TABLE 13 (Continued) Organization of 84 Structures on UCA Claws and Their Relation to Ritualized Combat

Area Structure Structure Name Type of Variation Range of Variation Combat Components Using StructureStructure (Figs. 42,43,44) No. (cf. Table 14) No.

PALM A. Upper, predistal area 25 General form a. Relative size Small to large Unknown 25 ( = between upper distal b. Shape Narrow to broad part of carpal cavity, 26 Distal extension of carpal cavity a. Occurrence Present or absent 26 dorsal margin, & dactyl base) into predistal area b. Shape Tapering; narrow to broad 27 Downward extension of carpal a. Occurrence None, slight or extensive 27 cavity's beaded, dorsal edge b. Separation of cavity from None, partial or total predistal area 28 Other separations between a. Grouped tubercles Present or absent 28 cavity & predistal area b. Tubercles continued up Present or absent from apex c. Higher predistal plane Present or absent 29 Separation by tubercles, differences Occurrence Present or absent 29 of lower part of predactyl area from upper palm 30 Depression in middle of area Occurrence Present or absent 30 31 Armature of area a. Occurrence Range as in #23, a-e 31 b. Tubercles unpatterned c. Tubercles in row T d. Tubercles in reticulations e. Rugosities B. Predactyl area ( = upper 32 Proximal row of tubercles a. Occurrence Present, few or absent Interlace 32 distal palm, beside (continued as inner row along b. Extent upward Full length or ventral part only dactyl base) pollex gape) c. Tubercle characteristics In row regular, irregular or multiple; small to large 33 Distal row of tubercles a. Occurrence Present, few, obsolescent, or absent Interlace 33 b. Tubercle characteristics In row single or multiple; minute to small c. Series stronger than (1 species): proximal Tubercles larger and row longer 34 Intervening groove Occurrence Well-marked, indistinct or absent Unknown (partial interlace) 34 C. Central palm 35 Convexity Occurrence Direction(s) of slope; degree Pregape-rub 35 36 Small depression near gape Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 36 37 Oblique depression, dorsal to Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 37 oblique ridge 38 Tubercles Occurrence Varying local distributions & sizes Pregape-rub 38 D. Oblique, tuberculate ridge 39 Ridge form between carpal a. General height High to obsolescent Heel-&-ridge 39 cavity and lower palm at b. Edge thickness Thick to thin pollex base c. Steepness of sides Steep to very gentle d. Extent distally Almost or entirely to pollex base 40 Apex, at lower, distal end of Height, cf'd. ridge Higher, equal or lower Heel-&-ridge 40 carpal cavity 41 Tuberculation, ridge, and apex a. Occurrence of linear Present or absent Heel-&-ridge 41 tubercles b. Location of largest On apex or more distally c. Degree of irregularity Slight to great 42 Tuberculation continued from a. Occurrence Present or absent Heel-&-ridge 42 apex, upward around distal b. Extent Slightly, moderately or merging with end of carpal cavity downturned dorsal margin c. Irregularity Slight to great E. Carpal cavity 43 Distal slope Degree Gradual to steep Heel-&-ridge 43 44 Lower edge a. Height Low to moderate Unknown (in triangularis prob. 44 b. Thickness Thick to thin heel-&-ridge) c. Tuberculation Present or absent F. Lower, proximal triangle 45 - Armature a. Tubercles: occurrence Present or absent Unknown (excluding use in 45 b. Tubercles: general size Minute to moderate autostridulation with 1st c. Tubercles: location of Proximal end ventral to dorsal or distal ambulatory) largest d. Tubercles: where Rarely from distal half, dorsal half or regionally absent entire triangle except near oblique ridge e. Tubercles: in rows Present or absent-location variable f. Tubercles: in reticulations Present or absent-location variable g. Rugosities Present or absent-location variable h. Oblique row of parallel Present or absent striae: occurrence G. Depression at pollex base 46 Form a. Extent Large or small Heel-&-hollow 46 b. Shape Shallow with boundaries indistinct or relatively deep, subtriangular 47 Tuberculation a. Occurrence Present or absent Heel-&-hollow 47 b. Size Same as on adjacent palm or different

POLLEX Entire 48 Length, cf'd. manus Range Longer or clearly shorter Heel-&ridge when long 48 49 Shape Range Approximately straight & slender; lower Heel-&-ridge when straight (?) 49 margin clearly convex, or straight with tip turned up; broad; or triangular Ventral Margin 1 Tubercles (see under MANUS) - - See Structure 1 1 2 Outer furrow (see under MANUS) - - See Structure 2 2 Outer Surface 6 Keel (see under MA NUS) - - See Structure 6 6 A. Lower part 50 Groove above keel Occurrence Present or absent Pollex-rub 50 Dactyl-along-pollex-groove B. Outer surface as a whole 5 Distal end of depression at pollex - - See Structure 5 5 base (see under MANUS) 51 Tuberculation a. Occurrence Present or absent Manus-rub 51 b. Extent General or near ventral margin and/or Pollex-rub near prehensile edge Dorsal Margin ( = prehensile edge) A. Entire Margin 52 Curvature a. Degree Straight to strongly concave (Unknown) 52 b. Location of concavity General or subdistal only TABLE 13 (Continued) Organization of 84 Structures on UCA Claws and Their Relation to Ritualized Combat

Area Structure Structure Name Type of Variation Range of Variation Combat Components Using Structun Structure (Figs. 42,43,44) No. (cf. Table 14) No. B. Proximal part 53 j Tubercles: outer row Occurrence Present, weak or absent 1 or more of these rows in components: 53 Pollex-under-&-over-slide 54 Tubercles: median row Occurrence Present, weak or absent Interlace 54 55 Tubercles: inner row Occurrence Present, weak or absent 55 56 Space between outer and Breadth Narrow or wide Interlace 56 median rows 57 Space between median and Breadth Narrow or wide Interlace 57 inner rows C. Median & distal parts 58 Tubercles: outer row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent, extended to tip 1 or more of these rows in components: 58 or not Pollex-under-&-over-slide Subdactyl-&-subpollex slide 59 Tubercles: median row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent, extended to tip Pollex-base-rub 59 or not Upper-&-lower-manus-rub 60 Tubercles: inner row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent, extended to tip Pregape-rub 60 or not Heel-&-hollow Heel-&-ridge Subdactyl-&-suprapollex-saw 61 Large, tuberculate tooth a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 61 b. Location Submedian or subdistal c. Row(s) of origin Median and/or outer 62 Keel: tip of median row a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 62 b. Tubercles Present or absent 63 Keel: tip of inner row a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 63 b. Tubercles Present or absent 64 Pollex tip appearing bifid or trifid Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 64 Inner Surface 46 Distal end of depression inside - - See Structure 46 46 pollex base (see under MA NUS) 65 Tuberculation a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 65 b. Extent General, proximal only, or near prehensile edge only

DACTYL Entire 66 Length compared with manus Range Shorter to much longer Heel-&-hollow 66 Heel-&-ridge 67 General shape Range Slender to broad; central portion broader Heel-&-hollow 67 or narrower than corresponding part Heel-&-ridge of pollex Ventral Margin ( = prehensile edge) A. Entire margin 68 Curvature Range Arched throughout or distally only Heel-&-hollow 68 Heel-&-ridge 1 or more of these rows in components: B. Proximal part 69 Tubercles: outer row Occurrence Present, weak or absent Interlace 69 Dactyl-submanus-slide 70 Tubercles: median row Occurrence Present, weak or absent 70 71 Tubercles: inner row Occurrence Present, weak or absent 71 C. Median & distal parts 72 Tubercles: outer row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent 1 or more of these rows in components: 72 Dactyl-slide 73 73 Tubercles: median row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent Upper-&-lower-manus-rub 74 Tubercles: inner row Occurrence & extent Present, weak or absent Heel-&-hollow 74 Heel-&-ridge Supraheel-rub (vertical) Dactyl-along-pollex-groove Subdactyl-&-suprapollex-saw

75 Large tuberculate tooth a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 75 b. Location Proximal, median or distal 76 Keel: tip of median row a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 76 b. Tubercles Present or absent 77 Keel: tip of inner row a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 77 b. Tubercles Present or absent Outer Surface 78 Tuberculation a. Occurrence Present or absent Manus-rub 78 b. Extent General or near dorsal margin, and/or near prehensile edge 79 Lateral Groove a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 79 b. Extent Proximal only or extending beyond the middle 80 Proximal subdorsal groove a. Occurrence Present, weak or absent Heel-&-ridge 80 b. Extent Extremely short to moderately long (Guide to heel) Dorsal Margin 81 Tuberculation a. Density Close-set, sometimes continuing in Dactyl-slide 81 subdorsal groove, to very sparse Upper-&-lower-manus-rub b. Extent Above and below subdorsal groove only, to continuing dorsally nearly to dactyl tip Inner Surface 82 Tuberculation a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 82 b. Extent General, proximal only or near prehensile edge only 83 Lateral groove or depression a. Occurrence Present or absent Unknown 83 b. Extent Proximal only or extending almost to tip

GAPE 84 Breadth Range Middle part much narrower than to much (when wide): 84 broader than adjacent pollex (exclusive Heel-&-ridge of any tuberculate tooth) 652 APPENDIX C TABLE 14* Ritualized Combat in UCA: Distribution of Components Component Actor Inactor Instruments Structure Nos. Contact Areas Structure Nos. 1. Manus-rub Outer manus 3 Outer manus, almost always 3 Outer pollex 51 ventral half Outer dactyl 78 Outer pollex 51 Outer dactyl 78,79

2. Pollex-rub Lower, outer pollex 6,50,51 Lower outer pollex 6,50,51

3. Pollex-under- a. Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 aa. Pollex: ventral 1,2 &-over-slide edge, median margin. b. Pollex: ventral 1,2 bb. Pollex: prehensile 53, 54, 55 margin edge, median & proximal 58, 59, 60 rows. 4. Subdactyl-&-sub- Dactyl: proximal 81 Dactyl: prehensile edge, 72, 73, 74 pollex-slide half dorsal margin median part Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 Pollex: proximal part 1,2 edge, median part ventral margin 5. Pollex-base-rub Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 Outer manus: flat area 5,6 edge, median at pollex base 6. Dactyl-slide Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Dactyl: upper margin 81 edge, median

7. Upper-&-lower Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Dactyl: proximal dorsal 81 manus-rub edge, median and distal margin. part Outer manus: upper third, 11-24 incl. submarginal area & dorsal (some or all) margin Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 & lower margin 1 edge, distal part 8. Dactyl-submanus- Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Manus: ventral margin 1,2 slide edge, median part 9. Interlace Dactyl: prehensile edge, 69,70,71 When actor engages from proximal parts, inner, outer side: median and/or outer Palm: predactyl area 32, 33, 55 rows Pollex: prehensile edge, inner row, extreme proxi­ mal part Pollex: prehensile 53, 54, 55, When actor engages from edge, proximal parts, 56,57 inner side: inner, median &/or Outer manus: cuff outer rows plus en­ Outer manus: central, distal larged space between portion rows Pollex: prehensile edge, 53,54 outer &/or median rows, extreme proximal parts 10. Pregape-rub Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Outer manus: central, 10 (longitudinal) edge, median part distal area Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 Palm: central distal area 35,38 edge, median part 11. Heel-&-hollow a. Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 aa. Outer manus: heel 3,4 edge, distal part; area length, shape, curvature 66, 67, 68 b. Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 bb. Palm: Depression at 46,47 edge, distal part pollex base 12. Heel-&-ridge a. Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 aa. Outer manus: heel 3,4 edge, distal part; length, ?76, ?77, area shape, curvature 66, 67, 68 b. Pollex: prehensile 59,60 bb. Oblique ridge inside 39-43 incl. edge, median ?62,?63,?64 palm & its upward extension & distal parts; length & Ventral edge, carpal 44 shape 48,49 cavity Indirect instrument 84 gape: breadth Guides to heel: Dactyl: subdorsal groove 80 Upper manus: submarginal 17 groove 13. Supraheel-rub Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Outer Manus: subdorsal 3,13 (vertical) edge, median & distal proximal area parts 14. Dactyl-along- Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Proximal outer pollex 50 pollex-groove edge, distal part 15. Subdactyl-&- Dactyl: prehensile 72, 73, 74 Pollex: prehensile 58, 59, 60 suprapollex-saw edge, median-&-distal edge, median part part *See also Table 13 and Figs. 42,43, and 44. "Plus a different component related to the numbered one listed; data being analyzed. TABLE 14 (Continued) TABLES 653 Ritualized Combat in UCA: Distribution of Components Known Occurrence of Component in Genus Uca Deltuca Thalassuca Amphiuca Afruca Uca Minuca Celuca dussumieri vocans chlorophthalmus tangeri maracoani rapax pugilator coarctata inversa pugnax cumulanta urvillei inaequalis stenodactylus lactea** rapax pugilator lactea**

pugilator lactea

rapax lactea pugnax

pugilator

dussumieri rapax pugilator urvillei pugnax cumulanta lactea** deichmanni

rapax pugilator pugnax lactea**

pugilator

vocans tangeri rapax pugilator pugnax cumulanta lactea

pugilator

urvillei tetragonon lactea vocans

rapax cumulanta pugnax lactea**

chlorophthalmus pugilator inversa

vocans inversa

vocans 654 APPENDIX C

TABLE 15* UCA RAPAX. Composition of 154 Combats Observed at Cocorite, Trinidad, October 13-17 and November 26-29, 1966 NOTE: Combats are listed only if observation is believed to have included the first component Combats Between an Aggressive Wanderer Combats Between and a Burrow Holder Two Burrow Holders Homo- Hetero- Homo- Hetero- Sequences of Components clawed clawed clawed clawed Total Manus-push only 1 _ 1 1 3 Manus-push + manus-rub - - 2 2 4 Manus-rub only 19 10 18 10 57 Manus-rub + dactyl-slide 1 13 3 6 23 Dactyl-slide only 1 3 1 1 6 Manus-rub + dactyl-slide + heel-&-ridge 1 i ** 1 - 3 Manus-push + manus-rub + heel-&-ridge - - 1 - 1 Manus-rub + heel-&-ridge 9ft 4** 4 2 19 Dactyl-slide + heel-&-ridge 1 - 1 j** 3 Heel-&-ridge only 5**t - 5t 1 11 Manus-rub + interlace - 5t - - 5 Heel-&-right + interlace _ 4 _ - 4 Interlace only - 2% - 2 4 Manus-rub + heel-&-ridge + interlace 1 - - - 1 Dactyl-slide + heel-&-ridge + interlace - U - - 1 Manus-rub + dactyl-slide + heel-&-ridge + interlace - n - 1 4 Manus-rub + dactyl-slide + interlace - 2 - 1 3 Dactyl-slide + interlace 1 1 - - 2 Total 40 49 37 28 154 *From Crane, 1967: 56, Table II. **1 heel-&-ridge component not followed by tapping f2 heel-&-ridge components not followed by tapping. 11 combat with forceful ending included.

TABLE 16* UCA RAPAX. Relative Frequency of Components in 154 Combats (From data in Table 15) Frequency (%) Component In 77 Homoclawed Combats In 77 Heteroclawed Combats Manus-push 6 4 Manus-rub 78 77 Dactyl-slide 14 44 Heel-&-ridge 38 23 Interlace 3 29 *From Crane, 1967: 56, Table III. TABLES 655

TABLE 17* U. RAPAX. Divisions of 104 Combats of Known Duration Duration Less than 20 sees. Duration More than 60 sees. Intensity With Force Fully Ritualized With Force Fully Ritualized Total Low 10 35 0 0 45 High 4 46 4 5 59 Total 14 81 4 5 104 •From Crane, 1967: 66, Table VII.

TABLE 18* UCA RAPAX. Behavior of Opponents. Following 148 Combats KEY: AW—Aggressive wanderer larger than opponent aw —Aggressive wanderer smaller than opponent BH —Burrow-holder larger than opponent bh —Burrow-holder smaller than opponent M —Mutual component(s) clearly present t —Burrow-holders dispossessed; waving resumption delayed more than 2 minutes

Result Combat Class General Combat Composition Subtotal Total Low intensity only High intensity With forceful end No forceful end With No push push apparent No taps With taps No taps With taps AW & bh 1 5 (IM) 1 3 (IM) 10 Subsequent behavior aw & BH 15 (2M) 5 (IM) 23 (6M) 13 (10M) 56 apparently BH & bh (BH = trespasser) 4 (IM) 7 7 (3M) 3 (2M) 21 unchanged BH & bh (bh = trespasser) 1 5 (3M) 1 - 4 (IM) 5 16 BH & bh (on boundary) 6 (2M) 3 9 Subtotals 6 38 6 - 38 24 112 112 Resumption of AW&bh 4 2 (IM)f 3 2 11 waving by burrow- aw&BH 2 1 3 holder delayed (less BH & bh (BH = trespasser) 2 3 - 2 2 (IM) 9 than 2 minutes BH & bh (bh = trespasser) except as noted) BH & bh (on boundary) 1 (IM) 2 (IM) 3 Subtotals 2 9 - 2 7 6 26 26 Wanderer's aggres­ AW&bh 2 1 (M) - 1 (M) 4 siveness reduced aw&BH _ 4 2 6 Subtotals - 4 2 3 - 1 10 10 Totals 8 51 8 5 45 31 148 148 *From Crane, 1967: 67, Table VIII. TABLE 19 KEY: V Vertical * Pause at apex of wave L Lateral •f Secondary waves present, included in durations Waving Display in UCA: Counts and Timing Data from Film Analysis V/L Semi-lateral = C No. of high-intensity courtship waves NOTE: Characteristics of low-intensity waves excluded. See also p. 498. No data > Material Analyzed -a Name Locality Chief Co ints Duration (sec.) TJ Wave Entire Wave Upstroke s Only Down-stro kes Only Pause m Form High- High- High- between O Jerks Jerks Moderate intensity Moderate intensity Moderate intensity Waves (in No. of No. of X Up Down Intensity Courtship Intensity Courtship Intensity Courtship Same Series) Waves Crabs o DELTUCA acuta rhizophorae Singapore V None None 0.15-0.25 0.25-0.3 0.08-0.11 0.11-0.17 0.08-0.11 0.08-0.11 0.08-0.11 29 (9 = C) 2 rosea Malaysia: Penang V 5-6 3 3.71-4.12 - 3.32-3.58 - 0.50-0.54 - - 2 1 dussumieri capricornis Australia: Broome V None None 0.12-0.38 0.16-0.38 0.13-0.25 0.18-0.21 0.18-0.21 0.18-0.21 0.08-0.25 46(13 = C) 8 dussumieri dussumieri Philippines: Madaum V lorO None 0.38-0.50 - 0.29-0.46 - 0.08-0.13 - 0.29-0.58 8 1 dussumieri dussumieri Philippines: Sasa V 2-3 None 0.54-1.58 - 0.38-1.46 - 0.08-0.21 - 0.42-0.88 12 4 dussumieri dussumieri Philippines: Zamboanga V 2-3 None 0.71-2.04 0.80-1.08 0.58-1.84 0.58-0.88 0.13-0.25 0.08-0.42 0.08-1.34 39(11 =C) 6 demani Philippines: Malalag V None None 0.58-0.92 - 0.46-0.75 - 0.16-0.21 - 0.88-9.08 6 1 forcipata Singapore vt None None 0.21-0.25 - 0.13-0.17 - 0.08 - 0.08-0.13 5 1 cajarctata coarctata Fiji Is. Vf* 2-4 None 0.84-1.25 0.84-1.08 0.46-0.96 0.42-0.63 0.29-0.54 0.34-0.54 0.50-1.54 10(5 = C) 3 coarctata coarctata Philippines: Iling vt* 0-4 None 1.71-3.38 0.96-1.29 Inapplicable 0.71-1.08 Inapplicable 0.21-0.34 0.08-0.75 14(3 -C) 2 coarctata flammula Australia: Darwin vt 3-5 None 1.63-2.58 1.69-2.58 0.92-1.8 0.96-1.42 0.38-0.96 0.63-0.80 0.08-0.29 12(4-C) 2 urvillei E. Africa: Pemba V None None 1.00-1.21 0.75-0.88 0.42-0.63 0.38-0.67 0.38-0.80 0.21-0.38 0.04-0.75 7(4-C) 2

AUSTRALUCA bellator bellator Philippines: Manila V None None 0.75-1.42 0.50-1.08 0.50-1.21 0.24-0.80 0.17-0.38 0.21-0.29 0.46-0.92 22(6 = C) 4 bellator bellator Philippines: Iling V None None 0.71-1.63 0.67-1.42 - - - - 0.21-0.87 59(19 = C) 7 bellator bellator Java: Semarang V None None 0.71-0.96 0.58-1.42 - - - - 0.21-0.54 40(32 = C) 6 bellator signata Australia: Gladstone V None None 0.63-2.50 - - - - - 0.67-2.50 20 8 bellator minima Australia: Darwin V None None 0.67 1.25 - - - - - 0.46-1.13 22 3 seismella Australia: Darwin V None None 0.08-0.20 - 0.04-0.12 - 0.04-0.12 - 0.04-0.08 16 1 THALASSUCA tetragonon Ethiopia: Massawa V None None 0.20-0.50 _ 0.08-0.27 _ 0.08-0.20 _ 0.21-0.54 25 3 vocans borealis Hong Kong V None None 0.38-1.39 -. 0.21-1.00 - 0.17-0.38 - - 5 5 vocans pacificensis Fiji Is. V None None 0.38-2.25 - 0.17-2.00 - 0.17-0.54 - 0.21-2.54 43 6 vocans dampieri Australia: Broome V None None 0.21-0.75 - 0.13-0.46 - 0.13-0.42 - 0.04-0.96 51 3 vocans dampieri Australia: Darwin V None None 0.38-1.84 0.46-1.25 0.21-1.58 0.29-1.08 0.17-0.34 0.13-0.17 0.08-0.71 38(18 = C) 3 vocans hesperiae E. Africa: Zanzibar V None None 0.50-1.71 - - - - - 0.08-2.04 25 5 vocans vocans Philippines: Madaum V None None 1.04-1.17 1.34-1.88 0.88-0.92 0.92-1.50 0.13-0.25 0.21-0.42 2.67-> 3 13(8-C) 1 vocans vocans Philippines: Sasa V None None 0.58-1.97 - - - - - 0.50-4.00 19 5 vocans vocans Philippines: Puerto Princessa V None None - 1.29-1.67 - 0.96-1.00 - 0.25-0.42 1.6-4.8 6(6-C) 2 AM PHI UCA chlorophthalmus crassipes Philippines: Zamboanga V/L None None 0.54-0.75 0.50-0.63 11 2 chlorophthalmus crassipes Tahiti V/L None None 0.38-0.88 ^ 0.25-0.58 _ 0.08-0.17 - 0.29-0.80 45 6 chlorophthalmus chlorophthalmus E. Africa: Pemba V/L None None 0.42-0.96 0.29-0.63 0.08-0.25 0.04-0.80 37 3 inversa inversa E. Africa: Zanzibar V/L None None 0.46-1.54 - - - - - 0.75-2.29 32 3 inversa sindensis Pakistan: Karachi V/L None None 0.63-0.92 - 0.46-0.80 - 0.13-0.21 - 0.21-0.25 10 1 BOBORUCA thayeri thayeri West Indies: Trinidad V/L 2-3 None 1.29-2.4 _ 0.63-1.50 _ 0.54-0.92 _ 3.13-7.0 6 2 thayeri thayeri Brazil V/L 2-3 None 1.17-1.84 - 0.80-1.42 - 0.34-0.42 - - 3 1 AFRUCA tangeri Portugal: Faro L None None - 0.75-1.00 - 0.54-0.80 - 0.20-0.25 0.34-1.80 12(12 = C) 1 tangeri W. Africa: Angola L None None - 1.08-1.66 - 0.71-1.16 - 0.33-0.66 0.25-1.50 12(12 = C) 1 UCA heteropleura Panama L None None 0.71-1.20 0.42-1.04 0.54-0.87 0.25-0.79 0.25-0.29 0.16-0.25 1.17-5.1 19 (9 = C) 2 maracoani maracoani West Indies: Trinidad L None None 1.41-3.54 1.04-1.54 1.00-1.58 0.63-0.92 0.34-1.96 0.34-0.42 0.58-1.88 37 (22 = C) 4 ornata Panama L None None 0.50-1.66 1.08-1.83 - - - - 0.67-4.34 19(6 = C) 2 MINUCA galapagensis herradurensis Costa Rica: Golfito L* 5-7+1 3-4 1.21-2.67 - ot relevant—Double peaks (Single wave) 5 2 rapax rapax Florida: Miami (Tahiti B.) L .12-20 2-4 6.20-6.54 4.04-5.87 5.0 -5.29 3.29-5.20 1.20-1.25 0.54-1.42 0.08-0.50 9(5 = C) 3 rapax rapax Florida: Miami L 5-16 1-6 2.12-5:08 - 1.62-3.70 - 0.25-1.91 - 0.08-0.80 19 5 rapax rapax Puerto Rico: San Juan L 8-29 1-5 3.91-12.00 - 2.04-9.75 - 0.29-2.25 - 0.04-0.80 9' 3 rapax rapax West Indies: Trinidad L 13-18 3 4.87-7.33 - 4.0 -6.12 - 0.87-1.20 - 0.58-1.71 ' 5 2 rapax rapax Venezuela: Pedernales L 14-15 4-7 5.98-7.29 - 4.29-4.88 - 1.17-2.42 - 1.08-1.17 3 1 rapax rapax Brazil: Sao Luiz L 8-22 2-5 3.67-10.37 - 3.00-8.70 - 0.67-2.58 - 1.25-2.71 6 4 rapax rapax Brazil: Recife L 11-17 2-7 4.70-8.79 3.75 3.62-6.08 3.62 0.91-2.70 0.12 0.13-0.17 10(1 = C) 5 rapax rapax Brazil: Rio de Janeiro L 8-34 1-8 5.2 -12.8" 4.2 -5.6 3.67-11.70 - 0.91-4.04 - 0.17-0.96 50 15 pugnaxpugnax New York: Long Island L 3-14 1-7 0.87-5.0 - 0.5 -3.25 - 0.25-1.83 - 0.08-0.34 8 2 zacae Costa Rica: Golfito L* 2 None 3.66-5.16 - 0.16-0.29 . 0.20-0.33 - - 3 2 CELUCA pugilator Florida: St. Augustine L* None None 0.79-0.91 - 0.29-0.46 - 0.33-0.42 - 0.96-2.34 4 1 pugilator Florida: Miami L 2-3 None 0.92-1.80 0.63-1.08 0.38-1.25 0.25-0.71 0.29-0.50 0.17-0.54 0.38-0.75 18(8-C) 3 speciosa speciosa Florida: Miami L None None 0.38-0.50 - 0.21-0.42 0.13-0.17 - 1.29-2.29 8 1 cumulanta West Indies: Trindad L None None 1.00-3.4 - 0.58-2.21 - 0.46-1.46 - 0.80-3.00 17 3 batuenta Panama L* None None 0.34-0.58 - 0.08-0.34 - 0.08-0.17 - 0.42-1.34 25 4 saltitanta Panama L None None 0.29-0.89 - 0.16-0.54 - 0.08-0.38 - 0.50-1.58 21 2 oerstedi Panama L None None 1.12-2.84 - 0.91-2.00 - 0.20-1.29 - 0.75-2.17 29 5 festae ex-Buenaventura, Colombia (crabbery) L None None 2.63-4.71 - 2.21-3.83 - 0.42-0.88 - 0.88-3.17 16 2 beebei Panama L None None 0.29-0.46 0.29-0.50 0.16-0.33 0.20-0.37 0.08-0.20 0.08-0.13 0.13-0.96 27(17 = C) 2 stenodactylus Panama L None None 1.37-2.79 - 0.75-1.42 - 0.25-0.62 - (1 only = 1.21) 4. 3 lactea annulipes E. Africa: Pemba L None None 0.42-1.17 0.58-0.88 0.29-0.58 0.67-1.00 0.34-0.58 0.25-0.42 0.98-3.63 47 (9 = C) 10 lactea mjobergi Australia: Broome Lt None None 0.6-1.25 0.3 -2.3 - - - - 0.80-0.96 35(15-C) 8 lactea lactea Taiwan: Tamsui L None None 0.58-1.46 - 0.50-1.34 0.04-0.13 0.17-0.50 0.04-0.08 0.25-2.08 41(16 = C) 5 lactea lactea Hong Kong L None None 1.04-1.63 - 0.75-1.46 - 0.17-0.34 - 0.67-2.38 5 1 lactea perplexa-iorm Singapore L None None 0.54-0.71 0.17-0.34 0.38-0.54 0.08-0.17 0.17-0.29 0.08-0.13 0.17-3.58 14(9 = C) 1 lactea perplexa Fiji L None None 0.42-1.00 0.13-0.25 0.38-0.71 0.04-0.13 0.13-0.25 0.08-0.17 0.04-3.5 94 12 lactea perplexa Philippines: Madaum L None None 0.38-1.04 - - - - - 1.25-5.5 62(31 =C) 14 leptodactyla Brazil: Recife L None None 0.87-1.42 0.67-1.00 0.54-1.00 0.46-0.83 0.29-0.62 0.16-0.46 0.50-2.46 21 3 limicola Panama L 2 None 1.62-2.46 - 1.04-1.87 - 0.37-0.75 - 2.38-4.41 5 1 deichmanni Panama L* None None 0.50-1.29 0.46-1.34 - 0.08-0.17 0.08-0.38 0.08-0.13 0.13-2.75 28 (5 = C) 4 latimanus Costa Rica: Golfito L* None None 0.92-2.79 1.71-1.75 0.58-1.16 0.62-1.13 0.20-0.75 0.25-0.33 0.92-2.20 12(3 = C) 2 658 APPENDIX C

TABLE 20 Waving Display in UCA; Distribution of Components KEY: + Component present. x Component present but weak. ? Presence of component questionable (field observation or film record dubious).

