aimed at curb- ing the American form of violent rugby- Straindamage to tendon or muscle caused football, and with incv-asing contact by overuse or overstress with Europeans and other peoples of A. Area most affected the world. Soccer has slowly and steadi- 1. Lower extremities,especially ly made its way into the ranks of a the gastrocnemius muscle, Achil- national sport. Today, the soccer rebirth les tendon, and patellar tendon in the United States is phenomenal. B. Prevention Youths from coast to coast are playing 1. Adequate fitness training this relatively simple team sport and 2. Sufficient warm-up parents are enjoying the advantages of 3. Restrictive taping watching their children engage in a sport which is healthy for their bodies Sprainstretching or tearing of ligament and relatively gentle on their pocket- beyond its normal limits. books. A. Area most affected Unfortunately, when you have a 1. Ankle and knee areas game where little equipment is used B. Prevention and successful play depends primarily 1. Adequate fitness training on body stamina, injuries will happen. 2. Sufficient warm-up Following is a list of common soccer 3. Restrictive taping injuries, the body parts most often af- 4. Use of braces fected, and suggestions for their pre- 5. Avoid dangerous situations vention. Heat Exhaustionrapid, weak pulse, light- COMMON SOCCER INJURIES headedness, faintness, profuse sweating, dis- orientation. Abrasionsscraping of the skin. A. Prevention A. Area most affected 1. Adequate fitness training 1. All parts of the body especially 2. Regular water breaks every 15 the legs to 20 minutes B. Prevention 3. Plenty of water before play be- 1. Use safe and well-maintained gins equipment 4. Don't play in excessive heat 2. Avoid unsafe playing areas and humidity 3. Avoid dangerous play Contusionsbruising of the skin and under- lying tissue. As in any sport, soccer does have its A. Area most affected injuries, but many can be minimized by 1. All parts especially the quadri- proper attention to safety standards set ceps 121the instructor. SOCCER 129 SUPERVISION or remain inside. A wet field can be extremely slippery and lead to unneces- A. Proper attention should be given sary injuries. to the health status of the students have them complete a health form. LESSON PLANS 1. Be aware of present physical problemssuchasfractures, A. Since soccer is aerobic in nature, sprains, strains, etc. begin each lesson with warm-up activi- 2. Be aware of health history, e.g. ties and conclude with a cool-down. diabetes, allergies, asthma, etc. 1. Warm-up(slow stretching ex- B. Medical equipment should be ercises no ballistic type). A thor- available at all times. ough warm-up stretches all parts 1. First aid kits should be avail- of the body to prepare for activity, able including telephone numbers stimulates the body systems, and of the police, ambulance, rescue diminishes the chance of injury. squad, etc. 2. Cool-downexercises that C. If an injury occursthe teacher gradually slow activity after in- should provide first aid only. tense exertion speed recovery time 1. First aid training should be a for the body and return the circu- must latory system to pre-exercise state. 2. Never diagnose unless quali- B. Be aware of the conditioning and fied fitness level of your students. Soccer is 3. Never permit the student to an endurance spor. Consider having a play through pain. Let pain be the fitness and conditioning unit before the guidepain isnature's way of soccer unit. Incorporate fitness and con- telling us something is wrong and ditioning into your soccer unit lesson to continue playing would only plans. Develop strength, endurance, aggravate the situation. and flexibility in the areas most vulnera- D. Never allow a student who has ble to injury. had a serious illness or injury to rejoin C. Stress the proper progression of class without a written note from the skills, to include: doctor. 1. Fundamental technique E. Record the nature, circumstances, Learn and practice skills with little time, date, treatment, and follow-up of or no movement around the field. all injuries. 2. Match related skillsPerform F. Never allow students to be with- learned skills with movement. out supervision while in the gymnasi- 3. Match conditionsPerform um or on the field. learned skills in a game situation. G. No climbing or hanging from the D. Proper instruction of skills is a nets or goal posts should be allowed. must. Explain the skills; demonstrate H. Encourage good sportsmanship the skills; and make sure everyone un- within the classroom structure. Stress derstands the skills. the development of student self-control E. Analyze the drills and teaching during competition. methods used with students' safety ut- I.Officiate games or instruct others most in mind. to officiate as fairly as possible with F. Provide ways and methods of safety of the students *An mind. practicing skills that are fun and moti- J.Adapt the rules to the age and skill vating. This insures proper learning of level of the students. skills and better body and ball control. K. Constantly stress the rules of soc- G. Provide ample feedback to the stu- cer with the realization that safety is dents regarding their technique. Allow promoted through rules. sufficient practice time to improve skills. L. Consider the weather and its effect H. The maximum number of students on the field in the decision to go outside per team should be kept as dose to the 129 130 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

TABLE I Recommended ball Sizes

Age Ball Size Circumference Weight Players under 6 yrs #3 23"-24" 8 to 10 ounces Players 6 yrs. to 11 yrs. #4 25"-26" 11 to 13 ounces Players 12 yrs. and over #5 27"-28" 14 to 16 ounces

rules (11) as possible allowing for less of a different color than the team confusion and injury during play. The shirt. A long-sleeved and long- United States Youth Soccer Association legged outfit will protect the goalie recommends smaller team numbers for from abrasions and contusions younger players. Instead of 11 vs. 11, while diving for the ball. The dif- play 6 vs. 6 or 7 vs. 7. ferent color shirt will help other A teacher's responsibility for safety players recognize the goalie. extends beyond the actual lesson or E. Soccer Ball. play to involve the equipment and envi- 1. The ball should be sized to fit ronment in which the instruction takes the age of the students for setter place. ball control. It should be inflated to the recommended pressure for EQUIPMENT proper ball control and less injury to the body when heading and A. Shirts. collecting. 1. Shirtsorscrimmagevests 2. Use smaller lighter ballsfor should be of different colors for younger players. Table 1 gives rec- each team. This prevents confu- ommendations for ball sizes for sion and helps prevent collisions. the various age groups. B. Shoes. 3. The ball may be constructed of 1. Sneakers should be used for a variety of materials. For outdoor indoor play. use, a leather or rubber coated ball 2. The following alternatives ap- (less expensive and more durable) plywhenplayingoutdoors: is recommended. Indoors, an in- sneakers;allpurposeathletic door soccer ball, nerf ball or slight- shoes; soccer shoes with molded ly deflated outdoor soccer ball or cleats. All of the above are soft volleyball is appropriate. types of shoes to keep injuries to a minimum. Cleated shoes are ideal because they provide better trac- FIELD tion and less slipping. C. Shinguards. A.Size. 1. Shinguards are a must for class- 1. For players under 12 years of room competition. They provide age, the use of a smaller field with safety by decreasing injuries in the smaller dimensions is highly rec- shin area. ommended. 2. Shinguards comeinseveral B. Playing Area. sizes and should be sized to fit the 1. The grounds should be free of students. holes, ruts, glass, sticks, stones, D. Goalie Uniform. etc. 1.Suggest wearing a long-sleeved 2. The goalposts should be free of and long-legged outfit (sweat suit) hooks and protrusions and should 130 SOCCER 131

be secure. There should be no REFERENCES loose bolts or connections. Chyzowych, W. k1979). The official soccer book 3. A reasonable "buffer zone" of of the United States Soccer Federation Chica- unobstructedspaceshouldbe go, New York, and San Francisco Rand maintained around the playing McNally. field. Cramer. D. (1970). United States Soccer Foot- 4. Daily inspection of the area be- ball Association coaches manual. New York fore classes begin will protect stu- United States Soccer Federation. dents from unnecessary injury Fecht. G. (1979) The complete parents' guide to due to unsafe playing fields. soccer. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear. Fellenbaum, J. (1983). Soccer. In N. J. Dou- gherty (Ed.). Physical education and sport for CONCLUSION the secondary school student (pp. 235-249). Reston, VA: The American Alliance for Prudent and reasonable care in fol- Health, Physical Education, Recreation lowing the safety rules outlined in the and Dance. previous pages will help to prevent in- United States Olympic Committee Sports juries in the soccer program. This is Medicine Council. (1985, January). The medical aspects of soccer. National Soccer important not only for the safety of the Coaches Association of America and Unit- students, but for the protection of the ed States Soccer Federation. instructor against liability. Planning for Woog, D. (1986). "Prudent coaches keep safety is a prerequisite to any soccer game on field and out of court." Soccer program. America, July 31, 1986, p. 11.

13i CHAPTER 16

Softball

DIANE BONANNO Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ

PATRICIA PETERS and SONIA REG ALADO East Brunswick H;gii School East Brunswick, NJ