Other Timing Elements Subgenus Species Wave Forms Components Resume Usual Wave Duration (Moderate to High Intensity) 7 . Reversed-circular 9. Minor-wave 1. Vertical 8. Overhead-circling 3. Semi-unflexed 5. Lateral-circular 6. Jerking-oblique 2. Jerking-vertical 4. Lateral-straight > 2 Sec. < 1 Sec. Sometimes Ritualized) 14. Herding (Drumming Incorporated, // . Prolonged-leg-stretch 12. Leg-wave 13. Curtsy 1-2 Sec. 10. Leg-stretch Pause at Peak

Deltuca acuta + + rosea + + + dussumieri + + X + demani + + + + +• arcuata + X + + + forcipata + + + + + coarctata + + X X + + urvillei + + + A ustraluca bellator + + + + + + + + seismella + + + polita + + 7 7 + Thalassuca tetragonon + + + + + vocans + + + + + + + Amphiuca chlorophthalmus + + + + inversa 4- + + + X + + + + Boboruca thayeri + + + + Afruca tangeri + + 7 + + + + Uca princeps + + + + + + + + heteropleura + + + + + + major + + + + + + stylifera + + + + + maracoani + + + + + + + ornata + + 7 + + + + Minuca panamensis + + vocator + + + + + + burgersi + + + + + + mordax + + + + + + minax + + + + + + galapagensis + + + + + + + + rapax + ' + + + + + + + + + pugnax + + + + + + + + + zacae + + + + + TABLES 659

TABLE 20 (continued) Other Timing Elements Subgenus Species Wave Forms Components Resume" Usual Wave Duration (Moderate to High Intensity)

0 CO 1. Vertical 7 . Reversed-circular 5. Lateral-circular 9. Minor-wave 3. Semi-unflexed 4. Lateral-straight 2. Jerking-vertical 6. Jerking-oblique 8. Overhead-circling 1 > 2 Sec. < 1 Sec. 13. Curtsy 10. Leg-stretch 11. Prolonged-leg-stretch 12. Leg-wave 14. Herding Sometimes Ritualized) (Drumming Incorporated, Pause at Peak

Celuca pugilator + + + + + + + + uruguayensis + crenulata + + speciosa + + + + + + ' cumulanta + + + + + ' + batuenta + + + + + + + saltitanta + + + + + + + oerstedi + + + . + + + inaequalis + + + + + + tenuipedis + + + + + + + tomentosa + + + + + + festae + + + + + + + + + dorotheae + + + + + X + + beebei + + + + + + stenodactylus + + + + + + triangularis + + + X + + lactea + + + + + + + + + + + leptodactyla + + + + + + limicola + + + + + + deichmanni + + + + + + musica + + + ? + latimanus + + + + X + + + + 660 APPENDIX C

TABLE 21 Reference List of Components in Four Categories of Social Behavior in UCA (For explanation see text) Agonistic Postures and Ritualized Combat Waving Display Associated Motions Sound Components (pp. 488-491; Table 14, p. 652) (pp. 494-496; Table20. p. 658) (pp. 479-480; no table) (pp 482-484; Table 12, p. 644) 1. Manus-rub 1. Vertical-wave 1. Raised-carpus 1. Major-merus-rub 2. Pollex-rub 2. Jerking-vertical-wave 2. Down-point 2. Minor-merus-rub 3. Pollex-under-&-over-slide 3. Semi-unflexed-wave 3. Frontal-arc 3. Minor-claw-rub 4. Subdactyl-&-subpollex-slide 4. Lateral-straight-wave 4. Forward-point 4. Palm-leg-rub 5. Pollex-base-rub 5. Lateral-circular-wave 5. Lunge 5. Leg-wag 6. Dactyl-slide 6. Jerking-oblique-wave 6. After-lunge 6. Leg-side-rub 7. Upper-&-lower-manus-rub 7. Reversed-circular-wave 7. Carpus-out 7. Major-merus-drum 8. Dactyl-submanus-slide 8. Overhead-circling 8. _ Flat-claw 8. Minor-merus-drum 9. Interlace 9. Minor-wave 9. Chela-out 9. Major-manus-drum 10. Pregape-rub 10. Leg-stretch 10. Lateral-stretch 10. Minor-chela-tap 11. Heel-&-hollow 11. Prolonged-leg-stretch 11. Creep 11. Leg-stamp 12. Heel-&-ridge 12. Leg-wave 12. Prance 12. Bubbling 13. Supraheel-rub 13. Curtsy 13. High-rise 13. Membrane-vibration 14. Dactyl-along-pollex-groove 14. Herding 14. Legs-out 14. Claw-rub 15. Subdactyl-&-suprapollex-saw (Duration components omitted) 15. Claw-tap 16. Interdigitated-leg-wag TABLES 661

TABLE 22 Coincident populations of subspecies in UCA NOTE: Specimens from localities marked with asterisk were collected personally; the others were examined in museum collections. Sources in Appendix A, pp. 597f. and 61111. Discussion in text, pp. 87, 294. See also maps 20, 21. Area Subspecies of U. VOCANS Locality Subspecies of U. LACTEA Locality New Guinea pacificensis, vomeris: Port Moresby - - pacificensis, vomeris: Madang* - - Philippines Sulu pacificensis, vocans: Jol6* perplexa, annulipes: Tawi Tawi* Mindanao pacificensis, vocans: Zamboanga* - - G. of Davao pacificensis, vocans: near Davao* perplexa, annulipes: Malalag* G.ofDavao pacificensis, vocans: Madaum* perplexa, annulipes: Sasa* Panay - - perplexa, annulipes: Iloilo Indonesia Celebes - - perpexa, annulipes: Makassar, Para Pare Java perplexa, annulipes: Madera, Besoeki, Djakarta Borneo - - perplexa, annulipes: Pontianak Malaysia Singapore hesperiae, vocans: Bedok* perplexa, annulipes: Kallong* Malaya - - perplexa, annulipes: Port Dickson India - - perplexa, annulipes: Pondicherry

TABLE 23 Comparisons of High Intensity Courtship Display Between Two Series of Allopatric Forms: A Possible Factor in Sympatric Coexistence (See p. 529)

Area Allopatric Group Display Allopatric Group Display Jerks Jerks During During Primary Secondary UCA, superspecies Primary Secondary UCA DUSSUMIERI Wave Waves COARCTATA Wave Waves Fiji Is. [absent] - - c. coarctata Present Weak Philippine Is. d. dussumieri Present Absent c. coarctata Present Strong N. W. Australia d. capricornis Absent Absent c. flammula Present Weak Malaysia d. spinata Absent Absent forcipata Present Weak E. Africa [absent] - - urvillei Absent Absent 662 APPENDIX C

TABLE 24 Sites of Field Work on UCA 1953-1970* Duration of Stay No. of (Number of Day-time Low Tides) Region Locality Visits 1 to 2 3 to 7 More than 10 Eastern Atlantic Portugal: The Algarve: Vila Real de Sto. Antonio to Sagres + Nigeria: Lagos + Angola: Luanda + + Indo-Pacific Ethiopia: Massawa 1 + Tanzania: Pemba + Zanzibar i ** Dar-es-Salaam 1 + Mozambique: Inhaca I. + Aden + Pakistan: Karachi 1 + India: Bombay + Ernakulam + Ceylon: Negombo \ + Malaysia: Penang + Negri Sembilan: near Sungei Dua + Malacca 1 + Sarawak: Santobong 1 + Singapore _l_** Indonesia: Java: Semarang + Surabaja + Australia: Broome + Darwin + Gladstone + Shorncliffe: near Brisbane 1 + New Caledonia: near Noumea + N. E. New Guinea: near Madang +** Philippines: Sulu: Tawi-Tawi 1 + Jolo 1 + Mindanao: Zamboanga + near Davao + Palawan: Puerto Princesa 1 + Basilan R. 1 + Luzon: near Manila 1 + Hong Kong: Kowloon + Taiwan: Tamsui + Japan: Kyushu: Ariadne Bay + Fiji: Viti Levu + Tahiti + Bora Bora + TABLES 663

TABLE 24 {Continued)

Duration of Stay No. of (Number Day-time Low Tides) Region Locality Visits I to 2 3 to 7 More than 10 Eastern Pacific Costa Rica: Golfito 1 + Panama: Panama City 2 + Western Atlantic U.S.A.: Massachusetts: Cotuit 1 +** Florida: St. Augustine 2 + Miami 2 + Puerto Rico 3 + St. Thomas 3 + Guatemala: Puerto Barrios 1 + Guadeloupe 2 + Martinique 1 + Barbados 1 + Trinidad- Tobago Many +t Guyana Georgetown 2 + Surinam: Paramaribo 2 + Brazil- Belem 1 + Sao Luiz 1 + Fortaleza 1 + Recife 1 + Sao Salvador 1 + Rio de Janeiro 1 + •Before 1953 work was also done on Uca, without cinematography, on the coast of Venezuela and, in the eastern Pacific, from southern California to the Gulf of Guayaquil. **Between one and two months. tSporadic work on Uca, including the use of crabberies, carried out at the William Beebe Tropical Research Station, Simla, Trini­ dad, West Indies, especially during 1957, 1958, and 1962-1966. Appendix D. Field Methods and the Maintenance of Fiddler Crabs in Captivity

CONTENTS Introduction 664 Data for Allometric Studies 670 Timing of Field Trips 664 Preservation of Specimens 671 Selection and Use of Sites 665 Transportation of Living Crabs 672 Equipment and Its Uses 666 Crabberies 673 Field Data 670

INTRODUCTION As in every other branch of zoology, each worker or to a school of agriculture should be sent, prefer­ who begins to study fiddler crabs quickly develops ably months ahead, in order to allow time for follow- his own methods of work. Accordingly the para­ up correspondence. The enquiry should stress that graphs below will be most helpful to newcomers. average rainfall at the capital city or the average Little will be said of particular instruments, since number of days on which rain falls during each those available on the market change rapidly, often month will not give the information desired; instead, with improvements useful to a biologist in the field, detailed rainfall tables should be requested for the while the disadvantages of any model may be soon coastal zone over a period of years. In parts of the corrected. tropics which have long had stable governments, such On the other hand it seems worthwhile to include as Singapore, there is of course no problem; in many a number of suggestions for elementary aids to suc­ other areas time and persistence are necessary. cess. Many will seem obvious to a worker experi­ In the tropics outside of the equatorial zone, a sin­ enced in dealing with the minor crises that often gle dry season usually contrasts strongly with a single loom when living animals, both delicate and strange, rainy season and here information on the seasons are the subjects of his study. Yet the simple solutions and their variations becomes essential. The species may not occur to him in time to avert a disaster to that occur farthest from the open sea are subject to his efforts—whether these are attempts to fly a hun­ desiccation during the dry season and these popula­ dred healthy crabs across an ocean or merely to keep tions accordingly aestivate as need arises. Even when some fiddlers in a pail from kicking off their legs. they do not do so, they show little or no social ac­ tivity until after the start of the rains; on the other hand even species that breed throughout the year TIMING OF FIELD TRIPS may show a peak of social behavior near the begin­ Many species in the tropics are socially active ning of the rainy season, always in accordance with throughout the year, so that seasons may be disre­ a characteristic lunar or semi-lunar cycle. For exam­ garded in the making of plans. This attitude is rea­ ple, in the West Indies social behavior studies of the sonably safe when the trip includes territory in the subgenus Minuca should be avoided from about the equatorial zone, extending from about lat. 10° N middle of January until May or June. Even though to lat. 10° S. Even here local peculiarities of climate meteorological information is easily available in this are to be expected, when drought or excessive rain region, annual variations in the arrival of the rains may immobilize the crabs. It follows that the only are sometimes striking and always unpredictable; if reliable course is to learn as much as possible about time or funds are short, it may prove helpful to ask the seasons of the area before selecting dates for the a local field biologist to keep watch and cable when trip. In out-of-the-way places letters to the govern­ the crabs start waving; if such a correspondent does ment meteorological service, to the nearest museum, not exist, it would be almost equally helpful for an METHODS 665 acquaintance or official to cable as soon as the first being low only at night for long periods. Good exam­ strong downpour—not the first shower—occurs. ples of these and other irregularities appear on the In the subtropics temperature becomes a factor Gulf coast of the United States, the north coast of and, as in the temperate zone, most social activity is Java, and the north central coast of New Guinea. All confined to the local spring and summer. The length these conditions provide challenges to the investiga­ of the season depends in general on the latitude, but tor and also, it would seem, to the crabs. A short- adequate information has not yet been gathered. term visitor can only aim for a morning or midday An essential tool in the planning of any field work low occurring reasonably near full moon or new is the volume of tide tables appropriate to the area. moon, and hope for the best. A complete set is published annually in English by both the United States Department of Commerce and SELECTION AND USE OF SITES by the British Admiralty. The tables permit the selec­ tion for almost any suitable locality of appropriate A vital factor in selecting for field work a particular periods for the visit; when only a short stay on a stretch of shore is its history of pollution. Unfor­ tropical shore is possible, such planning is fully as tunately, clean-looking small bays, margined ideally important as a knowledge of the seasons. If both the with mangroves or northern marshes, often turn out locality itself and the activity rhythms of the desired to be contaminated by runoffs from the inland use species are unfamiliar, it is best to arrive at least two of agricultural pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and days before the occurrence of a low tide around processing plants. Sometimes the health and behavior 0800; often this tide occurs several days after new or of the crabs appear to be unaffected. I found one full moon. If time is limited to a week or so, optimal happy example in Barbados, where a population of populations can be located during the first two days burgersi behaved characteristically, although the of the stay when most species—with the tide low crabs shared a stream mouth with a sugar refinery; around 0600 to 0700—are not socially at their most this plant was probably responsible for the vivid red active. Then, if the work period can extend through that entirely suffused every individual in the popula­ the week to include the day on which low tide occurs tion, a situation never found elsewhere. As we learn about 1300, the chances are good that the major part more of the effects on behavior and reproduction of of the social activity cycle will have been observed. pollution in other animals, however, the need for care At least in tropical species, when the tide is low dur­ in the investigation of local conditions becomes al­ ing the afternoon the populations show minimal so­ ways more apparent. This is especially true before cial activity even when heat is not excessive. In a few work on species in which the criteria and ranges of species waving display, but not combat, is resumed "normal behavior" are as yet unknown, or when the when the tide is sufficiently low between 1700 and forms to be expected are unfamiliar in life to the dusk. In several species the most active periods of all investigator. fall between 1700 and 1800 as well as in the morn­ The importance of this factor in certain studies ing between 0700 and 0900. Nocturnal social activity cannot be exaggerated. It becomes crucial, for in­ when present apparently takes place chiefly during stance, in comparative investigations of different pop­ periods of low tide before midnight, corresponding ulations of the same species. Another example will to the high activity of corresponding morning lows; illustrate the uncertainties that can arise. Several many further observations are needed on appropri­ summers ago on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, I concen­ ate species, however, during parts of the cycle when trated on observing the social behavior of an appar­ low tide takes place between midnight and dawn. ently typical population of pugilator. The site ap­ Coasts having very irregular tides underline the peared ideal and reliable sources reported that no need for special comparative studies of fiddler crab aerial spraying against mosquitoes had taken place activity rhythms. Here during parts of the year the over the small cove for three years; in contrast to this tide ebbs conspicuously only once every 24 hours certainty, the runoff patterns from tilled fields and and only during daylight or, as the tide tables put it, cranberry bogs, prevalent inland, were unknown; the "low tide largely diurnal." At these times the diurnal collection of shellfish for food from the cove and ad­ highs and nocturnal lows are usually barely percepti­ joining bay was permitted by the authorities, al­ ble in the tables as very slight, brief reversals of flow though areas a few miles away were blocked off as direction that are virtually undetectable in the real contaminated. world of a mud flat. A normal set of tides may or The purpose of the study was to compare the so­ may not abruptly appear for a few days at or near cial behavior of the population here near the north­ the change of the moon; very often even these ern boundary of the species' range with that of pop­ periods do not provide a diurnal low during the hours ulations in more southern localities. Individual elsewhere found to be optimal for social activity in a components of waving behavior, courtship, threat, particular species. Sometimes the tides are reversed, and combat proved to be entirely comparable to 666 APPENDIX D those previously observed in Connecticut and Flor­ indispositions are fortunately quickly curable, al­ ida; the crabs appeared to feed as energetically as though they can be exasperating wasters of time and usual in the genus; finally, that particular summer opportunity. In brief, only the local prevalence of a included a proportion of warm and sunny weather serious epidemic should keep a healthy worker out that was normal for the locality. Yet the amount of of the mud. social activity of the crabs was far below that of more When a newcomer to a region is unfamiliar with southern populations. In particular, bouts of waving the appearance of the local species in the field, he and combat were rare and the periods devoted to may not be able to recognize them in spite of pre­ these activities exceedingly short. I ended the season liminary work on preserved specimens. This difficulty uncertain as to whether I had been watching an in­ may be partly because in each species the individuals teresting effect of climate, or whether pollutants were show great variation in proportions due to allometric after all at work, or both. Data accumulated on growth and to contrasts among males that are strong­ gonads and egg production have not yet been ly leptochelous or brachychelous; almost all popula­ analyzed. tions also show a striking range of color differences. Fiddler workers will keep in mind a sharp division Biologists who are not systematists sometimes feel between artificial pollution and the presence of natu­ understandably reluctant to become familiar with the ral sewage, which gives one of the best guarantees of morphological features of gonopods, preferring to a rich and varied fauna of Uca. Such a favorable lo­ concentrate on characters that do not need a lens, cation is often easily spotted from the air in the trop­ much less a microscope. Yet if a worker takes time ics, as the plane circles for a landing, since it charac­ before the trip briefly to investigate gonopods of ex­ teristically includes thatched huts, preferably on pected species, he can catch sample males in the field stilts, along the edge of a cove partly fringed with and usually identify them in the hand with a pocket mangroves and flanking the mouth of the usual lens; when time in the locality is limited, this rapid stream. Small fishingboat s drawn up on such a shore certainty proves rewarding. almost insure good crabbing, except close to the fre­ Finally, as will be amplified below, in work with quent turmoil at the landing place itself. unfamiliar species it seems best not to cut down on In selecting such sites, it is useful automatically to observation time in favor of operating cameras and remember three points. First, a close association other demanding instruments. Human eyes, binocu­ often occurs here of species that are not usually sym­ lars, and patience give the best foundations. patic; accordingly the assembly is in that particular atypical. Second, in future studies of the effects of EQUIPMENT AND ITS USES crowding we shall very likely find that even con- specific members of such populations behave differ­ The selection of instruments and supplies, and the ently in some ways from aggregations with more divisions of time for their use, depends of course on space among the burrows. Finally, no able-bodied the primary interests of the investigator, not to men­ observer of fiddlers should avoid wading into the tion the size of his budget. The following remarks mud as usual and getting down to his customary therefore provide rough guidelines only. crab's eye point of view. Binoculars. In my experience this important instru­ Work in tropical mud deserves amplification. ment's most desirable characteristics, aside from Aesthetically the experience practically never proves good optical quality, are light weight to aid prolonged displeasing; regardless of their unsavoury reputation, use without shifting position, and adjustment to per­ mangrove swamps and flats frequented by thriving mit short-range focusing, preferably to less than 2 fiddlers smell only of good, flourishing vegetation meters. The ideal magnification for me is yj. Un­ and the fresh odor of tide-washed mud and salt air. like its effect in bird glasses, a narrow field is not a We counteract the slight risk of infection after work­ disadvantage. ing near houses by scrubbing when back at the field base with soap and water to which we add a liquid Motion Picture Photography. For all serious motion disinfectant; the local pharmacy always carries some picture work on fiddler crabs a 16 mm camera of appropriate and usually familiar brand. As a further professional caliber is essential. Lesser instruments precaution we apply additional solution after wash­ at present do not seem sufficiently flexible for the ing to any area of skin that came in contact with the demands of the work and in particular are inadequate mud and allow it to dry there. Since modern workers for photographing in sufficient detail for ethological take whatever prophylactic measures against disease analysis many of the significant motions of individ­ that have been professionally recommended, most uals. The most useful lenses, all telephotos, have health risks are small. In the mud, especially, these proved to be 63, 135, and 150 mm in focal length, include the danger of infection of small cuts, which respectively. The 63 mm lens gives the greatest mag­ should be well protected. Otherwise, nowadays most nification and good depth of field for small crabs that METHODS 667 allow a close approach, since in the particular model cally down on a population to record the progress of used the lens can be racked out without removing it aggressive wanderers and of wandering females, or from the camera; extension tubes, which under field to determine the division of waving and non-waving conditions are at the least inconvenient, become un­ time in individual burrow-holders. Because of the necessary. The 150 mm lens makes possible usable shortness of reels and the expense of film this proj­ films of excessively shy populations. When air travel, ect, when instruments improve in resolution, will combined with the need for taking other heavy probably be found to be a very suitable use for a equipment, makes it desirable to carry minimal cine television camera. gear, I take only the camera, two magazines, and the During film analysis, the duration of components 135 mm lens along with its adapter; a camera case is and their parts are determined by counting the indi­ omitted, since everything can be safely padded with vidual frames, either manually through a microscope clothing in a suitcase during travel; in the field plas­ or by means of the counter on a projector for time- tic bags and an umbrella protect the instruments and motion studies. Accordingly, after every season in film from mud and the weather. Styrotex picnic boxes the field and more often after rugged use, the cam­ are efficient insulators against heat and can usually era's motor should be checked to ensure the accuracy be bought locally; otherwise the ubiquitous plastic of its indicated speed. pail serves well. Video Equipment. At this writing videotape is not Exposure at 24 frames per second proves better yet available in color in portable television equip­ than at 16 frames, not only because a sound track ment. Since black-and-white videotape is not nearly can then be added later if desired but because, since equivalent in definition to color motion picture film, more frames cover a given action, inspection of fine and because of other shortcomings, videotape images details in projection or under a microscope is facili­ do not replace motion picture close-ups for etho- tated. logical analysis. Nevertheless video equipment proves Color film, in spite of its relative slowness and the invaluable as a means of inexpensively recording extra expense, is far better than black-and-white for large numbers of repetitions of the gross characteris­ observing and analyzing the motions of waving dis­ tics of waving displays; these sequences can deter­ play, combat, and sound production, whether during mine reliably ranges in variation in such categories ordinary projection or special analyses; on black- as duration of individual waves, height, and angle of and-white film the crabs tend to merge with their the major cheliped, and elevations of the ambula­ backgrounds so that their morphological details can tories during display. The equipment also serves ex­ be frustratingly indistinct during attempts to distin­ cellently as a monitor close to the mouths of one or guish, for example, their methods of stridulation. more individual burrows, since it can operate unat­ Since I have always used color film, I did not ap­ tended for long periods. Finally video work is the preciate its advantages during analyses until good only technique now available for proving that cer­ quality black-and-white prints were made to save tain motions result in sound, the synchrony of sound the original from wear caused by repeated projec­ and image being perfect. Related comments will be tions; the experiment was not a success, when judged found in the following paragraphs. even from the limited viewpoint of eyestrain alone. With care, projection does not hurt the original and, Microphones, Tape-recorders, and Batteries. As far with specially important footages, an investment in as is known, fiddlers do not make high-frequency color duplicates can and should be made. sounds; accordingly the range in a good microphone No matter how limited the budget, ample film for general use proves adequate. Future work may should be carried on a trip if at all possible; it should well show that certain kinds of stridulation produce be exposed in quantity even if conditions are not high-frequency, airborne sounds, comparable to optimal; many important insights into fiddler behav­ those of some orthopterans; if so, special equipment ior, and suggestions for future work, were obtained will of course be needed. through rerunning films made months and years later Tough, small, contact microphones, when pressed from film exposed for quite different reasons and into the substrate close to the crab, are at present the often in bad weather. most useful instruments for receiving fiddler sounds For any behavioral study it is unsatisfactory to transmitted through the substrate. A variety of in­ include many individuals in one frame in the hope expensive hearing aids and guitar amplifiers have of being able to analyze display and details of social been used with success by others and by me. interchanges in this way of an entire group. Details Microphones capable of picking up airborne are invariably disappointing, and the use of long sounds produced by such components as leg-twid­ shots is, for serious film analysis, strictly limited. An dling are expensive. I have had no success with any exception that has not yet been tried will probably except a strongly directional instrument. Even the prove to be wide-angle photography directed verti­ best must be used very close to the performing crab; 668 APPENDIX D they are far more delicate than contact microphones although the uses of such photographs are limited. and must be protected from direct contact with both Because of the fast and complex movements of so­ substrate and moisture. For these microphones a cially active individuals, still photographs are almost small windscreen is essential and its size is impor­ always less useful for ethological study than in many tant; although a large one may be more efficient, it other groups of animals. One needs to be able, for may then constitute for the crabs a strange object reconstruction of memories after field work and for of such importance that they need more than a few comparative analyses, to review action patterns minutes to become habituated; sometimes a selected rather than simple postures. Obvious exceptions ex­ individual will not again during that particular low ist, such as various threat positions, the highest point tide ever become active, or even reemerge from his a cheliped attains in waving display, the form of a burrow sufficiently close to the microphone for its structure beside a burrow, and the position held dur­ operation. ing a surface copulation; nevertheless these useful Tests with two models of hydrophones were fail­ pieces of patterns are few. Again, color photographs ures, since each instrument picked up subsurface show limitations in recording color changes. For sci­ sounds from, apparently, a number of neighboring entific use, at least, a well-exposed sequence on color fiddlers; not enough is yet known of fiddler sounds motion picture film, made at a suitably close distance, for the observer confidently to disregard all except a is worth much more than a series of stills in illustrat­ particular sound, much less to attribute each correct­ ing any aspect of fiddler behavior, and requires far ly to sex, phase, and species, or even usually to be less precious field time. The relatively poor quality certain that the producing animal is a fiddler. As of single frames for reproduction is counterbalanced soon as sufficient knowledge is accumulated, hydro­ by the wide choice of the moment to be illustrated. phones, because of this very sensitivity, will certainly prove invaluable. For example they should serve well Tripods. In most sequences it is extremely important to detect social situations underground, to determine to photograph the crabs close to ground level, as near the presence and distribution of males and perhaps as feasible to a crab's eye view. When taken from females when producing sounds deep in their bur­ other angles the films may not show details vital to rows, and to detect antiphonies and choruses. ethological analysis and correct interpretation. For Tape-recorders of sufficient toughness for travel example, a display sequence shot obliquely from and for hard use in the tropics are now fortunately above often cannot settle whether the major cheliped prevalent. In my experience their weak points remain touches the ground in a drumming component, their batteries. If rechargeable types are carried, whether ritualized drumming occurs instead, or along with a range of adapters for foreign electrical whether, in contrast, the major merus is vibrating outlets, the problem is only partly solved. The best against the suborbital region. On the other hand, oc­ of them soon become weakened and hold their casional long shots and wide-angle views require charges inadequately, even when they are fully re­ normal heights for the camera. charged after each use. The trouble sometimes re­ A necessity therefore is a tripod with adjustable sults from weak voltage in the local current; in this legs which when fully contracted measure less than case charging for long periods—for example for 24 10 inches long. Such lengths are readily available in consecutive hours—sometimes will yield several "table-top" tripods; unfortunately none of these needed hours of current in the field. More often the models has the requisite strength to support the only reliable solution is to rent or buy a car storage heavy, tilting, tripod head that must be added, plus battery. If power is needed daily at the same site for the weight of a professional 16 mm motion picture a week or more, and if the chosen spot is either suffi­ camera, or of a television unit. If a light tripod is ciently guarded, fenced, or isolated, the battery may used, the film shows the effects of vibration, while a be wrapped after use in a piece of plastic and left on weak and unversatile head both fails to hold the a board above the level of high tide. Unfortunately, camera at an angle and cannot cope with some of the in perhaps most parts of the world likely to be visited work's demands. Finally, the design of the tripod's by a short-term field worker the object would prove legs is important, since in spite of a large diameter to be such a temptation to pilferers that its weight they must be quickly sinkable, with the aid of strong would be no deterrent. Nevertheless its dependable distal points and a trowel, into firm substrates for power is worth a large sum in car-hire money, per­ further height reduction, while the locks on the joints haps not otherwise needed, to take it to and from must work easily for rapid extension at need. Fre­ the base. quent cleaning and oiling help avoid lost opportuni­ ties; as any photographer knows, few frustrations ex­ Still Photography. The general methods and equip­ cept a stuck camera are worse in a crisis than a balky ment employed in macrophotography of small living tripod. animals are altogether applicable to fiddler crabs, Although at least one adequate model used to be METHODS 669 available, it is no longer manufactured; at present a should be placed at once in a dish by itself, as de­ machinist must generally be asked to alter a heavy scribed in the section on crabberies. If a trowel is not duty tripod to the desired specifications. While it is available, individual crabs may be similarly cut off always possible to use a standard model sunk deep from their burrows with any broad blade; butcher in a pit, the digging wastes time, proves impracticable knives, machetes, and even a Malay kris have all in underlayers of coral or rock, slows position shifts, worked. and, most important, messes up the habitat. It is far One method seems most effective for seizing male better to travel with a suitable instrument. fiddlers so that their appendages remain in place and their claws do not pinch human fingers. The system Collecting Tools. The best all-around tool for catch­ works even when a large male is sitting at arm's ing fiddlers is a gardening trowel. This implement is length in the bottom of a burrow. It consists of grasp­ unknown in many parts of Asia and no substitute ing the crab by placing your thumb firmly against proves as useful, with the occasional exception of the the posterior part of his carapace and then using human hand. Accordingly it is advisable to carry a your fingers, with the first one bent above his major heavy model of stainless steel; the handle and scoop dactyl, to push his claw into the flexed rest position should be forged in one piece; lighter designs will in front of his mouth region and to hold it there. If probably not last out the trip. the crab is in a high intensity threat position above When crabs are wanted merely as preserved speci­ ground, with the claw "open," you must meanwhile mens, members of small species with shallow burrows force his major dactyl slowly down against his pollex can often be dug up efficiently by wielding the trowel with help from your other hand. Even females should as fast as possible and dropping the crabs into pails be grasped similarly to prevent their losing some legs. variously supplied with liquid, as described in a later section. Difficulties arise when the crabs are larger Marking Paint. Several opaque, fast-drying lacquers and live in deep burrows, when they are aestivating are available in artists' supply stores and hobby shops or hibernating in hard ground, when the substrate is that are suitable for marking crabs. The brands laced with roots or rhizophorae, when stones are selected by behavioral entomologists for use on bees prevalent, or when the burrows extend into coral or and other insects are often appropriate. Providing creviced limestone. Under any of these conditions the the carapace and outer major manus of individual collector must simply take whatever measures sug­ crabs are cleaned and dried before marking, and the gest themselves, from depending on difficult digging marked crab kept in a dry pail for several minutes by hand, through the use of a shovel, to changing his before releasing, the paint needs renewal in outdoor activities to more cooperative terrain. crabberies only about every four weeks, unless of When large general collections are needed and no course an individual molts. selection of individuals is required, the fastest method I have not yet had success in marking crabs either is to borrow a shovel and persuade a cooperative in the field or in crabberies with spray paint. Out-of- adult to wield it at a distance from the site of etio­ doors air currents blow the spray even on calm days logical observations; troops of enthusiastic small so that it either misses the target crab or gets in its boys should be provided with jars or pails and re­ eyes or soft areas connecting segments. When this warded for staying far away. happens the fiddler interrupts its activities to rub eyes When particular individual crabs must be caught, or legs with other appendages; sometimes paralysis whether as records following observations, after film­ of an appendage occurs and sometimes captive crabs ing, or for transport alive to crabberies, a trowel still have soon died after showing one or more symptoms. proves to be the most convenient tool. This proce­ I have watched similar effects on salticid spiders and dure can never be hurried. The direction of the pas­ butterflies when the paint by accident flowed over sage that slants downward inside the burrow mouth sensitive areas. An array of brands should be sys­ must first be determined. When the crab is in its bur­ tematically tested in the home laboratory and per­ row, the collector moves, with as little vibration of haps a suitable formula concocted. the substrate as possible, to a position on one side Sometimes particular crabs in the field can be of the hole so that the trowel can be held vertically, touched with a brush fastened to the end of a dark- close above the ground under which the passage lies colored, slender, flexible rod of bamboo or other and several inches from the hole itself. As the crab material. My chief difficulty in limited attempts has starts to emerge and before it becomes aware of been that when lacquer dries fast enough to stick on strange objects close by, the blade thrusts swiftly into the crab's next abrasive trip underground it also dries the ground, scooping underneath the crab and block­ before the target crab can be touched, as I wait with ing its retreat. Although the subsequent capture and the rod poised above its burrow. No matter how handling will shock the crab it recovers quickly. habituated it has become to an observer, it retreats When the individual is destined for a crabbery it almost inevitably before the paint-filled brush can be 670 APPENDIX D eased down to touch it; therefore the actual dab must range of the lens or by another male making some await its emergence. Nevertheless some variation of particular motion. this technique should be made eventually to work. When either a species, a locality, or the behavior on which I intended to concentrate was unfamiliar, Color of Clothing and Equipment. Like birds and it seemed essential to devote time for as long as pos­ many other animals, fiddler crabs—easily startled by sible—whether the first low-tide period or, in a long strange objects and abrupt motions—are keenly sen­ stay, a week or more—to observations and note- sitive to moving objects that contrast with the sub­ taking only, with photography and recording saved strate. Accordingly, in order to encourage their rapid for later sessions. When this course was followed, the habituation to a nearby human being, experienced non-observational chores could all be planned and observers avoid fast or sudden motions, white or pas­ carried out far more intelligently. For me attempts tel clothing, and large expanses of untanned Euro­ to combine in a single session the use of camera and pean skin. Tennis hats can be tinted in coffee or tea, recorder with observation resulted in poor work in while a felt-tipped pen or crab-marking enamel will both areas. Odd notes scribbled inconspicuously, blacken the shine on a camera's chrome trim. while waiting between instrument set-ups and their operation, sometimes of course prove invaluable, but they probably should be viewed as unexpected divi­ FIELD DATA dends; because of the division of attention, they may In the study of Uca it seems more important than in prove unreliable. As described in the preceding para­ many groups that all notes, films, and recordings be graph, exceptions are the descriptions of circum­ accompanied by plentiful data on both meteorology stances surrounding an episode, which should be and ecology. This necessity is caused by the impor­ written immediately after filming or recording. tance of weather, circadian and other rhythms, and A final exception to the postponement of the use even microhabitats in the behavior of the crabs. The of equipment seems to me to exist when, in a far-off data include ideally the following information: exact place, a concatenation occurs that consists of very geographical location, including any local names in brief field time, uncertain weather, and rare or un­ dialect that might simplify the location of the study expected species; then it usually proves wise to pho­ area by a later worker; date; time; weather during the tograph a few representative waving displays as rap­ period, as well as any special events, such as a idly as possible and so, in the photographer's phrase, typhoon m the recent past; temperature both at the "get some film under your belt." surface and within a burrow; substrate; proximity and type of vegetation; associated species of Uca and other animals; size and degree of crowding of the DATA FOR ALLOMETRIC STUDIES population; relative numbers of displaying and non- The growth characteristics of series of individual fid­ displaying males; evidence of partial isolation of dis­ dlers were investigated in different populations of a playing males in a lek-like formation; prevalence of number of species. In previous studies of the chang­ aggressive wanderers; number of wandering females; ing proportions of the major cheliped to the body, as proportion of ovigerous to non-ovigerous females; in Huxley, 1924, the investigator selected the rela­ presence and proportion of young; color phases and tion of the weight of the major cheliped to that of the their distribution; information related to possible pol­ total weight of the crab. lution. It is convenient when reviewing notes to find In the present study this procedure proved unsat­ at the beginning of each day's data a note beside the isfactory and linear proportions were substituted. date giving the time of low tide and the phase of the The relation of the carapace length to that of the moon, such as "low 0850; 3rd day after full," even propodus (major manus plux pollex) appeared to be though this information, unlike the rest, is readily the most useful and convenient. Efficiency in the use retrievable at home. of the material required that at least these two meas­ Especially important are records of precise display urements be made at the field base rather than at the circumstances surrounding the observation or filming home laboratory, since in spite of care some claws of particular episodes. All of these written details, become detached during travel. In detailed growth particularly of short film-sequences made on poorly studies of large collections all needed additional known species, prove exceedingly useful when analy­ measurements should of course be made at the same sis is under way, months and sometimes years later. time, to keep the measurements of individuals of the For example, helpful notes will include whether the same length distinct. Since caliper measurements can­ filmed display appeared to be of high or low inten­ not be accurately made at less than about 10 mm, sity, and whether the behavioral fragment was appar­ and because of the usual dearth of microscopes with ently elicited by the presence of a female beyond micrometer scales at field bases, it is often necessary METHODS 671 to take the time gently to flex the major cheliped collecting site, is used repeatedly and becomes in­ against the front of the body of each small crab and creasingly effective. The animals in a well "ripened" tie it in place before packing for travel. Every meas­ solution succumb quickly with practically no struggle urement can then be taken with confidence at home. or autotomy, while the formalin prevents the internal This use of meristic relationships does not share decomposition which so often begins in the heat of several disadvantages characteristic of weight pro­ a mud flat. portions, even when only ratios of major claw to In the field base, whether laboratory or hotel room, body are investigated. First, preserved individuals do the specimens are drained, rinsed gently in tap water, not lend themselves to any technique of weighing that and covered to twice their depth with 4 percent for­ makes the results acceptably comparable, in the ab­ malin, previously unused, to which borax has been sence of information on the effects of chemicals on added in the proportion of one tablespoon per gal­ the organs. Different kinds, strengths, and sequences lon. After seven days the crabs are changed to 70 of preservatives must, it seems, affect the weight of percent grain alcohol and this, after another week, the material differently. Again, no formula has been is changed once more. Crabs may be left longer than devised to regulate the time to be given for draining one week in formalin, but should be transferred to off the liquid which would make the weights of crabs alcohol at the first opportunity. In many foreign of different sizes fully comparable. Even if all speci­ countries pure ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is both pro­ mens are thoroughly dried before weighing, the val­ hibitively expensive and difficult to obtain. Here ues obtained are probably undesirably artificial. Sec­ ethyl alcohol that has been slightly adulterated under ond, even if in contrast living specimens are weighed, government control, to make it unfit for drinking, is each comparably dried and drained of water from the often both usable for crab preservation and readily branchial chambers, the weighing must be done on a available. Methyl (wood) alcohol (CH3OH), how­ sensitive balance. Yet in most of the places where I ever, should never be used except as a temporary made collections it was impossible to bring an ade­ last resort. quate instrument and living crabs together. On tests Sufficient full strength formaldehyde, with its bot­ in Trinidad, where we had a suitable balance, the tle tightly sealed, padded and packed in a taped plas­ total weight of a crab changed as much as 20 percent tic pail, can safely be carried by air as checked bag­ in either direction between weighing within two hours gage in sufficient quantity to last throughout a long after capture and weighing again after one week in field trip. In its place, emergency supplies can almost the crabberies. Significant variations in weight pre­ always be obtained in small tropical towns from the sumably occur also in crabs living under natural con­ local undertaker, if not from a pharmacy; the only ditions. For example, when crabs in the dry season difficulty is the prevalence of holidays. have not been feeding regularly, the general body In an extreme emergency full-strength rum, whis­ weight may be expected to be less with respect to the ky, arrack, or other hard liquor may be used full major claw, the weight of which consists largely of strength, but it should be replaced with a conven­ the integument. It is obvious that linear proportions tional preservative as soon as possible, since the do not share these disadvantages. specimens soften while the appendages gradually drop off. If a high-proof grade is available, it should of course be selected. PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS If formalin is not carried from the field base onto In preserving specimens of Uca for general study in the mud flat and the crabs are alive on the return to the laboratory the following system has been adopted. headquarters, they may be placed in a refrigerator It forms a compromise among several methods fa­ freezer for an hour, then well covered with 4 percent vored by various investigators. Its advantages for the formalin and returned to the refrigerator overnight; needs of the present kind of study are the following: at this time they should not be stored in the freezer a minimum number of specimens lose their chelipeds; compartment. After that washing and change of solu­ the internal organs are well preserved; the joints of tions continues as before. Or, on being brought from the appendages are eventually left flexible enough the field and in the absence of refrigeration they may for convenient manipulation. Although these inter­ be killed by covering to twice their depth with 10 to segmental areas remain somewhat stiffer than in 15 percent formalin for 20 minutes. Washing, 4 per­ specimens placed sooner or solely in alcohol, the cent formalin, and subsequent steps then continue as improved condition of the internal organs appears usual. The disadvantage to the latter technique is that to give more than adequate compensation. while it prevents autotomy and struggle it leaves the Jars or plastic pails are partly rilled with 4 percent legs permanently less flexible than any of the other formalin made with fresh water in which crustaceans methods. However in my opinion it is still preferable have already died. This solution, carried daily to the to the sole use of alcohol on either living or dead 672 APPENDIX D crabs, if both intact legs and well-preserved internal more of the seawater, thus removing mud and faeces. organs are desired. After each cleaning the crab is replaced in its dish Tweedie's suggestion (1950.2) for placing tropi­ with seawater only a few millimeters deep; the cal grapsoids as soon as caught into wide-mouth amount depends on the size of the crab and should thermos jars of ice water with floating ice is, as he be only enough to enable it to moisten its gills recommends, unexcelled for small, delicate crabs, through the afferent apertures when it settles on the particularly of certain Indo-Malayan genera. The bottom. If the air is tropically humid, even less mois­ containers are, nevertheless, unwieldy and unneces­ ture is used in the final servicing before travel, since sary for most XJca. A modern compromise is pro­ the moisture will condense at lower temperatures vided by styrofoam picnic boxes, in which ice can be during flight, or during a cold-weather arrival in the heaped around plastic containers each holding a little north. For reasons still unknown, a fiddler's chance ice water, in which the crabs can be dropped upon of survival is decreased when more than minimal capture. water is provided; it may be that waste matter dis­ Well-preserved crabs travel successfully by air, solved in the water acts as a poison. The boxes are when both the expense of weight and regulations sealed as usual with freezer tape. No food should be against the transport of alcohol are factors, if the provided; fiddlers have been carried for seven days specimens are packed in plastic pails with only a with no food and even without a change of water, small amount of preserving liquid and a layer of cot­ providing they have been prepared for travel as just ton or cloth soaked in weak formalin or water on described. Ideally, as in a trip across the Pacific, a top. Labeled packets of groups or individuals to be long voyage should be broken at, for example, Hono­ kept separate may be wrapped in porous material, lulu, and the containers cleaned, with the water re­ such as cheesecloth, and tied with string. The pail's plenished by freshly dipped, fully marine, unpolluted cover is sealed on with freezer tape. Needless to say, seawater, taken preferably at high tide and always in the crabs should be unpacked promptly on arrival an uncontaminated plastic pail; no attempt should be and immersed in suitable preservative. made in the middle of a trip either to feed the crabs or to provide them with water from a local mud flat. When transporting crabs on long trips by sea the TRANSPORTATION OF LIVING CRABS water may of course be provided from mid-ocean; For ethological work in crabberies the only feasible even the crew on large liners seem to enjoy this kind system of transportation has proved to be the follow­ of request, but must be warned to dip the water after ing. Individual crabs are selected in the field, col­ leaving a polluted harbor and not to take it from near lected as described above (p. 669), washed off by one of the ship's waste outlets. The crabs feed well submersion in a clean plastic pail that has never been on a trip of this kind on ordinary food for marine used for chemicals and is filled with seawater, and fish or for turtles; a few pellets should be provided then placed at once, while the collector is still at the once a day after cleaning, and removed within one site, in a plastic refrigerator dish large enough to hour. The dish should then be cleaned again and allow the crab ample space to move about. A small fresh seawater provided. amount of the local seawater is added, not sufficient In the more usual trip by air, every attempt should even fully to cover the bottom of the dish. The lid is be made to carry the crabs into the cabin and not taped on, preferably with freezer tape, since its adhe­ ship them either as checked baggage or as air freight. sion is unaffected by water. Each dish is placed in the In order to carry more than a small box or flight bag nearest patch of shade until time to return to the of specimens in the cabin, requests should be made field base; it is never moved abruptly. If at any stage well ahead to the local airline representative; in out- the journey involves transportation by car over a of-the-way places impressive letters of identification rough road, the dishes are protected by padding from help, especially when stamped with institutional both shock and engine heat; if styrofoam picnic seals; in addition, polite persistence is usually essen­ boxes are available, they provide additional insula­ tial. Sometimes the agent refers the matter to the tion for groups of the dishes; the car is driven slowly. pilot. The captures are preferably made one to two days In case all persuasion fails and the crabs must be before departure from the field base for the home checked in the baggage compartment, the individual laboratory. Local seawater, preferably taken at high dishes should be packed in styrofoam boxes, which tide from the shore where the crabs were captured, provide some degree of insulation, and marked clear­ is brought to the local base in plastic pails that, as ly that the contents are live animals to be kept up­ usual, have not been used for chemically preserved right and away from heat and cold. An airline should specimens. Each crab is submerged in a tumblerful not only be selected that is known to maintain the of the water and allowed to move about freely at least baggage compartments at cabin temperature and once before traveling, while its dish is cleaned with pressure, but the point should be rechecked locally METHODS 673 before departure. "Approximately cabin tempera­ work was terminated—but the crabs were still show­ ture" sometimes turns out to be less than 15° C, ing every sign of good health and going through cy­ which can kill a tropical crab. We do not yet know cles of social activity. the effects of moderate but swift changes in pressure. A common practice of commercial collectors in I have had few occasions to carry crabs in small, un- Florida and elsewhere is to ship local fiddlers by the pressurized planes; the flights were always short and hundred to laboratories, crowding the living speci­ at low altitudes; no ill-effects were apparent. mens into cartons in a tangle of legs. Such a proce­ If it is absolutely necessary to send crabs by air dure does not work when specimens are wanted for freight, they should be completely routed ahead of behavior study, since the crabs' subsequent activity is time, with space reserved for each leg of the voyage; affected; in any case it is suitable only for such rela­ day flights with stops at tropical airports should be tively hardy forms as pugilator. Another system that avoided even when no transshipment is needed, since does not work with Vca is the shipment of crabs in baggage compartments often heat up rapidly when plastic bags filled with water and pumped-in air, in the plane is on the ground; a transfer between air­ the method used so successfully in carrying and ship­ lines should also be avoided, unless it can be handled ping small fishes. personally by an acquaintance, since in spite of the labels boxes can easily be left out-of-doors in freez­ ing or torrid weather long enough to kill the entire CRABBERIES contents; such shipments are always a gamble and For ethological work on fiddler crabs in captivity, the worst must be expected. only a few principles will be given. The details of Two examples will emphasize the varied fortunes successful construction and maintenance, and the to be encountered during transportation. I have car­ suitability of various subjects for research, can vary ried 92 living specimens of Vca arcuata, including within wide limits. adults and young of both sexes, from Japan to Trini­ The essential points that need attention are provi­ dad without a single death; water was changed once, sion for space suitable for the species to be kept; during an overnight stop in Honolulu; the entire trip artificial tides; water appropriate for the species; a took six days. On the other hand, another trans­ bank of substrate that, again, must be composed of pacific collection of about 100 specimens of several material within the toleration of the species; an effi­ species, including arcuata, was lost; I assembled, cient filter system; and sunlight, whether real or an packed, and routed it in Hong Kong, with every safe­ artificial facsimile. Almost equally important is care guard dictated by experience, sending it by air in the capture and transportation of specimens, as freight; although the booking was followed in detail described above, and the provision of a population as shown by the papers delivered with the shipment, density resembling, at least initially, that found at the and although the trip only lasted three days, every source of supply. crab was dead on arrival. More success has, fortu­ Regardless of the small size of the species under nately, been achieved with other, shorter shipments observation the smallest tank I have found useful of air freight, although nothing replaces the advan­ measures 3 ft. by 5 ft. As has long been known, tage of carrying the crabs by hand. specimens of some Vca will live and even breed in If a change of water is indicated en route at a point fingerbowls, but for ethological work this sort of where no freshly collected seawater is available, a maintenance is virtually worthless. At the other ex­ sufficient amount, taken at high tide as close to the treme of size out-of-door crabberies 10 ft. by 15 ft. open ocean as possible, should be brought with the or more in dimensions are practicable and conven­ traveler; modern plastic jugs with screw tops make ient, at least in the tropics. The minimum advisable the transport easy. The water may be safely checked depth of any crabbery seems to be with substrate, in the baggage compartment; the point is that water exclusive of filter, about 7 inches deep at its deepest from or close to the site where the crabs were col­ part; more is of course preferable. Sometimes the lected should not be used except when absolutely tops of open-air crabberies need screening against necessary, and then taken at or close before high predators, especially kingfishers; in the mountains of tide, because of the abundant animal and plant mat­ Trinidad these birds quickly learned of the new ter that may soon pollute the stored water. The trans­ source of food. At the same station we had to fence port of seawater for a change in mid-journey worked, the crabberies with wire netting to a height of about for example, at a stopover in Paris on a trip from 8 inches even in installations so close to the house Ceylon to New York; the entire, hand-carried col­ that the kingfishers did not trouble them; the reason lection of 96 examples of Vca lactea annulipes came was the attraction of crabbery water for marine toads through alive and the great majority lived in excel­ (Bufo marinus) during the dry season; although they lent condition for several months in the crabberies at apparently did not seize the crabs, the amphibians the New York Zoological Park; at that point the jumped in and waddled about over the mud bank, 674 APPENDIX D knocking down burrow markers and generally dis­ though it had to be started manually, it stopped auto­ turbing the fiddlers. matically when the storage tank was almost empty. The simplest method of simulating tides is to pour Whatever the system, just as with apparatus for a few pails of seawater into the tank at the time of any saltwater aquarium, the parts of the pumps and high tide and siphon it slowly out again, starting sev­ fittings that came into contact with the water had to eral hours after its introduction. Out-of-doors in their be corrosion-proof and free of copper. natural climate, all the tropical species of Uca kept Whether indoors or outdoors it proved possible to in captivity, totaling about 28, responded with appar­ use the same seawater for several months or more. ent health and appropriate behavior when provided Out-of-doors in the rainy season natural showers and with a single low tide in each 24-hour period, with downpours maintained the seawater in a naturally the low arranged to occur at the same hour every variable brackish state, the crabs being adaptable, in morning. The caveats given at the end of this section the species kept, to a wide range of salinity. In the on crabberies must be particularly heeded in the con­ dry season evaporation was so rapid that liberal ad­ duction of any ethological work under such an en­ ditions of fresh water were needed daily from the tirely artificial tidal regimen. Its great advantage is garden hose; this water had not yet been chemically its convenience for indefinite maintenance of a pop­ treated and so could be used from the tap. In the ulation when minimum facilities and help are avail­ crabberies as in the field the salts in the water that able. stood in the crab holes during low tide were per­ In contrast, at the Zoological Park in New York sistent, giving higher salinity in the burrows; these three pairs of fiberglass tanks were maintained with levels doubtless went far to counteract the wide success, seawater being pumped back and forth be­ swings in salinity we provided in the crabberies. tween the members of each pair with the time con­ In the indoor crabberies in New York evaporation trolled automatically by a clockwork mechanism. The had also to be carefully watched, since the strong dials could be set so that the water flowwoul d reverse electric lights had an effect on the small tanks similar any desired number of minutes later at each tide, in to that of the sun and wind out-of-doors. Again the accordance with the schedule being followed. While daily addition of fresh water, along with frequent this regimen provided a useful approximation to real­ checks with a hydrometer, kept the salinity within ity for several days, such as on holiday weekends, it optimal ranges. Care was taken to dechlorinate all became too quickly out of synchrony with the normal tap water used with a material obtainable from any semi-lunar tidal periods to be used for longer aquarium supply house; the plastic pails of treated periods under the only conditions when such precise water were allowed to stand at least 12 hours before schedules were needed. These occurred during par­ use in the crabberies, as a safeguard, even though ticular observations when the crabs' activities had to the directions sometimes state that the water is fit for be carried out under conditions as nearly approach­ use in ordinary aquaria at once. It was also impor­ ing those in the field as possible. Accordingly, in the tant that the tap water reach a temperature compara­ usual type of operation the clocks were set once a ble to that of the circulating "tides"; the fresh water day during the regular maintenance period in strict was added to the storage tanks, or at least to the accord with the tide table being followed, unless the crabbery water at the time of the incoming flow, tanks were under a simple maintenance regimen. At rather than poured suddenly onto the exposed bank those times a morning or midday low tide was given, itself. An exception which may, perhaps, be impor­ the choice depending on the natural period of high­ tant was the daily simulation at the time of the diur­ est activity for the species; since the clockwork nal low tide of a brief shower of rain, through drib­ mechanism was available, a low was also set to occur bling dechlorinated water through a perforated 12 hours later, at night. Just as in out-of-door tanks, plastic dish over the substrate. This procedure the indoor population stayed in good shape indefi­ seemed to stimulate the crabs to a higher level of nitely on this artificial schedule. activity, just as does a true shower in the field in the Between the extremes of the pail-and-siphon sys­ middle of a hot and sunny day. Care was taken for tem and the clockwork controls in simulating tides, some of the fresh water to get into the burrows from a number of intermediate systems have been used time to time, so that the salinity level did not build with success. For example, the two largest Trinidad up excessively. Standing water from the burrows, crabberies were built on a slope, with a storage tank either indoors or outdoors, was drawn out now and below each. To bring about low tide the tanks were then by syringe and tested with a hydrometer, to be slowly drained by gravity into the storage tanks. sure that the concentration had not risen above about From these the water was pumped up again with 40°/00, the highest figure I have found in burrows regulated speed, in time to cover the bank of sub­ in the field in Trinidad and the Philippines. strate at the appropriate hour. In this system only one Crabs from special localities, such as the shores inexpensive pump was needed for each tank; al­ of the Red Sea, tolerate considerably higher peaks METHODS 675 under their normal conditions of life, and probably filter system far more extensive than I can find is should be maintained in captivity at similar levels. recommended for any home aquaria, either fresh­ Artificial seawater can always be used for short water or marine. The systems used by marine bio­ periods in crabberies, but it should probably not be logical stations and exhibition aquaria are not really used indefinitely, any more than such reliance is gen­ comparable, because of the availability to them of erally recommended for ordinary aquaria. circulating seawater and their lack of need for natural The substrate selected should be of the general substrate for their specimens. The system that kind in which the species to be kept most often oc­ worked in New York I devised in consultation with curs. For example, it obviously would not be wise experienced aquarists and a search of the literature. to provide a mud-living crab such as coarctata or The result uses parts of several arrangements, as well maracoani with a relatively sandy substrate that as screens to prevent disruption of the filters by dig­ would be entirely suitable for pugilator. Nevertheless ging crabs, and, finally, the addition of the thick layer three of the most pleasant surprises resulting from the of substrate on top. The system includes a total of six crabbery work were connected with substrate provi­ different layers. It may prove in the future feasible sions, and emerged in New York. I had expected that to reduce or omit one or more of the ingredients, it would be necessary to transport portions of their thus cutting down on their considerable cost; in the own substrate along with foreign crabs; this would course of the work to date there has been no time have entailed great expense, moderate inconvenience, to experiment along these lines. and an almost certain impasse at customs unless the The filter and substrate arrangement in each tank soil were sterilized. Even if foreign crabs proved is as follows, with the layers listed from the bottom adaptable to local substrates, no doubt with the pro­ up. (1) Sheets of plastic, manufactured commercial­ vision of appropriate (and unknown) kinds and ly for the purpose, their surfaces covered with paral­ quantities of added food, I foresaw that the artificial lel slits and their edges turned down so that each bank would have to be replaced at frequent intervals surface is raised slightly above the tank's bottom; which, in temperate latitudes, would be difficult in several sizes fit against one another so that one side the winter when microorganisms on local shores are and a part of each end of a tank is covered, about largely inactive. one-third of the bottom being left bare; the siphons These apprehensions fortunately proved needless. provided with the apparatus are discarded. (2) A Substrate from nearby Long Island was used without layer of coarse, white, quartz gravel, at least two replenishment for periods lasting up to 6 months, and inches thick. (3) A similar layer of fine, coral sand. supported a variety of species from the same locality, (4) A layer of powdered carbon. (5) A layer of fine, from the West Indies and from Ceylon. We took aluminum screening, to prevent the crabs from dig­ great care to collect the substrate from a shore which ging into the filterlayers . (6) The substrate, arranged had not been subjected as far as we could learn to to form a gently sloping bank with its top extending chemical pollution and which remained the continu­ along the tank's long dimension. Like the substrate ing habitat of large and apparently healthy popula­ the entire filter system can be reused with little re­ tions of Uca. We were also careful to bring back to plenishment when a tank is reorganized. An investi­ the laboratory only the top layer of substrate on gator familiar with aquaria will be reassured to find, which the crabs normally fed, and to layer the sec­ on examining all levels of the filter, that they remain tions carefully in chemically uncontaminated plastic sweet, even though small crabs occasionally die in pails. Finally, we did not collect the material during their burrows and dissolve without being found. the winter, November 1 of a mild autumn being the In both indoor and outdoor crabberies two addi­ latest we gathered a load; there had been as yet no tional safeguards are needed. First, the open, fourth frost. We always included small tussocks of swamp side of the filter layers, adjoining the uncovered third weed which, although they died back during the win­ of the tank bottom, are held approximately in place ter, doubtless continued to provide organic richness by a vertical strip of aluminum screening. This not and resprouted in the spring. Most surprising was the only prevents sliding of the layers and digging by the fact that substrate of this kind without replenishment crabs but also minimizes loss of material from the and without provision to the crabs of supplementary layers during drainage. Second, since most Uca are food kept the captive populations in vigorous health. good climbers and since it is always desirable to have After our success the first winter—a fud. period of the top of the bank heaped as high as possible close 6 months—we brought additional substrate from the to the lip of the tank, to provide maximum depth for same locality, but kept half of the original material the burrows, overlapping rectangles of window glass to "season" the new sandy mud, and managed the are thrust into the substrate all around the tank addition with minimal upset to the crabs. against its sides, except on the side bare of substrate; We feel sure that a most important part of the there it is not necessary provided the tank sides are success indoors in New York was our provision for a very smooth and kept clean. The glass itself should 676 APPENDIX D be polished often. Once the crabs have settled down illumination alone. Nevertheless it seemed unsatis­ in the new quarters they normally do not attempt at factory that the level of intensity of the light reflected all to climb out except during the wandering and from the substrate, as measured in foot candles, was aggressive wandering phases; then they literally climb only equivalent to that reflected from a comparable the walls if measures have not been taken. The glass substrate in the tropics on a cloudy day with immi­ should project at least 5 inches above the substrate. nent rain. The quality of the light furnished by the In outdoor tropical aquaria we have had success lamps was of course in some ways nearer to that of with only a thin layer of coarse sand as a filter, cover­ sunlight than was that of a tropical overcast, but the ing the portion of the tank beneath the substrate to a situation still called for improvement. Supplemen­ depth of several inches at most; we have also used tary photofloods and similar lamps were unsatisfac­ instead a single, similar layer of coarse charcoal, such tory because of their short lives and high heat. We as is used in local stoves. In Trinidad, however, it finally secured quartz halogen lamps and fitted them was always possible to bring up frequent truckloads with heat absorbing glass filters that cut down the of mangrove mud and seawater from the shore, and intensity only moderately. Limited tests with this set­ because of this we changed the mud, seawater, or up indicate that their use during particular periods both on the average of once every 6 weeks during when observations, photographs, or experiments seasons when we were working seriously with the in­ were under way did indeed stimulate the crabs to stallations and not keeping them on a purely mainte­ somewhat greater activity. The area struck by the nance level. Again, the substrate remained complete­ beam had to be checked frequently for overheating; ly sweet, even though the usual deaths sometimes usually the crabs themselves gave the first warning, occurred without our being aware of them, so that as they do on hot afternoons in the field, by dropping we failed to remove the casualties. down their burrows and staying there—a response In New York the question of illumination gave us an investigator hopes fervently to avoid. the most difficulty in design because of the need for The large banks of fluorescent tubes were con­ an intensity sufficient to simulate sunlight. This trolled automatically, as part of the clockwork sys­ strength seems to be of importance because in the tem operating the pumps. When tropical species were field a population attains its highest levels of social kept, the lights were set to go on and off at 0600 activity when the sun is shining, even though at the and 1800 respectively, corresponding roughly to the peak of a display phase individuals often wave vig­ times of sunrise and sunset in the tropics. Local hours orously in dull weather and although some acoustic were kept for temperate zone crabs. Since the labora­ behavior is prevalent at night. At the end of our at­ tory admitted some daylight through a skylight, no tempts we finally managed to achieve an intensity attempt was made to keep crabs from overseas on level approaching for short periods that of tropical their original circadian schedule; this particular bio­ sunlight, although overheating of the substrate re­ logical clock in Uca is easily shifted without apparent mained a limiting factor and further improvement is effects on the behavior patterns to be investigated. needed. The rhythm, as well as the tidal rhythm, had of Our first care was to select a group of 12 fluores­ course already been interrupted and upset by a long cent lamps for suspension over each crabbery tank. journey. Each storage tank also had its own group, so that In conclusion, although fiddler crabs can be kept the seawater would be exposed to light during a day­ in health in captivity, and although surprising de­ time period in that container; we hoped that the grees and varieties of activities can be elicited, the water's consequent exposure to a full quota of illumi­ use of crabberies for reliable ethological study is very nation daily would help to keep it in acceptably strictly limited. I firmly believe that no descriptions wholesome condition. Additionally, we sometimes of waving displays or combat behavior, for example, used the storage tanks, on an alternate tidal schedule, should be derived from observations made wholly in to maintain crabs temporarily when we had more crabberies, whether indoors or out. A single example specimens than could be properly housed in the fully will illustrate the dangers. The usual waving rate of fitted crabberies, or when they housed large speci­ festae in the field is half again as fast as that shown mens being saved for physiological work in which by several individuals that lived for months in appar­ maintenance conditions were not, it seemed, so de­ ent health in a Trinidad crabbery out-of-doors and manding. that went through the expected behavioral phases. Each group of fluorescent lamps was composed of Such a difference between a component in the field four kinds of tubes of known emission spectra, and in captivity is unusual, but it can serve as a warn­ selected to resemble as a group the spectral compo­ ing. Nevertheless, to verify fine details of displays or sition of sunlight. Because of the limitations of their of combat techniques, or to learn the kind of behav­ spectra, an exact reproduction could not of course ior that may yield specially interesting observations be made. Fortunately, the crabs did well under this on future field trips, crabbery work is unexcelled. METHODS 677

The tanks also give excellent opportunities for certain to be unlimited. It seems very clear, nevertheless, kinds of photography and for sound recordings, in­ that any observations or experiments that depend on cluding television work. Again, an appropriately de­ quantitative aspects of the data obtained should be signed crabbery is certainly the place where observa­ undertaken only with the greatest care; in particular tions of crabs inside their burrows can best be made. they should rest on a solid basis of preliminary field Finally, various experiments, based safely on a foun­ work, accomplished on the particular subspecies, dation of familiarity in the field with the behavior of and preferably on members of the same population, the species, can be done as well in crabberies, and from which the transplanted crabs are afterwards some of them doubtless only under those conditions; derived. the sensible possibilities for future work seem in fact Appendix E. Conventions, Abbreviations, and Glossary

CONVENTIONS ! The specimens listed have been examined by [ ] A scientific name or initial enclosed in brack­ the author of the present contribution. This ets is that of a superspecies. Examples. Uca convention is used in the systematic section (Deltuca) [acuta] acuta (Stimpson, 1858); U. under the headings Type Material and Refer­ (D.) [a.] acuta rhizophorae Tweedie, 1950. ences and Synonymy. Note. For general treatments of taxonomic practice, ( ) 1. A scientific name or initial enclosed in paren­ see Blackwelder, 1967, and Mayr, 1969. For tech­ theses is that of a subgenus. Examples. Uca nical details, see also the "International Code of (Deltuca) dussumieri, U. (D.) dussumieri, or Zoological Nomenclature adopted by the XV Inter­ simply, in a list of species in the text, {Deltuca) national Congress of Zoology," published for the In­ dussumieri. ternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature by the International Trust for Zoological Nomencla­ 2. An author's name and date enclosed in ture; London, 1961. References to specific bulletins parentheses after the name of a species indi­ published by the International Trust are given in the cate/that when he described the species he present text. placed it in a genus with a different name. Throughout this volume "Milne-Edwards," with­ Example. Uca (Deltuca) dussumieri (Milne- out an initial, refers to H. (Henri) Milne-Edwards; Edwards, 1852). "A. Milne-Edwards" to his son, Alphonse. The When no parentheses surround the author's hyphen between the two parts of the surname has name, his original description of the species often been employed in the past; its use is revived placed it in the same genus in which it appears here as a possible aid to non-carcinologists who may in the present study. Example. Uca (Deltuca) only occasionally need to use the bibliography. demani Ortmann, 1897.