132 134 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCA ITC"' AND SPORT oftball is truly one our our great speaks for itself. Second, and not as Snational pastimes. In addition to the obv.ous, is that we instill in them a organized leagues sponsored by school carer less attitude about safety, which can systems and recreation departmerts, be just as debilitating as asking them to there are literally hundreds of thou- catch without a mask. sands of "pick-up" games played each Safety is everyone's responsibility, at year. Indeed, beach parties, family pic- alltimes. Whether we're coaching a nics, company outings, and school field sport, teaching a class, or playing a days are all fertile ground for a "couple "pick-up" game of softball, taking pre- of innings of ball." cautions is part of the game. Widespreadparticipationinthis sport, though, has its advantages and SUPERVISION disadvantages in terms of safety. Active league play has resulted in numerous Supervision refers to the ability of the changes to rules, equipment, and play- teacher or coach to monitor the activity ing field conditions which have contrib- that is occuring. Following are guide- uted immeasurably to insuring the safe- lines which should be kept in mind ty and well being of the player. Unfortu- when planning for effective instructor nately, very few of these improvements supervision. have filtered down to the "pick-up" game or in some cases the physical THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF education class or intramural league. In SUPERVISION NEEDED these instances,familiarity with the A. Instruction in softball should only sport seems to be our worst enemy in be provided by individuals who are regard to safety. knowledgeable in: Familiarity with softball appears to 1. The rules of tae sport, especialiy breed carelessness. While we insist on as it is played by the age group having gloves and catcher's masks worn they are supervising. at the varsity game on Friday afternoon, 2. The mechanics of the skills espe- we sometimes find it a nuisance to re- cially those which place a player at quire the same gear for players in our greater risk, such as sliding. class on Friday morning. Why? Is one 3. The teaching techniques which are set of students at less risk than the used to provide safe instruction. other? The answer is obviously no. The 4. The teaching progressions for each only thing that is different is our atti- skill, especially as they apply to tude. the age and ability level of the In our minds, the game I ayed by the players. varsity is fraught with risi.. Anything 5. The potential hazards inherent in can happen when playing another team the sport. on another field. We view the games 6. Thecare andmaintenanceof played in our classes, however, quite equipment. differently. What can happen? we ask 7.Firstaid and emergency proce- ourselves. It's only a game for funit's dures only a "pick-up" game among friends. Are all the precautions necessary be- B. As a general rule, the ratio of tween friends? students to teacher should be smaller Yes, all the precautions are neces- when the students are beginners or saryeven among friends. Accidents when new and potentially hazardous can happen at anytime. Our only de- skills, such as sliding or batting, are fense is to be prepared. If we take safety being taught. In these instances the lightly in our classes or during intra- teacher/coach can improve the teacher/ murals, we are doing our students a student ratio by: disservice in two ways. First, we place 1. Dividing the group into small units, where each unit is given an them at greater risk than need be, which143 SOFTBALL 135 assignment which can be safely she can be spotted easily. self-directed.This should allow 2. Rotate the group through his/ the teacher/coach to move from her location. unit to unit to introduce thenew 3. Announce a change of position skill under conditions which per- before moving. mit better supervision. F. Bats, balls, or other equipment 2. Teaching students to provide which may create an attractive nuisance feedback on a skill. Students who for a child/player should not be leftout are chosen for this task must be if an instructor is not available topro- trained and tested by the instruc- vide supervision. tor to be sure they have a thor- G. Policies should hr developedcon- ough knowledge of the subject cerning potentially hazardous activities, matter. Providing the student as e.g., sliding, baserunning, and catch- sistant with written material is ing. The policy should take into consid- also helpful. eration: ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL 1. The ability of the player. 2. The instruction provided. A. Instructors should station them- 3. The type of playingarea pro- selves at the area of highest risk. As a vided. gencral rule, a high-risk areacan be 4. The quality and quantity ofsu- defined as one in which a new skill is pervision provided. being learned, a highly complex skill is 5. The type of softball game being being learned or practiced, or one in played (e.g. fast pitch, slow pitch, which a group of novicesor poorly 16-inch softball). skilled players is practicing. H. Safety rules that reflect the type of B. Be sure student assistants orman- softball being played should becom- agers are well instructed in the duties piled and presented to thegroup at the you expect them to perform. Two words beginning of the unit and reviewedpe- of caution: student assistants should be riodically throughout theseason. Fol- reviewed periodically for effectiveness; lowing are general rules which apply to and they should never be asked toas- all situations and should be includedon sume responsibilities for high risk areas. any list. C. Softball fields provide wideopen areas. Instructors should be sure that GENERAL SAFETY RULES the activities they are conductingare FOR SOFTBALL placed in such a way that: 1. They can see all players at all A. Don't throw the bat. Drop it after times. hitting the ball. 2. They can get from one activity B. Check the area before swinging the to the next with minimal time lost bat. de sure no one isnear you. if there is an emergency or if spe- C. Don't use the hat to hitstones or cific discipline is required. other objects. The bat should be usedto D. Instructors should move fromac- hit the ball only. tivity to activity in such a way as to D. When throwing towarm up, be ensure full view of the group at all sure you are throwing in the same direc- times. Generally this means moving tion as everyone else. Check to besure along the perimeter of the field. no one could be hit by an overthrow. E. Students should always beaware E. Don't stand on the bag whenplay- of the location of the instructor. If the ing a force out. Use the sideor corner of area in which the activity is being con- the bag for the tag. ducted is large, the instructormay de- F. Don't fake a tag ona player. cide to: G. Remember that the fielder hasthe 1. Wear something that is brightly right of way in the baseline whenfield- colored or distinctive so that he/ ing the ball. 1 i4 136 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT H. When playing offense, stay well SELECTION AND CONDUCT back from the playing field. If there is a OF THE ACTIVITY fenced-in dugout, be sure to stay there until your turn at bat comes. Stay alert Conduct of the activity refers to the for balls that may be hit toward the proper selection of an activity or teach- bench. ing method based on the size, age, I. Never leave equipment lying in ei- ability level, and experience of the play- ther fair or foul territory. er. Following are several points which J. Call for the ballavoid collisions. should be considered when searching for the most effective course of action in presenting or reviewing material with PLANNING your students. A. Detailed lesson plans should be written for every instructional period or READINESS workout session. One of the first areas one should B. Plans should include, but not be consider in the selection and conduct of limited to: an activity is whether a player is likely 1. Specific objectives which ex- to succeed (ready) when trying a new plain the purpose of the session skill. and what the instructor hopes to A. Never force a player to attempt a accomplish. skill if he/she is afraid or expresses un- 2. Detailed explanations of the ac- usual insecunty. This caution extends to tivities that have been selected to previously learned skills as well as new achieve the objectives. ones. 3. Diagrams which illustrate the B. Never force a player to assume a managerial aspects of the drills position on the field for which they being taught or the organization of have never had instruction or for which the group. they express fear or uncertainty. 4. Notations of any special safety C. Never allow an individual to play considerations for the skills being at a level for which they have insuffi- taught. cient skill. If a level of play requires that 5. Provisions for warmup activi- a player be able to slide for safety pur- ties and review of prerequisite poses do not allow an individual to play skills. if they cannot slide. C. Lessonplansforrainydays D. Stress self-control. Teach students should be prepared in advance. They to follow the rules and assume responsi- should correspond to the activities be- bility for their own safety. Teach them ing taught in the unit or outline an to check their equipment before they activity which must be performed in use it and to survey the playing field lieu of the skills being taught in the unit before they begin play. Have them re- due to limitations on space, equipment, mind each other of good playing habits etc. If a substitute activity is planned for (i.e. dropping the bat). Make everyone a rainy day, the most important consid- safety conscious. eration is that the students can safely E. Prepare the students for emergen- perform the activity at their present cies. Explain the potential hazards of level of ability or conditioning. the game and the methods for avoiding D. Be sure planning reflects an un- injury. Outline what should be done if derstanding of the learner's level of abil- an emergency occurs. ity and the limitaticns that might be F. Never engage the group in game placed on learning due to lack of equip- play unless they are ready. Be sure you ment or facilities. know what they are capable of doing E. Takencollectively,thelesson safely. If you feel it important to play plans should reflect sound progressions the game early in the instructional peri- for skill development. od, modify the rules lnd equipment so 135 SOFTBALL 137 that the game conforms to the skill and pairs/groups, (b) each pair is throwing ability of the players. Following are in the same direction, and (c) throwing some suggestions for modifying the pairs never overlap. game. 1. Modify Equipment. Use a ball THROWING PROGRESSIONS that is bigger, brighter in color, or 1. Demonstrate proper mechanics softer. Use a longer or shorter bat, of overhead throw. or one that is lighter in weight. 2. Have players practice mechan- 2. Modify Rules. Allow for: ics of the throw without the ball. no balls and strikes 3. Throw short distances practic- one pitch or 3 pitches per batter ing mechanics. pitcher from own team 4. Throw short distances practic- fewer bases ing accuracy. hit ball off teeno pitcher 5. Increase distance, concentrat- eliminate infield positions ing on accuracy and mechanics. eliminate outfield positions 6. Practice running to the ball, no batting fielding, and throwing. G. Be sure the players are physically 7. Throw from different positions ready to play the game. Stress condi- on the field starting with infield tioning in the early stages of the season positions and progressing to ou.- especially for the arm and shoulder gir- field positions. dle. B. Catching.Catching progressions H.Stress the need for warming up should always begin with a light weight before practice or play. Teach the play- ball that is large enough for the player to ers a specific routine for warming up track easily. When working with very and explain the possible injuries that young players, it is a good idea to work could result from inadequate warmup with a ball that is brightly colored. As activity. the catching ability of the player im- proves, a regulation ball can be substi- SKILL PROGRESSION tuted safely. Progressions are one of the most im- Note the precautions that apply to the portant ways of ensuring safety in any placement of a throwing drill apply to sport. A proper progression minimizes catching aswell.Inaddition,care the likelihood of injury during the in- should be taken to locate the catching structional phase and prepares the play- drill on level ground. Grounders that er for injury-free ball during the execu- take an irregular bounce are difficult tion phase. Following are suggested and dangerous to field. Level ground progressions for several of the basic will make it safer and easier for a player skills in softball. to catch the ball. It also minimizes the A. Throwing. Throwing progressions possibility of injury due to falling. should always begin with a light weight ball that is easy for a player to grip. As CATCHING PROGRESSIONS the player becomes more skilled, a larg- 1. Demonstrate mechanics of er heavier ball may be substituted. Rec- catching. ognize, however, that a regulation ball 2. Have players toss ball to them- may ne er be appropriate for some selves and catch. players. Before a regulation ball is sub- 3. Have players throw ball to a stituted, consideration should be given wall and catch it on a rebound. to the age, size, and ability level of the Throws should be varied so that player a- well as the availability of practice is gained catching balls gloves. that rebound at various heights To ensuresafety,throwing drills and speeds. should always be set up so that (a) there 4. Have players toss and catch is ample distance between throwing136with each other. Practice should 138 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT be gained: thelearnerpracticeswinging catching ball of varying heights without a ball. Be sure the batters catching balls thrown to the left have ample room in which to exe- and right of the midli'.e cute the drill. Allow for the possi- moving to the ball bility of the bat flying off on the moving backward follow through. moving laterally 3. Practice batting off a tee. Have catching and throwing immedi- the batters place their own ball on ately to a target the tee. This will help to eliminate 5. Have players field balls hit off a the possibility of a player being bat. accidentally hit by a practice swing C. Batting. Batting should be piac- as he/she goes to place the ball on ticed in a designated area that is large the tee for the better. enough to allow the batter to pull the 4. Practice batting with the coach ball left or right or hit a foul without or instructor pitching. Care should interfering with another drill or game. be tai- 'n in this drill to place the Each player involved in the batting drill ball into play slowly so that the should be assigned 7 specific task and fielders have time to recover. The positioned on the field in such a way as tendency is to concentrate on the to eliminate the possibility of being batter, pitching the ball as soon as struck by the bat. This is particularly the stance is regained. This can true of the players who are catching the create a dangerous situation for ,alls thrown in from the field. The,' the players in the field. M they mustbestationed in an area where they are concentrating on field; .g one can perform their job without worrying ball, another is launched into the about being struck by the bat or a line air. It would be very easy in ail, drive off the "at. When providing in- instance for a player to be hit by an struction duniig the early stages of unseen ball or for two players to learning be sure to use a light weight bat collide because they were paying and ball to practice. This procedure attention to two different situa- should be followed as much to protect tions. the fielders, who may not be highly 5. Practice batting with another skilled catcht...s, as to make it easier for player pitching.Start thisdrill the bat ter to perfect his/her skill. Anoth- Arith a light weight ball. Remem- er precaution which should be consid- ber that batting ability develops at ered is using a light weight or "soft" ball a much faster pace that pitching. i.e., mush or cloth ball) when a ba,,er is This can lead to two problems: facing a live pitcher. This adaptation is first, the novice pitcher may inad- suggested because of the dubious talent vertantly strike the batter with the most young pitchers exhibit when try- ball; and second, the 'latter may ing to pitch the ball directly across the hit a line drive back to the pitcher plate. If a ball strays from its intended who, because of inexperience, is path Iis less likely to cause the batter not ready to catch the ball. The injur.,. it islight weight or soft. During effect of both of these situations "live" pitching sessions don't forget to can be reduced, as mentiPfied pre- in3ist that the catcher wear a mask. Live viously, by the use oa light batting practice has all of the elements weight ball and a modified pitch. of a real game, and it requires all of the 6. Practice batting with a pitcher same precautions. who is throwing medium speed. D. Baserunning. There are two pri- BATTING PROGRESSIONS mary areas of concern connected with 1. Demonstrate the mechanics of baserunning drills. The first is the con- .ie swing. dition of the fi?ld where the runners are 2. Using A light weight bat, have practicing. It should be free of holes, `137 SOFTBALL 139 uneven surfaces, or any equipment or however, that should be taught,re- debris which may causeinjury.It viewed, and conscientiously practiced should also provide enough traction for with varsity players who may need to the runners to accelerate safely without execute the skill to avoid injury. Even in slipping and ample room for them to a varsity situation, though, it should be decelerate without fear of crashing into recognized that there will be players a wall, a fence, or some other unmove- who are efraid to slide. The coach has able object. only two choices with these individuals: The second condition focuses on the either nes'er ask them to slide, or if he/ physical readiness of the players. Base- she feels it is a crucial skill at their level running drills can be extremely firing. of play, cut the individual from the As such they can be debilitating. Tired team. A player who is afraid must never players don't worry about technique be required to slide. It is a request that they just want to get through a drill to most surely will increase the chances of save face. When the point of fatigue is injury for the player. reached, the likelihood of injury in- A progression on sliding is not ir creases due to lack of concentration and clucled in this section. Rather, seven,' inability to make the body perform cor- precautions are listed smich should be rectly. To minimize the effect of fatigue, considered when teaching the skill to the instructor/coach should treat base- advanced players. running as a conditioning drill in the early stages of the unit or season. The SLIDING PRECAUTIONS number of times a runner is asked to 1. Perform learning stages of skill perform should be based on physical in sand pit or on a very grassy condition, not on mastery of technique. surface. As time progresses and the player's 2. Have performers learn the skill physical condition improves, more em- in sneakers before using cleats. phasis can be placed on proper form, 3. Use loose or throw down bases with less regard to the number of times until the skill is perfected. the player is asked to round the bases. 4. Do not have have a baseman The following steps should be per- present until the skill is perfected. formed at a moderate speed while tech- 5. Break the skill into manageable nique is being learned. As technique parts when teaching. improves, maxims-, speed and accel- eration should be ttie goal. BASERUNNING PROGRESSIONS ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 1. Practicesprintingtocheck When planning for safety in sc.ftball, form. the instructor must consider two major 2. Practice running straight aspects of the environment in which the through the base. unit will be conducted. They are field 3. Practiceswinging,dropping preparation and layout and equipment the bat, running through base. maintenance. (Where specificationsare 4. Practice rounding bases. give n, refer to the National Federation 5. Practice swing and running for of High School Association Rulebookon double, triple, homerun. Softball.) 6. Practice picking up coach's sig- nal, before leaving the base, as FIELD LAYOUT approach to base is made. The following guidelines are written Sliding. Sliding is a technique for ad- for a regulation softball field. It is clearly vanced players who have he skill and understood, hows-ver, that most of the ability to execute it properly. It is not a softball being played today, outside of skill that shouldbe taughtto an entire structured league play, is being played physical education class. Itis a skill, an makesh: .fields. Where applicable, a , ) 13 140 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT standard is modified to address this specific pieces of equipment when used situation. reflects the rules governing High School A. Infield.The infieldshall be a Federation ball at the time of this writ- skinned surface, free of rocks, grass, ing.) weeds, potholes, or foreign debris. If a A. The Bat. skinned infield is not available, the area 1. The bat should be round and a should be checked for irregular surfaces one-piece construction of hard- or holes. wood, metal, or plastic. Bats of B. Markings.All markings on the two-piece construction, in which field including foul lines, batter's JOX, the barrel and the handle are sepa- etc., shall be marked with a material rate units, are unsafe and should which is not injurious to the eyes or not be used. skin. Materials such as lime are prohib- 2. The proper weight and length ited. of a bat will vary will the age and C. Outfield. The outfield shall extend ability level of the player. At its unobstructed at least 200 feet from maximum, the bat should not ex- homeplate for male and female fast ceed 34 inches in length. Fungo pitch, 250 feet for female slow pitch and bats should not be used in regula- 275 feet for male slow pitch. It should be tion play. free of all rocks, holes, and debris. 3. The bat should have a safety D. Orientation. Where possible, the grip made of a rough surfaced field should be positioned so that a line material. Smooth surfaced grips running from home plate through sec- made of plastic tape are unsafe. ond base points in an East-Northeast Grips should be checked for tears direction. andslippage.Damagedgrips E. Warning Track. If a field is bound- should be replaced immediately. If ed by a fence, the fence shall be at least the repair cannot be made at once, eight feet high. To warn the fielder of the bat should be removed from his or her approach to the fence, there play. shall be a track of a different surface 4. Wooden batsshould be than the outfield grass. checked for cracks and splinters. F. Dugouts. Where dugouts are not Bats with cracks and splinters are provided, an area shall be designated unsafe and should be removed. for player seating at least 25 feet out 5. Every bat should have a safety from the foul line. knob at the end. If a bat is missing G. Backstops. Backstops should be po- the knob or if the knob is dam- sitioned not less than 25 feet behind aged, the bat should be replaced. home plate. If backstops are not in use, 6. Donut rings are not recom- no one shall be allowed to sit or stand mended for use on softball bats. behind the catcher. Do not allow them to be used at any time. B. The Ball. EQUIPMENT 1. The proper size and weight of Following is a safety checklist for the ball will depend on the game equipment. The "..st in no way implies being played and the age and abil- that every piece of equipment is re- ity level of the players. It will also quired in order to conduct a safe pro- depend on whether gloves are gram. The type of equipment needed available for all the players and will be dictated by the game played and whether the game is being played the age and ability level of the players. indoors or out. Be sure to use the The list does, i'owever, represent a set ball for the purpose for which it of conditions which should be present if was intended. If you decide to use the equipment is used. (Technical sped- a ball in a situation where it is not fications such as weight, length, etc. of139normally used, be sure you have SOFTBALL 141 sound educational justification for tion may be rervired to wear some or all doing so. of the following equipment. Again, the 2. Balls should be checked regu- eAact choices will differ depending on larly to be sure they meet specifi- the game played, the rules that are cations. Those that are rnisshaped, being enforced, and the ball and bat have torn seams, or are water being used. logged should be discarded. 1. Mask. If the catcher wears a C. Gloves. head protector be sure the mask is 1. The decision to use gloves will compatible withtheprotector. depend on the type of game being Check straps to be sure they ad- played. Anytime a regulation size just for tight fit. Have masks of and weight softball (61/4-7 ounces varying sizes or adjustable pads to in weight, 1174-121/2 inches in cir- ensure a snug fit around face. cumference)isused,gloves Have the catcher ches:k mask to be should be worn for protection. sure visibilityisnot impeded. 2. Be sure that the gloves that are Check the frame for dents or issued are appropriate for the po- openings that may give upon im- si tion. pact with ball. Under no circum- 3. Check laces to be sure they are stances should a catcher be al- not broken or worn. Worn or bro- lowed to take a position immedi- ken laces sitould be repaired im- ately behind a batter without a mediately or the glove should be catcher's mask. removed from play. 2. Chest Protector. Secure appro- 4. Work the gloves to be sure they priate protectors for each sex. Do are supple. Gloves that are stiff do nc allow players to alter equip- not afford the player sof:kit nt ment in any way. Check the straps c. Intro! for wear and tear. Be sure protec- 5. Be su.e gloves are properly fit- tor provides snug fit without re- ted for the size of the player's stricting mover- ent in any way. hand. 3. Shin Guards. Be sure guards D. Healgear. Headgear is required fo: are capableof covering lower use :riall varsity situations that are thigh, knee, shin, instep, andan- governed by tne Nititinnal Federation of kles. Straps should be adjusted for State High School Assc ciations. Accord- tight fit. Be sure buckles fit on ing to the r,(! es 'It is mandatory for each the outside of the leg once the batter, runner, and the catcher to weara buckles are tightened and in place. head protector. The head protector shail F. Bases and Home plate. be a type which has safety Features i. Peg Down Bases. Use two pegs equal to or greater than those provided and straps to anchor each base. Be by the full plastic cap with padding on sure anchor pegs are placed away the inside. The head protector worn by from baserunner's sliding path. each batter and each runner shall have Permanently anchored bases are extended ear flaps which cover both inappropriate for use in situations ears and temples. ..." In a class situa- wfwre players who lack high level tion, where students do not wear ball sliding skills are allowed to slide. caps, sanitary precautions preclude the 2. Homeplate. Edges should be use of headgear. Measures to protect flat and even with the infield play- the batter, runner, and catcher in this ing surface. If the plate has pro- situation should occur to include rule truding pegs on its top surface, it modification if necessary. should be replaced. Homeplate E. Catcher's Equipment. In addition to should be made of a smooth sur- headgear, the catcher in a varsity situa- faced material. 140 142 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