ABBREVIATIONS

AMNH—American Museum of Natural History; Leiden—Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie; Central Park West at 79th St., New York, New Raamsteeg 2, Leiden, Netherlands. York 10024, U.S.A. MCZ—Museum of Comparative Zoology; Harvard Amsterdam—Zoologisch Museum; Plantage Mid- University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, denlaan 53, Amsterdam C, Netherlands. U.S.A. Bishop—Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum; Honolulu, NYZS—New York Zoological Society; Bronx, New Hawaii 96818, U.S.A. York 10460, U.S.A. (Note. Collections of Uca BM—British Museum (Natural History); London, have been transferred to USNM; see p. 591.) S.W.7, England. Paris—Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Paris Copenhagen—Universitetets Zoologiske Museum; Ve, France. Address for correspondence on K0benhavn K, Denmark. Crustacea: Laboratoire de Zoologie, 61 Rue Frankfurt—Natur-Museum und Forschungs-Institut de Buffon, Paris Ve. "Senckenberg"; Senckenberg-Anlage 25, Frank­ Philadelphia—The Academy of Natural Sciences at furt am Main, Germany. Philadelphia; 19th St. and the Parkway, Phila­ Gottingen—Zoologisch Institut der Universitat; Got- delphia, Pennsylvania 19103, U.S.A. tingen, Germany. Raffles—Raffles Museum, Singapore. Hancock—Allan Hancock Foundation; University of Torino—Istituto e Museo di Zoologia della Uni- Southern California, University Park, Los versita di Torino; Via Accademia Albertina, Angeles, California 90007, U.S.A. 17, Torino (204), Italy. CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 679

UPNG—Department of Biology, University of Yale—Peabody Museum of Natural History; Yale Papua and New Guinea; Boroko, Territory of University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, Papua and New Guinea. U.S.A. USNM—Division of Marine Invertebrates, National Yokohama—Faculty of Liberal Arts and Education; Museum of Natural History; Smithsonian Insti­ Yokohama National University, Yokohama, tution, Washington, D.C. 20525, U.S.A. Kamakura, Japan.

GLOSSARY INTRODUCTION growth of a part of an organism in relation to the This glossary consists of terms that may be divided growth of the whole organism or some part of it." roughly into three categories. First are words used (Random House Dictionary of the English Lan­ here in a restricted sense; many morphological terms guage, 1966.) (P. 449.) are included for this reason. The second group com­ Allopatry. The distribution of distinct populations of prises coined words and phrases, most of which are a species or of closely related species so that they names for behavioral components in Uca or for struc­ occupy areas that with marginal exceptions are tures on the gonopod. The final category includes mutually exclusive. Adj.: Allopatric. In this study terms that are widely used in particular fields of allopatric is used also as a n. (cf. patronymic, in biology. Each appears in the glossary because the accepted use as both adj. and n.). See also Super­ term may not be familiar to a worker outside the species; Alliance; cf. Sympatry. Discussions on discipline it serves. When complex and sometimes pp. 432 and 527ff. controversial concepts are involved, recent definitions Ambulatory. One of the eight walking legs; arranged are quoted directly and references given to discussion in four pairs, they are inserted behind the cheli- by the authorities cited; in some cases an annotation peds. They correspond to the second to fifth pairs comments on the term's use in the present study. of legs or periopods of authors who count the chelipeds as the first pair of legs. The latter desig­ Abdomen. The segmented part of the body that is nation is of course phylogenetically exact, but in folded underneath the carapace, fitting into a de­ Uca the use of chelipeds and ambulatories is pre­ pression in the sternum. It is narrow in males (Fig. ferred for clarity and convenience. Where leg is 2) and broad in females. (P. 463.) used in this study, it is always for the sake of Actor. In combat, the individual at any particular brevity in an unambiguous situation and refers moment performing the motions of a component. only to ambulatories, as in a coined name for a (P. 487.) behavioral component, such as leg-wave. (Figs. 1, After-lunge. A feint by a burrow-holder directed to­ 2.) ward a departing opponent. This activity is often Angle, antero-lateral. The angle formed by the meet­ associated with combat. (Agonistic component no. 6, p. 479.) ing of the anterior and side (antero-lateral) mar­ gins of the carapace. (Fig. 3.) Agonistic. See Behavior, agonistic. Antenna, pi. antennae. On the lower, anterior surface Alliance. A group of closely related species consist­ of the body, one of the outer pair of very short, ing both of allopatric forms and of one or more flagellate appendages lying between the edge of the other species living sympatrically with one or more of the allopatric forms. This usage corresponds front and the buccal cavity. (Figs. 2, 28.) approximately to the definition given by Mayr Antennule. On the lower, anterior surface of the (1969: 412) of superspecies used in the broader body, one of the inner pair of very short append­ sense: ". . . entirely or largely allopatric species. ages lying between the edge of the front and the ..." (Italics mine.) The introduction of alliance, buccal cavity; it lies folded inconspicuously in a in an apparently new, informal usage of the word, cavity. (Figs. 2, 28.) provides a brief term to cover this wider situation, Aperture, afferent branchial. The opening between the term superspecies being reserved for a series the bases of the second and third ambulatories of allopatric forms. Cf. Superspecies. through which water is drawn into the branchial Allies. Members of an alliance. See above. chambers. Allometry. "The study of proportion changes cor­ Aperture, efferent branchial. The opening between related with variation in size of either the total the outer anterior margin of the buccal cavity and organism or the part under consideration. . . . The the outer anterior edge of the flexed palp of the variates may be morphological, physiological or third maxilliped. Through it water and bubbles are chemical . . ." (Gould, 1966: 629.) Also: "1. expelled from the branchial cavity. 680 APPENDIX E

Area, friction. In combat, a part of the inactor's claw zone of secondary intergradation." (Mayr, 1969; correlated with one or more structures on the ac­ 405.) tor's claw during the performance of a component. Biotope. A habitat characteristic of a group of ani­ See Table 14, "contact area." mals, whether of a formal taxon, such as a species, Armature. Specializations of the integument consist­ or of a local population. Cf. Niche. (See also p. ing principally of ridges, tubercles, and grooves. 445.) Occurring on the carapace, chelipeds, and ambula­ Book. One of the contiguous layers of tissue in a gill. tories, they are used in sound production or, when All lie perpendicular to each side of the gill's long on the major claw, almost altogether in intermale axis. (Figs. 78, 81.) combat. Brachyura; adj. brachyuran. The order of Crustacea Armed. Equipped with armature. consisting of the true crabs, including Uca. In Autotomy. The casting off, by reflex action, of a adults the abdomen is always relatively small and cheliped or ambulatory that has been strongly folds underneath the body, while the abdominal stimulated, as when seized by a predator. The appendages are not used in locomotion. break is always cleanly made between the basis Brachychelous. Individuals or species having the and ischium. The lost appendage is regenerated fingers of the major chela relatively short and more or less perfectly, the process requiring a broad in comparison with those of other members number of molts. of the group. Cf. Leptochelous. Basis, pi. bases. The second segment from the proxi­ Bubbling. Emission of foam from the efferent bran­ mal end of a cheliped or an ambulatory. (Fig. 2.) chial openings. Composed of air bubbles and mois­ Beading. A row of similar, rounded tubercles, con­ ture from the branchial regions, it apparently tiguous or nearly so and usually very small. See serves several functions, as a cleansing agent, heat Edge, beaded. regulator, aerator of eggs, and sound-producing ' Behavior, acoustic. Production of sound, along with mechanism. In its latter role it is described as com­ associated activities. ponent no. 12, p. 484. (General account on p. Behavior, agonistic. Postures and motions indicating 472.) aggression, defense, submission, withdrawal, or Burrow-holder. A male in the display phase, center­ flight; often ambivalent. ing his activities around a particular burrow, and Behavior, conflict. Postures and motions indicating defending its vicinity from intrusion by conspecific the simultaneous or alternate activation of two males through threat postures, combat, or both. drives, such as combat and flight. (P. 487.) Behavior, displacement. Activities, inappropriate to Carapace. The crab's "shell," covering the dorsal and the circumstances, which partially or wholly re­ lateral parts of the body above the chelipeds and place suitable behavior, such as the occurrence of legs; anteriorly it includes the orbits and pterygo- feeding during conflict between drives to court a stomian regions. The carapace is posteriorly trun­ female and to threaten another male. cate, the abdomen being bent underneath the body. Behavior, post-combat. Activities, such as the after- (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) lunge, that occur immediately following combat. Carpus. The fifth segment from the proximal end of Behavior, precopulatory. Final stages of courtship a cheliped or an ambulatory. (Figs. 1, 2.) immediately preceding copulation on the surface Carpus-out. An agonistic posture in which a male, or presumed copulation underground. Character­ having descended his burrow, leaves the carpus of ized by behavior not found either in earlier stages his flexed major cheliped projecting above the of courtship or in agonistic behavior. surface. (Agonistic component no. 7, p. 479.) Behavior, social. Postures and motions that ordinar­ Cavity, buccal. The mouth area, lying between the ily serve as mutual stimulation among members of antennae and antennules anteriorly and the cheli­ the same species. peds posteriorly. Covered, when not in use, by the Behavior, submissive. Postures and motions indicat­ third maxillipeds. (Fig. 2.) ing unreadiness to engage in or to continue aggres­ Cavity, carpal. On a major cheliped, the depression sive behavior. Cf. Creep. in the proximal part of the palm. When the cheli­ Behavior, territorial. Postures and motions indicating ped is flexed, bent into rest position, the carpus fits readiness to defend from intruders the mouth of a into the cavity. (Fig. 44.) burrow, or the mouth and its immediate vicinity; Chela. The grasping, distal portion of the claw on the behavior exhibited consists of waving display, either of the two chelipeds. Each chela is formed threat components, and combat. by a distal extension of the sixth segment, the Belt, hybrid. "A zone of interbreeding betwen two manus, and the opposing distal seventh segment, species, subspecies, or other unlike populations; termed the dactyl. The two parts of the chela are CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 681

referred to together as fingers; the lower, immova­ sible to use all three terms. In this contribution, ble finger as the pollex; and the pollex along with therefore, combat is selected for general use; en­ the rest of the manus as the propodus. (Figs. 1, counter appears occasionally in the discussion of 2, 42, 44.) fully ritualized combats; and fight is restricted to Chela-out. An agonistic posture in which a crab, combats with overtly forceful components. otherwise completely withdrawn into his burrow, Combat, heteroclawed. In one opponent the claw on leaves his major chela's tip projecting. (Compo­ the right side is enlarged, in the other on the left. nent 9, p. 479.) Combat, high-intensity. Part of the claw of each op­ Cheliped. One of the two appendages that end in a ponent comes between the dactyl and pollex of the chela. Morphologically these appendages form the other, in other words enters into the gape. In force­ first pair of periopods. Each is bounded anteriorly ful endings the claw tips may grip the opponent's by the suborbital region, externally by the vertical claw; in fully ritualized encounters they do not do lateral margin, and posteriorly both by the sternum so. and by the coxa of the first ambulatory. Combat, homoclawed. Both opponents have the claw Cheliped, major. The large cheliped; confined to of the same side enlarged, whether right or left. males. (Fig. 1.) Combat, low-intensity. Contact between opponents is Cheliped, minor. The small cheliped in a male. (Fig. confined to the outer surfaces of mani and chelae. 1.) Combat, mutual. In many ritualized combats both Cheliped, small. Either of the two chelipeds in a fe­ crabs perform one or more of the components, male, or, when used plurally in simultaneous either in sequence or alternately. They can per­ reference to both sexes, the chelipeds excluding form simultaneously only during manus-rubs. the major. Combat, ritualized. Encounters consisting of ritual­ Chimney. A wall made of substrate erected by an ized components and lacking the ingredient of ir­ individual around its burrow. (P. 500.) regular force. Chromatophore. A pigment-bearing body in the in- Component. An activity that is a characteristic part tegment that influences the individual's color of some aspect of social behavior and appears to through its expansion and contraction. the observer to be distinct from adjacent actions. Claw. The sixth and seventh segments of a cheliped, The most clear-cut examples are so distinct and formed of the propodus (the specialized manus) so stereotyped that they may confidently be and the dactyl. An informal term, but convenient­ termed fixed-action patterns, in the sense devel­ ly brief. See Chela. oped by Lorenz and Tinbergen and now often Claw-rub. A general term for sound produced by used in ethological studies. These examples are rubbing of the claws of two males against each characterized not only by distinctive motor pat­ other during combat. (Sound component no. 14, terns but in ritualized combat by the juxtaposition p. 484.) of specialized morphological structures. Claw-tap. A general term for sound produced by tap­ Other activities, however, show considerable ping or vibration of the claws of two males against variability connected neither with intensity nor each other during combat. (Sound component no. with transition to other components. All of these, 15, p. 484.) instead, often appear instantly adaptable to the Cline. "A gradual and nearly continuous change of a changing circumstances of an agonistic situation character in a series of contiguous populations; a or a courtship. In combat, for example, the se­ character gradient (cf. Subspecies)." (Mayr, quence of components used in a particular kind 1969: 400.) of encounter in a certain species is only moder­ Clock, biological. See Rhythm, endogenous. ately predictable, while force may be suddenly Close-set (adj.). Applied to tubercles in the same interjected in the midst of an otherwise ritualized series which, while not widely spaced, are not con­ combat at any time. Any or all of the components tinuous and hence cannot be termed beading. in the various classes of social behavior may need Combat. A general term for any behavior between subdivision or other modification. Only further males in which the claws of the chelipeds come study with emphasis on comparative work within into contact. Because of the usually high degree the genus can resolve the uncertainties. of ritualization, it might be preferable to substitute Therefore it seems that the use of fixed action the word encounter, thus avoiding the "loaded" pattern would be at present a semantic disservice. words combat and fight. Since the behavior dis­ The more general word component is adopted in­ cussed undoubtedly has an aggressive base, fre­ stead, in the same spirit shown by morphological quently shows overtly forceful components, and taxonomists when they feel it premature to use a probably often includes pushing elements effec­ definite term such as subgenus and compromise on tively masked by ritualizations, it seems permis­ the noncommittal group. 682 APPENDIX E

Component, forceful. In low-intensity combat, bending the legs and is raised again. A bob. manus-pushes; in high-intensity combat, grips, (Component no. 13, p. 496.) flings, and upsets. All are highly variable and ir­ Dactyl. The most distal segment, the seventh, of a regular, and hence are here considered to be un- cheliped or ambulatory. On a cheliped also termed ritualized, since the cheliped is wielded variously the movable finger. and unpredictably in pushing, grasping, and lift­ Dactyl-along-pollex-groove. In high-intensity combat ing. Most or all ritualized components at times also the actor slides the tip of his dactyl along the nar­ are interrupted by the use of overt force which row, longitudinal furrow on the inactor's outer sometimes develops almost insensibly during the pollex. (Ritualized component no. 14, p. 491.) performance of the ritualized component, in the Dactyl-slide. In high-intensity combat the prehensile form of visible pressure. Exceptions to the above edge of one dactyl slides along the upper edge of definition of forceful components are now being the opponent's dactyl. (Ritualized component no. studied in Uca lactea, in which overt force itself 6, p. 489.) is sometimes ritualized. (P. 494.) Dactyl-submanus-slide. In high-intensity combat the Component, mutual. In combat, the same compo­ actor rubs his dactyl's prehensile edge along the nent is performed by both crabs, either in sequence lower margin of the inactor's manus, both claws or alternately. Only the manus-rub can be per­ being appropriately tilted. (Ritualized component formed by both crabs simultaneously. no. 8, p. 489.) Component, ritualized. In combat, a component in Deme. "A local population of a species; the commu­ which no pushing, grasping, or lifting motions are nity of potentially interbreeding individuals at a ordinarily included and which is distinguished by given locality." (Mayr, 1969: 401.) its predictability of form, and sometimes se­ Dendrogram. A diagram, more or less in the form quence, and by its association with a particular of a tree, designed to indicate apparent degrees of series of structures. See also Component, forceful relationship. and Ritualization. Depression. An indentation on the integument, usual­ Conglomerate. An assembly of stones, sessile marine ly shallow and irregularly shaped. organisms, or both, fastened together by natural Depression, H-form. On the carapace the design deposits or secretions; the organisms often include formed by the meetings of the furrows dividing the corals, dead or alive, mollusks or their shells, and cardiac, intestinal, and branchial regions from one tube worms. Sometimes the conglomerate is in the another. Often this roughly H-shaped result in­ form of lumps, large or small; sometimes it forms cludes the only distinctly marked regional bounda­ in itself a local substrate. ries in a species of XJca, where the regions are in Cornea. See Eye. general weakly indicated. (Fig. 1.) Courtship. Behavior patterns in both sexes that, when Display, visual. A general term that includes agonis­ fully elicited, are followed by copulation. They tic postures, their associated motions, and waving usually include high-intensity waving display, display. along with following of the female or her attrac­ Display, waving. A rhythmic motion of the major tion to the male's burrow. Special display motions cheliped, along with any associated movements of and sound production also sometimes are part of other appendages. Used interchangeably with a species-specific pattern. See also Behavior, pre- waving. copulatory. Display, waving: high-intensity. Waving character­ Coxa, pi. coxae. The first segment of a cheliped or ized in general by the maximum tempo, precision ambulatory, always short (Figs. 1, 2). of motions, amplitude of wave, brevity of pauses Creep. Method of locomotion adopted by non- between waves, and sometimes additional motions aggressive individuals under certain conditions, or elision of motions characteristic of a species. the body being held close to the ground. Cf. Be­ Display, waving, low-intensity. The wave is relative­ havior, submissive. (Agonistic posture no. 11, p. ly slow, and often variable in tempo and ampli­ 479; Fig. 84C.) tude, with the series widely spaced and pauses be­ Crenellations. Tubercles along the suborbital margins tween waves often longer than at high intensity; of the orbit, often separated and truncate. (Figs. feeding, during and between waves is prevalent; 2, 3, 26, 27.) characteristics may be present that are absent at Crest. On a cheliped or walking leg, a thin ridge, high intensities, or the converse may be true. often relatively high, with the edge either entire or Sharp boundaries between the two intensities are tuberculate. Cf. Ridge. rare, gradual change being the rule. Curtsy. In waving display and in high-intensity Down-point. A threat posture of high-intensity often courtship, the crab's body rapidly lowers through leading to combat. Two opponents face each other, CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 683

their major claws pointed straight downward. Flat-claw. An agonistic posture in which a crab, hav­ (Component no. 2, p. 479.) ing descended his burrow, leaves his major claw Down-push. One crab is pushed down his own bur­ projecting and bent so that it lies flat on the sur­ row by his opponent. An activity associated with face. (Component no. 8, p. 479.) combat. (P. 491.) Fling. In combat, a variable, unritualized component Drove. An aggregation of individuals, moving more at the close of a forceful ending. One opponent is or less in unison. (P. 478.) pushed backward in a skid or is partly overturned. Drumming. Sound production through repeated tap­ (Forceful component no. 2, part, p. 488.) ping of the major or minor merus against the cara­ Forward-point. A threat posture of moderate inten­ pace, or of the major manus against the ground. sity. The major claw is directed forward, the fin­ (Sound components 7, 8, and 9, p. 483.) gers held apart. (Agonistic component no. 4, p. Duration. The length of a combat timed from the 479.) moment at which the two chelipeds come into con­ Front. On the anterior part of the carapace, the mid­ tact to their separation immediately preceding the dle section that projects forward and down be­ departure of one of the crabs. Associated activi­ tween the orbits. (Figs. 1,2.) ties, ranging from preliminary threat behavior to Frontal-arc. A threat pattern of low intensity; the after-lunges, are not included. See also Duration, major chela parallels the ground, fingersopen , and p. 493. moves forward and back. (Agonistic component Ecology. The study of organisms in relation to their no. 3, p. 479.) environment. Furrow. See Groove. Edge, beaded. A structure sometimes present on the Gape. On a claw, the space between the dactyl and upper, major palm, between the dorsal margin and pollex when their distal portions are in contact or, the carpal cavity. (Fig. 44.) in other words, when the claw is "closed." Edge, prehensile. On a cheliped, the dorsal margin Gills. Organs responsible for the extraction of oxygen of the pollex or the ventral margin of the dactyl. from the water. Five principal ones, all elongate, Encounter. A fully ritualized combat. See also Com­ distally tapering and divided into sections (books), bat. are located in the posterior part of the branchial Estuary. A tidal waterway in the delta region of a region; single gills, small to vestigial and variously stream or river, usually running through mangrove shaped, are located proximally on the 2nd and 3rd or other kinds of swampland. See also Lagoon. maxillipeds. (Figs. 81, 82, 83.) Ethology. "The science of the comparative study of Gonopod. In males, one of the pair of anterior ab­ animal behavior." (Mayr, 1969: 402.) In a wider dominal appendages, situated on the ventral, prox­ sense, "the biological study of animal behavior." imal part of the abdomen. When not in use, these (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1970.) slender, stiff appendages are bent forward, parallel Eye. The faceted structure at the tip of the eyestalk; to the similarly bent abdomen, fitting into an in­ the cornea. dentation in the sternum. Spermatophores are in­ Eyebrow. An elongate area along the dorsal margin troduced into the female gonopores through the of the orbits, varying in length, breadth and incli­ specialized tips. (Fig. 58.) nation; bounded by raised edges that are some­ Gonopore. In females, one of the pair of genital times beaded or granulate. openings. They are located on the third sternal Eyestalk. The peduncle supporting the eye. segment near the midline. The term has often been Fight. A combat including components that are at applied also to the genital opening of the male; in once forceful, irregular in form, and unpredicta­ this study the word pore is used for the male open­ ble. See also Combat. ing in order to avoid confusion. Finger. On a cheliped, either of the two distal ele­ Granule. An imprecise term for a tubercle that is ments forming the chela or pincer. Usually used considered by the observer to be particularly small in the plural, to designate in one word both dactyl in relation to other tubercles on the same in­ and pollex. dividual. Finger, fixed. The pollex. Grip. In combat, the prehensile edges of one claw Finger, movable. The dactyl of a cheliped. seize the claw of the opponent. (Forceful compo­ Flagellum, pi. flagella. On each of the two antennae, nent no. 2, part, p. 488.) the slender, tapering, distal portion composed of Groove. A narrow depression or furrow in the in­ many segments. (Fig. 28.) tegument. Flange. On the gonopod, a calcified wing near the Group. "A neutral term for a number of related taxa, tip, normally extending anteriorly or posteriorly especially an assemblage of closely related species but sometimes differently oriented because of tor­ within a genus." (Mayr, 1969: 404.) sion. (Fig. 58.) Growth, allometric. Development in which one part 684 APPENDIX E

of an organism grows at a different rate than an­ derer is apparently always the instigator. Because other; heterogony. (P. 449.) of the usual high degree of ritualization, the words Habitat. The general kind of environment in which aggressor and attacker are not used. a species usually lives. (P. 440.) (Cf. Biotope; Instrument. In combat a structure on the actor's claw Niche. used during the performance of a component. Heel. The proximal ventral portion of the major Intensity, low. (1) In threat postures and motions, a manus. (Fig. 42.) general term for slight motions of the major cheli­ Heel-and-hollow. In high-intensity combat, the pol- ped toward an encroaching crab, in which the fin­ lex tip rubs or taps the depression on the palm gers are separated only partly if at all and the body lying at the base of the opponent's thumb, while little raised on the ambulatories; often accompa­ the dactyl acts similarly against the outer manus. nied by feeding. (Fig. 84.) (2) In combat, a com­ (Ritualized component no. 11, p. 490.) ponent in which only the outer surfaces of the Heel-and-ridge. In high-intensity combat, the pollex claws come into contact. (3) In waving display, tip rubs or taps the oblique ridge of the opponent, the motion of the major cheliped is relatively slow while the dactyl curves around the opponent's heel when compared with that of high intensity, the tip or taps with its tip against that region. (Ritualized of the claw usually does not reach as high in the component, no. 12, p. 490.) air, in lateral waves the waving motion may be Hepatopancreas. A digestive gland, consisting mostly straight rather than circular, and, finally, any spe­ of two large lobes that underlie the paired hepatic cial motions occurring in advanced courtship are regions of the carapace. Formerly often termed the absent; often accompanied by feeding, low-inten­ liver. sity display usually indicates relatively simple ter­ Herding. During a waving display, a male maneuvers ritoriality rather than threat toward a particular a female toward his burrow. (Component no. 14, male or definite courtship of a female. There is no p. 496.) sharp dividing line distinguished between low and Heterogony. (Replaced in current usage by Allom- high intensities in any of the three uses. etry.) Intensity, high. (1) In threat postures and motions, High-rise. A posture, occurring in the threat behavior the major dactyl is raised so that the fingers of the of both sexes and in the courtship of males, in claw are widely separated and the body is raised which the crab raises its body high on the extended on the extended ambulatories. (2) In combat, a ambulatories. (Agonistic component no. 13, p. component in which a part of each claw enters the 480.) gape of the opponent. (3) In waving display, the Holotype. In taxonomy, "the single specimen, desig­ major cheliped moves at the maximum speed at­ nated or indicated as 'the type' by the original tained by the species, and describes the widest arc; author at the time of the publication of the origi­ in both threat and courtship, but particularly in nal description." (Mayr, 1969: 404.) courtship, special motions of both the major cheli­ Hood. A concave, arching structure erected by a ped and of the other appendages sometimes in­ male in display phase beside his burrow. (P. 500; volved in sound production are often included. Pis. 48, 49.) Actual feeding only very rarely accompanies high- Hybridization. "The crossing of individuals belong­ intensity behavior of any kind, the motions of the ing to two unlike natural populations, principally minor cheliped that often occur at these times be­ species." (Mayr, 1969: 405.) See also Hybridiza­ ing incomplete; they are here interpreted as dis­ tion, allopatric; Subspecies. placement feeding under conditions of conflict. Hybridization, allopatric. "Hybridization between Interdigitated-leg-wag. The more distal segments of two allopatric populations (species or subspecies) one or more ambulatories overlap those of a paral­ along a well-defined contact zone." (Mayr, 1969: lel individual with accompanying rubbing or vibra­ 397.) tion. (Sound component no. 16, p. 484.) Inactor. In combat, the opponent holding his major Interlace. In high-intensity combat, each manus lies claw temporarily motionless. (P. 487.) within the gape of the opponent, the bases of the Ischium. On a maxilla, maxilliped, cheliped, or am­ two chelae coming almost into contact; the proxi­ bulatory, the third segment from the proximal end; mal prehensile edge of one pollex then rubs along in each of these appendages it is distal to the basis. one or both predactyl ridges of the opponent. (Figs. 1, 2.) (Ritualized component no. 9.) Instigator. In combats between two burrow-holders, Isolation, reproductive. "A condition in which inter­ the crab that approaches his future opponent; ex­ breeding between two or more populations is pre­ cept for this approach, he does not necessarily vented by intrinsic factors." (Mayr, 1969: 410.) ever become an actor. In combats between an ag­ Cf. Mechanism, isolating. gressive wanderer and a burrow-holder, the wan­ Jerk. In waving display, one of a series of short mo- CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 685