CONCLUSION necessary to eliminate the likelihood of an accident. Softballrefersto many different games, each of which has its own spe- REFERENCE cial concerns in terms of safety. The best Sisley, B. L. (1983). Softball. In N.J. Dou- advice, when conducting any one of the gherty (Ed.), Physical education and sport for softball-type games, is that the coach/ the secondary school student (pp. 251-264) instructor should consider every aspect Reston, VA: The Amencan Alliance for of the activity from a high risk point of Health, Physical Educa.ion, Recreation view and then initiate the precautions and Dance

1 4 1 CHAPTER 17

Swimming

RALPH JOHNSON Indiana University Indiana, PA

142 144 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

n the past thirty years a significant cause accidents leading to significant Inumber of public and private schools consequences for the victim and the have added a swimming pool to their school district. The National Electronic physical plant or included them in the Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) esti- construction of new facilities. Its value mates that swimming pools are annual- is incalculable when considering the ly responsible for over 140,000 accidents many activities and benefits a swim- which require hospitalization. Prima.y ming pool makes possible. A compre- concern in these statistics should be hensive aquatic program in the hands of focused on the more than 13,000 serious a professionally trained aquatic director diving accidents and the more than 1000 canprovideinstruction,recreation, drownings which occur eachyear. competition,rehabilitation,therapy, While only approximately 4% of the and fitness activities for everyone in the spinal cord injuries and drownings oc- school and community. The swimming cur in school swimming pools, one seri- pool adds a measure of safety to the ous accident is too many. One death or community, furnishes an outletfor permanent disability can ruin a pro- teenage energies, offers the possibility gram, destroy a career, and create a to earn college a'hletic scholarships, lifetime of guilt. and provides social activity for the dis- Concern for student and patron safe- abled. It is a source of family activity ty is a serious matter for all school and entertainment. The simple skill of district employees, from the pool custo- learning to swim of en opens the door dial staff to the superintendent. To as- to a vast world of fun and excitement. sist school officials Li understanding the Unfortunately, hazards such as un- broad spectrum of their potential liabil- safe design, careless maintenance, or ity, the following general risk assess- improper supervision and instruction ment is provided.

1 4 3 SWIMMING 145

GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENT 1. Are you aware of what aquatic activities are considered to be high risk? YES_NO 2. Does your school district employ a trained professional as an aquatic director to supervise and coordinate programs and activities and to be responsible for remedial and preventive maintenance? _YES _NO 3. Has the aquatic director taken courses in aquatic facility management, pool chemistry and maintenance, aquatic program administration, and aquatic liabil- ity and hazard/risk reduction? YES NO 4. Are all teachers and coaches assigned to the aquatic program currently certified in lifeguard training, standard first aid, CPR (Basic Life Support), and as sNimmin,, instructors by a nationally recognized age'-icy such as the Red Cross or YMCA? _YES _NO 5. Do your teachers, coaches, an- supervisors possess current certifications from a recognized ajency providing instruction in the activity to which they are assigned? _YES NO 6. Does the school district provide funding for continuing education or credit bearing certification courses to update or retrain the aquatic director? _YES _NO 7. Are maintenance workers provided with funding to attend pool operator and equipment maintenance workshops? _YES NO 8. Have aquatic facility and program safety policies been established, including the development of a pool operations and procedure manual? YES NO 9. Is there an ongoing program for updating aquatic policies and procedures? YES NO 10. Does the school administration and aquatic staff have an understanding of the legal implications resulting from an accident in the school district's pool? _YES NO 11. Do your teachers and coaches provide a safety orientation for students at the outset of every school program and are students aware of their responsibilities for their own safety and the safety of others? _YES NO 12. Are you familiar with the skills and activities that teachers and coaches are conducting in terms of their risk to students? YES NO 13. Has every precaution been taken with high risk activities to prevent the occurrence of an accident? _YES _NO 144 146 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENTConhnued 14. Is there a standard form and system for reporting aquatic accidents in your school district? _YES NO 15. Are emergency and accident management procedures written and rehearsed to assure a prompt, organized response to an accident? _YES NO 16. Have emergency and accident management procedures been reviewed by your attorney, school doctor, and local paramedics or hospital officials? _YES NO 17. Are emergent' and accident management drills conducted at least twice a month, one of those times during peak facility use? _YES _NO 18. Is current safety literature available to your teachers and coaches? _YES __NO 19. Are all accidents carefully investigated and reviewed, with the proper authori- ties and corrective action taken? _YES NO 20. Are safety checks of facilities and equipment made by aquatic staff members weekly, with the report or check sheet filed in the appropnate office? _YES NO 21. Is a hazard identification conducted by an outside professional or consultant at least once every three years? _YES NO 22. Prior to being put into use, is all new equipment inspected for defects or deficiencies which could lead to an accident? _YES NO 23. Are in-service training safety workshops conducted by the aquatic staff on a regular basis? _YES NO 24. Are you familiar with all local, county, state, and professional safety and health standards which may affect the operation of your program? _YES NO 25. When building a new facility or rehabilitating an old facility, is a professional aquatic consultant retained for the duration of the project to assure that all aspects of safety are accounted for? _YES NO 26. When building a new pool or rehabilitating an old one, is the school's aquatic staff involved in the design and implementation process? _YE NO 27. Is worn out safety, instructional, competitive, fitness, and recreational equip- ment replaced or repa: -4 as needed? YES NO 28. Is the aquatic staff involved in the procurement of safe, high quality equipment? _YES NO 145 SWIMMING 147

GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENTContinued

29. Have written safety rules regarding equipment and activities been conveyed to all teachers, coaches, and program leaders? _ YES NO 30. Are all your students covered by accident insurance? YES _NO 31. Are your teachers, coaches, and supervisors covered by liability insurance? _YES _NO 32. Are participants in competitive and high risk programs required to provide evidence of a physical examination with participant approval granted by the certifying physician? _ YES NO 33. Are participants in competitive and high risk activities required to provide an agreement to participate or an informed consent document signed by a parent or guardian if the participant is of minority age? _YES NO 34. Are safety rules specific to the use of diving boards, slides, scubagear, ..nd flotation devices established in writing in your pool operations manual and conveyed to program participants verbally and/or in writing? _YES NO 35. Do your teachers and coaches carefully inspect equipment each day beforeuse in order to assure its safe use? YES NO 36. Is your pool currently equipped with essential first aid, life support, and lifeguarding equipment? _YES NO

The following scale is provided to help evaluate your general nsk level.

General Risk Assessment Number of Risk Level NO's checked 2 Relatively Safe 4 Marginally Safe 5 Unsafe 7 High Risk 8 or more Pull the Plug! 146 148 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Understanding the major hazards In addition to hiring an experienced and preparing effective strategies for architect, it is wise to retain an aquatic accidents in the aquatic environment expert, experienced and skilled in de- are related to four areas of concern: sign safety, to review pool drawings design, maintenance, supervision., and and recommend necessary changes. instruction.

DESIGN OLDER POOLS NEW POOLS Two hazards are evident with older pools (those designed and built in the Accident prevention begins with the late 40's and in the 50's and 60's). First, architect or engineer. The pool designer some design features once thought to be should be selected on the basis of hav- safe, such as hopper or spoon shaped ing successfully designed many pools bottoms and safety ledges, have proven during his/her career. Be sure that the over the years to be the direct cause of design meets or exceeds all current cri- many serious accidents. Hopper and teria established by the following: spoon shaped bottoms are deceptive 1. State Health Department. and dangerous for divers who enter the 2. County and City Health Depart- water from a springboard into what ment. appears to be 12 feet of water, only to 3. Professional Standards: discover that the pool is 12 feet deep in a Council for National Cooperation very small area directly in front of the in Aquatics board. American Public Health Associa- The second design problem is related tion to technology. Diving from starting AAHPERD blocks 30 inches above the deck into 4. Federal Government (Department water 31/2 feet deep has always been of Health and Human Services). dangerous. With the advent of the rac- 5. Competitive Aquatic SFt,.-""l ing dive known as the "pike", "shoot", Groups: or "scoop" start, competitive swimmers National Collegiate Athletic As- are being exposed to unreasonable risks sociation and are breaking their necks. High per- U.S. Swimming formancecompetitivetypediving U.S. Diving boards are enhancing the performance National Federation of State High of varsity divers, but unfortunately, rec- Schools reational divers are using them as well. 6. Aquatic Safety Agencies: Many older pools are not compatible American Red Cross with "high tech" diving boards, yet YMCA of the USA coaches and teachers are demanding When the architect's plans are sub- state-of-the-art equipment without con- mitted for approval, a comparison of sideringitseffect on diving safety. design standards and guidelines should Depth of water and the amount of deep be made with publications issued by the water in the landing area is sometimes aforementioned groups. Often design overlooked in the excitement of pur- manuals used by architectural firms are chasing a new diving board. not up-to-date with competitive, gov- The following checklist provides a ernmental, and safety agencies. Be sure quick reference in helping to identify that the plans are submitted to the state some of the common design hazards health department for approval. found in both new and older pools.

147 SWIMMING 149

DESIGN SAFETY CHECKLIST

Area Item PassDeficientFail 1. Pool Entrance: Doors at shallow end Locks are functional 2. Pool Deck: Non-slip Slope-good drainage Depth Markers 4"-6" high Depth Markers on vertical wall Depth Markers on deck Depth Markers in Feet and Meters No obstructions 3. Pool Walls: (anderwater) Smooth surface No obstructions 4. Pool Bottom: Smooth surf.....e Marked for depth perception Marked at breakpoint Drain grates screwed in Safety ledge Hopper/spoon shaped 5. Ladders: Attached securely Non-slip steps Edged in contrasting color 6. Lifeguard Chair: 5-6 feet high Positioned at pool edge Safe seat and steps 7. Starting Blocks: Located at deep end Non-slip surface Anchored securely Non-slip steps 8. Diving Boards:Anchored securely Non-slip surface Mount anchored Non-slip steps Double handrails 9. Diving Area: 12 ft. deep-1 meter 13 f:. deep-3 meter Depth extends forward 20 ft. from front edge of board Depth extends 8 ft. on either side of board Depth extends under board back to wall 10. Lighting: Deck (100 ft. candles) Water surface (100 ft. candles) Underwater (100 lamp lumens/sq. foot of pool surface)

148 150 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

MAINTENANCE tions be posted in the pool area for the public to see. Failure to comply with these regulations can lead to conditions Safetyisdirectly relatedto good causing accidents, and makes the school maintenance practices as well as compli- district liable either through negligence ance with local and state regulations. or by direct violation of the law. Regula- Copies of pool regulations should be tions common to all states pertaining to obtained from local and state health pool operation include the items listed departments. They should be kept on below. Does your school swimming file and reviewed frequently. Some pool meet the following state regula- states require that a copy of their regula- tions?

COMMON STATE REGULATIONS Regulations PassFail 1. Copy of regulations on file 2. Current pool permit on file 3. Electrical inspection up to date 4. Proper safety equipment 5. Pool operations report maintained and submitted to health de- partment when required 6. Bacteriological analysis conducted weekly 7. Chlorine an I pH tests conducted as required 8. Water rate maintained (8 hrs.) 9. Gas masks available and in working condition 10. Water clarity maintained as required by law (usually 6 inch black disc visible on bottom from anywhere on deck around deep end) 11. Water level maintained above gutter or skimmer 12. Test kit available with fresh chemicals 13. Capable manager in charge of pool 14. A certified lifeguard on duty for all classes and activities 15. Hazards reported and eliminated 16. Depth markingsproper size and location

The custodial staff can reduce the risk 2) remedial practices; and 3) preventive of all aquatic programs through good techniques. water quality, proper care of the deck Daily operations consist of routine area, pool equipment and safe handling maintenance such as testing the water of the many types of chemicals common chemistry and adjusting appropriately, to pool operations. Maintenance con- cleaning filters when necessary, clean- tributes to pool safety and risk reduc- ing the deck, starting blocks and diving tion in three ways: 1) daily operations; board surfaces, adjusting the water lev- 149 SWIMMING 151 el, vacuuming the pool, and maintain- accidents is cloudy water which is di- ing correct water, air temperature, and rectly related to filtration and water humidity levels. Good daily practice in- chemistry. Filters should be cleaned and cludes proper storage of all types of maintained at a turnover rate of 5-8 equipment, maintaining above water hours. Water clarity and swimmer com- and underwater lighting, and checking fort are easily maintained if the pool safety equipment. One of the most fre- environment is maintained as follows. quent causes of diving and drowning

HOW DOES YOUR POOL RATE? Item PassFail 1. Air Temperature: 3 degrees higher than water temp. 2. Humidity: 60-70% 3. Clarity: .1-.2 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Units) 4. Filtration: 5-8 hour turnover 5. Water level: over the gutter (pool not in use) 6. Vacuuming: every 1-2 days 7. De-ks: sanitized 2-3 times a week 8. Langlier Saturation Index: between -.3 and +.3 9. Free Chlorine: 1.0-1.5 10. Chloramines: less than .3 ppm 11. pH: 7.4-7.6 12. Total Alkalinity: 100-150 ppm 13. Calcium Hardness: 100-300 ppm 14. Total Dissolved Solids: less than 800 ppm

Routine daily maintenance should be 7. Miscellaneous maintenance. recorded in a daily pool log which is 8. Who closed pool, who witnessed acccessibletocustodial and aquatic the securing of the pool and time staff. The log should contain informa- closed. tion such as: Remedial practices consist of maki rIg 1. Who opened the pool and time repairs as soon as notified if the condi- opened. tion can lead to an accident. A remedial 2. Name of lifeguard for each class/ maintenance form should be completed activity. by the staff member who identifies the 3. Environmentalfactorschemical condition. The form should be complet- levels, Langlier Saturation Index, hu- ed and forwarded to the maintenance or housekeeping staff with a copy forward- midity, air and water temperature. ed to the administration and one re- 4. Filter operation. tained by the aquatic director. Such a 5. Chemicals added. form snould include the following infor- 6. Vacuuming. omation. 152 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Remedial Maintenance Form

Pa- 'I Identification of Condition

1. Hazardous equipment or condition: Time Date 2. Maintenance/housekeeping notified. Time Date 3. Administration notified. Time Date 4. Reported by 5. Action Recommended

6. Action taken to prevent injury

Time Date

Part IIAction Steps

1 Received by Maintenance/Housekeeping Time Date 2. Condition verified by Time Date

3. Action steps taken 1 Time Date 2. Time Date 3 Time Date 4. Action steps completed 1 Time Date 2. Time Date 3 Time Date 5. Verified complete Aquatic Director e Date

15i SWIMMING 153 Preventive maintenance is an ongo- 18. Chemical Containers 1 ing process which involves continuing 19. Storage Room education and actually seeking outpo- 20. First Aid Room tential hazards. Continuing education includes course work in pool chemistry/ SUPERVISION AND maintenance, aquatic facility manage- INSTRUCTION ment, and aquatic liability. For example, has your pool custodian completeda Supervision and instruction are safety pool operations course offered by: factors which combine with safe design 1. Your state health or environmental and proper maintenance to provide the resources department? lowest possible risk in school aquatic 2. YMCA (P.O.O.L.) Pool Operator programs. Supervision is simply de- on Location? fined as being in charge of othersas 3. National Recreation and Parks As- they participate in aquatic activities. The sociation Pool Operators Course? supervisor can be the aquatic director 4. AAHPERD Aquatic Council Pool overseeing the daily operation of the Chemistry/Filtration Course? pool, or the teacher overseeing students Annual maintenance also helps elimi- in a swimming class. nate potential hazards. Questions re- Supervision may be classified asgen- ganling annual maintenance involve eral and specific. General supervisior. cleaning and inspection. Doesyour means that school aquatic professionals maintenance staff annually: have responsibilities which extend to 1. Drain the pool (if possible)? the equipment rooms, shower room, 2. Clean sand filter surface or the drying room, and locker rooms,as well Diatomaceous Earth Elements? as the pool. For aquatic coaches, general 3. Clean chemical feeders andcon- supervision responsibility extends to tainers? the bus, restaurants, other schools, and 4. Inspect the bottom and ji.incov- the weight room in addition to other ers? athletic equipment and facilities used by tiie team. Specific supervision encom- A weekly safety inspection is also a passes the pool, equipment, conduct of part of preventive maintenance which is the activity, and care of the individual often overlooked or considered too time participants. consuming. A simple weekly check Swimming and aquatic activities have sheet should be completed and kepton long been recognized by the profession file. The following equipment and areas and the courts as hazardous, requiring must be carefully inspected: close supervision and careful instruc- 1. Walkways tion. Unlike basketball, tennis, and oth- 2. Fences er land activities, recreational swim- 3. Doors/locks ming requires constant supervision (a 4. Pool Office lifeguard). The elements of safe aquatic 5. Locker Rooms supervisionincludepersonnel,the 6. Signs/exits environment, safety equipment,an or- 7. Shower Room ganization and control system, record 8. Drying Room keeping, and insurance. 9. Rest Rooms Personnel employed by the schoolare 10. Pool Entrance significantfactorsinproviding the 11. Deck school district with safe instruction. Of 12. Safety Equipment primary concern inthe supervisory 13. Fixed Equipment process is the aquatic director. A profes- 14. First Aid sional aquatic director shouldpossess 15. Filter Room the following qualifications: 16. Chlorine Room 1. BS in Education: emphasisor ma- 17. Chemical Room 154jor in Aquatic Administration. I 154 PR!NCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 2. Three to five years teaching/aqua- guards must not be assigned instruc- tic facility administration experience. tional dutiestheir responsibility is en- 3. Certificationas YMCA or Red tirely focused on the observation and Cross Swimming Instructor, Lifeguard supervision of the students in the pool Training, CPR, Standard FirstAid, area. Lifeguard qualifications include Swimming Pool Operator, and Aquatic current certification in: Facilities Management. 1. YMCA or Red Cross Lifeguard 4. Experience as participant or coach- Training. ing aquatic sports (swimming, diving, 2. CPRBasic Life Support Course. water polo, synchronized swimming). 3. First AidStandard or Multimedia 5. Knowledge of (basic or instructor Course. level certifications preferred) a variety of The environment is a key element in aquatic activities such as springboard the safe conduct of school swimming diving, scuba, synchronized swimming, classes. The environmental factors list- adapted aquatics, aquatic fitness, and ed below are necessary for the safe pre-school swimming. conduct of swimming classes: 6. A recognition certificate by the 1. Lighting-100 foot candles of illu- Aquatic Council of AAHPERD as a mination at the surface. teacher or Master Teacher it any of the 2. Clear water.1.2 Jackson Turbid- 16 subject areas. ity Units. Another professional concern is for 3. Signsemergency exits, entrances the faculty who teach courses in the to locker rooms. aquatic curriculum. Their qualifications 4 P3o1 rulesenforced and posted should include: in pool areas and locker rooms clearly 1. BS in Education: Emphisis as an describing expected behavior in a posi- Aquatic Specialist. tive manner. 2. Certification as a YMCA or Red 5. Airtemperature-3degreesF Cross Swimming Instructor. above the water temperature. 3. Certification as an instructor by 6. Bottom markingslane indicators YMCA or Red Cross in the aquatic spe- in the swimming area or crosses on cialty areas that the teacher will be re- bottom 6 feet out in front of each diving sponsible for in the school curriculum. board. These markings serve as a point 4. Certification in lifeguard training, of reference for divers, enhancing depth CPR and Standard First Aid. perception and visual activity. 5. Recognitioncertificatebythe 7 Walking surfaces (deck, starting AquaticCouncilof AAHPERD as blocks, diving boards)clean and non- "Teacher of or "Master Teacher of in slip. the aquatic specialty areas being taughi 8. Obstructionsno obstructions or in the school curriculum. equipment left out on the deck. Under- Lifeguards are a recognized standard water obstructions such as ladders, of care and no schr-,swimming pro- safety ledges, hopper bottoms, drains, gram should function without a life- hydrostatic relief valves must be paint- guard on duty for every class and activi- ed with contrasting colors. ty. This has been a standard identified 9. Telephonewith a list of emer- by the American Red Cross since the gency phone numbers. publicationof their Swimming and Appropnate safety equipment must Aquatic Safety test in 1981. It has been be available to provide for rescue and proven time and again ;.hat the teacher first aid. Fundamental equipment in- cannot adequately provide instruction cludes: while working simultaneously in the 1. First aid kitdeveloped for aquatic capacity of a lifeguard. Many school purposes,checkedandre-supplied districts have employed an adult who weekly. resides in the community to provide 2. Backboardsminimum of 2 de- lifeguard services for their classes. Life- signed according to Emergency Medical 153 SWIMMING 155 Services (EMS) specifications. attention of the class, a whistle or an air 3. Reaching polesat least one on all horn is necessary. An emergency alarm four sides of the pool. switch in the pool which sounds in the 4. Rescue tubes or rescue cans--at administration or nurses office may be least two, as italways good to have helpful as well. flotation equipment available for a vari- 6. Active supervisionthe teacher ety of rescues. must stay close, especially in high risk 5. Blankets(minimum of 2) helpful activities such as diving, springboard for shock. diving, scuba and water polo. At no 6. Gas mask{SCBA) Self Contained time should the teacher or lifeguard Breathing Apparatus is necessary in leave the class or pool area while an pools which use chlorine gas, bromine, activity is in progress. calcium, or lithium hypochlorite. 7. Record keepingretain all lesson 7. Miscellaneous equipment-02 in- plans, incident and accident reports, halator and splints depending on ambu- student skill test results, maintenance lance response time. requests, staff meeting minutes, in-ser- vice training logs, and personnel evalu- The conduct of a safe swimming class ations. is also contingent upon organization 8. Insurancestudents should be en- and an effective control system. This couraged to purchase accident insur- control system has a minimum of eight ance. Teachers and aquatic directors components: would be wise to obtain a minimum of 1. Lesson planwritten and kept on $1,000,000 of professional liability insur- file. ance. 2. Course syllabusidentifies activi- Safe, quality instruction is comprised ties which will be taught and specific of several key elements. The important information on how the class will be elements of safe instruction include les- conducted. son plans, participant readiness, teach- 3. Oral orientationcovers the sylla- er qualifications, identification of high bus in detail to rule out lack of commu- risk activities, and the conduct of the nication with those students who might activity. The following list contains im- not read the syllabus. portant concerns for the safety con- 4. Emergency /accident management scious teacher procedureswritten andrehearsed, 1. Lesson plansdaily lesson plans planned responses to each situation should be developed in accordance with which could possibly occur in the facili- texts and standards developed by the ty or program. The following list in- YMCA of the USA and American Red cludes the minimal considerations: Cross. a. Emergencies(noinjuryatthis 2. Participant readinessto deter- stage). mine motoric readiness students should power failure be screened with a swim test to deter- fire mine if their skill level justifies involve- C12 gas leak ment in the class. A procedure should tornado also be developed regarding student securing or closing the pool health and medical excuses which will b. Accidents. determine when they can go back in the drowning/near drowning water after a period of illness. Psycho- spinal cord injury logical readiness is also a concern. Some severe bleeding students come to class with learned or traumawounds, broken bones perceived fears about drowning. Coer- seizures cion, embarassment, or force should 5. Communicationin the event of never be used as a means of gaining an emergency, accident or other situa- participation,especially in high risk tion where it is important to get the aquatic activities. '156 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HORT 3. Aquatic Activities which have high should be provided which identifies risk potential: course requirements and performance a. Divingfrom pool side or starting standards. A statement should also be blocksintolessthan5feetof made requesting students to identify water. medical conditions such as hypoglyce- b. Springboard diving. mia, diabetes, seizures, allergies which c. Skin and scuba diving. might affect their safety while swim- d. Beginner and advanced beginner ming and diving. classes. 3 Checking safety, instructional and e. Water polo. fixed equipment. Items used for rescue f. Adapted aquatic classes and activi- or participation should be checked daily ties. and fixed equipment (i.e. ladders, div- 4. Personal teacher qualifications: ing mounts and boards) checked week- a. Teachers must becertifiedin ly. swimming and other specialty activi- 4. Emergency/Accident Management ties they will be teaching. ProceduresDuring the first day of b. Continued certification must be class, several students should be identi- maintained. fied to participate in an organized re- c. Teachers must update when na- sponse to a class emergency. These stu- tional agencies such as Red Cross and dents can assist by clearing the pool, YMCA change their courses and stan- keeping other students away fiom an dards. accident victim and smiling assist, Ace d. Updating in aquatics also includes from other school officials. attending the variety of workshops 5. Teacher attitude. The teacher must and courses offered by: be a good role model. Pushing students colleges and universities into the pool and clowning on the div- Aquatic Council of AAHPERD ing board are examples of unacceptable CNCACouncil forNational behavior. Cooperation in Aquatics 6. Teacher/Student Ratio. Acceptable NRPANational Recrea ion ratios have been identified by profes- and Parks Association sionals and aquatic agencies. state and county health depart- a. Beginner/Advancedbeginner: 1 ments teacher for 15 students. The actual conduct of the aquatic ac- b. Intermediate /Advan'°d courses: 1 tivity is the final step in assuring a safe teacher for 22 students. aquatic experience for all students. Con- Teachers should not be expected to duct of an activity involves: instruc' a class with diverse swimming 1. The lesson plan. Of particular im- ability without teacher aides (properly portance are: certified) or other teachers assigned. In a. Psychomotor objectivesthey addition, a lifeguard must always be must be realistic for the swimmer's assigned to each class or activity being skill level, justifiable and consistent conducted in the p:Jol. with YMCA and Red Cross stan- 7. Class Orientation. Students must dards. be informed during the first class meet- b. Relate all class activities directly to i;-,g and reminded frequently of class planned objectives. protocol such as: c. Provide clear verbal descriptions of a. staying out of the water until being skills, a demonstration or film of the told to enter by the teacher. skill and a great deal of closely super- b. chewing gum not permitted dur- vised practice. ing class. d. Include written safety consider- c. warning about drugs and alcohol. ations into eacl- ?Ian. d. obeying the rules of the pool. e. Do not deviate from the plan. e. identifying other expected behav- 2. A coursesyllabus. A handouti iors. 55 SWIMMING 157 8. Warnings. Cleirly identify high and supervision of one teacher. risk activities such z s diving into shal- 5 Improperinstructional tech- low water and tell the students what the niques. consequences arei.e.,quadriplegia. 6. Failure to use lead up skills or Identify and warn about the proper use acceptable progression. of equipment such as starting b!ocks 7. FailtiTe to warn and identify the and springboards. consequences of student behavior. 9. Aquatic equipment. Be sure to use 8. Equipment failure. equipment as it was intended to be used 9. Inadequacy of instruction (teach- by the manufacturer. er unqualified or uncertified). 10. Expired aquatic certifications (fail- COMMON NEGLIGENCE IN ure to re-certify) and false certifications. SCHOOL AQUATIC PROGRAMS Aquatic teachers should know that all a,_cidents cannot be prevented. Howev- Listed below are the common causes er, reasonable attempts made in con- of liabliiy cases identified by attorneys, junction with the guidelines provided in expertwitnesses, and professionals this chapter will provide an excellent over the past 20 years. They are: defense. Caring and professionalism 1. Improper location or absence of a does count. lifeguard. 2. Improper location or absence of REFERENCES the teacher or coach. 3. Unacceptable teacher/student ra- Fairbanks, A. R. (1983) Swimming. In N. J. tios. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education and sport for the secondary school student (pp. 4. Large classes (more than 25 stu- 267-287). Reston, VA: The American Alli- dents) with diverse skill levels (beginner ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- to advanced level) under the direction reation, and Dance.