tions of the major cheliped that lifts or lowers the rior ambulatory meri and the sides of the carapace. appendage with short pauses between. In this con­ (Sound component no. 6, p. 483.) tribution the period of motion alone is counted as Leg-stamp. The turned-under dactyls of two or more the jerk. No wave is described as including jerks ambulatories strike the ground. (Sound compo- unless either the upward or downward sweep, or ment no. 11, p. 484.) both, are broken by at least one pause; a wave Leg-stretch. In waving display the crab raises its with a pause only at its peak, however, is not con­ body with each wave. (Component no. 10, p. sidered to be a jerking wave. 496.) Jerking-oblique-wave. In waving display, the major Leg-wag. Stridulation involving rubbing of the ambu­ cheliped unflexes obliquely upward with jerks at latory meri. (Sound component no. 5, p. 482.) least during its rise. (Component no. 6, p. 496.) Leg-wave. In waving display, two or more ambula­ Jerking-vertical-wave. In waving display, the flexed tories are raised on a side, often in a kicking mo­ major cheliped is moved up and down with jerks tion; their meri however do not make contact and at least during its rise. (Component no. 2, p. 496.) therefore there is no stridulation. (Component no. Keel. A sharp ridge armed or smooth, at or close to 12, p. 496.) the dorsal or ventral margin of part of a cheliped Legs-out. Posture assumed by a non-receptive fe­ or ambulatory. male; when descending into her burrow she leaves Kick. See Leg-wave. the ambulatories of one side projecting in the air. Lagoon. A body of seawater, sometimes brackish, (Agonistic posture no. 14, p. 480.) usually elongate, and always largely cut off from Lek. A restricted locality in which males in many the surf of the open ocean. Sometimes the barrier species of birds and other animals congregate in is a reef, which may be largely submerged; some­ the breeding season. Here they defend individual times it is the upper part of a beach or a stretch territories from encroaching males and court fe­ of dunes. Communication with the open sea is males. In a restricted sense, the word is used of often by a permanent channel, as on coral atolls; associations in which the strongest males hold ter­ sometimes, on continents and larger islands, a con­ ritories near the center and do most of the mating. nection occurs only at spring tides or during heavy Leks in the restricted sense are not yet known to rains. Direct connection with a stream, if any, is occur in Uca. frequently intermittent. Except on small atolls, Leptochelous. The pollex and dactyl of the major lagoons are often bordered by mangrove swamps. cheliped are unusually long and slender in com­ The word lagoon and its translations are often used parison with most individuals in the same species imprecisely, with variable implications, in different of similar carapace size. Cf. Brachychelous. parts of the world. The above remarks cover its Line, raised. A ridge, long and very low, not paral­ use in the present contribution. Cf. Estuary. leling similar structures. Cf. Stria. Lateral-circular-wave. In waving display the major Lunge. A threat pattern of high intensity. One male, cheliped is completely unflexed, then raised and with claw pointed forward, makes a feint toward returned to rest position from above the eyes. another. (Agonistic component no. 5, p. 479.) (Component no. 5, p. 496.) Major. Adjective preceding either the noun side or Lateral-straight-wave. In waving display, the cheli­ the name of an appendage or one of its segments; ped is completely unflexed, then returned to the the word indicates that the location of the area is flexed position in the same plane. (Component no. on the same side of a male as the large cheliped. 4, p. 496.) Major-manus-drum. Vibration of the manus of the Lateral-stretch. A threat posture in which at least the major cheliped against the ground. (Sound com­ major cheliped is unflexed to the side. (Agonistic ponent no. 9, p. 483.) posture no. 10, p. 479.) Major-merus-drum. Vibration of the merus of the Lateral-wave. In waving display, a general term for major cheliped against an anterior part of the cara­ a motion of the major cheliped in which the claw pace. (Sound component no. 7, p. 483.) is unflexed to the side. See also Lateral-straight- Major-merus-rub. Stridulation in which part of the wave and Lateral-circular-wave. major merus rubs against an adjacent part of the Lectotype. "One of a series of syntypes which, sub­ carapace. (Sound component no. 1, p. 482.) sequent to the publication of the original descrip­ Mandible. One of the two small jaws, heavily calci­ tion, is selected and designated through publica­ fied and meeting in the midline, in the buccal cav­ tion to serve as 'the type.' " (Mayr, 1969: 406.) ity. In a ventral view of the crab they lie under­ Left-clawed. The cheliped on the crab's left side is neath the three pairs of maxillipeds and two pairs enlarged. of maxillae. Morphologically the mandibles are Leg. See Ambulatory. anterior to the first maxillae. (Fig. 37.) Leg-side-rub. Stridulation involving the more poste­ Mangrove. Any of a number of shrubby and arboreal 686 APPENDIX E

plants associated on sheltered coasts of the tropics crab molts into the first crab stage. In most crabs, and subtropics and in their brackish river deltas. including all Uca, both zoea and megalops are Members of such a community are characterized free-swimming. In Uca the few larvae so far iden­ most conspicuously by stilt roots. The community tified are pelagic but most individuals of many itself is called in English mangrove or mangroves. species probably pass even their early stages in Macnae (1968) suggested substituting the word brackish water and a few far up tidal streams. Cf. mangal to distinguish the forest community from Zoea. its individual plants; the suggestion was published Membrane-vibration. Air or air and water inside the too late to be followed here, but its use in the epibranchial chambers vibrate against the mem­ future would certainly be sensible. branes at the chelipeds' proximal ends. (Sound Manus, pi. mani. The sixth segment from the proxi­ component no. 13, p. 484.) mal end of a cheliped or ambulatory, it is simul­ Merus, pi. meri. On a third maxilliped, the more dis­ taneously the predistal segment. On each of the tal of the two large segments that cover the buccal two chelipeds its ventral distal portion is produced, cavity; on a cheliped or ambulatory, the fourth forming the lower part of the chela, the pollex; segment from the proximal end; on each of these the manus and pollex together are termed the appendages the merus is distal to the ischium. On propodus (q.v.). In discussions of the major chelipeds and ambulatories it is the most proximal cheliped, the word manus signifies its outer side, large segment; it is always longer than broad and plus its dorsal and ventral margins. Cf. Palm. is followed distally by a short carpus. (Figs. 1, 2, (Figs. 1, 2.) 33.) Manus-rub. In low-intensity combat, the outer mani Microhabitat. A local subdivision of a habitat. of the opponents rub longitudinally. (Ritualized Mill, gastric. See Stomach. component no. 1, p. 488.) Minor. Adjective preceding either the noun side or Margin, antero-lateral. On the dorsal part of the car­ the name of an appendage or one of its segments; apace, that portion of the side margins immediate­ it indicates that the area is on the same side of a ly behind the antero-lateral angle. male as the minor cheliped. Cf. Major. Margins dorso-lateral. On the dorsal part of the cara­ Minor-chela-tap. The tip of the claw on the minor pace, a long raised line, smooth, beaded, or tuber- cheliped strikes the ground several times. (Sound culate, starting at the posterior end of the antero­ component no. 10, p. 484.) lateral margin and continuing posteriorly and Minor-merus-rub. Stridulation in which the merus of somewhat toward the center. (Figs. 1,3.) the minor cheliped rubs against an adjacent part Margin, suborbital. On the antero-ventral part of the of the carapace. (Sound component no. 2, p. 482.) carapace the lower edge of the orbit; it is usually Minor-claw-rub. Stridulation in which the claw of the more or less crenellate at least near its outer angle. minor cheliped rubs the suborbital crenellations. (Figs. 2, 3.) (Sound component no. 3, p. 482.) Margin, vertical lateral. On the side of the carapace Minor-merus-drum. Vibration of the merus of the the long raised line extending upward from the minor cheliped against the anterior part of the car­ ventral margin, directed toward or reaching the junction between the antero-lateral and dorso­ apace. (Sound component no. 8, p. 483.) lateral margins; often obsolescent at least in upper Minor-wave. In waving display, the minor cheliped part. (Fig. 3.) moves similarly to the major. (Component no. 9, Maxilliped. Any one of six mouthparts, consisting of p. 496.) three pairs. The third pair, the outermost, includes Mound. A low elevation with rounded top on the broad, flat segments that fit closely over the buc­ carapace or an appendage. cal cavity. The second pair, in a ventral view of the Mud. "The result of the reaction and interaction of crab, underlies the third pair and is external to, alluvium and living organisms." (Macnae, 1956; and overlying, the first pair. The first pair is ex­ 40.) ternal to and overlies the maxillae. Morphologi­ Mud flat. Expanses of muddy land left uncovered at cally the maxillipeds are posterior to the maxillae. low tide. Most occur near river mouths that often (Figs. 2, 33, 36.) open into sheltered bays. In the tropics the fiats Mechanisms, isolating. "Properties of individuals are often partly bordered with mangroves. that prevent successful interbreeding with individ­ Neotype. "A specimen selected as type subsequent to uals that belong to different populations." (Mayr, the original description in cases where the original 1969: 405.) types are known to be destroyed or were sup­ Megalops. A post-embryological stage of crab devel­ pressed by the [International Commission on Zoo­ opment occurring after the zoea and before the logical Nomenclature]." (Mayr, 1969: 407.) CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 687

Niche. "The precise constellation of environmental Phase, territorial. A condition intermediate between factors into which a species fits or which is re­ the aggressive wandering phase and the display quired by a species." (Mayr, 1969: 407.) Cf. phase, often or usually very brief to absent. At this Habitat; Biotope. time a male holds a burrow and threatens other Orbit. One of the pair of elongate trenches extending males but does not wave or court. along most of the anterior part of the carapace, Phase, underground. A male remains underground in in which the eyestalk and eye lie when not in use. his burrow throughout one or more low-tide (Fig. 3.) periods; the period of submersion is usually several Osmoregulation. See Regulation, osmotic. days unless the crab is undergoing a period of Ovary. In non-breeding Uca females, each of the two hibernation or aestivation. egg-bearing glands is confined in the coelomic Phenetics, numerical. "The hypothesis that relation­ cavity to a region between the heart and the pos­ ship of taxa can be determined by a calculation of terior branchial region. In breeding individuals an overall, unweighted, similarity value." (Mayr, each ovary extends conspicuously far forward and 1969: 408.) See also Taxonomy, numerical. laterally and they are in part joined in the midline. Pheromone. An external secretion selectively affect­ (Fig. 77.) ing the behavior of conspecifics. Overhead-circling. In waving display a component in Phytogeny. "The study of the history of the lines of which the cheliped does not return to the flexed evolution in a group of organisms; the origin and rest position during a series of waves but describes evolution of the higher taxa." (Mayr, 1969: 409.) aerial circles above the crab's body. (Component Pile. A group of short, thickly set setae, often occur­ no. 8, p. 496.) ring in patches on the carapace and appendages; Palm. On a cheliped, the inner surface of the propo- the appearance is reminiscent of velvet or fur. dus, proximal to the pollex; in other words, the Pillar. A tower-like structure built of substrate raised inner side of a claw proximal to the fingers. (Figs. by a male in display phase beside his burrow. (P. 2, 44.) 500.) Palm-leg-rub. Stridulation resulting from rubbing of Pit. An indentation in the integument, small to minute the major palm against the anterior side of the first and more or less rounded. ambulatory. (Sound component no. 4, p. 482.) Pleopod. One of the paired appendages arising on the Palp. The segments of a maxilliped distal to the ventral sides of certain abdominal segments. In merus. males there are only two pairs, one on each side Paratype. "A specimen other than the holotype which of the first two segments; the first of these consists was before the author at the time of the prepara­ of the two genital organs or gonopods. Females tion of the original description and was so desig­ have one pair on each of the first five segments; nated or indicated by the original author." (Mayr, they are modified for holding the egg-mass. 1969: 408.) Pollex; pi. pollices. On a cheliped's claw, the fixed Pattern, fixed action. See Component. finger, which is the ventral, distal extension of the Pereiopod. See Ambulatory. propodus. (Figs. 1, 2, 42, 44.) Phase. A temporary state that is characterized in Pollex-base-rub. In high-intensity combat a compo­ males by one of a number of general behavior pat­ nent performed when the inactor has partly de­ terns. (P. 505.) scended his burrow, leaving the claw projecting. Phase, aggressive wandering. A male moves appar­ The actor rubs the prehensile edge of his pollex ently at random through a population that includes against the outer pollex base of his opponent. (Rit­ displaying males, punctuates his passage with ualized component no. 5, p. 489.) threats toward them, engages them in combat, Pollex-rub. In low-intensity combat the outer sides makes superficial burrow explorations, and at­ of the pollices rub longitudinally. (Ritualized com­ tempts unsuccessfully to mate. ponent no. 2, p. 488.) Phase, display. In males the temporary condition Pollex-under-and-over-slide. In high-intensity com­ characterized by waving display, burrow-holding, bat, one pollex slides in turn along the ventral and threat, combat, and courtship. dorsal edges of the opposing pollex. (Ritualized Phase, non-aggressive wandering. A male moves component no. 3, p. 488.) through a population or forms part of a drove, Population, local. "The individuals of a given local­ feeding near the tide's edge. He does not threaten ity which potentially form a single interbreeding or enter into combat, often passes close to display­ community." (Mayr, 1969: 409.) ing males in a crouching posture, does not hold a Pore. The genital opening of the male, located on the burrow during low tide, does not wave, and does distal end of the gonopod. (Fig. 58 D, E.) Cf. fe­ not court. male's Gonopore. 688 APPENDIX E

Posing. A rigid posture adopted occasionally by in­ Region, hepatic. (Paired.) An antero-lateral area dividuals of both sexes in which the chelipeds are bounded anteriorly by the orbital region, internally usually unflexed and the carapace tilted toward by the mesogastric region and other gastric areas, the sun. (P. 506.) and both externally and posteriorly by the bran­ Post-megalops. The first littoral stage or instar; also chial region. (Fig. 1.) known as the first crab stage. Cf. Zoea and Mega- Region, intestinal. (Unpaired.) The most posterior lops. of the central areas of the carapace, bounded ante­ Prance. A motion in which a male walks stiffly on riorly by the cardiac region, laterally on each side the bent-under dactyls of the ambulatories. Pos­ by the branchial region and posteriorly by the sibly sounds are produced. (Agonistic component carapace margin. (Fig. 1.) no. 12, p. 479.) Region, mesogastric. (Unpaired.) The central area Pregape-rub. In high-intensity combat the tips of the of the carapace that is bounded posteriorly by the dactyl and pollex rub longitudinally along the dis­ cardiac region and laterally by the hepatic and tal outer manus and palm, respectively, of the op­ branchial regions. (Fig. 1.) Anteriorly lie other ponent. (Ritualized component no. 10, p. 490.) gastric areas. Process, inner. A structure on the distal end of the Region, metabranchial. (Paired.) The posterior, gonopod arising on the inner side but often dis­ larger part of the branchial region, it is bounded placed anteriorly by torsion. Its shape varies from anteriorly by the epibranchial part of the branchial a large and tumid projection to a slender trans­ region and the hepatic region, and internally by parent spine. (Fig. 58; p. 464.) the mesogastric, cardiac, and intestinal regions; it Prolonged-leg-stretch. In waving display the crab overlies the cavity containing the large gills. (P. holds his body high off the ground throughout a 469.) series of waves. (Component no. 11, p. 496.) Region, orbital. (Paired.) The area immediately be­ Propodus. In crustaceans generally, the predistal seg­ hind the eyebrow and adjacent parts of the upper ment of a leg-like appendage; in this contribution, margin of the orbit. (Fig. 1.) confined to either of the two chelipeds in Uca; it Region, pterygostomian. (Paired.) On the antero- there consists of the manus and its distal extension, ventral part of the carapace, the area external to the pollex. The propodus on the ambulatories in the buccal cavity. (Fig. 2.) this contribution is termed the manus (q.v.). (Fig. Region, suborbital. (Paired.) On the antero-ventral 2.) part of carapace, the area immediately behind the Pubescence. See Pile. suborbital margin. Paired. (Fig. 2.) Raised-carpus. A threat posture of low intensity. The Regulation, osmotic. "Osmotic regulation may be de­ major carpus is raised while the claw points fined as the regulation of the total particle concen­ obliquely down. (Agonistic component no. 1, p. tration of such fluids at levels different from those 479.) of the external medium." (Robertson, 1962: Rap; rapping. Terms used by Crane (1941.Iff.) in 323.) previous descriptions of waving display; they were Reversed-circular-wave. In waving display as in the equivalent to the present general term drumming. usual lateral-circular-wave, except that the cheli- The behavior formerly called rapping was found ped is unflexed at a high point and flexed into rest to include manus-drums, merus-drums, and ritual- position at a lower level. (Component no. 7, p. izations of both. (P. 483.) 496.) Region (of carapace). An area, usually convex, sep­ Rhythm, circadian. An endogenous rhythm with a arated from its neighbors by narrow grooves. cycle roughly 24 hours in length. Region, branchial. (Paired.) A large lateral region Rhythm, endogenous. A cycle under physiological overlying the branchial cavity. (Fig. 1.) The re­ control that continues to operate for a time on its gion includes two other areas with names used in previously established schedule in the absence of this contribution, the epibranchial and metabran- the appropriate external stimuli. chial regions (see below). Rhythm, lunar. An endogenous rhythm with a cycle Region, cardiac. (Unpaired.) The central area on roughly 28 days in length. the carapace bounded anteriorly by the naso­ Rhythm, semi-lunar. An endogenous rhythm with a gastric, laterally by the branchial, and posteriorly cycle roughly 14 days in length. by the intestinal regions. (Fig. 1.) Rhythm, tidal. An endogenous rhythm with a cycle Region, epibranchial. (Paired.) The anterior part of roughly 12.4 hours in length, its particular tem­ the branchial region. It is bounded anteriorly and poral characteristics changing continually in ac­ externally by the margins of the carapace and in­ cordance with the tidal schedule prevailing locally. ternally by the hepatic region. (P. 471.) Ridge. An elongate, narrow elevation of the integu- CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 689

ment with a more or less sharp edge that is some­ Seta, adj. setose. An unjointed appendage, either soft times tuberculate or otherwise armed. Cf. Stria; and hair-like or a stiff bristle. Setae vary greatly Line, raised; Rugosity; Crest. in microscopic characteristics and many are doubt­ Ridge, distal at dactyl base. The more distal ridge, less sensory in function; they occur plentifully on usually tuberculate, on the upper distal part of the most parts of the body and jointed appendages. major palm. (Fig. 43.) Seta, spoon-tipped. On a mouthpart, especially on the Ridge, oblique; ridge, oblique tuberculate. On the merus of the second maxilliped, a seta ending in a upper, distal part of the major palm, a raised area more or less concave expansion, usually lobed or with its projecting edge usually sharply ridge-like pectinate. (Figs. 36, 37.) but sometimes blunt; usually with tubercles ex­ Sonogram. "A graphic representation of the vocaliza­ tending from the carpal cavity to the vicinity of tion of an animal." (Mayr, 1969: 411.) the proximal ventral part of the pollex. (Fig. 43.) Speciation. "The splitting of a phyletic line; the proc­ Ridge, proximal at dactyl base. The more proximal ess of the multiplication of species; the origin of ridge, usually tuberculate, on the upper distal part discontinuities between populations caused by the of the major palm; vertical or nearly so in its up­ development of reproductive isolating mecha­ per part, its lower portion curves distally to merge nisms." (Mayr, 1969: 412.) Cf. Speciation, Allo- with the tubercles of the inner row on the dactyl's patric; Speciation, sympatric. prehensile edge. (Fig. 42.) Speciation, allopatric. "Species formation during geo­ Right-clawed. The cheliped on the crab's right side graphic isolation." (Mayr, 1969: 397.) is enlarged. Speciation, sympatric. "Speciation without geograph­ Ritualization. In the evolution of an animal's behav­ ic isolation; the acquisition of isolating mecha­ ior, changes in a movement and certain associated nisms within a deme." (Mayr, 1969: 412.) structures so that they come to serve as a signal Species. "Groups of actually (or potentially) inter­ in communication, or as a different signal, or to breeding natural populations which are reproduc- function in some other social capacity. (P. 519.) tively isolated from other such groups. . . ." Rugosity. A roughness of the integument, usually in (Mayr, 1969: 412.) Cf. Subspecies; Population, the form of short, blunt, irregular ridges, non- local; Isolation, reproductive; Mechanisms, iso­ tuberculate, irregularly shaped, and arranged in lating. groups, the alignment of the individual rugosities Species-specific. An attribute characteristic of a spe­ being roughly parallel. cies; often used in connection with behavior pat­ Sac, pericardial. (Paired.) A water-absorbing organ terns or their components. in the posterior part of the branchial cavity. (Fig. Spermatophore. A capsule containing spermatozoa 78.) It aids in controlling the maintenance of transferred through the male gonopod into the fe­ moisture. male gonopore. Salinity. The proportion of dissolved materials in Spine. A long, pointed tubercle. seawater. Measured in parts per thousand (°/00). Sternum. The segmented, ventral surface of the body Normal seawater ranges, depending on latitude, lying between the proximal segments of the two between 34°/00 and 37°/00. chelipeds and of each pair of ambulatories. (Fig. Sand. "A material consisting of comminuted frag­ 2.) In males the narrow abdomen folds forward ments and water-worn particles of rocks (mainly into a groove that runs longitudinally down the siliceous) finer than those of gravel; often spec, as sternum's midline. In adult females the broad ab­ the material of a beach, desert, etc." (The Shorter domen, folded similarly forward, almost covers the Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.) sternum. Semi-unflexed-wave. In waving display the cheliped Stomach. A general term for the central part of the is partly unflexed as it is raised. (Component no. gut. Its most conspicuous component is the so- 3, p. 496.) called gastric mill, a muscular sac with hard, inter­ Series. (1) "In taxonomy, the sample which the col­ nal ridges located between the lobes of the hepato- lector takes in the field or the sample available for pancreas. (Fig. 80.) taxonomic study." (Mayr, 1969: 411.) (2) In Stria. In this contribution used only of a ridge or waving display a group of waves and their associ­ raised line, very small to minute in all dimen­ ated motions performed by an individual in an un­ sions—length, height, and thickness; usually more interrupted sequence. or less parallel to other such structures; it may be Serration. One of a series of somewhat compressed unarmed, beaded, or tuberculate. This meaning of tubercles occurring on the margins of appendages; the word is included among the definitions given, each is more or less triangular with the apex di­ for example, in The Shorter Oxford English Dic­ rected toward the distal end of the segment. tionary, 3rd ed.; there it appears as follows: "2. 690 APPENDIX E

Chiefly in scientific use. A small groove, channel, the cruising range of individuals of another popu­ or ridge." Cf. Ridge; Line, raised. lation." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) In the present con­ Stria, postero-lateral. A stria on the postero-lateral tribution, use of the word is restricted as follows: part of the carapace, behind and usually external in the broad sense sympatry indicates the occur­ to the postero-lateral end of the dorso-lateral mar­ rence of more than one species of Uca in the same gin; when fully developed there are two, more or area, within sight of one another and without phys­ less parallel to each other, on each side. (Figs. 1, ical barriers between the populations; in the re­ 3.) stricted sense it indicates such an occurrence of Stridulation. Sound production by a single individual members of the same subgenus, particularly of performed by rubbing, tapping, or vibrating one those showing the closest interspecific relationship, part of the body against another, either or both of as among members of an alliance (q.v.). Adj.: which are suitably armed. The parts involved may Sympatric; in this study used also as a n. (cf. be those of an appendage against the carapace or allopatric). of two or more appendages against one another. Synonym. "In nomenclature, each of two or more Style. A slender projection of the eyestalk beyond the different names for the same taxon." (Mayr, 1969: distal end of the eye (cornea). 413.) Subdactyl-and-subpollex-slide. In high-intensity com­ Synonymy. "A chronological list of the scientific bat, the upper edge of one dactyl moves to and names which have been applied to a given taxon, fro longitudinally along the prehensile edge of including the dates of publication and the authors the opponent's dactyl, while the prehensile edge of of the names." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) the pollex moves similarly along the lower edge Syntype. "Every specimen in a type-series in which of the opponent's pollex. (Ritualized component no holotype was designated." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) no. 4, p. 489.) Systematics. "The science dealing with the diversity Subdactyl-and-suprapollex-saw. In high-intensity of organisms." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) combat, one dactyl's prehensile edge moves trans­ Tapping. In combat of both low and high intensities, versely across part of the prehensile edge of the part of the prehensile edge of the dactyl, the pol­ opponent's pollex. (Ritualized component no. 15, lex, or both tap against part of the opponent's dac­ p. 491.) tyl or propodus. Tapping sometimes forms a part Subgenus. An optional taxonomic category, consist­ of a number of ritualized components. (P. 491.) ing of a group of species the members of which Cf. Vibration; Claw-tap. appear to be more nearly related to one another Taxon, pi. taxa. "A taxonomic group that is suffi­ than they are to other members of the genus. ciently distinct to be worthy of being distinguished Subspecies. "A geographically defined aggregate of by name and to be ranked in a definite category." local populations which differs taxonomically from (Mayr, 1969: 413.) other such subdivisions of the species." (Mayr, Taxonomy. "The theory and practice of classifying 1969: 412.) organisms." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) Substrate. A general term for the terrestrial compo­ Threat. Aggressive postures and motions confined in nents of a biotope, composed partly or largely of males to individuals in the aggressive wandering, inorganic matter, such as mud or sand. territorial, and display phases; in females they ap­ Superspecies. "A monophyletic group of entirely or pear when approached by an aggressive wanderer, largely allopatric species." (Mayr, 1969: 412.) In or when in a non-receptive phase. Although in the present contribution the term is used as fol­ males threats usually precede combat, the behav­ lows: a group of allopatric species, each of which ior appears far more often than combats. See ago­ appears to be more closely related to its neighbors nistic postures and motions, and discussion; pp. within the superspecies than to other members of 478, 516. the genus, with the occasional exception of sym- Thumb. (1) In older literature the fixed finger or patric members of its alliance. The term has no pollex on a cheliped. (2) On the male gonopod, official taxonomic standing. In headings the name a subdistal structure (Fig. 56). Equivalent to the is enclosed in brackets, as suggested by Amadon palpus of von Hagen, 1962. 1966: 245). Cf. Alliance; Allopatry. Tomentum. See Pile. Supraheel-rub. In high-intensity combat, the dactyl Tooth. A tubercle, larger than the other tubercles in rubs vertically against the heel of the opponent's the same series and usually of a different shape. manus, the pollex meanwhile lying against his Topotype. "A specimen collected at the type-local­ palm. (Ritualized component no. 13, p. 491.) ity." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) Such specimens are not Sympatry. "The occurrence of two or more popula­ necessarily given official taxonomic status. tions in the same area; more precisely, the exist­ Torsion. A characteristic of the male gonopod in ence of a population in breeding condition within some species in which part of the distal end is CONVENTIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, GLOSSARY 691

twisted so that one or more of its structures are sults when motion picture film is exposed at 24 displaced from their more usual positions. (P. frames per second, giving, when the frames are 464.) viewed through a dissecting microscope, a conven­ Tubercle. A small projection on the integument, ient means of distinguishing in combat between either blunt or more or less conical, but of widely tapping and vibration. Vibration is here used syn­ diverse shapes and sizes. Usually in series or onymously with drumming, as employed in the groups. When very small in comparison with ad­ names of certain behavioral components. Cf. Tap­ jacent armature, the structure is here termed a ping. granule, the name being imprecise. If larger and, Walking leg. See Ambulatory. particularly, different in shape from its neighbors, Wanderer. (1) A male in a non-aggressive phase, it is called a tooth. See also Serration, Spine, characterized by lack of attachment to a particu­ Crenellation, and Edge, Beaded. lar burrow. See Phase, non-aggressive wandering. Type. "A zoological object which serves as the base (2) A receptive female at least in the subgenera for the name of a taxon." (Mayr, 1969: 413.) Minuca and Celuca, as she moves through a dis­ Type-locality. "The locality at which a holotype, playing population. lectotype or neotype was collected. (Cf. topo- Wanderer, aggressive. See Phase, aggressive wander­ type.)" (Mayr, 1969: 414.) ing. Type-species. The species in a genus or subgenus Wave. A general term for the rhythmic raising and which was designated as its type. lowering of the major cheliped during waving dis­ Upper-and-lower-manus-rub. In high-intensity com­ play. (P. 494.) bat the prehensile edges of one claw rub along the Wave, diminishing. In waving display, a wave lower upper and lower margins of the opponent's manus. than its predecessor in a single series. (Ritualized component no. 7, p. 489.) Wave, primary. In waving display, the first and high­ Upset. In combat, an unritualized final component est wave in a series. in which one crab is turned completely upside- Whitening, display. Temporary color lightening dur­ down. The rarest of all combat components. ing the display phase of males and less often of (Forceful component no. 2, part, p. 488.) females; it is characterized by the expansion of Vertical-wave. In waving display, the flexed cheliped white chromatophores at least on the carapace. moves up and down. (Component no. 1, p. 496.) (P. 466.) Vibration. In sound production and in combat the Withdrawal. Behavior associated with combat, in rapid tapping by an appendage against the cara­ which a burrow-holder descends partway or en­ pace, another appendage, or the substrate, or, in tirely into his own burrow. (P. 491.) ritualized waving display, certain motions in the Zoea, pi. Zoeae. One of the aquatic larval stages of air. For present practical purposes, the word is crabs. Its outstanding morphological features are confined to motions repeated at rates faster than the occurrence of one or more large spines on the 50 per second. At this rate, a blur on the film re­ carapace. See also Megalops.