156 CHAPTER 18

Track and Field

LeROY T. WALKER North Carolina Central University Durham, NC

157 160 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT here are many approaches to the tors which must be observed in safety in Tdevelopment of a safe environment track and field. Among them are in track and field. The literature is re- equipment safety plete with specific recommendations selection of clothing which are essential to provide a safe running surfaces environment for individual activities. training format There is, however, less discussion about Equipment safety.The quality and thetotalenvironment intrack and quantity cf equipment (and supplies) fielda sport in which multiple events available for instruction influence the are the core of competition. safety factor in track and field. Of equal significance to the provision Clothing. Track and field athletes par- of a safe environment in track and field ticipate in a variety of weather condi- is a basic understanding of the multiple tions including heat, cold, and rain. It is events. Therefore, safety in track and also necessary to wear support gear in field is tied to demonstrated knowledge some events. Participants should avoid of the coach or teacher. support garments that restrict move- It is generally agreed that knowledge- ment. able and sensitive leaders can produce It is important to avoid wearing rub- motivation to achievement, enjoyment, berized or plastic clothing. Increased self-fulfillment, and improved skills if sweating does ;tot cause permanent the athletic experience is conducted in a weight leas. The rubberized or plastic safe environment. Safety in track and clothing does rot allow body sweat to field demands attention to the perform- evaporate. Excessive dehydration and ance of the specific events. However, to salt loss may eventually lead to heat guarantee the overall safety in multi- stroke ar d heat exhaustion. event competition, other factors must A vari-ty of shoes are required to be considered. serviceparticipantsitthemultiple The following general safety rules events of track and ueld. Shoes for must be adhered to by the leaders and running are of different construction participants alike. than those intended for field events. 1. In view of the fact that many activi- Since the athletes are of varying body ties are conducted at the same time, it is build, the shoes must be pliable, prop- imperative to look around before walk- erly fitted, provide for excellent sup- ing onto the track to avoid walking into port, and fit firmly but not too tight. the path of a runner or hurdler. Running surface. It is a "safety must" 2. Before walking into the throwing to avoid constant work on hard synthet- area, look to see that the throwing cir- ic surfaces which lead to foot and leg cles are not occupied. problems. However, the surface itself 3.If jumpers are on the runway, do may not create as much a problem for not walk into the path of a jumper. the athlete as itproper foot strike. The 4. If a participant is preparing to coach must be aware of the proper foot throw, look first to see that the area is stri for various events and train the clear. athlete appropriately. 5. Do not throw implements back to- ward the throwing circles. 6.If walking during a recovery phase TRAINING FORMAT of a workout, move either to the outside lane or completely off the track. A series of factors must be considered 7. Do not walk between hurdles if a in developing safety control in track and hurdler is approaching. field. Among the factors are mode, fre- S. Do not leave implements on the quency, duration, and intensity. track or on the field which may trip a Mode. It is always best to utilize condi- performer. tioning or pre-conditioning activities There are a number of additional fac- prior to competition. The selection of

1 TRACK AND FIELD lbl activity may vary but should focus on 6. Increasing bulk to the point of re- cardio-vascularendurance(walking, stricting movement. jogging, running). Frequency. This factor is important but SAFETY IN TRAINING FOR less critical than duration and intensity. SPECIFIC EVENTS In developing a margin of safety, the coach must develop a training regimen Sprints. It is imperative to develop a which creates and exercises habit. balance between strength-building exer- Duration. Research reveals that a safe cise and high repetition movements for approach to duration is to modify the greater endurance and improvement in length of performance according to the coordination. Speed enhancement in maturational level of the athlete. In gen- sprinting can be safely pursued by de- eral, 20-30 rdnuies of intense training veloping both coordination and per activity category provides the great- strength. est return for the time invested. Hurdles. The hurdles event demands Intensity. In viewing a safe approach very serious attention to safety consid- to training, it is recommended that the erations because of the dangers inher- athlete generally works at 60-80% ca- ent in the event. There must be a verifi- pacity. cation of the technical preparation of the hurdlers, their coordination, boldness, and rhythm. BASIC SAFETY LAWS To avoid injury caused by faulty hur- dle clearance, the hurdlers must have Safety in track and field demands that the necessary physical and psychologi- several basic laws be followed to guar- cal preparation. Critical to the safety of antee a margin of safety in training. the participants are: basic training for Flexibility training is critical to safe muscle efficiency stamina and flexibility; participation and demands adherence belief in the ability to undertake stride to the following principles. conversion in the intermediate hurdles 1. Specificityflexibility training race; and development of the ability to must focus on joint action and the de- use alternate legs in the intermediate mands of the event, e.g., running vs. hurdles in an emergency. throwing or jumring. Distance running. The primary safety 2. Overloadsgains in flexibility take feature in training for distance running place when the participant achieves the requiresthat the coach recommend limit of existing range regularly, thus physical activity with muscle groups allowing new limits to be set. other than the fatigued group. There 3. Reversibilityimprovement in must also be training variations to avoid flexibility will be lost if regular work is boredom. It is desirable to develop a not maintained. sane training regimen which will stabi- In the attempt to achieve greater safe- lize the aerobic capacity of the distance ty in training, several pitfalls must be runner. Long distance runners usually avoided. develop aerobic capacity to a maximal 1. Insufficientwarm-up.Training limit through sustained training. Quali- with weights without warm-up causes ty work increase would tend to enhance many injuries. a safe stabilization. Safety in training for 2. Over training. This occurs when distance running demands: the body is being worked so vigorously discipline which permits and en- that it does not have time to repair itself. courages vigorous practice 3. Hard training sessions before a development of a good balance be- competition. tween natural speed and endurance 4.Weight training too often. that the athlete progress through 5. Increasing body weight without an several years of hard work appropriate increase in strength. that the athlete develop the physio- 162 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT logical and psychological capacity should be dedicated to the Spartan sim- to endure pain and fatigue plicities. The javelin. The leader must develop a program of training for strength and flexibilityto avoid injury to knees, PSYCHOLOGICAL groin, trunk, sides, lower back, and CONSIDERATIONS shoulders. Safety considerations are sig- nificant because throwing the javelin is The athlete is not only the sum of his an unnatural movement due to the sev- physical qualities but also an intricate aration of the hip and shoulder axis and combinationof psychological condi- the delayed arm thrust for delivery with tions. However great his/her speed or elbow ahead of the delivery hand. strength, these may be rendered useless if there is not an effective combining of the physical and psychological qualities PSYCHOLOGICAL AND at the most appropriate moment. PHYSIOLOGICAL One of the fundamental principles is CONSIDERATIONS that psychological conditions change and have varying effects upon the track Safety in track and field is significant- and field performer. ly influenced by the psychological and "Psyching" is a term frequently used physiological dimensions of training. by athletes. It refers both to the per- These factors are most clearly manifest- former's influence on the opponent and ed in five areas: the ability to prepare for competition. the running program during the "Psyching" takes many forms. It varies summer months from simply ignoring an opponent and thenature and extentof any exuding confidence in the preliminary weight-training program warm-up to dropping hints which start the nature and extent of any off- an opponent thinking negatively and season competition in other sports running for second. A gre It perform- the nature and extent of any inju- ance has tremendous "psyching" influ- ries that may have been sustained ence. Psychological effects vary accord- during the summer, or which may ing to strength and length, and they are have lingered from the previous difficult to explain or predict. season An important point for the athlete to the event or events for which 'he understand is that psychological states athlete will train may be useful or undesirable. Useful The athlete must have a complete states include interest, readiness, self- understanding of the facts concerning confidence, enthusiasm, and persever- proper care of the body. It is important ance. to use an objective approach to health Practice sessions should be organized facts for the well-conditioned body, to keep interest and enthusiasm high. A rather than a long list of training rules shorter practice session in which moti- which are almost impossible to imple- vation and concentration levels are high ment. While there are some fundamen- is much more effective than a longer, tal h^alth facts which have a definite loosely organized, and boring session. influence on the performance of an ath- The ability to sustain an intense work- lete, most of the "training rule" lists load is diminished if the athlete has lost include items which are basically psy- the zest for practice. Too frequently, chological. To break one of the pub- this condition is brought on by an hour lished rules often would have little ef- and a half workout extendect to three fect upon the performance of the ath- hours. Should it be necessary to work lete, but it may have serious social and over an extended period of time, vary emotional implications. Goals for the the program, change the work pace athlete should be high and he/she'fg blittle "spice" in the session. TRACK AND FIELD 163 PHYSIOLOGICAL lowing principles should be remem- CONSIDERATIONS bered: 1. Progressively increasethetotal The athlete's training in track and load. field is largely a self-determined respon- 2. Progressively increasethetotal sibility. While the coach may direct time given to a load. practice routine, the athlete is responsi- 3. Progressively increase the repeti- ble for diet, sleep, and rest. tions against a constant and known There are a wide variety of training resistance. patterns which the athlete can choose to 4. Progressively increase the speed of achieve a physiological base. An under- the performance. standing of the effects of activity on the 5. Increasing the body weight with- human body is absolutely essential in out an increase in strength is bad. ttl- planning the individual workout. Ath- ways continue strength-building exer- letes respond differently to weight train- cises Irnmbination with weight con- ing or other systems. Select the plan trol measures. which is best for the individual. Slavish 6. Exercising before proper warm-up imitation may prove detrimental. Fol- has been completed is risky. lowing are some general principles for 7. Continuing intense weight-train- training. ing immediately prior to competition is 1. Performexercisescorrectlyin not desirable. It is essential to allow terms of the results desired. If an exer- muscle fibers to repair and recover from cise cannot be performed correctly for soreness. the desired repetitions (usually a mini- Every athlete may not have access to a mum of eight), reduce the amount of training center. They can, however, im- weight. provise their own bar weights to use at 2. Increase repetitions each workout home in the basement or back yard. Use until 10 to 12 can be performed. Five to of free weights can be of great value in ten pounds should be added to the load developing the body. when repetitions can be easily handled and performed with less than full effort. CONCLUSION 3. Rest 2 to 3 minutes between exer- cises. Safety in track and field is an ongoing 4. Schedule weight training work- process. It demands attention not only outs with three factors in mind: to the individual events, but to the sport alternate days for more effective as a whole. A safe track and field pro- workouts gram depends on the knowledge and space exercises during the workout experience of the teacher or coach. By train but do not strain following the guidelines set forth in this Perform the exercises in a proper se- chapter, he or she can work toward quence. Shift the demands on muscle providing the safest possible environ- groups during workouts. This is accom- ment for students. plished by changing emphasis. Exercise the legs and the back, then the chest REFERENCES and arms. The workouts may vary from 30 minutes to 2 hours, given proper Walker, L T. and D'Annollo, S. (1983). Track organization. and Field. In N.J. Daugherty (Ed.). Physi- cal education and sport for the secondary school Muscular strength and endurance in- student (pp. 321-343). Reston, VA: The creases when exercises are repeated American Alliance for Health, Physical against increased resistance. The fol- Education, Recreation and Dance.

161 CHAPTER 19

Tumbling

DIANE BONANNO Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ

-"11111i _Agri

162 166 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

rr here was a time when it was stan- SUPERVISION dard practice to ask performers to execute their floor exercise routines and Both general and specific supervision tumbling runs on bare wooden floors. are important in every ac vity that is We cringe today thinking about the in- taught in the gymnasium. In the case of jury that could have resulted from such tumbling, however, the need to form arequest,andundoubtedlylook deliberate patterns of teacher behavior askance at the physical educator or are c,. greater concern than in other coach who made those demands. We activities because tumbling generates a have to ask ourselves, however, if our greater variety of individual responses. smugness is well founded. Granted, we Placement of mats, student groupings, may not be making the same blatant and the ability of each individual in the mistakes that our predecessorsdid class to work independently are just a when they taught this activity, but are few of the elements that must be consid- we certain that we have considered the ered to ensure that the teacher's view of element of participant risk from every the class is not obstructed while giv- perspective before we ask our students ing individual attention to those who to become involved? need it. Logic leads us to believe that tun, Following is a checklist that should be bling is a high risk activity because used when planning strategies to en- participants who engage in the sport sure adequate instructor supervision. It often find themselves moving through includes guidelines for determining the space in ways that are unfamiliar to quality and quantity of the supervision them. In truth, when we examine the needed, the type of organization and accidents that occur in this activity, we control that is necessary, and the plan- find that the element of risk is more ning that must be done to avoid poten- closely associated with instructor per- tial hazards. formance, gymnasium conditions, and performer readiness than it is with the THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY dangers inherent in any one specific OF SUPERVISION NEEDED skill. This is an important observation for it helps us to recognize that the risks 1. Supervision should only be pro- in tumbling are usually a function of vided by qualified instructors who have judgment, a factor that is well within a thorough knowledge of: our ability to control, rather than a func- the mechanics of the sport tion of the activity itself. It also helps tr, appropriate horizontal and vertical to realize that sound judgment is our skill progressions best defense in cases of liability. the most up-i-o-date teaching tech- Given two instructors with equal niques knowledge of the mechanics of tum- spotting techniques and the use of bling, the one who also possesses infor- spotting equipment mation on the potential hazards of the the care and maintenance of matting sport has a better chance of conducting and safety equipment an accident-free program. The reason is he principles of gymnasium layout simple: if you are cognizant of the po- first aid and emergency procedures tential hazards, you can design strate- general student characteristi_s (phys- gies to avoid them. In the case of tum- iological, motorical, and emotional) bling, as in all sports, your risk manage- individual student readiness ment strategies should concentrate on 2. Where possible, supervision the supervision you provide, the envi- should be provided by those who pos- ronment you create, and the degree to sess gymnastics safety certification or which you prepare yu_ir students to the equivalent achieved through in- partieipate in the activity. house training programs. 163 TUMBLING 167 3. Students should never perform 6. Mats should not be left open or without the aid of a spotter. Where placed 'n an area where unsupervised appropriate, individuals in the class can students can gain access to them. The be used to improve the performer/spot- prudent person should assume that if ter ratio, but it should be remembered mats are accessible and/or open they that students who assume spotting re- will be viewed as an invitation to partici- sponsibilities are pirt of the supervision pate. provided by the teacher. They should, 7. Policies should be developed that therefore,bespecificallytrainedin explain the department's position on proper spotting techniques and safety gymnasium security and the steps that principles and periodically evaluated on are to be taken to ensure that an unsu- their ability to perform effectively in this pervised area is never left open to the capacity. public. The procedures that emanate from this policy should include: ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL an explanation of who is responsible 1. The tumbling area must never be for opening and securing the area left unattended while an activity is in the exact manner in which the area progress even if itis for only a few should be opened and secured moments. A qualified instructor must the times at which the area is to be be stationed in the area at all times. opened and secured Note: being in the equipment room. the placement/condition of the equip- even though it is adjacent to the gymna- ment when the gymnasium is secured sium, does not qualify as being present 8. Rules of conduct and safety should on the floor where the activity is being be posted in several places throughout conducted. the gymnasium to serve as a constant 2. The instructor should have the en- reminder of the behavior that is expect- tire tumbling area in view at all times. ed. Care should be taken to use words Even though assistance (direct supervi- that the participants can understand. sion) is being given to a specific student, The tone,although nonthreatening, the instructor is not relieved of the re- should convey to the participant the sponsibility of having everyone else in serious intent of the message. At the the class within view (general supervi- very minimum the rules should include sion). in other words, physical presence the following points regarding supervi- does it constitute supervi-ion, knowl- sion: edgable and alert presence constitutes without exception, r,-. one is allowed supervision. in the tumbling area unless an instruc- 3. The instructor should be in the tor is present area where the greatest need for assist- tumbling practice may not begin with- ance is anticipated.If a new skill is out the express permission of the in- 'eing taught to a small group within the structor class or if an individual is attempting a a new skill may not be attempted particularly difficult skill for his or her without the express permission of the ability level, the instructor should be instructor present to provide help. all tumbling skills must be performed 4. Students should always have di- on a mat with the assistance of a rectaccess totheinstructor. They qualified spotter should know where to find him or her only teacher approved spotters may immediately and they should be taught be used to seek assistance whenever they are 9. The safety rules should be re- attempting something new or difficult. viewed with the students on . regular 5. Students shoula never have direct basis and time should be taken to ex- a( ness to the tumbling area; it should be plain why they are necessary e d the locked whenever it is unsupervised. type of injury that can result if they are 164 168 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