693 Bibliography

Note: For abbreviations of serial publications "The that unusual words are spelled out. World List of Scientific Periodicals" has been used. In References of importance for this study that were the few cases where a particular periodical appeared to received too late for incorporation in the text are listed be unlisted, I have abbreviated it in this bibliography in in the Addendum, p. 715. a form consistent with that of the "World List," except

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Rumphius [= Rumpf], G. E. Salmon, M., and J. F. Stout 1705. D'Amboinsche Rariteitkamer, Behelzende 1962. Sexual discrimination and sound production eene Beschryvinge van allerhande zoo in Uca pugilator Bosc. Zoologica, N.Y. 47: weeke als harde Schaalvisschen, te weeten 15-21. raare Drabben, Kreeften, en diergelyke Sandeen, M. I. Zeedieren, als mede allerhande Hoorntjes 1950. Chromatophorotropins in the central nerv­ en Schulpen, die men in d'Amboinsche Zee ous system of Uca pugilator, with special vindt. . . . T'Amsterdam, Gedrukt by Fran­ reference to their origins and actions. cois Halma, Boekverkoper in Konstantijn Physiol. Zool. 23 (4): 337-52. den Grooten. 1st ed. In 3 parts: 28 pp., Sankarankutty, C. 340 pp., 43 pp. 60 pis. Other eds., not seen: 1961. On Decapoda Brachyura from the Anda­ 1711, 1739, 1740, 1741. man and Nicobar Islands. 1. Families Por- Ruppell, E. tunidae, Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and Mic- 1830. Beschreibung und Abbildung von 24 Arten tyridae. J. mar. Biol. Ass. India 3 (1 & 2): Kurz Schwanzigen Krabben als Beitrag zur 101-119. Naturgeschichte des rothen Meeres. Bron- Saussure, H. de ner, Frankfurt am Main. 28 pp. 1853. Description de quelques crustaces nouveaux 1834. Description de 24 especes de crabes pour de la cote occidentale du Mexique. Rev. et servir a l'histoire naturelle de la Mer Rouge. Mag. Zool. Paris ser. 2, 5: 354-68. Ferussac, Bull. Sci. nat. 24: 100-104 [= ab­ Say, T. stract of 1830 contribution]. 1817- An account of the Crustacea of the United Ryan, E. p. 1818. States. J. Acad. nat. Sci. Philad. (ser. 1) 1: 1966. Pheromone: evidence in a decapod crusta- 57-64, 65-80, 97-101, 155-69, 235-53, 313- ' cean. Science, 151 (Jan. 21): 340-41. 26, 374-401, 423-58. [Sections in italics in­ Sakai, T. clude remarks on Ocypode pugilator.} 1934. Brachyura from the coast of Kyushu, Schafer, W. Japan. Sci. Rep. Tokyo Bunrika Daig. Sect. 1954. Form und Funktion der Brachyuren-Schere. B. 1 (25): 281-330. Abh. senckenb. naturforsch. Ges. No. 489: 1936. Report on the Brachyura collected by Mr. 1-65. F. Hiro at Palao (Pelew) Islands. Sci. Rep. Schenkel, E. Tokyo Bunrika Daig. (B) 2: 155-77. 1902. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Dekapodenfauna 1939. Studies on the crabs of Japan, iv. Brachy- von Celebes. Verh. schweiz. naturf. Ges. gnatha, Brachyrhyncha: 365-741. (Publ. by Basel 13: 485-585. author, Tokyo.) Schmitt, W. L. 1940. Bio-geographic review on the distribution 1921. The marine decapod Crustacea of Califor­ of crabs in Japanese waters. Rec. oceanogr. nia. Univ. Calif. Pubis Zool. 23: 1-470. Wks Japan 11: 27-63. Schone, H. Salmon, M. 1961. Complex behavior. In "The physiology of 1965. Waving display and sound production in the Crustacea," ed. T. H. Waterman. Aca­ Uca pugilator Bosc, with comparisons to demic Press, New York and London, vol. U. minax and U. pugnax. Zoologica, N.Y. II : 465-620. 50: 123-50. 1968. Agonistic and sexual display in aquatic and 1967. Coastal distribution, display and sound pro­ semi-terrestrial brachyuran crabs. Am. duction by Florida fiddler crabs (genus Zool. 8: 641-54. Uca). Anim. Behav. 15: 449-59. Schone, H., and I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt Salmon, M., and S. P. Atsaides 1965. FILM. Encyclopaedia Cinematographica, 1968.1. Behavioral, morphological and ecological Gottingen. E 599. Grapsus grapsus evidence for two new species of fiddler (Brachyura). [Not seen.] crabs (genus Uca) from the Gulf coast of Schone, H., and H. Schone the United States. Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 1963. Balz und andere Verhaltensweisen der Man- 81: 275-90. grovekrabbe Goniopsis cruentata Latr. und 1968.2. Visual and acoustical signalling during das Winkverhalten der eulitoralen Brach­ courtship by fiddler crabs (genus Uca). yuran. Z. Tierpsychol. 20: 641-56. Am. Zool. 8: 623-39. Schramm, A. 1969. Sensitivity to substrate vibration in the fid­ 1867. Crustaces de la Guadeloupe d'apres un dler crab Uca pugilator Bosc. Anim. Behav. manuscrit du Docteur Isis Desbonne com­ 17: 68-76. pare avec les echantillons de crustaces de sa 712 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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the biology of the crabs, especially of Uca Sverdrup, H. U., M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Fleming pugilator. Naturens Verd. 5: 458-65. 1942. The oceans. Their physics, chemistry, and 1946. The Brachyura of the Iranian Gulf, with an general biology. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle- appendix: The male pleopoda of the wood Cliffs, New Jersey, x + 1087 pp. Brachyura. Dan. scient. Invest. Iran., part Symons, C. T. 4: 57-237. [Note: Appendix lists references 1920. Notes on certain shore crabs. Spolia zeylan. in which gonopods in species of Uca are 306-13. figured; no original work on this genus is Takahasi, S. included.] 1935. Ecological notes on the ocypodian crabs Stimpson, W. (Ocypodidae) in Formosa, Japan. Annotnes 1858. Prodromus descriptionis animalium everte- zool. jap. 15: 78-87. bratorum quae in expeditione ad Oceanum Tashian, R. E. Pacificum Septentrionalem, a Republica 1958. The specific distinctness of the fiddler crabs Fed. . . . Pars. 5. Crustacea Ocypoidea. Uca pugnax (Smith) and Uca rapax (Smith) Proc. Acad. nat. Sci. Philad. 10: 93-110. at their zone of overlap in northeastern 1859. Notes on North American Crustacea, No. Florida. Zoologica, N.Y. 43: 89-92. 1. Ann. Lye. nat. Hist. N.Y. for 1859, 7: Tazelaar, M. A. 49-93. 1933. A study of relative growth in Uca pugnax. 1860. Notes on North American Crustacea in the Wilhelm Roux Arch. EntwMech. Org. 129 museum of the Smithsonian Institution for (2): 393-401. 1860, no. 2. Ann. Lye. nat. Hist. N.Y. for Teal, J. M. 1860, 7: 176-246. 1958. Distribution of fiddler crabs in Georgia salt 1907. Report on the Crustacea (Brachyura and marshes. Ecology 39: 185-93. Anomura) collected by the North Pacific 1959. Respiration of crabs in Georgia salt marshes Exploring Expedition 1853-1856. (With in­ and its relation to their ecology. Physiol. troductory note, and edited by M. J. Rath- Zool. 32 (1): 1-14. bun.) Smithson. misc. Collns 49 (1717): 1- Tesch, J. J. 240. 1918. The Decapoda Brachyura of the "Siboga" Stossich, M. Expedition, i. Hymenosomidae, Retroplu- 1877. Sulla geologia e zoologia dell'isola di Pela- midae, Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and Gecar- gosa. Boll. Soc. Adriatica Sci. nat. Trieste, cinidae. Siboga-Expeditie, uitkomsten . . . 1877: 184-92. H. M. "Siboga." Brill, Leiden. Vol. xxxix Streets, T. H. C: 148 pp. 1872. Notice of some Crustacea from the island Thallwitz, J. of St. Martin, W.I., collected by Dr. van 1892. Decapoden Studien, insbesondere basiert Rijgersma. Proc. Acad. nat. Sci. Philadel­ auf A. B. Meyer's Sammlungen im ostin- phia, 24: 131-34. dischen Archipel, nebst einer Aufzahlung 1877. Contributions to the natural history of the der Decapoden und Stomatopoden des Hawaiian and Fanning Islands and Lower Dresdener Museums. Abh. Ber. K. zool. California. Bull. U. S. natn. Mus. No. 7 and anthrop.-ethn. Mus. Dresden. No. 3: 1-55. Smithson. misc. Colin 13. Crustacea: 103- Thompson, T. I. 141. 1963. Visual reinforcement in Siamese fighting Studer, T. fish. Science 141: 55-57. 1882. Verzeichniss der wahrend der Reise S. M. S. 1964. Visual reinforcement in fighting cocks. J. "Gazelle" an der Westkiiste von Afrika, Exptl Anal. Behavior 7: 45-49. Ascension, und dem Cap der Guten Hoff- Tinbergen, N. nung gesammelten Crustaceen. Abh. dt. 1952. "Derived" activities; their causation, bio­ Akad. Wiss. Berl. 32 pp. logical significance, origin and emancipa­ Sumner, F. S., R. C. Osburn, and L. J. Cole tion during evolution. Q. Rev. Biol. 27: 1- 1913. A biological survey of the waters of Woods 32. Hole and vicinity. Part 2. Sect. 3. A cata­ 1953. Social behaviour in animals. Methuen and logue of the marine fauna. Bull. Bur. Fish., Co., London. 150 pp. Wash. 31 (2): 669-75. Trewartha, G. T. Suvatti, C. 1954. An introduction to climate. 3rd ed. Mc­ 1938. A check-list of aquatic fauna in Siam (ex­ Graw-Hill Book Co. vii + 402 pp. cluding fishes). Bureau of Fisheries, Bang­ Troll, C, and K. H. Paffen kok; B.E. 2480. 116 pp. 1963. Weltkarten zur Klimakunde / World maps 714 BIBLIOGRAPHY

of climatology. Heidelberger Akademie der S. F. Baird, Commissioner of Fish and Fish­ Wissenschaften; Springer Verlag, Berlin, eries, on the conditions of the sea-fisheries Gottingen, and Heidelberg. of the south coast of New England in 1871 Tweedie, M.W.F. and 1872"; Washington: Govt. Printing 1937. On the crabs of the family Ocypodidae in Office, Part 8: 295-747. the collection of the Raffles Museum. Bull. Verrill, A. E., and S. I. Smith Raffles Mus. 13: 140-70. 1874. [Same as Verrill, 1873, above, extracted 1950.1. Grapsoid crabs from Labuan and Sarawak. and reprinted with new pagination (vi + Sarawak Mus. J. 5 (2): 356-67. 478 pp.), old pagination appearing addi­ 1950.2. The fauna of the Cocos-Keeling Islands. tionally on each page; table of contents and Brachyura and Stomatopoda. Bull. Raffles index added.] Mus. 22: 105-48. Verwey, J. 1950.3. Notes on grapsoid crabs from the Raffles 1930. Einiges iiber die biologie ost-indischer man- Museum, n. On the habits of three ocypodid grovekrabben. Treubia 12 (2): 167-261. crabs. Bull. Raffles Mus. 23: 317-24. Vilela, H. 1952. Two crabs of the sandy shore. Malayan Na­ 1939. A tragedia de um caranguejo (Uca tangieri). ture J. 7: 3-10. Naturalia 3: 177-81. 1954. Notes on grapsoid crabs from the Raffles 1949. Crustaceos decapodes e estomatopodes da Museum Nos. 3, 4, and 5. Bull. Raffles Guine Portuguesa. Anais Jta Invest, colon. Mus. 25: 118-27. 4: 47-70. Umbgrove, J.H.F. Volz, P. 1949. Structural history of the East Indies. Cam­ 1938. Droh- und Warn-signale bei zehnfussigen bridge University Press, Cambridge. Krebsen. Forschn Fortschr. 14: 284-86. Vatova, A. Walker, A. O. 1887. Notes on a collection of Crustacea from 1943. i. Decapoda della Somalia. Thalassia 6 (2): Singapore. J. Linn. Soc. 20: 107-17. 1-37. Ward, M. Vernberg, F. J. 1928. The habits of our common shore crabs. 1959.1. Studies on the physiological variation be­ Aust. Mus. Mag. 3 (7): 242-47. tween tropical and temperate zone fiddler 1939. The Brachyura of the Second Templeton crabs of the genus Uca. II. Oxygen con­ Crocker—American Museum Expedition to sumption of whole organisms. Biol. Bull. the Pacific Ocean. Am. Mus. Novit. No. 117 (1): 163-84. 1049: 1-15. 1959.2. Studies on the physiological variation be­ 1941. New Brachyura from the Gulf of Davao, tween tropical and temperate zone fiddler Mindanao, Philippine Islands. Am. Mus. crabs of the genus Uca. in. The influence of Novit. 1104: 1-15. temperature acclimation on oxygen con­ Warner, G. F. sumption of whole organisms. Biol. Bull. 1969. The occurrence and distribution of crabs in 117 (3): 582-93. a Jamaican mangrove swamp. J. Anim. Vernberg, F. J., and J. D. Costlow, Jr. Ecol. 38: 379-89. 1966. Handedness in fiddler crabs (genus Uca). 1970. Behavior of two species of grapsid crabs Crustaceana 11: 61-64. during intraspecific encounters. Behavior Vernberg, F. J., and R. E. Tashian 36: 9-19. 1959. Studies on the physiological variation be­ Waterman, T. H. (ed.) tween tropical and temperate zone fiddler 1960. The physiology of Crustacea. Vol. i. Metab­ crabs of the genus Uca. 1. Thermal death olism and growth. Academic Press, New limits. Ecology 40 (4): 589-93. York and London, x + 670 pp. Vernberg, W. B., and F. J. Vernberg 1961. The physiology of Crustacea. Vol. n. Sense 1968. Physiological diversity in metabolism in organs, integration, and behavior. Aca­ marine and terrestrial Crustacea. Am. Zool. demic Press, New York and London, v + 8: 449-58. 681 pp. Verrill, A. E. Werner, F. 1873. Report upon the invertebrate animals of 1938. Ergebnisse einer zoologischen Forschungs- Vineyard Sound and the adjacent waters, reise nach Marokko. 7. Insekten, Arach- with an account of the physical characters noiden und Crustaceen. Sber. Akad. Wiss. of the region. In "The report of Professor Wien 1, 147 (3): 111-34. BIBLIOGRAPHY 715

White, A. Wynne-Edwards, V. C. 1847. List of the specimens of Crustacea in the 1962. Animal dispersion in relation to social be­ collection of the British Museum. Printed haviour. Hafner Publishing Co., New York. by order of the trustees. Edward Newman, v + 653 pp. London, viii +143 pp. Yerkes, R. M. 1848. Short descriptions of some new species of 1901. A study of variation in the fiddler crab Crustacea in the collection of the British Gelasimus pugilator Latr. Proc. Am. Acad. Museum. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. Part xv for Arts Sci. 36 (24): 417-42. 1847: 84-86. Young, C. G. Whitelegge, T. 1900. The stalk-eyed Crustacea of British Guiana, 1898. The Crustacea of Funafuti. The Atoll of W. Indies and Bermuda. London, xix + Funafuti. Pt. 2. Mem. Austral. Mus. 3: 514 pp. 127-51. Zehnter, L. Wright, H. O. 1894. Crustaces de l'Archipel malais—voyage de 1968. Visual displays in brachyuran crabs: Field M.M. Bedot et Ch. Pichtet dans l'Archipel and laboratory studies. Am. Zool. 8: 655- malais. Revue suisse Zool. 2 (1): 135-214. 65.

ADDENDUM TO BIBLIOGRAPHY Aspey, W. P. Salmon, M. 1971. Inter-species sexual discrimination and ap­ 1971. Signal characteristics and acoustic detection proach-avoidance conflict in two species of by the fiddler crabs, Uca rapax and Uca fiddler crabs, Uca pugnax and Uca pugila­ pugilator. Physiol. Zool. 44: 210-24. tor. Anim. Behav. 19: 669-76. Salmon, M., and K. W. Horch Bright, D. B., and C. L. Hogue 1972. Acoustic signalling and detection by semi- 1972. A synopsis of the burrowing land crabs of terrestrial crabs of the Family Ocypodidae. the world and list of their arthropod sym- In "Behavior of marine animals: current bionts and burrow associates. Contrib. in perspectives in research," H. E. Winn, ed. Science, Los Angeles County Mus. No. 220: Plenus Publishing Corporation, New York. 58 pp. Vol. i: 60-96. Hagen, H.-O. von Selander, R. K., W. E. Johnson, and J. C. Avise 1972. Text associated with FILM E 1421 / 1971. 1972. Biochemical population genetics of fiddler Uca leptodactyla (Ocypodidae). Balz. En­ crabs {Uca). Abstract. Biol. Bull. (Marine cyclopaedia Cinematographia, Gottingen: Biol. Lab.) 141 (2): 402. Publ. Inst. Wiss. Film: pp. 3-20. Vannini, M., and A. Sardini 1972. Text associated with FILM E 1423 / 1971. Uca maracoani (Ocypodidae). Balz. En­ 1971. Aggressivity and dominance in river crab cyclopaedia Cinematographia, Gottingen: Potamon fluviatile (Herbst). Monitore Zool. Publ. Inst. Wiss. Film: pp. 3-20. ital. (n.s.) 5: 173-213. Hogue, C. L„ and D. B. Bright Zucker, N. 1971. Observations on the biology of land crabs 1972. Shelter building in the tropical fiddler crab and their burrow associates on the Kenya Uca terpsichores. Abstract. Bull. Ecol. Soc. coast. Contrib. in Science, Los Angeles Am. 53 (4): 22. County Mus. No. 210: 10 pp.

Indexes

Index to Scientific Names

Entries in boldface are the names of subgenera, Several of the subheadings provided for the longer species, and subspecies of the genus Uca which in entries serve only as general guides. For example, this contribution are considered valid. Page num­ the subheading "evolution" may include references bers in boldface refer to the principal treatment of to apparent phylogeny, morphological responses to each of these entries, in accordance with the topics ecological pressures, and possible derivations of be­ listed and described on pp. 10-13. havioral components.

Acanthoplax, 20, 147, 149, 153, 323, 602 aspera, 486 brevipes, 47, 594 acuta, 25-28; distribution, 433, 437; keys, australiae, see demani australiae Bufo marinus, 673 623, 625; material, 592; morphological Australuca, 62-63, 64-74; behavior, 461, burgersi, 168-72; behavior, 156, 174, cfs., 22-23, 30, 33, 49, 466; nomen­ 497, 500, 502; color, 467; distribution, 443, 498-99; color, 665; distribution, clature, 29, 31, 39, 44, 51, 53. See also 295, 432; evolution, 18, 295, 436-37, 326-27; ecology, 665; evolution, 157, subspecies, below 531-33; key, 619; material, 595-96; 176; key, 631; material, 603-604; mor­ acuta (superspecies), 24, 25, 27-29, 40, morphological cfs., 40, 46, 53, 59, 86, phological cfs., 154, 156, 164, 173-74, 432,528 218, 454, 459, 460, 462, 464; nomen­ 177, 180-81, 192-93, 196-97, 237; acuta acuta, 25-28, 28, 36, 45-46; key, clature, 327; size, 449 nomenclature, 165, 174, 322, 324-25, 625; material 592 Avicenna, 445 327; sympatrics, 165, 173, 175, 195-96, acuta rhizophorae, 25-28, 27, 30, 33, 35, 230, 306 42, 51, 524; key, 623; material, 592 basipes, 322 acutus, 25, 27-28, 31, 47, 51, 61 batuenta, 244-46; behavior, 63, 248-49, affinis (of Guerin), 81, 171, 172, 322 254, 256, 259, 262, 266, 306, 313, 461, Callinectes, 479 affinis (of Streets), 171, 172, 175,322 480; evolution, 218; key, 627; material, Cancer, 20, 75, 81, 89, 93, 138-39, 148, Afruca, 116-17, 118-24; behavior, 128, 609; morphological cf., 248, 461; 165, 167, 172, 198, 204, 227, 324, 326, 479, 481, 484, 500-502, 522; color, nomenclature, 609; size, 17, 449; sym­ 455, 495 467-68; evolution, 19, 127, 432, 459, patrics, 249, 253, 256, 280, 282 (cf. Cancridae, 486 532-33; key, 619; material, 600; mor­ only), 309 capricornis, see dussumieri capricornis phological cfs., 125, 145, 151, 213, beebei, 278-81; behavior, 277, 283-84, Cardisoma, 479 454-55,459, 464,466, 469; size 17, 449 311, 461, 480, 498, 500-501, 504, 507; Carpilius, 479 Agama (as predator), 446 color, 468-69; distribution, 282; evolu­ Celuca, 211-19, 220-321; behavior, 100, albimana, see annulipes var. albimana tion, 217-18, 268, 275; key, 629; ma­ 460-61, 479, 481-83, 485, 487, 494, amazonensis, 101, 103, 322, 599 terial, 610; morphological cfs., 134, 498-502, 516, 518, 522, 524; color, Amphiuca, 96-97, 98-108; behavior, 481, 211, 216, 275-76, 282-83, 287, 461, 466-68; descriptive methods, 11; ecol­ 497, 500, 502; color, 467-69; distribu­ 464, 480; sympatrics, 135, 253, 256, ogy, 442, 444, 455; evolution, 18-20, tion, 432; evolution, 19, 163, 532-33; 282,284,309,313,317,321 157, 436, 497, 524, 530, 532-35; key, key, 619; materiaf 598-99; morpholog­ bellator, 64-69; behavior, 72, 497, 500; 620; material, 607-614; morphological ical cfs., 86, 125, 454, 462, 464, 469; distribution, 326-27; evolution, 63; adaptations to combat, stridulation, size, 449; sympatrics, 79, 297 keys, 623-24; material, 595-96; mor­ 457, 458, 462; morphological cfs., 10, angustifrons, 66, 69 phological cfs., 40, 62-63, 73; nomen­ 17, 63, 96, 114, 154-56, 161, 177, 180, annulipes, 188, 292, 298-99, 301-302, clature, 62, 323, 326; sympatrics, 35, 207,451, 453-54, 459, 463-66; nomen­ 326, 611. See also annulipes var. al­ 71. See also subspecies below clature, 18, 323, 327; size and allome- bimana, annulipes var. lacteus, an­ bellator bellator, 64-66, 66,69, 595 try, 449-50; sympatrics, 65, 88, 113, nulipes var. orientalis, and lactea an­ bellator longidigita, 64, 66, 68, 69, 596, 134-35, 146, 186, 195, 200, 203 nulipes 624 ceratophthalmus, 434 annulipes var. albimana, 298, 302 bellator minima, 64-66, 68, 596 chlorophthalmus, 98-104; behavior, 105, annulipes var. lacteus, 303 bellator signata, 66,67,69, 596 500, 503, 513; color, 468-69; distri­ annulipes var. orientalis, 298, 303, 612 bengali, see triangularis bengali bution, 77, 80, 428, 432, 437, 528; arborescens, 446 Boboruca, 109-11,112-15; behavior, 497, evolution, 528, 532; heat tolerance, arcuata, 44-47; behavior, 50, 474, 500, 500, 502; color, 467; evolution, 18-19, 442; keys, 620, 622; material, 598-99; 513, 673; distribution, 176, 433, 437; 145, 163, 436, 532-33; key, 619; ma­ morphological cfs., 23, 27, 59, 78, 96, ecology 58, 442, 452; evolution, 24, terial, 600; morphological cfs., 463; 105-106, 163, 294, 464, 469; nomen­ 452; key, 625; material, 594; morpho­ size, 449; sympatrics, 146, 195 clature, 108, 322, 324; sympatrics, 60, logical cfs., 21, 25-26, 30, 33, 36, 49, borealis, see vocans borealis 77, 297. See also subspecies below 53, 84; nomenclature, 28, 57; sym­ brasiliensis, seepugnax brasiliensis chlorophthalmus chlorophthalmus, 99- patrics, 27, 84 Brasiliensis, see Uka una, Brasiliensis 102,102,103, 322, 599 arcuatus, 28, 47, 57, 61, 594 brevifrons, 154-56, 164-65, 174, 176-77, chlorophthalmus crassipes, 79, 100-101, argillicola, 161, 186, 211, 213, 217, 220- 180-82, 184, 222, 233, 461, 472, 602; 101,102, 291, 324, 623,625, 598-99 22; key, 627; material, 607 key, 629; material, 604-605 Ciccaba (predator), 188 armatus, 147, 149, 602 brevifrons var. delicata, 182, 605 cimatodus, 122, 123 720 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

coarctata, 52-57; behavior, 50, 483, 500, terial, 593-94; morphological cfs., 21, galapagensis galapagensis, 156-57, 184, 503, 529; biotopes, 50, 675; distribu­ 23, 26, 30, 33, 46, 49, 53; nomen­ 186-88,187,191, 194, 269,468, 605 tion, 35, 50, 437; evolution, 437, 529; clature, 25, 28; sympatrics, 35, 100. galapagensis herradurensis, 184, 186, 186, keys, 622, 624; material, 594-95; mor­ See also subspecies below 187-89,191-92, 194, 207, 222, 605 phological cfs., 23, 26, 30, 32-33, 40, demani australiae, 40-42, 41, 594, 624 gaudichaudii, 480, 507 45-46,49, 51, 59, 529; nomenclature, demani demani, 23,40-42,42, 54, 593-94 Gecarcinidae, 507 39, 51, 323, 326; sympatrics, 35, 51, demani typhoni, 40-42, 41, 326, 594 Gecarcinus, 479 65, 71, 73, 100, 289. See also sub­ desjardinei, 80, 596 Gelasima, 80, 89, 94, 148, 227, 324 species below dexialis, 322 Gelasimus: refs. to type description and coarctata (superspecies), 24, 35, 40, 44, dorotheae, 218, 274, 275-77, 279, 309; synonymy, 20; mentioned throughout 48,52, 54-55, 58, 432, 437, 455, 464, key, 627; material, 610 as genus in which many species and 529 Dotilla, 442-43, 446, 478, 480, 486, 494, their synonyms were described; see coarctata coarctata, 37,41, 50-51, 53-55, 512 especially Systematic Section, sub­ 55, 56-57, 326, 500, 508,529,594-95 Drosophila, 191 headings "Type Material and Nomen­ coarctata flammula, 34, 53-55, 56, 57, dubia, 36, 38,437 clature" and "References and Syn­ 323, 437, 500, 595 dubius, 36, 38 onymy" coarctatus, 55, 57, 594 duperreyi, 80-82, 322, 324 gibbosa, 307 coloradensis, 234, 235, 310, 608. See also dussumieri, 32-38; behavior, 42, 483, gibbosus, 2%5, 307, 317,610 crenulata coloradensis 503, 506, 512, 529; distribution, 432, glabromana, see macrodactyla glabro- consobrinus, 298, 299, 303, 612 433, 437, 447; evolution, 85, 528-29; mana crassipes, 98, 102, 599. See also chloro- keys, 621, 623-24; material, 592-93; Goneplax, 81, 89, 93-94, 167, 324 phthalmus crassipes morphological descriptions and cfs., Gonoplax, 93, 148 crenulata, 232-35; distribution, 432, 436, 21-23, 26, 30, 40, 48-49, 53, 56, 59, gracilis, 234, 235 438, 443; evolution, 217-18; key, 626; 451,454, 459, 466; nomenclature, 12, grangeri, 138, 139 material, 608; morphological cfs., 211, 39, 41, 44, 57, 60-61, 595; sympatrics, Grapsidae, 484, 486 236, 241, 245, 258, 316, 466; zones, 27, 73, 100, 289. See also subspecies Grapsus, 479 climatic, 442. See also subspecies below guayaquilensis, 270, 610 below dussumieri capricornis, 33-37,36, 54, 592 crenulata (superspecies), 10, 229, 232, dussumieri dussumieri, 33-38, 37, 41, 45, hamlini (fossil), 157 236, 237, 240, 241, 244, 245, 247-48, 51,54,327,437,529,593,624 helleri,211, 218, 271-73, 274, 466; key, 252, 255, 259, 261, 262, 265, 268, 275, dussumieri spinata, 33-38, 36, 45-46, 48, 627; material, 610 327 50-51,129, 327, 437, 464, 592-93, 625 Heloecius, 14,464,486, 495 crenulata coloradensis, 232-35, 234, herradurensis, 189, 605. See also gala­ 240-41,608 ecuadoriensis, 166, 167, 602. See also pagensis herradurensis crenulata crenulata, 232-33, 234,608 vocator ecuadoriensis hesperiae, see vocans hesperiae crenulatus, 234 eibl, see leptochela eibl heterochela, 139 Culex, 528 Euplax, 14 heterocheles, 139 cultrimana, 94, 598 Eurychelus, 132 heterochelos, 136, 138-39 cultrimanus, 89, 94, 598 Euryneme, 486 heterochelos var. minor, 326 cumulanta, 240-43; behavior, 244, 254, Eurypharynx, 456 heterophthalmus, 142, 601 275, 284, 304, 313, 480, 483, 485, 500- excellens, 323 heteropleura, 133-35; behavior, 461; bio­ 501; color, 469; distribution, 238; excisa, 89-90, 95 topes, 142; evolution, 87, 120, 127, evolution, 217-18; key, 630; material, 136, 140, 533; key, 626; material, 601; 608-609; morphological cfs., 216, 230, festae, 5, 216, 218, 267-270, 274-75, morphological cfs., 87, 120, 126, 233-34, 275, 305, 466; nomenclature, 312, 450, 513, 523, 676; key, 628; 129-30, 136-37, 140-41, 144, 455; 238-39; sympatrics, 113, 146, 195-96 material, 610 style, 455; sympatrics, 140, 142, 253, cunninghami, 322 flammula, see coarctata flammula 281,313 forceps, 298, 301,323 heteropleurus, 135, 601 dampieri, see vocans dampieri forcipata, 48-51; behavior, 500, 507, 529; huttoni, 323, 325 deichmanni, 311-13; behavior, 244, 461, distribution, 35, 41, 54, 327, 437; evo­ 482, 485, 524; evolution, 217-19; key, lution, 529; keys, 621, 623; material, Ilyoplax, 14, 436, 443, 446, 480, 486, 626; material, 613-14; morphological 594; morphological cfs., 23, 26, 30, 494, 520 cfs., 212, 216, 304-305, 316-17; no­ 32-33, 40, 45-46, 52-53, 56, 58-59; inaequalis, 254-57; behavior, 146, 284, menclature, 211; sympatrics, 253, 309 nomenclature, 25, 29, 39, 41, 44, 57, 461, 480-82, 522; evolution, 218, 459; delicata, see brevifrons var. delicata 593; sympatrics, 25, 27, 29, 529 key, 627; material, 609; morphological Deltuca, 21-24, 25-61; behavior, 67, forcipatus, 21, 41,42, 47, 51, 57, 594 cfs., 211-12, 216, 258, 265, 272, 459, 176, 217, 220, 286, 461, 465, 500, 502, formosensis, 75-76, 78, 83-84, 86, 433, 465; sympatrics, 246, 265, 280, 321 506, 511-12, 520; biotopes, 100, 297; 437,466; key, 625; material, 597 insignis,20, 128, 143, 147, 149, 152-53, color, 467-69; evolution, 18-19, 63, 76, 323, 602. See also maracoani insignis 155-56, 217, 436-37, 524, 530-35; key, gaimardi, 98, 101-104, 599 inversa, 105-108; behavior, 452, 505, 532; 619; material, 592-95; methods, de­ galapagensis, 183-89; behavior, 452; biotopes, 217, 442, 532; distribution, scriptive, 11; morphological cfs., 10, color, 468; distribution, 190; ecology, 432, 437; evolution, 452, 532; keys, 19, 63, 75, 77-78, 84, 86, 96, 126, 129, 207, 272, 452; evolution, 157, 432, 620, 622; material, 599; morphological 156, 213, 287, 451, 453-55, 459-60, 452; growth, 461; key, 629; material, cf., 294; nomenclature, 326; seasons, 462-64, 466; nomenclature, 323; salin­ 605; morphological cfs., 164, 191-93, effects on behavior, 505, 532; sym­ ity preference, 442; size, 449; sym­ 200-201, 207, 233, 452, 461; nomen­ patrics, 217; temperature tolerance, patrics, 65, 71, 73, 100,297,530 clature, 160, 190, 274; sympatrics, 442. See also subspecies below demani, 39-43; behavior, 23-24,461, 512; 165. See also subspecies below inversa inversa, 97, 99, 105-106, 107, 108, biotope, 512; color, 468; distribution, galapagensis (superspecies), 157, 183, 294,442,467,468,599 432; evolution, 24, 437; key, 622; ma­ 190,200,206, 209 inversa sindensis, 106-107,108,599 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES 721 inversus, 106-108, 599 phological cfs., 125-27, 130, 143, 466, monilifera, 127, 131-32, 601. See also inversus var. sindensis, 107-108 530; nomenclature, 20, 132, 148; sym­ princeps monilifera ischnodactylus, 55, 57, 595 patrics, 146,195-96, 242 Montrichardia, 446 major (superspecies), 133, 136 mordax, 173-75; behavior, 128, 178, 195, lactea, 292-303; behavior, 32, 256, 284, manii, 25, 29, 31,51,594 499; biotope, 176; distribution, 169; 444, 483, 487, 489-90, 494, 497, 500- maracoani, 143-49; behavior, 128, 150, evolution, 156-57, 176-77, 180, 499; 501, 503, 515-16, 518, 523; biotopes, 152, 256, 284, 459, 479, 484, 500-501, key, 630-31; material, 604; morpho­ 88,278, 286; color, 216, 288, 467-68; 503, 505, 512-13, 522-24; biotope, 128, logical cfs., 154, 156, 164, 168-70, 177, distribution, 64, 432-33, 437, 533; 444; color, 467; in crabberies, 675; 180-81, 192-93, 465; nomenclature, evolution, 85, 218-19, 436-37, 465, distribution, 163, 183, 324; evolution, 18, 154, 165, 167-72, 196, 325, 603; 523, 533; keys, 621-23, 625; material, 127, 163, 183, 324, 432, 435-36, 530; sympatrics, 165, 169, 171, 192-93, 611; morphological cfs., 27, 105-106, gills, 469; keys, 626, 629; material, 195-96 211-12, 214, 287, 451, 465; nomen­ 601-602; morphological comparisons, murifecenta, 166-67, 603 clature, 103, 322-24, 591; sympatrics, 126-27, 130, 137, 141, 150-51, 454, musica, 211, 218, 314-18, 327, 480; key, 60, 65, 85, 88, 289; temperature toler­ 459, 466, 472, 530; nomenclature, 20, 626; material, 614. See also subspecies ance, 442. See also subspecies below 125, 152, 163, 183; size and allometry, below. lactea annulipes, 299; behavior, 500, 503; 450, 455, 459; sympatrics, 113, 138, musica musica, 219, 233, 314-17, 317, biotope vs. proportions, 450; color, 195, 242. See also subspecies below 432, 614 216,467-69; evolution, 527; material, Maracoani, 148 musica terpsichores, 219, 242, 281, 313- 611; morphological cfs., 99, 450; no­ maracoani insignis, 20, 144-47, 147, 18, 316-17, 321, 460, 468, 500, 507, menclature, 293; sympatrics, 106; tem­ 149-51, 153, 323, 327, 449, 602, 626 525,614 perature tolerance, 442; transporta­ maracoani maracoani, 144-48, 147, 150, Mycteris, 463-64, 478, 495 tion, live crabs, 673. See also lactea, 327,601-602, 629 293-303 marinus, (Bufo), 673 nigrolineata (Ciccaba), 189 lactea lactea, 216, 293-95, 297-301, 300, marinus, minor, vociferans, 81 nitida (Gelasimus nitidus Dana, 1851), 85, 323,467-68,500,612,625 marionis, 85, 89, 94-95, 598 87, 90, 92, 95, 324 lactea mjobergi, 293-98,299-300,612 marionis excisa, 95, 598 nitida (Goneplax nitida Desmarest, 1817, lactea perplexa, 216, 238, 254, 293-299, marionis forma excisa, 95 fossil), 89, 94, 324 300-301, 324, 437, 450, 468-69, 500, marionis nitida,'219, 222, 507 nitidus (Gelasimus nitidus Dana, 1851), 612 marionis nitidus, 94-95 89, 94-95, 324 lacteus, 301-302, 612. See also annulipes marionis var. nitida, 85-86, 89, 95 nitidus (Goneplax nitida Desmarest, 1817, var. lacteus marionis var. nitidus, 558 fossil), 89, 94, 324 lanigera, 166-67, 602 marionis var. vomeris, 89, 95 novaeguineae, 98-99, 101, 103, 291, 599 latimana, 321 marionis vomeris, 598 latimanus, 186, 211, 216, 218-19, 281, matadensis, see tangeri var. matadensis Ocypoda, 81, 138,227 313, 315, 319-21, 450, 452, 459, 468, mearnsi, 53, 55, 57, 323, 595 Ocypode, 14-16, 18, 81, 93, 125, 139, 148, 500; key, 626; material, 614 Menippe, 479 227, 301, 326, 434-35, 446, 455, 462- latreillei, 98, 101-03, 599 mertensi, 261-63, 609 464, 469, 471, 480, 484, 486, 499, 507, leptochela, 218, 268, 270, 272-73, 274, minax, 176-79; allometry, 450; behavior, 531; key, 619 275,466; key, 628; material, 610 156, 200, 202, 304, 500-501; biotope, Ocypodidae, 14,486 leptochela leptochela, 273 226; color, 200; distribution, 225, 443; Ocypodinae, 14; key, 619 leptochela eibl, 274 evolution, 156, 180, 452; key, 631; oerstedi, 251-53; behavior, 311, 501; leptodactyla, 304-307; behavior, 452, material, 604; morphological cfs., 174, evolution, 218,459; key, 628; material, 500; biotopes, 240, 242; color, 468; 180-81, 192, 197, 201, 203, 454; no­ 609; morphological cfs., 212, 216, 254, evolution, 218-19, 306, 452, 460; key, menclature, 172, 175, 198, 325; sym­ 261, 264-65, 272; sympatrics, 135, 246, 630; material, 613; morphological patrics, 200, 203, 226; temperature and 256,309,313 cfs., 230-31, 241, 309, 312, 452, 460; activity, 441 oldroydi, 127 nomenclature, 325; sympatrics, 196, minax (superspecies), 157,173,176,180 olympioi, 231 230 minima, see bellator minima orientalis, see annulipes var. orientalis leptodactyla (superspecies), 304,308 minor, 323-24. See also "marinus, minor, ornata, 150-53; behavior, 143, 145, 256, leptodactylus, 306-307, 613 vociferans"; vocans minor; and hetero- 284, 459, 461, 479, 512, 522-24; bio­ leptostyla, 323 chelos var. minor tope, 444; color, 467; evolution, 127, limicola, 218-19, 280, 305, 308-10, 312, Minuca, 152-57,158-211; behavior, 100, 143, 145, 459; key, 626; material, 602; 316,461; key, 627; material, 613 113, 128, 217, 249, 443, 459-61, 481- morphology, cfs. and characters, 125- longidigita, see bellator longidigita 82, 484-85, 487, 498, 500-502, 505, 26, 130, 141, 145, 147-48, 453, 455, longidigitum, 69 518, 523-24; color, 467-68; distribu­ 459-60; nomenclature, 147, 323; sym­ longisignalis, 190, 193, 196, 199-200, 606. tion, 432; dry season, effect of, 664; patrics, 131, 135,146,249,281 See also rapax longisignalis evolution, 18-19, 216, 225, 435-36, ornatus, 152-53, 602 497, 529-34; key, 620; material, 602- orthomana, 268, 270, 610 macrodactyla, 188, 605 607; methods, 664; morphological macrodactyla glabromana, 186, 189, 208, characteristics and cfs., 10, 96, 114, Pachygrapsus, 479 605 221, 224-25, 233, 237, 241, 451-53, paciflcensis, see vocans pacificensis macrodactyla macrodactyla, 189 458, 461-65; nomenclature, 18, 322, palustris, 113, 148, 178, 324-25 macrodactylus, 157, 183, 186, 188-89, 605 327; paedomorphism, 455; salinity, panamensis, 154-55, 157, 158-60, 164, Macrophthalmus, 14, 18, 127, 433, 435, range, 444; size and allometry, 17, 221, 317, 444, 461, 472; key, 626; ma­ 446,463-64,469, 480, 486, 494 449-50; sympatrics, 113, 138, 146, 222, terial, 602 Maja, 486 226,230,269,281,317 Pandanus, 446 Majidae, 486 mjobergi, 298, 303, 612. See also lactea Parthenopidae, 486 major, 136-39; color, 304, 468; evolution, mjobergi Periophthalmus, 446 127, 530; key, 629; material, 601; mor­ monilifer, 132 perlatus, 122-23, 600 722 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES perplexa, 292. See also lactea perplexa 442-43; sympatrics, 113,138, 165, 171, nomenclature, 281, 317, 325; sym­ perplexus, 94, 291, 298, 302, 612 173, 175, 226, 230, 238, 242, 306. See patrics, 280, 313, 317 Phragmites, 446 also subspecies below sternberghii, 462 pipiens, 528 rapax longisignalis, 177, 178, 191-93, stylifera, 140-42; behavior, 134, 143, 500, pizarri, 153, 602 195-98,197,200, 203, 529, 606, 631 504, 513; color, 87, 120,468; evolution, platydactyla var. stylifera, 142 rapax rapax, 190-93, 195-98, 196, 203, 127, 134, 136; key, 625-26; material, platydactylus (subgenus Afruca), 123-24 441,529,605-606,631 601; morphological cfs., 125-26, 113- platydactylus (subgenus Uca), 132, 138- rathbunae, 55, 57 34, 136-37, 145, 151; nomenclature, 39,601 rectilata, 325 132, 134-35; style, 125, 455; sym­ Pocillopora, 434 rectilatus, 325 patrics, 134-35, 281, 313, 317 poeyi, 325 Rhizophora, 445 styliferus, 135, 142, 601 polita, 62-63, 65, 72-74, 432, 435; key, rhizophorae, 27, 592. See also acuta subcylindrica, 155, 157, 209-10, 225, 237, 624; material, 596 rhizophorae 439; key, 630; material, 607 porcellanus, 29%, 302, 611 robustus, 325 subcylindricus, 210, 607 Portunidae, 486 rosea, 29-31; behavior, 42, 529; biotope, Portunus, 479 50; color, 23, 468; evolution, 529; Potamocypoda, 513 keys, 621, 623; material, 592; mor­ tallanica, 218, 261, 264-66; key, 628; princeps, 128-32; behavior, 134, 140, 143; phology, cfs. and characters, 25-26, material, 609 color, 468; evolution, 127; key, 626; 33, 46, 49, 53-54, 451, 461; paedo- tangeri, 118-24; behavior, 128, 146, 176, material, 601; morphological cfs., 126, morphism, 451; sympatrics, 35, 51, 289 223, 256, 284, 442, 444, 461, 472, 474, 133-34, 136, 143; nomenclature, 601; roseus, 31, 592 478-81, 483-85, 498-502, 504, 506, sympatrics, 135. See also subspecies rubripes, 51,325-26, 594 512, 517, 522, 534; biotopes, 461, 472; below climatic effects, 176, 435, 442; color, princeps monilifera, 125, 128-32, 131, Salicornia, 178 468; distribution, 229, 327, 432, 619; 145,151,432,601 salsisitus, 196, 198 evolution, 435-36, 442, 455, 527, 530- princeps princeps, 128-32,131,601 saltitanta, 247-50; behavior, 63, 70, 217, 32, 534; as food for man, 44, 446; Pseudothelphusa, 479 244, 254, 256, 452,480, 501; color, 216, key, note, 619; material, 600; mor­ pugilator, 223-28; behavior, 100, 118, 468; evolution, 217-18, 459; key, 627; phology, cfs. and characters, 125, 127, 146, 178, 200, 444, 461, 463, 474, material, 609; morphology, cfs. and 145, 150-51, 451-52, 454, 459-61, 464, 479-81, 483, 485, 487-90, 500-502, characters, 212, 217, 245, 452, 459; 466,469; nomenclature, 116; size, 17, 505, 510, 516, 523, 665; biotope, 304; sympatrics, 152, 244, 246, 280, 309 150,449; predators, 446; temperature, climate, 436,441, 505; color, 216, 467; saltitanta batuenta, 246 effect on display, 442 distribution, 176, 327, 433, 436, 441; saltitanta saltitanta, 250 tangeri var. matadensis, 123-24 evolution, 217; key, 630; material, sanguinolentus, 503 tangeri var. platydactylus, 123-24 607-608; methods, captive crabs, 673, schmitti, 166-67, 602 tangerii, 122 675; morphology, cfs. and characters, Scopimera, 14,443,446, 486,495, 512 tangieri, 122-23 177, 201, 237, 488, 490; sympatrics, seismella, 63, 65, 70-71, 72-73, 218, 432, tenuimanus, 326 178, 200, 203, 238 435,459-61; key, 624; material, 596 tenuipedis, 218, 245, 258-60, 262, 449, pugnax, 200-205; behavior, 156, 176, Sesarma, 479,484 609, 628 191,249, 443, 487, 489, 498-99, 501- signata, 69. See also bellator signata terpsichores, 316, 318, 480, 507, 614. See 502, 520; color, 156, 467; distribution, signata var. angustifrons, 66, 69 also musica terpsichores 176, 190; evolution, 157, 190-91, 193, signatus, 66, 69, 323, 596 tetragona, 81 452,499, 529; key, 631; material, 606- signatus var. angustifrons, 66, 69, 596 tetragonon, 77-82; behavior, 483; bio­ 607; morphology, cfs. and characters, sindensis, see inversa sindensis and in­ tope, 444; color, 76, 468-69; distribu­ 177, 183-84, 192, 193, 225, 237, 452; versus var. sindensis tion, 327, 432, 437; evolution, 76, 83, nomenclature, 198, 223; sympatrics, smithii, 107-108, 599 435-36, 528, 530; keys, 620-22, 624; 178, 196, 226. See also subspecies Spartina, 178,446 material, 596-97; morphological cfs., below speciosa, 195, 212, 217, 236-39, 241-44, 40, 84-86, 530; nomenclature, 75, 171, pugnax brasiliensis, 196, 198 259, 481, 483, 497, 501; key, 630; ma­ 322, 324, 327; sympatrics, 88, 100; pugnax pugnax, 191-92, 197, 201-204, terial, 608. See also subspecies below temperature tolerance, 442 203,442,529,606,631 speciosa speciosa, 226-39, 239,608 tetragonum, 80 pugnax rapax, 198, 325, 603, 606 speciosa spinicarpa, 237-39, 239,608 tetragonus, 81 pugnax virens, 178, 191, 197, 200-205, speciosus, 238-39, 243 Thalassuca, 75-76, 77-95; behavior, 465, 203-204, 529, 606-607, 631 spinata, see dussumieri spinata 483, 497, 500-502, 506, 512; biotope, pulchella, 103 spinicarpa, 236, 238-39, 243, 608. See 100, 297; color, 442, 467-68; distribu­ pulchellus, 98, 101,103,599 also speciosa spinicarpa tion, 56; evolution, 18-19, 125-26, 133, pygraaea, 154-55, 157, 161-62, 164, 221, spinicarpa (Gelasimus tetragonon var. 155, 435-37, 531-33; key, 619; mate­ 259,449,451; key, 627; material, 602 spinicarpa Kossmann) 80, 81 rial, 596-98; morphological cfs., 40, spinicarpus (Gelasimus tetragonon var. 46, 53, 56, 59, 62, 96, 117, 125-26, quadrat a, 486 spinicarpa Kossmann), 80 454, 459, 462-64, 466, 469; nomen­ splendidus, 98-99, 101-103, 599 clature, 322, 324; salinity preference, rapax, 190-99; behavior, 156, 168, 201- stenodactyla, 285 444; sympatrics, 65, 73, 100, 297 202, 249,442-43, 483-94, 498-99, 501, stenodactyla beebei, 281 thayeri, 112-15; behavior, 500, 505, 513; 513-16; biotope, 171; color, 156, 168; stenodactyla stenodactyla, 285 distribution, 442; evolution, 19, 145, distribution, 442; evolution, 157, 183- stenodactylus, 282-85; behavior, 277, 163, 183, 432, 436, 442, 533; keys, 84,432, 436, 499, 516; key, 631; ma­ 280,461-62, 498, 500, 504, 511; color, 628, 630; material, 600; morphological terial, 605-606; morphology, cfs. and 216; evolution, 217-18, 275, 279, 451- cfs., 461, 463; nomenclature, 109, 325; characters, 164, 174, 183-84, 201, 203, 52; growth, 451, 461; keys, 628-29; sympatrics, 146, 195, 238, 242 237, 450-51; nomenclature, 165, 174, material, 610; morphological cfs., 134, thayeri thayeri, 112-14, 114, 500, 600, 186, 200, 324-25; seasonal effects, 211, 233, 268, 276, 279, 451, 464; 628,630 INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES 723

thayeri umbradla, 112-15, 113, 500, 600, clature, 18, 324; size, 17, 19, 150, 449; vocans borealis, 78, 84, 86, 88-92, 90,474, 628 sympatrics, 113, 195, 249, 253, 281, 597,625 thayeri zilchi, 113, 115 313,317 vocans dampieri, 86-89, 91,597 thompsoni, 326 uca (species name), 138 vocans hesperiae, 87-89, 92, 92, 442, tomentosa, 211,218, 261-63,609, 628 Uka una, Brasiliensis, 138 597-98 triangularis, 286-91; behavior, 30, 220, umbradla, 113, 115,600 vocans major, 138-39 497, 503; color, 216; distribution, 432; una, 139. See also Uka una, Brasiliensis vocans minor, 324, 326 evolution, 217-18, 432, 436, 497; keys, uruguayensis, 216-17, 229-31, 232, 234, vocans pacificensis, 78, 87-92, 90, 437, 621, 623; material, 610-11; morpho­ 236, 259, 305, 433, 439, 469; key, 630; 597 logical cfs., 99, 211-13, 215, 294; material, 608 vocans vocans 87-89, 91, 92, 437, 464, nomenclature, 103; paedomorphism, urvillei, 58-61; behavior, 483, 500, 506, 597-98 451; sympatrics, 29, 297. See also sub­ 524; color, 23; distribution, 35, 327; vocans vomeris, 86-89, 91, 92, 95, 437, species below evolution, 24, 459; keys, 620, 621; 597 triangularis bengali, 288-90, 290, 468, material, 595; morphological cfs., 26, vocator, 163-67; behavior, 483-84, 502; 611. 30, 33, 46, 49, 53; nomenclature, 35; evolution, 112, 145, 156-57, 183, 432, triangularis triangularis, 288-91, 290, 610 sympatrics, 100, 297; temperature 436; keys, 629-30; material, 602-603; triangularis variabilis, 291, 610 tolerance, 442 morphological cfs. and characters, triangularis var. variabilis, 289, 291 154, 156, 159, 174, 181, 184, 192-93, Trichodactylus, 322 variabilis, 291. See also triangularis vari­ 197, 221, 464-65, 472; nomenclature, typhoni, see demani typhoni abilis and triangularis var. variabilis 171-72, 174, 182, 196, 198; predation, variatus, 80-81,596 446; sympatrics, 195, 204. See also Uca, unidentified species, 327 variegata, 80 subspecies below Uca, unnamed species (pink claw), 74 variegatus, 326 vocator ecuadoriensis, 146, 156, 164, Uca (genus Uca Latreille, 1819), 20 vca, 138 166-67, 166, 186, 222, 269, 467-68, Uca Leach, 1814 (genus), 15-20; general verrucosa, 486 500, 602, 629 introduction, 3-5; key, 619; methods virens, 190, 193, 200, 202-203, 205-206. vocator var., 167 of systematic treatment, 10-13; refer­ See also pugnax virens vocator var. minax, 178 ences and synonymy, 20; subjects, see vocans, 85-95; behavior, 444, 474, 483- vocator vocator, 164, 166-67, 166, 465, General Index; type, 139; zoogeogra­ 84, 491, 495, 500-501, 503-506, 512, 500,602-603, 630 phy, 431-39. See also related genera, 520; color, 76, 297, 467-68; distribu­ vociferans, see marinus, minor, vociferans Dotilla, Heloecius, Ilyoplax, Monoph­ tion, 64, 295, 432-33; evolution, 64, vomeris, see vocans vomeris and marionis thalmus, Ocypode, Potamocypoda, Sco- 76, 133, 294-95; 435-37; 46:>; 530, 533; vomeris pimera keys, 620-22, 624-25; material, 597- Uca (subgenus), 125-27, 128-53; be­ 98; morphology, cfs. and characters, Xanthidae, 486 havior, 461, 463, 479, 496, 500-502, 27, 36, 40, 77-79, 83-84, 450, 459, Xanthodius, 462, 479 522; color, 120, 442, 467-68; evolu­ 464-65,469, 491; nomenclature, 3, 20, tion, 10, 18, 118, 163, 217, 432, 436, 80, 138, 204, 227, 324-26; predation, zacae, 157, 161, 184-86,206-208,221-22, 459-60, 530, 532-34; key, 619; mate­ 446; sympatrics, 46, 65, 73, 297, 530; 327, 456; key, 627, 629; material, 607 rial, 601-602; morphological cfs., 87, temperature tolerance, 442. See also zamboangana, 39, 41,43, 593 157, 452-53, 459, 464, 466; nomen­ subspecies below zilchi, see thayeri zilchi

General Index

This index includes geographical localities, names of within the area, occur chiefly in these treatment topics: persons, and subjects. Introduction, Range, Field Material, Type Material and Geographical Localities. Only major areas are listed, Nomenclature, and References and Synonymy, as well such as names of countries and certain islands. Page as in Material Examined (Appendix A). Incidental ref­ references to the species recorded from an indexed erences to indexed localities occurring in non-systematic locality are given under the subheading "recorded spp.", sections are omitted when the geographical information followed by the first page of each pertinent species is not directly important to the context, as in locality treatment in the Systematic Section (for example, "re­ identification of behavioral observations. corded spp., 77ff, 284ff"). These lists include species Names of Persons. Both collectors and donors of recorded from the locality in print, on specimen labels material, as given on the labels of occasional preserved in material examined, or both. Some lists include rec­ specimens, are listed as donors. Page numbers in bold­ ords considered by the present author to be erroneous; face refer to citations of a writer only as the author of the most questionable are also referred in the entry to a scientific name. When further material involving the additional page numbers; minor queries are discussed same person appears on the same page, the page num­ within the species treatments. The locality indexed, such ber appears also in roman. as "India," as well as names of smaller places included abbreviations, 678-79 agonistic behavior, see behavior, agonistic ambivalence: 477; of sound production, Abd-al-Kuri I., Indian O.: recorded sp., Aiyar, R.G.,291,303 485, 523; in waving display, 495, 501, 105ff Alabama, see United States of America, 517 abdomen, 463, 679; curvature and vol­ Gulf coast west of Florida ambulatory, 461-63, 679; activity and ume, 451. See also phases, rhythms Alaska, 435 habitat, 462; in locomotion, 472; pile, Academy of Natural Sciences at Phila­ Alcock, A., 3-4, 20, 37-38, 61, 80-81, 94, 462, 465. See also armature; behavior delphia, The, see institutions 107-108, 108, 291, 301-302, 468, 480, (agonistic, construction, combat, court­ actor, 487, 679 495, 599 ship, sound production, waving); dig­ Adams, A., 21, 42, 48, 51, 51, 57, 62, Aldabra Is., Indian O.: material, 596; ging; dimorphism, sexual 64, 66, 69, 69, 89, 94, 101-102, 102, recorded sp. 77ff America: distribution, paleogeography, 298, 302, 594-95,598 algae: as food, 472; in pile, 503 and zoogeography, 432-36, 438-39, Aden: material, 596, 599; recorded spp., Allan Hancock Foundation, Los Angeles, 641 (Table 9); evolution, aspects of, 77ff, 105ff, 292ff see institutions 18-19, 127, 156-57, 217-19, 527, 532, Aden, Gulf of, see Aden Allee, W. C, 440,445, 519 535; keys, 625-29, 629-31; material, Adriatic Sea: Uca reported in, 54, 237 alliances, 9-11,679 600-10, 613-14; recorded spp., 112-15, aestivation, 443, 452, 664; epibranchial allies, 679 128-53, 158-210, 220-25, 304-21; sub­ regions, role of, 471 Allison, E.C., 431,435 genera represented, 109ff, 125ff, 154ff, Africa, 438; coastlines and subspeciation, allometry, 449, 679. See also growth, 211ff 527, 535. See also: Africa, east; Africa, allometric American Museum of Natural History, west allopatric: as noun, 679 see institutions Africa, east, eastern: key, 620; mangrove allopatric categories, 9-10. See also American region, species, etc., see limits, 446; material, 595-97, 599, 611; allopatry America nomenclature, 323; recorded spp., 58ff, allopatry, 679; Atlantic-Pacific species Americas, the, see America 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 105ff, 292ff; records pairs, 432, 531; coastlines and, 527; AMNH, see institutions questioned, 35; subgenera represented, larval survival differences, 528; mingled Amsterdam, see institutions 2Iff, 75ff, 96ff, 21 Iff; zoogeography, populations, 528, and see sympatry; Anambas Is. (Indonesia): material, 611; 432-33, 435, 437, 640 (Table 8). See waving deterrent to interbreeding, 518, recorded sp., 292ff also: British East Africa, Ethiopia, 527-28 Andai I. (Indonesia): recorded spp., 52ff, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Altevogt, Rosamunde, 132, 142, 149, 85ff, 292ff Red Sea, Somalia, Tanzania, Union of Andaman Is. (Indian O.): recorded spp., South Africa 198,246,263,281,318 Altevogt, Rudolph, 95, 118, 120-22, 124, 32ff, 85ff, 292ff Africa, west, western: material, 600; re­ Anderson, A. R., 301,480 corded sp., 118ff; records questioned, 132, 142, 149, 175, 185, 198, 246, 257, angle, antero-lateral, 453, 679; in stridu- 327; subgenus represented, 116ff; 263, 281, 289, 291, 296, 303, 318, 442, lation, 453 zoogeography, 436. See also: Angola; 444, 446, 450, 454, 456, 472, 474, Angola; material, 600; recorded sp., Atlantic, eastern; Tangiers 480-81, 484-86, 494-95, 499, 501, 118ff;sp. range to, 116,432; after-lunge, 479, 484, 492, 517, 522, 660 504-507, 510, 512, 517, 645 (Table 12) Antarctica: absence of Uca, 18 (Table 21), 679 Amadon, D., 690 antenna, 454, 679 Agassiz, L., 132 Amazonica, 435 antennule, 454, 679 aggression, see behavior, agonistic Amazon River, 103, 599 Antigua, see West Indies 726 GENERAL INDEX