ignored. As a general rule, the younger PARTICIPANT READINESS the student, the more frequently the Participant readiness is a very useful instructor needs to present a formal concept in tumbling, especially as it reminder to the entire class. relates to liability and risk management. Generally "readiness" refers to the per- form !is potential for success when at- PLANNING tempting a new skill or activity. If the 1. DetailedI ,son plans should be performer demonstrates the requisite el- prepared for each instructional period. ements necessary to p form a skill, we They should demonstrate, without a say that his potential for success is doubt, that the instructor has consid much higher than his potential for fail ered every aspect of the lesson and that ure and that he is "ready" to move on in he/she has made every effort to elimi- the progression.,vel of readiness, nate any potential hazards. therefore, can help us determine what is 2. The lesson plan should explain the safe and what is hazardous for each instructor's efforts to provide a well individual in the class. supervised activity. At the very least, it When we use the word readiness, should incilde information on: more often than not, we are referring to mat placement and how it relates to the participant's level of ir z.'or ability.If the instructor's abili'y to provit'. spe- theparticipantshavetherequisite cific supervision while maintaining movement vocabulary to perform a skill general supervision we are usually satisfied with their level placernt of qualified spoth.,:s and of readiness and allow them to progress their rvaponsibilities as the seconc,ary to the next level of difficulty. While this line of supervision perspective is universally accepted, it the efforts that are taken to make the presents problems in regard to tumbling students cognizant of the safety rules and liability. and the conduct of behavior that is The unique aspec4-, of tumbling re- expected of them quire a carefull, plaimed approach to an explanation of the efforts that are safety. Tumbling is one of the few activ- made by the instructor to make him or ities in which the individual has little, if herself readily available to the stu- any, previous experience. This, in con- dents junction with the fact that tumbling the steps that are taken to ensure the requires the student to move thrc ugh security of the gymnasium and equip- space in ways that cannot be related to ment NI,,n they are not in use during familiar activities,alertstiq other a supervised class forms of real ness that 11..43+- be tested before a student can be allowed to move on in the skill progression. In addition CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY to ensuring motoric readiness, we must also ensure an appropriate level of psy- Conduct of the activity refers to the chological and physical readiness. selection and development of program Attempting a new activity generates a as it relates to the age, abity levels and certain amount of excitement, but it al. readiness of the students, the type of generates a certain amount of fear instruction offered, the measures that which must be dealtiith if we are to are taken to ensure an kidividual's safe- ensure our students' safety. Fear of fail- ty, and the warnings the- are given so ure, fear of the unknown, andlack of that the individual underb;.ands the in- understanding about what may happen herent dangers of the skill they are to us when we plunge head first into an about to try. Following are the guide- activity for which we are unprepared lines which should be considered when are all elements of psychological readi- planning for a tumbiing unit. ness th:.4 m tst be addressed as our I 6 TUMBLING 169

students advance through a tumbling on the number of skills accomplished in progression the vertical progression but on the num- The issue of physical readiness, on ber ac-omplished overall. the other hand, rela to the perform- 3. Stress self control. Teach the stu- er's ability to successfully complete a dents to be responsible for their own skill based on his/her physical condi- safety and well-being. Have them learn tion. Physical readiness includes two ana practice good safty habits. Teach- components: (1) the performer's present ing the students to be in control condition in terms of physical disabil- help them reduce their fear and any ities, muscular strength and endurance, reckless behavior that may result in In- flexibility, postural alignment, and body jury. For their safety and the safety or composition; and (2) the performer's those around them, have them learn physical status just prior to porformance and practice the safety rules. A written based on a warm up routine. handout, which you review with them Following are several points which at the start of the unit, is probably the must be considered when trying to de- best means of conveying this inform- termine or improve a student's level of tion. If you decide to exercise this op- readiness. tion, remember to use language that the student can clearly understand. Figure 1 is a sample of a safety handout which MOTORIC READINESS can be given to secondary school stu- 1. Stress body awareness activities dents participating in a tumbling unit. throughout the tumbling unit. 4 Keep vane in your lessons. If 2. Check to be sure that the student you provide vai_ety and excitement in can perform fundamental movements your lessons your students will be less requisite for tumbling. likely to try to create variety and excite- Teach the saidents to toe proper ment on their own. Anding technic, ies. 5. Provide a positive working envi- 4. Help the y e-formers to be more ronment for your students. Demon- aware of what they are feeling when strate patience and appreciation for they are executing a skill. their efforts. Don't indirectly push your studentstotryskills beyond their means becausyou only give praise to PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS those who extatinely talentta or 1. Never require a student to do a those who attempt the difficult skills. Be skill that he/she is afraid to do. ork pc,siiive about everyone's efforts regard- with the student to overcome his/her less of how small their accomplishments fears, but never force a student to per- may be. form by making threats or suggesting 6. Prepare your students for emer- that the student is acting foolishly. gencies. Much of the anxiety and dread 2. Do not put extra pressure on a we experience during an emergency is student to perform by making the due to our feeling of helplessness in the accomplishment of a particular skill re- situation. The actions of those around quisite to receiving a passing grade. us appear to be chaotic because we do Find an alternative method for grading not have a clear understanding of what a student': performance. Prepare a list is to be done. Preparing our students for of skills that move horizontally as well emergencies in gymnastics will help us as vertically and grade the student on to do three things: (1) alleviate the sense the number of skills attempted. Fe- ex- of helplessness that is pervasive; (2) ample, list at least ten variations of the ensure the proper kind of help from our forward roll and the same number of students when we need it; and (3) dis- variations for each of the other skills cuss the possible injuries that can result which appear at the simpler end of the from an accident in tumbling and what skill nrogression. Base your grade not we can do to avoid them. 166 170 PRINCIPLES Of SAFETY IN PHYSP_AL EDUCATION AND SPORT

For Your Safety

Maintaining personal atety in gymiostics is ycur responsibility. To minimize accidents and protect yourself from injury, nenduct your own personal safety check at the beginning of every practice session using the outline given below

Before Performing: Check Your Clothing

Remove all jewelry, including nngs and esmngs.

Be sure your hair is worn so that it does not block your vision or the vision of your spotter Be sure to wear the appropriate footwear Heavy sneakers or shoes can be extremely dangerous to you ..:nd your spotter Never chew gum or have anything in your mouth while you are performing

Wear clothing that is comfortable, but not baggy Baggy clothing can impede the ability of the spotter to assisi you. Be sure that your clothing is free of buckles, buttons, nvets, or zippers

it eyeglasses must be worn, be sure they are secured to your head

Before Performing: Check the Area

Be sure ths area is sufficiently matted for the skill you are going to perform. As a general rule, the less familiar you are with the skill and/or the more diffirilt the :.kill, the more matting you should have.

Check the matting to ba sure that it is not slippery and that it is free of faults such as rips or gashes.

If using more than one mat, be sure that thsy are securely fastened together

check the landing surface to be sure that it can absorb the weight of a landing or fall. Be sure you place your tumbling strip or individual mat in such a way as to permit ample space for traffic or spotter movement.

Be sure that mats are located a suffice it distance from walls or other apparatus Check the area to be sure it is free of small equipment such as balls or ropes that can cause you to trip. Be sure the pathway you have chosen for rur tumbl.ng run does not interfere with someone else's pathway. When you are not performillj, be sure to yield the right-of-way to those who alb

Fig. 1. Student safety checklist.

167 TUMBLING 171

Before Performing: Screen Your Spotters and Yourself

Do not attempt a skill with a student spotter unless your instructor has givenys,u permission to do so.

Be sure to use two spotters at all times unless two spotters will interfere with the free flow of the movement.

O Be sure you have a thorough uflderstanding of the skill before you make your first attempt

Determine whether you are in the proper physical condition to safely execute the skill. Be sure your body is well cone .ioned in regard to strength, flexibility, and muscular and cardiovascular endurance.

O Do not attempt a skill which requires a level of fitness beyond your present physical ability

Be sure ycu understand the proper progression.

Be sure your spotters know what skill you would like to try and that he/she knows how to spot it.

Be sure you know the problems you may encounter when attempting this skill

Be sure that the spotters are strong enough to spot a person of your size and ability level Be sure you trust your spotters and that your spotters are confident in spotting you. Attempt new skills at the beginning of the workout session before you become fatigued.

At the Time of Performance: Chick Yourself

Be sure to warm up sufficiently so that your muscles and joints are ready for the demands you are about to make on them.

O Stop and rest when you or your spotter are tired Your body cannot perform as well when you are tired and you may cause yourself senous injury.

Follow the progression step by step just as the instructor has outlined. Only attempt skills in which you have received instruction Instructions given to another individual do not apply to you

Perform at you level and not above. Do not try something because of a dere or because someone else, says that it is easy. Know your limitations and abide by them Always use a spotter. Follow a skill through to its completion, neve, change your mina in the middle of a movement. You can seriously ,..,ire yourself or your ;potter if you do Be sure your spotter knows exactly when you intend to legit; W e a sig,,a1 that you have arranged between the two of you so that there is no doubt in anyone's mind tai you are ready to begin.

Fig. 1 continued.

163 172 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

7. Generate an attitude of respect and 6. Keep accurate records of all stu- understanding in your gym. Teach your dents' progress. Especially document students, through your example, to the progress of those for whom you have respect and understanding for one have prepared special programs. another. Teach them to step in and 7. Design a basic warm up routine assist; help them to be aware of other which is required at the start of every people and their needs. tumbling session. Tea:. the students the warm up routine you have de- signed. If you do not intend to perform PHYSICAL READINESS the routine as a group, post the pro- 1. Before the tumbling unit begins, gram on the wall in several areas of the review the students' medical reports gym and explain the importance of its with the school nurse or the athletic careful and consistent application. trainer. Be familiar with any condition a 8. Du not combine the warm up rou- student may have that could negati ely tine with a training program. Conduct influence their performance in tumbling the warm up routine in the beginning of or that could be aggravated by the activ- the workout session and the training ..y. program at the end. The warm up rou- 2. Conduct a physical screening pro- tine should be composed primarily of gram before the tumbling unit begins. stretching and flexibility activities. Light P I-ermine a level of performance that jogging and skipping should be used to suould be met on each test to ensure a raise the temperature 4 the body, not to proper level of conditioning for each improve cardiovascular fitness. Work to participant.The screening program improveartycomponentoffitness shouldincludeteststhatmeasure should be left until the end of the ses- strength and muscular endurance of the sion. arms, abdomen, and legs, tests for flexi- bility of the shoulder girdle, legs, and lower back, posture screening to &- CURRICULUM AND LESSON termine defects or misalignments thz t PLAN DEVELOPMENT may be aggravated or cause injury, and a test for body composition or a simple LURRICULUM weigh-in. Check points should be set 1. The tumbling unit should be out- for each test that will help the .-eacher lined in a curriculum guide that is espe- identify students who will be at nsk cially designed for the age and general without a special program. ability level of the students enrolled in 3. Discuss the physical limitations the class. found in the medical record review and 2. The curnculum objectives should the physical screening with the partici- reflect an understanding of gymnastics pant and if necessary with the parent or and the general ability level of the par- guardian. During the meeting discuss ticipants. the physical limitation and the relation- 3. The activities that appear in the ship it has to the success/risk in tum- unit should be directly related to the bling. achievement of the objectives. 4. Do not allow a student to resume 4. The activities should be screened nractice after an injury or serious illness to ascertain whether: unless you have written permission they constitute the most appropriate from ,P doctor or other qualified expert. means of achieving the objective 5. Prepare an individualized program they are appropriate for the intended for anyone you have identified as hav- age group ing special needs. The program should Ire teaching staff is capable of deliver- have a fit ass component as well as a in.; the activity listing of approved skills which can be there is a record of injury connected ameliorated through conditioning. with the delivery of this activity 1 (..; t.1 TUMBLING 173 they are recommended by experts ,n a detailed description of the teaching the field methods that were used to deliver the they fit appropriately in the skill pro- activit , gression 3. Taken collectively,your lesson 5. The activities should be organized plans should demonstrate the progress in a proper progression. The progres- of your class in the tumbling unit. sion should: 4. Lesson plans should be kept on file move vertically as well as horizontal- in an accessible location such as a cen- ly, that is to say the skill should be tral office. presented with many variations so that the performer does notfeel ?ushed to move on in the vertical THE STUDENT SPOTTER progression until he or she has suffi- 1. Train student spotters in the rec- ciently mastered the skill. Skills can be ommended techniques. varied by changing the starting posi- 2. Give them ample practice with tion, cl. :ing the finish/landing, put- people who can perform the skill before ting the skill in a sequence, or chang- you ask them to spot someone who is ing the position of the arms or legs just learning. during movement. 3. Evaluate them periodically to as- contain many leadup activities for certa)n their effectiveness. eachskill.The leadupactivities 4. Only ask them to work with some- should familiarize the performer with one they can handle. Never ask them to the basic components of the skill be- assist someone who outweighs them or fore they ever attempt the full move- is too tall for them to spot safely. ment. 5. Screen the performer they are contain body awareness activities about spot t, be sure the performer is contain spatial awareness activities ready to attempt the skill and the be or contain combination.; of skills which she demonstrates reasonable pot,ntial can be performed safely by those who for success. have mastered the requisite move- 6. Never ask them to spot a perform- ments er who is attempting a moderately diffi- 6. The tumbling unit should contain cult skill unless you have worked with sound justification for its inclusion in the performer and you are sure he or the overall curriculum. she only neeas slight assistance. 7. The tumbling curriculum should 7. Never ask them to spot a perform- contain a series of units that demon- er who is attempting a difficult skill no strates expected skill development from matter how talented the performer is. grade to grade. 8. Give them frequent b eaks to re- 8. The curriculum should outline the duce their level of fatigue. appropriate teaching techniques. 9. Give them every available advan- 9. You should not deviate from the tage in terms of matting. Never ask the curriculum guide. If you decide to do spotter to assist anless there is ample so, however, you should state this in matting. your lesson plan citing the educational 10. Only ask them to spot performers principles you used to reach your (:eci- who are executing skills from a station- sic n. ary position. Never ask them to spot someone who is on the run. LESSON PLANS 1. Specific lesson plans should be prepared for every lesson you teach. THE TEACHER AS SPOTTER 2. Your lesson plan should include: 1. Do not substitut,jotting for good the objectives for the lesson fundamentals. Do no put a student the activitiesthat we_eusedto through a skill unless they are physical- achieve the objectives ly, motorically, and emotionally ready. 170 174 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 2. Thoroughly understand the me- 15. Never lose your concentration. chanics of the skill before you attempt to Complete the entire spot before moving spot it. on to correct a situation in another part 3. Become familiar with all the things of the gym. that can go wrong during the execution of a skill so that you are prepared for SAFETY EQUIPMENT any emergency. 1. Use safety equipment (safety belt, 4. Review the components of the skill overhead belt, and overhead with the performers before they begin belt) that best suits the circumstances. any attempt. This will allow you to give The decision should be based on: feedback as well as to reinforce the the ability of the gymnast important aspects of the skill. the ebility of the spotter 5. Explainthe mechanics of your the difficulty of the skill being learned spotting technique to the performer so 2.If safety equipment is to be used, that he or she knows what you are you should practice with it on a regular going to do. basis so that you can work the equip- 6. Try a new spot (one you are just ment efficientlyIzcl do not present a learning) on a performer 1. ho has mas- hazard to the performer. t-Ted the skill. This should oreferably be 3. Only qualified instructors should done in the presence of a qualifie .1 in- use overhead safety equipment. structor who can assist you if necessary. 4. Safety equipment should not be 7. Spot only those students you can used unless it is inspected for safety just easily assist. Never spot someone who before use. is too heavy or too large for your physi- 5. You should be familiar with the cal capability. potential problems associated with us- 8. Stay close to the performer and ing an overhead safety belt so that you provide continuous assistance through- are prepared for any emergency. out the execution of the skill. As the performer becomes more accomplished, ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS avoid excessive spotting which may im- pede the natural rhythm of the move- In addition to providing effective su- ment. pervision, appropriate activities, and 9. Become aware of each performer's proper teaching techniques, you have a idiosyncratic behavior. Prepare for the responsibility to proviLie a safe environ- worst thing they may do. ment and well maintained and up-to- 10. Do not give in to a performer who date equipment. Following are guide- wishes to try a skill, but who is not lines you should use to ensure a safe ready for the challenge. environment for your students. 11. Use spotting techniques that em- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ploy biomezhanical principles that assist 1. The tumbling area must never be you in the lift and potect the perform- left open or unsupervised. er's vital areas (spine and neck). 2. Tumbling equipment should never 12. Establish a signal between the be left out in a multi-purpose area. The performer and you which eliminates mats should be secured in an equip- any surprise as to the exact time an ment closet.If an equipment room is attempt will take place. not available, the mats should be se- 13. Never leave a performer posed to cured in some manner so that they execute a skill and turn to talk to some- cannot be used by unsupervised stu- one else. dents. 14. Never lose contact with the rest of 3. Warning signs should be posted the group while you are spotting a spe- throughout the area reminding the stu- cific person. Between attempts, take dents of the safety rules,especially time to supervise the area. those which forbid any type of activity 171- TUMBLING 175 without the assistance of a qualified floor moving door). Cones and other instructor. such markings are not acceptable unless 4. Students should not be allowed to the opposing activityiscompatible move equipment unless they have been (dance is an example of a compatible taught how to do it properly. This will activity). protect the students against injury and 5. The area should be easily accessi- the equipment from damage through ble to emergency first aid personnel. mishandling. 6. A phone or some other means of 5. Spectators, inch- -ling students communications with emergency per- with medical excuses should not be al- sonnel should be available on site.If lowed in the tumbling area. A place direct communication is not available, a should be set aside for nonparticipants plan which is known to all instructors, that keeps them out of the path of the should be devised which will ensure the performers. fastest method of obtaining help. 6. Where safety specifications have 7. The area should not contain win- been established by a national associa- dows that are at eye level. Windows, if tion or a manufacturer, be sure your any, should be located high in the facility and equipment meet or exceed room. the minimum standards. 8. Any windows in the area should 7. Developaninspectionpolicy be masked in some way so that the light which stipulates: that enters is muted. Bright light may the regularity (yearly, monthly, week- interrupt the vision of the performers ly, or daily) with which the equip- and cause them to break their concen- ment and the facility should be in- tration or loose their line of sight. spected the specific personnel or outside orga- nization that is responsible for the PHYSICAL LAYOUT insrection 1. Place mats in a pattern so that you the items to be inspected and the can maintain a clear line of sight with conditions that ar ^.onsidered accept- every group. able 2. Be sure that ample space (6-10 the records to be kept and the r12.ce of feet) is left between each mat to accom- filing modate the traffic flow. the procedure.; used to determine 3. Place mats in such a way that you whether an item is to be replaced or can specify the exact direction in which repaired everyone should tr.nble. 8. Be sure the floors are cleaned daKy 4. Keep mats at least six feet from and if need be, between classes, to be walls. sure that chalk, dust, and other slippery 5. Keep mats away from doors in- material has been removed. cluding equipment room doors even if the room is not no:mally used during THE TUMBLItiG AREA the class period. 1. The tumbling area should be large 6. Many safe organizational patterns enough to accommodate the number of are possible. Figure 2 illustrates two students who will be participating. possible configurations. 2. The area should be free of any pillars or posts. 3. The walls should be free of any MATTING protruding F arts. 1. Use mats only for the purposes for 4. The area should be physically sep- which they were intended. Inf drmation arated from all other activities, especial- on recommended use can be obtained ly those that require the use of balls. A from the manufacturer and the national pan..non of some sort should be used bodies governing the sport of gymnas- (i.e. ceiling to floor netting, ceiling to tics. 176 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

x A A x possible teacher I locations

ADirection tumblers move

A flow of movement should be along outside x x penmeter

A A rAll A [ , x

Teacher assists from outside the horseshoe. x's indicate several alternative locations where a teacher can stand.

Never use more than two rows of mats or you will loose the ability to view the whole class when trying to assist someone in the middle rows.

x

x x

x

Dir. of tumble x Teacher locations recommended

Fig. 2.Tumbling area configurations

2. Remember that mats are not a sub- the ability level of the performerthe stitute for good progressions and com- lower the ability, or the less experi- petent professional spotting. enced the performer, the more mat- 3. The amount and kind of matting ting required required will depend on: the landing required by the performer the skill being performedthe more and the stability under fcct required difficult the skill, the more matting by the spotter required the age of the performer 173 TUMBLING 177

the resiliency of the mat due to age the hazards that are involved witlthe and use sport, or a written test which evaluates 4. Check mats dailyfor: nps and the student's knowledge of the safety gas'3; worn surfaces; cleanliness; dete- rules and the possible consequences of rioration of cushioning material; resil- unsafe practices all provide notice to the iency and absorption; and quality of participant of the possible hazards in connecting surfaces (e.g. velcro fasten- the activity. The decision to use one or ers). Remove mats that require even all of them will lepend on the age and minimal repair. experience of the performers. 5. Be sure all mate have a warning label attached. Extra warning labels can SAFETY-AN be obtained from the manufacturer to ONGOING ?ROCESS replace worn or lost notices. 6. A two-inch base mat is recom- Tumbling can be a safe and exhilarat- mended for basic class work. ing experience for students if the teach- 7. A landing mat is recommended for er takes control of the activity and teaching difficult skills. makes it such. Implementing the recom- mendations made in this chapter will be PARTICIPANT WARNING a positive first step in minimizing the It is the instructor's duty to notify the risks associated with the activity. Once participants and if necessary the partici- the standards are met, however, one pants' families of the possible risks in should not become complacent. Risk tumbling. A warning in the form of management requires constantvigi- signs that illustrate what can happen to lance and persistance if we are to con- the participant if safety rules are ig- stantly ensure the safety of our stu- nored, a personal letter which explains dents.

174 CHAPTER 20

Volleyball

BARBARA L. ViERA Uni-,ersity of Delaware Newark, DE

,:

175 180 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

olleyballis an activity which is pulls, strains, or sprains, players using relatively safe when played at all improper technique are often injured. levels of ability and by different age Teachers must be able to select the cor- groups. For this reason it is a popular rect teaching strategy for the level and activity for backyard barbeques, picnics, strength of their students. A teacher parties, and any occasion when people who hits a ball at a ,tudent who is get together to socialize and have a incapable of receiving it at the given good time. The main reason thatthis intensity puts that student in a danger- activity tends to be safe is that it is truly ous situation. The equipment must be a non-contact sport. The two opposing up to standard and safely set up. Per- teams are separated by the net and thus fectly good equipment can become very there is usually little or no body contact dangerous if it is imF:Poperly installed. between opponents. If, hem. Per, the Finally, students need to prepare them- game is played by two highly competi- selves for a game by making sure that tive teams, there can be contact above they are not wearing anything that wall and belf_aw the net between spikers and be a hazard on the court, and by wear- blockers. During games played by less ing any necessary protective equip- skilled players, the danger of injury is ment. greater because players lack effective body control and often fall into the SUPERVISION net and over the center line into their opponent's side of the court. Because When teaching volleyball, there are players are confined to a small area and several things which should be consid- the game demands constant jumping ered in order to make the class as safe as and movement on the court, it is not possible. The ideal situation would be surprising that an occasionalinjury one in which there is at least one volley- does occur when one player runs into or ball available for every student in the falls on top of another. These injuries class and at least one court for every are usually minor. The two body areas twelve to fifteen students. Students will which are most susceptible to such inju- learn more quickly if they have the ries are the ankles and the fingers. It is, opportunity to handle the ball as often nevertheless, extremely important to as possible.Unfortnitately, however, the safety and success of thc game that the ideal situation is rarely found in the the players maintain a high level of everyday teaching environment. When communication on the court. Every time faced with a group of students working players know that they are going to play in a small enclosed area, there lust be the ball it is essential that they call for it some control over how and where the to notify their teammates of their inten- students move. The following is a list of tion. Good communication can elimi- suggestions for making the class fun nate many of the more common errors and safe. which cause collisions and can, there- 1. In the initial class sessions when fore, reduce the potential for injury. basic ball handling is being learned, do When discussing volleyballsafety not set up the nets. They are not needed there are four major areas that need to and could be an obstruction to free be addressed: the teaching of proper movement. technique foi the performance of the 2. When running drills involving two skill; the selection of proper teaching or more players, make sure that all strategies; the proper set up and use of groups are moving parallel to each other correct and adequate equipment; and and far enough from each other that the use of proper clothing and protec- there is no danger of collision. tive equipment by the players. Because 3. The teacher must be in a position the repeated use of a body part in an in the gymnasium where all students inefficient position can cause muscle are within view and must be aware of 176 VOLLEYBALL 181 any extraneous activity which could taught to react to a given signal dunng cause an accident. drills in case the ball does n,11 under the 4. When the teacher uses a piece of feet or toward the feet of jumping play- equipment as an instructional aid,it ers. A simple "NO" spoken with an must be used so that L is not a hazard to authoritative voice should be warning the students. An example of this is the enough so that players do not jump use of a chair or box for the teacher to until the area is safe. stand on when spiking or serving the 12. When more than one adjoining ball to the students. It must be far court is being used at the same time, it is enough away from the net so that there essentialthatarule be established is no danger that the blockers willcome which prohibits players from entering down on the chair and suffer an injury. an adjoining court to play the ball. As 5. In teacher led drills, the goal is to soon as the ball enters an adjoining extend the students toward their poten- court it should be whistled dead by the tial. At the same time, however, it is official or teacher. essential that the teacher know the ca- pabilities of each student so that none are forced to participate beyond their SELECTION AND CONDUCT capabilities. OF THE ACTIVITY 6. When the activity of the day is volleyball, that is the only activity which Many injuries occu: in volleyball be- should be allowed. If the balls are avail- cause the student attempts to perform a able at the beginning of class for stu- skill without the proper technique. Stu- dents to use in warming up,they dents must be taught the proper begin- should not be allowed to shoot at the ning position and method of execution basketball hoop or play variations of of each of the basic skills in volleyball. It bombardment. is also extremely important that the 7. No student with an injury should teacher uses the proper terminology in be allowed to participate. This is partic- the teaching of the skills. Often a stu- ularly true of finger and ankle injuries. dent uses the incorrect technique be- 8. Students should not be allowed to cause they have misunderstood or mis- begin their warmup unless the teacher interpreted the teacher's explanation. A is present in the gymnasium. good example of this is the expression, 9. At the end of class all the volley- "hit the ball with the finger tips," used balls should be collected and put away when teaching the overhand pass in until the teacher is ready to begin the volleyball. In this skill the ball is contact- next class. ed with the upper two joints of the 10. Students should practicetheir fingers and not the finger tips. If players drills on the court so that they gainan attempt to hit the ball with the finger appreciation of the size of the playing tips they are likely to jam their fingers. area. Developing an awareness of the Following is a list of considerations for players around them helps students teaching the basic skills of volleyball. build the ability to react appropriately in Understanding and implementing them a game setting. will help to insure that the students 11. When running drills that involve learn proper technique and therefore both spikers and blockers, it is essential play a safe game. that the teacher make the students 1. Make sure that the correct termi- aware of the danger of balls rolling nology is used so that students thor- under the feet of the jumping players. oughly understand what is expected of Players who are serving in the role of them. retrievers for a drill should be told 2. Teach the students the skills they where to return the balls and how to get need to gain good body control. This is them there. Players should also be particularly important in three areas: 177 182 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

a. Teaching spikers how to stop ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS forward momentum into the net. The planting of the heels before The equipment used in volleyball is take-off is essential. relatively simple. It consists of .. -et, b. Teaching blockers how to mt. ye standards for holding up the net, and to join a teammate for a double volleyballs. If the competition is at a block without knocking tha player high level, the net also needs to be over. It is the middle blocker's re- equipped with antennae. These should sponsibility to move to the outside be attached to the net near the sideline, blocker and net to the ball. the exact location depending on the set of rules governing the competition. c. Indefensivetechniquesin During competitive volleyball it is also which the player hits the floor to essential to have at, official's stand. The save a ball, the player must be United States Volleyball Association, skilled in the proper method of the National Association for Girls and falling. It is important that when Women in Sport, and the National Fed- failing the player learns to land on eration of State High School Associa- the body parts that have sufficient tions all publish rut' s and each set in- muscular padding and not on cludes specific regulations pertaining to parts that are boney such as the the safety of participants. Following is a knees, elbows or hips. list of considerations for the teacher 3. When teachingtheblock and when setting up the gymnasium either spike, make sure that students learn to for a class or for a competition. land on both feet simultaneously. Land- 1. The best standards are usually fair- ing on only one foot puts extra strain on ly heavy and must be handled with care that foot. If the player comes down on when setting them up. Some standards one foot and lands on a teammate's or include a base and will stand on their opponent's foot, it is very likely that a own as long as there is no tension serious sprain will result. placed on the net before they are firmly attached to the floor. If a slight tension 4. When teaching the spike in volley- is placed on the net, however, the stan- ball, make sure that the students hit the dards will fall over very easily. When ball with a fully extended arm. Hitting the teacher uses student assistants to set the ball with a bent arm makes the up, they must be aware of this danger. player depend heavily on the rotator It is possible for a standard to fall over uff muscles for attaining power. This and hit a student and the resultant added strain on the rotator cuff can injury could be very serious. Teachers cause tendonitis. On the other hand, should make sure that the standards are when hitting with an extended arm you held upright by someone until they are use the powerful muscles of the shoul- attached to the floor. This will eliminate der and back (Johns, 1977). the chance of an accident. 5. When teaching the dive or sprawl, 2 The standards must be placed at make sure the elayers flex their knees least three feet from the sideline. and arch their backs. Failure to do these 3. Round standards are less hazard- things causes the player to jam the toes into the floor causing bruised joints, ous to the players than any other type. especially of the big toe (Johns 1977). 4. Standards which fit into a sleeve in the floor are safer than those with a base 6. Make sure students condition their which requires guide wires. Support ankles. wires are very dangerous to a player 7. If a student has weak ankles, they who is moving to play a call and is should be taped before each class and unaware of their location. If guide wires competition. must be used, the heavy chain type are 178 VOLLEYBALL 183

better than the wire cable type, andany begin to raise up from the floor. these type trust be covered with a soft flexi- plates can become a hazard tounsus- ble material. The National Federation of pecting athletes when the standards are State High School Associations requires not in place. that this material be at least 1/2" thick and 10. If wire supports are used for th that m ist be applied to a height of 51/2 standards, itis recommended that in feet (Tine, 1986-87). addition to coverm them, stnps ofma- 5. The standards,referee'sstand, terial be hung trom the wire to a'ert and all the tensioning devices should players of their presence (Smith, .986). also be covered by soft, flexible materi- 11. A clear area should surround the al. The National Federation of State court. The United States Volleyball As- High School Associations recommends sociation rr .ommends that this clear this material be at least 1/2" thick (True, space be at least three meters for an 1986-87). outdoor court and at least two meters 6. The cranks which are used to place for an incit ..r court (Smith, 1906). tension on the net should be removable 12. The surface of the court must be if at all possible. If they are not, the type smooth and should not be abrasivein which fold back so that theyare not any way. sticking out would be the next best. If 13. If an outdoor ..:ourt becomes soft neither of these types are available, the or slippery, the game should be stopped tensioning mechanism t.a.u.t be com- immediately (Smiti., 1986). pletely covered with soft flexible materi- 14. Any off-court areas where haz- al (Smith, 19F" ards exist should oe declared nonplay- 7. The ante: inae must be securely fas- able. Players should not be allowed to tened to the net. ...ach antenna hasa enter non playable areas for the purpose device to attach to tielet. Once of playing the ball. Players should be a ..ached, a piece of athletic tape made aware of this and during play the should be wraj..ped around the attach- ball should be whistled dead assoon as ment for added security and also to it goes into such an area. protect the player from being hurt on 15. For beginners, the air pressure in the antenna. If, e.unng a competition, the ball should be kept at the lower end an antenna becomes dislodged,the of the acceptable range. Unfortunately, competition should be halted immedi- most teachers have a tendency to make ately until is can be reattached. A loose the ball pressure too high whichcauses antenna could cause a serious eye injury. the ba' +o hurt the student's forearms 8. Th'--virecable which extends and e., cause some bruising. through the net should have a plastic 16. During competition, the floor of- covering on it. This prevents the wire ten gets wet after a player falls while from splintering and causing injury making a good defensive effort.It is when anyone touches it as they try to essential that the competition be halted set up the net. The cable at the bottom until the floor '-an be toweled dry. The ^f the net should be rope, as rope is less wet surface is extremely slippery and likely to cause injury to a player who very d ,ngerous. accidently runs into it. 17. Certain items worn by players 9. Due to the high degree of tension can help protect them from injury. played cthe nets to get th? correct There are also several items which, an height, a great deal of stress is also be a hazard `D the wearer or to other placed on the floor plates used with participants in the game. Following are standards that have a base. Often when suggestionsforaplayer'spersonal t ,esestandardsa-eimproperlyat- equipment that help to prevent injury. tached, or if no guide wiresare used a. Long sleeved shirts help to pro- when they are needed, the floor plates fct the arms and elbows from 179 184 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

floor burns, particularly when the other participants in any way. player.- forced to hit the floor g. Anything worn on the head dunnga defensivemaneuver should be soft and pliable. Hats (Johns, 1977). are not allowed but sweat bands, b. Knee pads are highly recom- barrettes, a.d bandanas used ac mended at all levels of play. They sweat bands are all allowed as long protect the knees from floor burns as they are being used to secure and bruises. Many players ale not the hair and not just for adorn- as inhibited about hitting the floor ment. Braided hair with beads when they wear knee pads and must not be allowed to swing free- thus have better defensive skills. ly in a hazardous manner (Smith, c. All three sets of rules prohibit 1986, True, 1986-87). the use of jewelry and certain oth- h All players should wear appro- er articles during play. Generally, priate footwear. rings, bracelets, clang!. -,s earrings, i.Eyeglassesshouldhaveun- and necklaces long enough to clear breakable lenses and should be the chin must be removed. Al- firmly attached to the head. though post earrings are allowed, j.It is strongly recommended that it is recommended that these also gum chewing not be allowed dur- be removed as they can get caught ing participation. in the net or 3n another player's clothing and cause damage to the REFERENCES ear (Smith, 1986). Johns, D (1977)Care and prevention of d. The wearing of ..1 hard cast is common injures in competitive volley- not allowed on any part of the ballVolleyball Technic i Journal, 4, il), 46- body. ;lard splints or other protec- 50 tive devices are not allowed to be National Association for Girls and Women worn on any body part waist high in Sport. (1986)Volleyball Guide Reston, or above. Soft bandages of any VA American Alliance for Health, Physi- cal Education, Recreation, and Dance type are allowed (Smith, 1986). Smith, R. E (Ed )(1986) United States Vol- eProtective type braces for the leyball Associution Official Guide Colorado lower extremities are allowed as Springs, CO United States Volleyball As- long as there are no exposed metal sociation parts that may be a hazard to other Tomas', L. (1979)Injury prevention and players (Smith. 1986). treatment In B Bertucci (Ed ), Champion- f.Prosthetic limbs may be worn ship volleyball by the experts (pp 245-259) under certainconditions.They West Point, NY, Leisure Press may have to be approved by the True, S S (1986-87)Official high school voi governing body of t"e rules being leybidl rulesKansas City, MO. National used. It would be wise to check in Federation of State High School Associa- tions advance and get the approval in Viera, Barbara L. (1983) Volley bail. in N J. writing so that there will be no Dougherty (Ed.),Physics! education and problem with the officials on the sport for the secondary si /tool student (pp day of a competition. These de- 345-363). Restor, VA. The American Alli vices should be covered with pad- ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec- ding and should nut endanger the reation and Dance

1S0 CHAPTER 21

Wrestling

DOUGLAS PARKER Springlie!d College Springfield, MA

'N ...,..

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131 186 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Wrestling is an exciting activity for interests c.` students. This type of activi- students of all ages. Facilities and ty will also help students develop the equipment are much improved com- balance necessary for actual wrestling. pared to past years and interscholastic The teacher should refer to the cu -- wrestling is ranked among the top fn e rent Official high school wrestling ri.les sports in numbers of participants and (NationalFederationofState High teams Ho.vever, considering the dual School Associations,) for illegal hold., combative nature of the activity,it is and illustrations of these holds. The mit-, obvious that safety factors must be a book also includes potentially danger- high priority with physical education ous holds. Some techniques and holds, 'eachers. although legal, may be dangerous if not In some parts of the country, elemm- executed properly. The instructor must tary school students are familiar with guide the student in the defensive posi- wrestling. Many of them have seen in tion as well as the person performing terscholastic matches and some have the technique. Some positions are un- older brothers who are on wrestling comfortable and may be frightening to a teams.Unfortunately, however,the beginning wrestling student. The front only kind of wrestling that many other cradle hold is an example of this situa- elementary school students have seen is tion. Some students may feel they will the fake "rassling" seen on television. It have trouble breathing when held in is very important, therefore, that stu- this position and their opponent's body dents be informed never to use tech- weight is on them. The teacher should niques that would endanger their oppo- be aware of this, and help the students nent's life or limb. The Federation of understand the holds and their reac- State High School Associations' film tions to them. The Winning Edge: Wrestling by the Rules The most potentially serious injury in is immensely valuable is reinforcing any activity involves the spinal cord. this concept. Itis a one reel film, 18 The physical education teacher present- minutes in length, and is available from ing a wrestling unit must be aware of the federation's Kansas City, Missouri those techniques, holds, and body posi- office. This film should be viewed by all tions that have the potential for injury students prior to the start of a wrestling to the spinal cord. The teacher must unit. present wrestling techniques and activi- To present a high quality wrestling ties with special emphasis on this safety instructional program, it is advisable to aspect, espccially with regard to the start dual combative activities at the area of the cervical vertebrae. The teach- third grade level. By this time, the stu- er should instruct the students to stop dents have experienced self-testing ac- any wrestling activity whenever a stu- tivities and are psychologically ready to dent's head is in a vulnerable position test themselves against others. If safety or injury to the spinal cord may result. measures are stated emphatically by the Signals should be developed whereby teacher, the students will be aware of the teacher or an opponent Lan signal andestablishpatternsofbehavior for an immediate rel...,:e of a potentially which will snow concern for the safety dangerous hold. The teacher should in- of others. It is not uncommon for some troduce all dual combative lead-up ac- students who have not experienced tivities and actual wrestling lessons simple dual combatives at eight or nine with the following neck strengthening years of age to t , apprehensive about activities: participating in actual wrostling when neck bridging they are older. Simple combative activi- resisting half Nelson ties, therefore, such as chicken fighting, resisting quarter Nelson foot push, hand wrestling, hop and resisting three-quarter Nelson pull,chest wrestling, and arm lock combination sit-up and neck resist- wrestling will provide for the needs andi ance exercise 82 WRESTLING 187

To further emphasize safety measures tear_.ig order should be as follows: and also encourage the problem- solving 1.Falling techniques. method of learning, the teacher should 2. Getting out of pinning combina- have the students experience isolated tions. "tasks" or "situation wrestli.,g." Situa- 3. Reversing from the defensive posi- tion wrestling is defined as a tnal in tion. which one student will attempt an of- 4. Breaking the opponent down from fensive technique and t'le other a defen- a position on hands and knees. c've technique. Examples include the 5. Applying pinning techniques. turnover, breakdown, and go-behind. 6. Escaping from the defensive posi- When the teacher "shows and tells" tion. technique, safety factors should be thor- 7. Takedowns from neutral position oughly explained. To help with safety on the knees or at least one knee down. measures as well as accelerate the learn- 8. Takedowns from standing. ing process, the teacher should have at 9. Counters for takedowns. least one assistant. The assistant may be Because of the complexity of wres- a co-teacher, student teacher from a tling skills and the potential for injury, it local college or a skilled senior student. is essential that safety be of the utmost Instructional emphasis should be on concern to all. Following are concepts precise techniques and drills to perfect that are essential to the safe conduct of a techniques. Under no circumstances high-quality instructional wrestling pro- should the teacher's methods empha- gram. size brute strength and aggressiveness. There is no place for a "macho" attitude in the instructional program. THE INSTRUCTOR Progressions must be considered by a teacher when presenting wrestling in- 1. Presents the important rules of struction. When young people learn to wrestling and assists students in gain- walk they experience falling, and learn ing an understanding of potentially how to fall and adjust to falling without dangerous positions and techniques injury. However, sincefallingtech- which should be used with caution. niques are rarely used after early child- 2. C yes beginning students lead-up hood, students must re-learn falling activities which are appropriate to their skills. Under no circumstances should a ability levels and which relate to some person fall with the fingers pointing aspects of wrestlinr. backward. This position locks the elbow 3. Has interscholastic or c Ilegiate joint and a dislocation may occur. Fall- wrestling experience. ing to the mat safely should be part of 4. Has assistant or student teacher e,-ery lesson's warm-up period. The who was a high school or college wres- teacher should not start the wrestling tler. unit with takedowns, even though the 5. Took a wrestling course in college. official match starts with the wrestlers in 6. Has a working knowledge of basic a neutral standing position. For the pur- wrestling techniques and the ability to pose of safety, takedowns and counters present them in logical progression. for takedowns should be taught last, 7. Has an understanding of exercise after basic techniques and falling skills techniques which will prepare students have been well learned and practiced. for wrestling. When teaching "tat -edown throw" tech- 8. Presents dual activities or combat niques, especially those involviihigh ive games that will not only stimulate amplitude, dummies should be used students' interest but help them devel- initially. "Live" throws should only be op balance and other Qualities of motor permitted on an individual permission movement necessary for wrestling. basis, after the technique has been per- 9. E,thibits concern for cleanliness fected using a wrestling dummy. The and safety. 183 1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

STU DENTS MATS 1. Suitable clothing is t-shil Jrts, 1. The wrestling unit should be con- and warm-up pants. Loose fitting cloth- ducted on a plastic cellular foam mat at ing should not be worn. Belts, buckles, least one inch thick. Thicker mats pro- zippers, snaps, etc. are not allowed. vide more gaiety. Old packed-down 2. Rings, watches, bracelets, neck- hair and felt mats are not suitable in laces, earrings, and other forms of jew- physical education classes today. Tying elry may not be worn. these m. ,s together and using a plastic 3. Fingernails must be trimmed be- cover is not an acceptable safety prac- yond the ends of the f, agers. tice. 2. The mats should be washed daily 4. Hair should be cut short. with a concentrate that cleans, disin- 5. Clean socks should be worn. fects, ad deodorizes. Tne product Shoes should be taken off and left should a.so serve as a fungicide and around the edge of the mat. The soles of virucide. shoes carry bacteria, as well as dirt. 3. Sections of mats should be secure- Sneakers with heavy soles may also ly taped together. If the mats are put cause injury. down daily, two inches of tape is satis- 6. The students should be weighed factory, providing that it is applied well. andtheiractualweightsrecorded. Three inches or four inches of tape is Names and weights should be posted. recommended if the mats are used for Students should not be matched up several days or weeks with more than a 10 lb. difference in 4. The temperature of mats sliouid be weight. between 60 and 70 degrees. A mat at 40 7. Students should be prohibited degreesishard,rigid,and has a from wrestling when recovenng from "boardy" surface. It will not absorb as illnesses or injuries. much shock. A mat at 90 degrees is soft 8. It is recommended that the teach- and has a greater tendency to "bottom er do skinfold tests on the students to out." determine their lean body weight. Skin- 5.It is advisable to recondition foam fold calipers are inexpensive and the mats every five years. If the vinyl coat- procedure is simple. ing peels off a mat, the exposed foam ccre has less ability to provide afety. 9. Students should bepaired or 6. Foam mats should be tare ed over partners selected based on weight, age, periodically so both Lides receive equal and physical &velopment Lean body use. weights are more important than actual weights. 7. Each pair of students should have 100 square feet of mat space on which to 10. Students must recognize their re- practice. Specific areas can be marked sponsibility for their partners' safety as off by tape temporarily or by permanent well as their own. 10-foot painted circles. The typical 40' x 11. Students should 1 e aware of oth- 40' wrestling mat has nine, 10' diameter er students' place on the plat as well as circles on the practice side. The students their 01. n. should be instructed to confine their 12. Students will be required to offici- wresting activity to the area inside the ate matches and supervise classmates. circle. Space between circles is a "buffer They should be prepared to stop stu- zone" for safety. dents physically using a "hands on" 8.If the wrestling unit is taught in a method and also catch them and com- room with walls close to tie mats, the mand "stop" if they are in danger of wall. should be padded up a mini- going out of bounds. mum of give feet. Posts, radiators, and 184 WRESTLING 189 similar protrusiuns must be padded da-erous situations will have fewer with mat material. injuries and accidents as well as a more successful wrestling unit. EQUIPMENT CONCLUSION The teacher should have knee pads, elbow pads, earguards, and face masks Many students will enjoy wrestling in the equipment room and available for because of their interest and develop- students. menta: need for this type of activity. An effective and safe teaching method The enjoyment the student receives will for teachers is to assign three students relate directly to the teacher's personal- to a group. One student will be assisting ity, knowledge, wrestling talent, class withinstruction,leadingtechnique discipline, experience, and emphasis of drills, starting and stopping situations, safety factors. and officiating matches. Obviously, a student cannot assume the responsibil- REFERENCES ity of he teacher, but if properly in- Hess, I. (1983). Wrestling. In N.J. Dougherty structed and supervised, he/she can (Ed ), Physical education and sport for the make the lc irning environment consid- secondary school student (pp. 383-396). Re3- erably sac . The students will rotate ton, VA. The Amencan Alliancefor roles from ..dense to defense to official. Health,Physical Education, Recreation When preparing and writing lesson and Dance. Official high school wrestling rulesKansas plans, the teacher should include state- City, MO. National Federation of State ments that relate to safety measures. High School Associations. While accidents and injuries may occur, The winning edgeWrestling by the rules the teacher who emphasizes safety and [1-ilra]. Kansas City, MO: National Federa- makes the students aware of potentially tion of State High School Associations

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