Antilles, see West Indies Barnard, K.H., 20, 61, 95, 103, 107-108, biotopes, 12, 18, 440, 445, 454-55, 533, antiphony: in sound production, 481-82, 303 642-43 (Table 10), 680. See also in 517 Barnwell, F. H., 114, 148, 175, 189, 198, text, Systematic Section, subheading aperture, afferent branchial, 471, 679 208,448, 466, 504-505 "Biotopes" in treatments of subgenera aposematism: possible relation to color, basis, 456, 680 and spp. 446ff, 469ff Bate, C. S., 322 Bishop, see institutions Arabia: material, 599; recorded sp., 105 Baudouin, M., 123 Black Sea, 55 Archer, A. (donor), 608 Bauman, I., 185 Blackwelder, R. E., 678. Ref.: Tax­ area, contact, see friction area Bawean I. (Indonesia): material, 598; onomy. John Wiley & Sons, New area, friction, see friction area recorded sp., 85ff York, 1967, xiv + 698pp. Argentina: material, 608; recorded sp., beading, 452-53, 680 Blecker, Mr. (donor), 593 229fT; sp. range to, 433, 438 armature: Beatty, H. (donor), 604 Blest, A. D., 256, 482 470, 680; development, 459; wear (in Beebe, W., 172,447, 495, 517, 603-605 Bliss, D. E., 440, 443,448,469,471 combat), 459 behavior: acoustic, see sound produc­ BM, see institutions on structures: ambulatories, 462; tion; aggressive, see behavior, ago­ Bocourt, Mr. (donor), 322 carapace, 452; carpus, 457; major nistic; cleaning, 472-73; ecology and, Bolau, H., 227 cheliped, 457-60, 646-51 (Table 13); 440-45; evolution of, 18-20, 216-19, Bonin Is. (western Pacific): recorded small cheliped, 460. 519-25, 526-35; introduction, general, spp., 98ff, 292ff See also combat; dimorphism, sex­ 3-4; juvenile, see burrow and male; book (part of gill), 469, 680 ual; sound production; ritualization non-social, 471-73; post-combat, see Boone, L., 160,188, 204, 234, 273, 303 Aru Is. (Aroe, Arroe, Arrou) (Indonesia): combat; social, 12, 476-524, 529-30, Bora-Bora, see Society Is. material, 592-94, 599, 612; recorded 534, 680; submissive, see behavior, Borneo (incl. Kalimantan [Indonesian spp., 32ff, 52ff, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 292ff agonistic; territorial, see territoriality; Borneo], Indonesia [part], Labuan, Ashanti, see Africa, west unusual, 506-508. Malaysia [part], North Borneo, Sabah, Asia: paleogeography and zoogeography, agonistic: 680; aggression, appetance Sarawak): ecology, 446-47; key, 622- 434-35, 439, 443, 527-28; subgenera for, 515; ambulatory armature and, 23; material, 592, 594-95, 598, 6't0-12; represented, 21ff, 62ff, 75ff, 96ff, 21 Iff 463; components, (list), 660 (Table 21); recorded spp., 25ff, 29ff, 32ff, 48ff, Asia Minor, see Asia (postures and motions), 478-80; deri­ 64ff, 85ff, 98ff, 286ff, 292ff; zoo­ associations, animal, 446. See also: in­ vations, 522-23; in females, 462-63; geography, 432, 434, 436-37 vertebrates; man; predators; sympatry functions, 516-17; sound production Borradaile, L. A., 81, 94, 302 Atlantic, eastern: phylogeny, 18-19; and, see sound production Bosc, L.A.G., 81, 93, 138, 223, 227, zoogeography, 432-35. See also: Af­ conflict, 523, 680; crowded popula­ 227,607 rica, west; Portugal; Spain tions and, 500; curtsy derivation and, Bott, R., 112, 113, 115, 125, 132, 135, Atlantic, western, see America 524 142, 149, 154,460, 186, 188-89, 189, Atsaides, S. P., 172, 175, 190, 193-95, displacement, 520-21, 523, 680; 208, 234, 246," 250, 253, 257, 261-62, 196-98, 198-205, 203, 205, 225, 228, cleaning, 461, 523; crowded popula­ 263, 268, 270, 270, 273-74, 274, 281, 481-85, 495, 501-502, 519, 523-24, tions and, 500; feeding, 523-24; prev­ 285, 310, 318, 321, 435, 600, 600, 605, 529,606, 645 (Table 12) alence in certain spp., 534; sound 610 Aurivillius, C. W. S., 93, 123, 148, 198, components, derivations and, 523-24; Bourou I., see Molucca Is. 480 waving display and, 497 Bouvier, E. L., 81, 103, 123, 302 Australasie, 323 See also, ambivalence, burrow, com­ Boyce, D. R., 302 Australia (incl. New South Wales, bat, components, construction, copu­ brachychelous, 680. See also dimorphism Northern Territory, Queensland, lation, defecation, defense, droves, of major claw Western Australia): distribution and feeding, phases, precopulatory be­ Brachyura, 680 zoogeography, 326, 432, 434, 436-38, havior, rhythms ritualization, sound Brazil: material, 600, 602-04, 606, 608- 640 (Table 8); key, 623-24; material, production, territoriality, waving dis­ 09, 613; nomenclature, 323, 325; re­ 592-93, 595-97, 610, 612-13; nomen­ play. See also in text, Systematic corded spp., 112ff, 136ff, 143ff, 163ff, clature, 323; recorded spp., 32ff, 39ff, Section, subheading "Social Behavior" 168ff, 173ff, 190ff, 229ff, 240ff, 304ff; 52ff, 64ff, 70ff, 72ff, 77ff, 85ff, 292ff; in treatments of subgenera and spp. zoogeography, 432, 438 subgenera represented, 2Iff, 62ff, 75ff, Behring Bridge: as Tertiary migration Brazilian, see Brazil 21 Iff. See also: Dampier Archi­ route, 434-36, 438-39, 530 British East Africa, see Africa, east pelago; Monte Bello Is.; Sahuli Shelf, Behring Route, see Behring Bridge British Guiana, see Guyana Thursday I. Behring Strait, see Behring Bridge British Honduras: material, 603, 605; Australian shield, 438 Belgian Congo, see Africa, west recorded spp., 163ff, 168ff. 190ff Australo-Malaysia: recorded spp., 85ff, Bell, T. (donor), 142 British Museum (Natural History), see 98ff, 292ff Bengal, Bay of: recorded spp., 29ff, institutions autotomy, 680 30ff, 85ff, 292ff; zoogeography, 432, Brocchi, M., 102, 148 Azrin,N. H.,515 434, 437. See also Burma, India, Malaya Brown, F. A., Jr., 466 Bennett, E. W., 323 bubbling (sound component), 472, 484, Baerends,G. P., 519-20 Bennett, I., 95 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table 21), Baerends-van-Roon, J. M., 520 Berlin: type-specimen in, 80 680 Bahama Is., see West Indies Bermuda: Uca absent from, 446 Buffon, G.L.L.-c, 20 Baja California, see Mexico, Pacific Bernice Pauani Bishop Museum, Hono­ Buitendijk, A. M., 95, 303 coast lulu, see institutions Burger, Mr. (donor), 298 Balansa, Mr. (donor), 595 Besukuj, Mr. (donor), 298 Burgers, A.C.J. (donor), 171, 601, 606 Bali (Indonesia): recorded sp., 21 Iff Bimlipatam (Indonesia): recorded sp. Burkenroad, M. D., 226, 228, 443, 480, Balss, H., 82, 95, 102-103, 108, 123, 32ff 495, 500, 502, 602, 610 302-303,317 binoculars, 666 Burma: key, 621-22; material, 592, 596, Banda Sea: recorded sp., 98ff biological clock mechanism, 442-43, 598, 611; recorded spp., 29ff, 32ff, Barbados, see West Indies 446. See also rhythms 77ff, 85ff, 286ff, 292ff GENERAL INDEX 727 burrow: account, general, 3, 471, 473-74; 13; recorded spp., 32ff, 39ff, 48ff, 52ff, 607; nomenclature, 327; recorded spp., ambulatories used in digging, 462; as 85ff, 98ff, 292ff; zeogeography, 437 158ff, 180ff,206ff adaptation to littoral, 533; as center of Central America: passim, 152, 176, 198, Cocos-Keeling Is. (Cocos or Keeling Is.): defended area, 511-13; in combat, 487, 285, 307, 602. See also: British Hon­ material, 598; recorded sp., 98ff 491-93, 514-16; construction activities duras; Costa Rica; El Salvador; coincidence, areas of, 437, 661 (Table 22) and, 499-500; copulation in, 502-503; Fonseca, Gulf of; Guatemala; Nica­ Coker, R. E., 132 display territory and, 518-19; food ragua, Panama Collett, T. (donor), 602-603 supply and, 513; occupancy by two Central American Seaway, 434, 531. See Colombia: material, 602-607, 609; sea crabs, 511; phase and, 505-506; plug­ also: Panama, Isthmus of; Tehuante- passage, 434 ging and origins of structures, 524-25; pec recorded spp.: Atlantic coast, 168ff, seizures by young crabs, 511; as Ceylon: key, 621-22; material, 597, 611; 190ff, 223ff; Pacific coast, 158ff, 16Iff, shelter, 510-11 recorded spp., 85ff, 292ff; zoogeogra­ 163ff, 173ff, 183ff, 220ff, 244ff, 247ff, burrow-holder, 487, 492-93, 680. See phy, 437. 267ff, 319ff also combat Chace, F. L., Jr. 95, 108, 114, 138-39, color: 3, 11-12, 17, 452, 466-69, 498, 501, Byron, G. Gordon, Lord, 4 167, 172, 198, 239, 243, 303, 306, 307 534. See also text, Systematic Section, Chagos Is. (Indian O.): material, 596; recurrent topic "Color" recorded sp., 77ff Colosi, G., 108 chambers, branchial: in bubbling, 472, combat: 485-94; aggressive wanderers Cahill, M. (donor), 597, 599 484; feeding, 456, 471; respiration, 471; and, 492; associated activities, 491-92; California, see United States of America, sound production, 471, 484 burrow-holders and, 492-93; catego­ Pacific coast Chapgar, B. F., 61,94,302 ries, 492-93; components, 487-91, 494, California, Baja or Lower, see Mexico, characters, cryptic 44, 527 521, 646-51 (Table 13), 652-53 (Table Pacific coast characters, guide to (in keys), 616-18 14), 654 (Tables 15, 16), 660 (Table California, Gulf of: material, 601, 608, Chekiang, see China 21); definition, 681; duration, 490; 614; recorded spp., 128ff, 232ff, 314ff; chela, 458-59, 512, 680. See also evolution, 521-22, 534; force in 486- zoogeography, 432. See also Mexico, cheliped 88, 491, 494, 655 (Tables 17, 18); func­ Pacific coast chela-out (agonistic component), 479, tions, 513-16; heteroclawed, 487, 490, Callow, F. S., 450 522, 660 (Table 21), 681 681; high-intensity, 681; historical re­ Caiman, W. T., 51, 101, 298, 594 cheliped, 3, 448, 681; major, 456-60, view, 486; homoclawed, 487, 490, 681; Cambridge (U.S.A.), see institutions 449-50, 504, 512, 646-51 (Table 13), injuries, 515; introduction, 3, 12, 485- Cameron, A. M., 478 652-53 (Table 15); minor, small, 86; low-intensity, 681; morphology of Cameroons: American subgenus re­ 455-56, 460-61; in sound production, claw, 456-60, 646-51 (Table 13), 652- ported, 327. See also Africa, west components, 482-84, 644-45 (Table 53 (Table 14); mutual, 516, 681; post- Canada (incl. Vancouver I.): Uca re­ 12). See also: allometry, combat combat behavior, 493-94; realiza­ ported, 318,326 Chicago (U.S.A.): fire, 36, 82 tion, 488-91, 515-16, 655 (Table 17, Canal Zone (Panama Canal Zone) Chile (Chili): material, 602, 605; nomen­ 18). See also text, Systematic Section, Atlantic coast: material, 603, 605; clature and questionable records, 325- recurrent topic "Combat" recorded spp., 168ff, 190ff 27, 641 (Table 9, note); recorded spp., communities, 445 Pacific coast: material, 600-602, 143ff, 183ff, 282ff; zoogeography, 438 components (of social behavior): defini­ 605, 609-10, 614; nomenclature, 326; Chilton, C, 323 tion, 681; introduction, 477-78; list, recorded spp., 112ff, 128ff, 133ff, 140ff, chimney, 12, 499-500, 524, 681 660 (Table 21). See also: behavior, 150ff, 180ff, 244ff, 247ff, 25Iff, 254ff, China (Chine) (incl. Chekiang, Fukien, agonistic; combat; sound production; 275ff, 278ff, 282ff, 31 Iff, 314ff, 319ff. Shantung): key, 624-25; material, 592, waving display See also: fossils; Panama 594, 597, 612; recorded spp., 25ff, le Comte, A. (donor), 593 Cano, G., 94, 102-103, 148, 160, 285, 302 32ff, 44ff, 85ff, 292ff; zoogeography conglomerate, 682 Cape Cod: northern range limit, Uca, and distribution, 432-34, 436-38 Congo, see Africa, west 18, 438; reduced social activity, 441. China Sea, 434 Connecticut, see United States of See also United States of America, Chopra, B., 31,94,291 America: Atlantic coast, north of Atlantic coast north of Florida Chosen, see Korea Florida carapace: account, general, 449-52; chromaiophores, 466, 681 construction (activities), 12; 499-500; arching, see volume; definition, 680; 524-25. See also text, Systematic Sec­ regions, 688; in sound production, clacking, see tapping claw, see cheliped tion, recurrent topic "Construction 482-83. See also paedomorphism Activities" Caribbean (region), 5, 242, 307; zoo­ claw-rub (in sound production), 484, contact area, see friction area geography, 432, 438. See also: Trini­ 488ff, 522, 644-45 (Table 12), 660 dad & Tobago; West Indies (Table 21), 681 continents, American, see America Caroline (North America), 227 claw-tap (in sound production), 484, conventions, 678 Caroline Is. (western Pacific): material, 488ff, 522, 644-45 (Table 12), 660 Cook, C. (donor), 175 593, 596, 598-99, 613; recorded spp., (Table 21), 681 Copenhagen, see institutions 32ff, 52ff, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 286ff, 292ff cleaning: 455, 461, 472-73; in derivation copulation, 500-504 carpus, 456, 458, 460, 462, 680 of sound components, 523-24; as dis­ Costa Rica: material, 600-605, 607, 609- carpus-out (agonistic component), 479, placement behavior, 520, 523; as­ 10, 613-14; nomenclature, 327; re­ 522, 660 (Table 21), 680 sociation with display phase, 473 corded spp. (Pacific coast), 112ff, categories, treatment of, 9 climate, changes in, 433-35, 438-39 128ff, 133ff, 140ff, 150ff, 158ff, 161ff, cavity: buccal, 680; carpal, 458, 680 cline, 681 163ff, 180ff, 183ff, 206ff, 220ff, 244ff, Cayenne (French Guiana): recorded Clipperton I. (Pacific O.): zoogeography, 247ff, 25Iff, 254ff, 258ff, 26Iff, 278ff, spp., 136ff, 143ff 434 282ff, 308ff, 31 Iff, 314ff, 319ff; zoo­ Cebu Channel, see Philippine Is. coasts: American, see America; Atlantic, geography, 435 Cebu I., see Philippine Is. see Atlantic; Pacific, see Pacific, east­ Costlow, J. D., Jr., 198, 228, 450 Celebes (Sulawesi) (Indonesia): material, ern, and Pacific Ocean, is. counter-equatorial current, see current, 593-94, 597-98, 612; name selection, Cocos I. (eastern Pacific): material, 605, counter-equatorial 728 GENERAL INDEX courtship, see precopulatory behavior dendrogram, 8, 11, 18-20, 217-19, 682 ics "Biotopes" and "Sympatric As­ Coventry, G. A., 228 Desbonne, I., 138, 139 sociates" coxa, 682 description (as recurring topic in Sys­ Ecuador; material, 601-603, 605, 609- crabberies, 5, 442, 506, 673-77. See also tematic Section), 11-12 10, 614; recorded spp., 128ff, 133ff, Trinidad & Tobago desiccation, protection from: see 140ff, 143ff, 150ff, 158ff, 163ff, 183ff, Crane, J. 28, 31, 35-36, 38, 43, 51, 55, aestivation, hibernation, respiration, 244ff, 254ff, 264ff, 267ff, 275ff, 278ff, 57, 66, 69, 80, 89, 95, 103, 113, 114-15, volume 282ff, 314ff, 319ff; undetermined sp., 124, 130, 132, 135, 139, 142, 146, 148, Desmarest, A. G., 20, 81, 89, 89, 93- 327 153, 160, 161, 162, 162, 166, 166-67, 94,148,227, 324,324, 325 edge, beaded (on major palm), 683 172, 175, 179, 182, 188-89, 198, 201, development, larval, 10. See also: zoea; edge, prehensile (of cheliped), 683 204, 206, 208, 208, 220, 222, 222, 226- megalops Edmondson, C. H., 80, 82, 324 228, 235, 239, 240, 243, 243-44, 246, development, post-larval: introduction, Edney, E. B. 440-41 246, 247,249, 250, 250, 253, 257, 258- 448; of morphological structures, Edw. (= Milne-Edwards, H.) 60, 147, 60, 260, 261-63, 263, 270, 273, 278, under successive topics, 451-68; size 284,298 281, 281, 285, 298, 307, 308-310, 310, and allometric growth, 449-51. See Edwards (= Milne-Edwards, H.) 186 313, 316, 318, 318, 321, 327, 444, 456, also: female; male Edwards, A. (= Milne-Edwards, A.) 289 462,468, 472, 474, 479-81, 483, 485- diagnosis (as recurring topic in System­ Edwards, A. M. ( = Milne-Edwards, A.) 87, 489, 495, 498-500, 504-507, 513, atic Section), 11 289,289 518, 599-600, 602, 607-609, 609, 610, dimorphism: of major claws, 459; of eggs, 465 613-14, 645 (Table 12), 654 (Tables major and minor sides, 451, 455, 462; Egypt (Egypte): material, 596; recorded 15, 16), 655 (Tables 17, 18). sexual, 17, 450, 461-63, 465-66, 468. sp., 77ff creep (agonistic component), 479, 522, See also text, Systematic Section, re­ Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., 476, 515, 519, 683 660 (Table 21), 682 current topic "Female" Ekman, S., 431, 433-34, 440-41, 444 crenellations: definition, 682; ecology discrimination, visual, 474 El Salvador: distribution, 217, 432, 434; and, 454; merus and, in sound produc­ displacement behavior, see behavior, dis­ material, 600-601, 605, 609-10, 613; tion, 454; suborbital, 453-54 placement nomenclature, 234; recorded spp., Cretaceous, 433 Display, Chela Forward, the (of Wright), 112ff, 128ff, 133ff, 140ff, 143ff, 158ff, Crosnier, A., 35, 61,593 495 180ff, 183ff, 206ff, 244ff, 247ff, 25Iff, Cuba, see West Indies Displays, Lateral Merus (of Wright), 495 254ff, 26Iff, 267ff, 274ff, 278ff, 282ff, Cuming, collection, BM, 598 display, visual, see waving display 308ff, 314ff, 319ff Curacao, see West Indies display, waving, see waving display Emerson, A. E. 440 current, counter-equatorial: off Brazil, distribution (of Uca), 3, 18, 431-33, encounter, 681, 683. See also combat 527; in Pacific, 528 436-39, 441-43, 639 (Table 7), 640 endemism, 432-33 curtsy (in waving display), 483, 496, 501, (Table 8), 641 (Table 9). See also text, ending, forceful, 488, 493. See also com­ 524, 658-59 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), Systematic Section, recurrent topic bat 682 "Range" Endler, J., 446 Cuyler, G. (donor), 606 diurnality, 444. See also nocturnal ac­ Eocene, 433, 435 tivity equipment (for field work), 666-70 dactyl, 682. See also: ambulatory; Djawa, see Java Eritrea, see Ethiopia cheliped Dobson, I. 324 Estampador, E. P., 38, 43, 51, 57, 69, 82, dactyl-along-pollex-groove (in combat), Doflein, F., 81, 94, 101, 101, 103, 302, 94-95, 102-103,291,303 491, 649 and 651 (Table 13), 652 323 Ethiopia (incl. Eritrea): material, 596- (Table 14), 660 (Table 21), 682 Dominica, see West Indies 97, 599, 611; recorded spp., 77ff, 85ff, dactyl-slide (in combat), 498-90, 650 down-point (agonistic component), 479, 105ff, 292ff. See also Red Sea (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 (Table 522, 660 (Table 21), 682 Europe: Uca in, 116,118ff, 442 21), 682 down-push (behavior associated with evolution, 526-35; dendrograms, design dactyl-submanus-slide (in combat), 489, combat), 491, 515, 683 of, 11; derivations, social behavior 650, (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 droves, 12, 118, 223, 478, 506, 683 components, 520-24; directions of, (Table 21), 682 droving, see droves 533-35; historical zoogeography, 432- Dakin,W.G.,95 drumming (in sound production), 483- 36; phylogenetic trends, 18-20, 531- Dam, P. van (donor), 35 84, 497, 501-502, 658 (Table 20), 683 33. See also: phylogeny; in text, Sys­ Dampier, W., 89 Duchassang, Mr. (donor), 325 tematic Section, recurrent topics "Re­ Dampier Archipelago (Australia), 595 Dulce, Gulf of, see Costa Rica, Pacific lationships" in subgeneric treatments Dampierian Region (Australia), 436-37, coast and "Morphological Comparison and 640 (Table 8, column 1) Dumortier, B., 480, 482, 487 Comment" in spp. treatments Dana, J. D., 14, 81, 89, 89, 94, 148, 301, Duperrey, L. I. (donor), 101 Eydoux, F., 116, 118, 122-23, 122-23, 324, 324 Durham, J. W., 431, 435 600 Darling, F. F., 519 Dutch East Indies: recorded spp., 64ff, eye, 448, 454-55, 683 Darwin, C, 3, 468, 504 286ff. See also Indonesia eyebrow, 453, 683 Das, K.N., 31,291 eyestalk, 448, 452, 454-55, 527. See also data: allometric, 450, 670-71; field, 670 style Davao, Gulf of, see Philippine Is. East Africa, see Africa, east Day,J.H., 61,95, 104, 303,440 East Indies: paleogeography, 433, 530; Fabricius, J. C, 81,93, 326 defecation, 472 recorded spp., 32ff, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, Fairweather, C. (donor), 605 defense (against predators), 443, 473, 286ff, 292ff; work of Rumphius in, 3. Fanning, I., see Line Is. 510-11 See also: Indonesia; Malaysia feeding, 3,455-56, 471-72, 510, 523, 675 De Kay, J. E., 204, 227 East (eastern) Pacific Barrier: evolution Feest, J., 291, 296, 303, 451, 503 Dell, R. K., 326 and zoogeography,434-35, 443, 528. female: agonistic behavior, 462-63, 480, Dembowski, J., 226-27, 480, 486 ecology, 435, 440-47, 529, 683. See also 484, 511, 522-23; burrows, location Demeusy, N., 448 text, Systematic Section, recurrent top­ and sharing, 511-12; copulation, 503- GENERAL INDEX 729

504; courtship behavior, 502-503; Gay, Mr. (donor), 147 Hagen, H.-O. von, 113-14, 118, 120-22, herding of young by males, 496, 498, Gee, N.G., 28, 37, 47, 94, 103, 303 124, 128, 132, 135, 138-40, 142, 146, 503; morphological characters, sum­ Gelasime, 20 148-49, 153, 153, 166, 166, 167, 171- maries, 17, 470; receptivity, 503, 523; Genard, Mr. (donor), 592 72, 175, 185-89, 194-95, 198, 218, 239, as taxonomic topic, 11; territoriality, genetics, 9, 525-26 243, 246, 255, 257, 259, 260-66, 264, 511; wandering 502-503, 517. See also Georgia, see United States of America, 267, 275, 276-77, 277, 281, 283, 285, text: Systematic Section, recurrent Atlantic coast north of Florida 306-307, 318, 323, 444, 446, 452, 455, topic "Female"; Chap. 3, structure ac­ Gerlach, S. A., 114, 148, 175, 198, 231, 468, 474, 480-81, 484-485, 495, 498, counts, 451-69 307 500-502,504, 506-507, 511, 601, 604, field trips, planning 664-66 Gerstaecker, A., 323. Ref.: Archiv. f. 609-610, 639 (Table 7), 643 (Table 10), fight, 681, 683. See also combat Naturgeschichte, 1856,22(1): 138 645 (Table 12), 690 Fiji Is. (Pacific O.): material, 595, 597, Gilbert Is. (Pacific O.): material, 596; Haight, A. L. (donor), 606 599, 613; nomenclature, 324; recorded recorded sp., 77ff Haiti, see West Indies spp., 52ff, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 292ff; gills, 469, 683 Hallam,A.,ed.,431 zoogeography, 21, 434, 437 glossary, 679-90 Halmahera, see Molucca Is. Filhol, H., 323,323 Gmitter, T. E., 198 Hamilton, W. J., 111,471,478 finger, 683 Goldi, E. A., 322 Hamlin, H. (donor), 157 Fingerman, M., 228 gonopod,463-65, 504, 527, 530-33, 683. Hancock, Hancock Foundation, see in­ fixed action pattern, 681 See also: text, Systematic Section, re­ stitutions flagellum: of antenna, 454, 683; of 3rd current topic Hartnoll, R. G., 500, 503 maxilliped, eye-cleaning, 455 Gordon, H. R. S., 87, 303, 518, 520 Haswell, W. A., 57, 69, 93 flange (of gonopod), 463-64, 683 Gordon, I., 38, 47, 57, 69, 95, 103, 290, Hawaii, 80, 82, 323-24, 327, 597, 599 flat-claw (agonistic component), 479, 302, 324 Hay, W. P., 179, 204, 227 522, 660 (Table 21), 683 Gottingen, see institutions Haygood, B. (donor), 613 Fleming, R. H., 431 Gould, A. A., 204, 227 Hedgpeth, J. W., 431, 440-41 fling (in combat), 488, 683 Gould, S. J., 449-50, 679 Hediger, H., 124, 495 Flinn, M.,483 Grant, F. E., 38, 57 heel (on major manus), 684 Flores (Indonesia): recorded sp., 98ff Grant, V., 526 heel-and-hollow (in combat), 490, 646- Florida, see United States of America granulation, see granule 51 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 Fonseca, Gulf of (eastern Pacific): dis­ granule, 454, 683 (Table 21), 684 tribution and zoogeography, 432, 438; Gravier, C, 82 heel-and-ridge (in combat), 460, 489-90, material, 601-602; recorded spp., Gray, E. H., 179,495 646-51 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 654 133ff, 140ff, 143ff, 158ff, 25Iff, 282ff. Greeley, A. W. (donor), 113 (Table 15), 660 (Table 21), 684 See also El Salvador, Nicaragua Griffin, D. J. G., 486, 495 Heller, C, 57, 81, 93, 102, 291, 301,326 food, 472, 534 grip (in combat), 488, 683 Henderson, J. R., 291,301 Forest, J., 82, 99, 101-104, 303 groove, 460, 683 Hendriksen, Mr. (donor), 596 Formosa, see Taiwan growth, see development, post-larval Henschell, A.G.E.T., 93 forward-point (agonistic component), growth, allometric, 449-50,455, 670, 683 hepatopancreas, 684 479, 495, 522, 660 (Table 21), 683 Gruner, H.-E., 165 Herbst, J. F. W., 20, 75, 77, 80-81, 80- fossils, 11, 127, 157,324,435 Guadeloupe, see West Indies 81, 132, 136, 138-39, 138, 163, 165, Fourmanoir, P., 61, 103, 303 Guam: material, 597; recorded sp., 85 165-67, 167, 171-72, 198, 326, 596, Fowler, H., 204, 227 Guatemala, Atlantic coast: material, 600, 601,602 Frankfurt, see institutions 603-605; recorded spp., 112ff, 163ff, herding (in waving display), 202, 496, French Equatorial Africa, see Africa, 168ff, 173ff, 190ff 498, 503, 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table west Guayaquil, Gulf of, 438 21), 684 French Guiana, see Cayenne Guerin, see Guerin-Meneville Herklots, J. A., 122, 123 Freycinet, L. de., 4 Guerin-Meneville, F. E., 80, 81, 103, 171, Herrick, C. L., 198 friction (contact) area, 459-60, 487, 652 171-72, 306, 307, 307, 322, 322, 324, Herrnkind, W., 228, 450, 472, 474, 478, (Table 14), 680 325,596, 600 510 Friendly Is. (Pacific O.): material, 596, Guinea, see Africa, west Hess, W., 66, 66-67, 69, 69, 80, 81, 323, 599, 613; recorded spp., 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, Guinea, Gulf of, see Africa, west 596 292ff Guinea, Spanish, see Africa, west Hesse, R., 440,445 front, 452, 455, 527, 683 Guinot, D., 82, 99, 101-104, 124, 146, hibernation, 44,441,452, 471 frontal-arc (agonistic component), 479, 303, 325 hierarchies, dominance, 506 522, 660 (Table 21), 683 Guinot-Dumortier, D., 148, 480, 482, high-rise (agonistic component), 480, Fukien, see China 487 523-24, 660 (Table 21), 684 furrow: frontal, 452. See also groove Gunther, H.-J., 124 Hilgendorf, F., 61, 81, 93, 103, 123, 301 Guyana: material, 602-604, 606, 609; re­ Hinde, R., 478 Gabon, see Africa, west corded spp., 143ff, 163ff, 173ff, 190ff, Hispaniola, see West Indies Gaimard, P. (donor), 60, 101 240ff Hobbs, H. H., Jr., 114, 138-39, 167, 172, Galapagos Is.: material, 605, 610; re­ 198,239,243, 306-307 corded spp., 183ff, 27Iff, 274f Haan, W. de., 28,44,47,47, 57,292, 292, Hoffmann, C. K., 35, 61, 81, 93-94, 105- Gambia, see Africa, west 298,300,301, 324, 594, 611-12 108,106-108,301,593,599 Ganges (delta), see India habitat, 440, 442, 683; use of term in Hoffmann, K., 448 gape (of claw), 683; major cheliped, topic, "References and Synonymy," Holmes, S. J., 182,235,325 458-60, 651 (Table 13); small cheliped, 13. See also biotope habits, use of term Holthuis, L. B., 20, 66, 82, 85, 89, 93, 94, 460-61 in topic, "References and Synonymy," 108, 114, 135, 138-39, 142, 148, 160, Garth, J. S., 160, 162, 182, 186, 188, 222, 13; behavior 165,167-68,168, 170-72, 171-72, 175, 235, 272-73, 285, 321, 431, 433, 435, Hadramaut: material, 599; recorded sp., 182, 198, 208, 243, 281, 285, 289, 306, 438 105ff 310,593,596,598-99,603,613 730 GENERAL INDEX

Hombron (Hombr.), J.-B., 325 of material, 322-27; topic treatments, Kingsley, J. S., 12, 38, 47, 51, 61, 66, 68- Hong Kong (Hongkong): key, 624-25; comments on, 12-13. See also text, 69, 69, 80-81, 94, 102-103, 107-108, material, 592, 594, 597-98, 612; re­ Systematic Section, recurrent topics 122-23, 135, 138-39, 142, 148, 160, corded spp., 25ff, 32ff, 44ff, 85ff, 98ff, "Type Material and Nomenclature" 171-72, 178, 188, 204, 227, 290, 301- 292ff and "Reference and Synonymy" 303,325-26, 596 honking (sound production), 195, 485 instrument, 459-60, 487, 652 (Table 14), Kirk, T. W., 326, 326 hood (construction activity), 499-500, 684 Kleinholz, L. H., 466 524-25, 684 intensity (of display), 488, 497, 499, 501, Knopf, G, N., 228 Horch, K. W., 225, 228, 481, 485 517, 521-22, 656 (Table 19), 684 Korea (Chosen): material, 594; recorded van Hout, Mr. (donor), 596 intention movement, 520, 524 sp., 44ff. See also: "Korean and Japa­ Hubbs,C.,431 interdigitated-leg-wag (in sound produc­ nese Seas"; Yellow Sea Hula I., see Samoa tion), 463, 484, 522, 660 (Table 21), "Korean ['Corean'] and Japanese Seas"; Hult,J., 188 684 recorded sp., 292ff. See also: Korea; Humboldt Current, 438 interlace (in combat), 460, 489-90, 521, Yellow Sea Hummelinck, P. W., (correspondent), 646 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 654 Korte, R., 124 168; (donor), 604-606 (Tables 15, 16), 660 (Table 21), 684 Kossmann, R., 80-81, 80, 103, 298, 301- Hutchinson, R. R., 515 intruders, treatment of, by burrow oc­ 302 Huxley, J. S., 5,450, 519, 670 cupants, 492,511 Krauss, F., 61,302 hybridization, 9, 85, 87, 130, 294-95, invertebrates, associated with Uca, 446 Kume-jima, see Ryukyu Is. 437, 530, 637 (Table 3), 639 (Table 6, Iran, paleogeography, 434 Kummel, B.,431 note), 684 Iranian Gulf, see Persian Gulf Kunaraht, Mr. (donor), 35 Hyman,O.W., 179,227,478 Iriomote I., see Ryukyu Is. k value, 450 ischium, 456, 684 Ibbry, P. (donor), 66 Ishiyaki I., see Ryukyu Is. Ice Age (climate), 439 Isthmus, see Panama, Isthmus of Labuan, see Borneo He de France (Ile-de-France), see Istituto e Museo di Zoologia della Lamarck, J. B. P. A. de, 93, 138, 138, Mauritius Universita di Torinto, see institutions 148, 326 He du Prince, see Africa, west Italian Somaliland, see Somalia Lanchester, W. F., 31, 37, 51, 81, 94, 302 He Maurice, see Mauritius Ives, J. E., 236, 238-39, 239, 243,608 landmarks, in orientation, 474 He St. Thome, see Africa, west Langdon, J. W., 474 Iloilo (Ilo-Ilo), see Philippine Is. Jacquinot, H., 325, 325 larvae, pelagic, 435. See also: megalops; inactor, 487, 684 Jamaica, see West Indies zoea India (incl. Ganges delta): distribution, Jansen, P., 124, 506 lateral-circular-wave (in display), 496, 431; key, 621-22; material, 592, 595, Japan (Japon): distribution, zoogeog­ 524, 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), 611-12; nomenclature, 325; paleo- raphy, 3, 18, 21, 433-37; key, 624-25; 685 geography, zoogeography, 432, 435, material, 594, 598, 612; nomenclature, lateral-straight-wave (in display), 496, 437-38; recorded spp., 29ff, 32ff, 58ff, 323; recorded spp., 44ff, 85ff, 98ff, 524, 658, (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), 85ff, 286ff, 292ff 292ff. See also Ryukyu Is. 685 Indian Ocean (incl. Mer des Indes, Japanese Warm Current, 438 lateral-stretch (agonistic behavior), 479, l'Ocean indien): material, 596, 599, Java (Djawa) (Indonesia): distribution, 482, 522, 524, 660 (Table 21), 685 611; paleogeography, zoogeography, paleogeography, 432, 434, 437; ma­ lateral waves (in display), 479, 524, 685 433-34, 437, 530; recorded spp., 77ff, terial, 592-95, 598, 610, 612; recorded Latreille, P. A., 20, 20, 81, 93, 101, 125, 85ff, 98ff, 292ff. See also Aldabra, spp., 32ff, 39ff, 48ff, 52ff, 64ff, 85ff, 143, 146, 146-48, 148, 167, 227, 299, Andaman, Chagos, Mascarene, Nico- 286ff, 292ff 322-23,601 bar, and Seychelle Is. Java-Philippines Axis, 438 Laurie, R. D., 81, 94-95, 108, 302 Indochina, see Tonkin, Gulf of jerk (in waving display), 524, 684 Lay,G.T., 324 Indonesia: key, 622-23; recorded spp., jerking-oblique-wave (in waving display), Leach, W. E., 15,20, 20, 125, 139 39ff, 289ff, 292ff. See also Anambas 496, 524, 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table learning, 474 Is., Am Is., Bali, Banda Sea, Bima 21) LeConte, J., 172,176,178, 178, 604 (Bay of), Bimlipatam, Borneo, jerking-vertical-wave (in waving display), left-clawed, 451, 487, 685 Celebes, Dutch East Indies, East 496, 523-24, 658 (Table 20), 660 leg, see ambulatory Indies, Flores, Java, Manoembaii, (Table 21), 685 leg-side-rub (sound component), 483, Molucca Is., New Guinea, Seram, Johnson, M. E., 495 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table 21), Sumatra, Sumbawa, Timorlaut Is., Johnson, M.W., 431 685 Timur Johnston, H., 123 legs-out (agonistic behavior), 480, 523, Indo-Pacific: distribution, paleogeog­ Jolo, see Philippine Is. 660 (Table 21), 685 raphy, zoogeography, 431-39, 640 leg-stamp (sound component), 479-80, (Table 8); evolution, aspects of, 18-19, Kaiser-Wilhelm Land, see New Guinea 484, 523-24, 644 (Table 12), 660 156, 163, 218-19, 527-33, 535; keys, Kalimantan, see Borneo (Table 21), 685 620-25; material, 592-98, 610-13; re­ Kalk, M., 61, 95, 104, 108, 303, 440-41 leg-stretch (in waving display), 496, 524, corded spp., 25-61, 64-74, 77-95, 98- Kamita, T., 47, 303 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), 685 108, 286-303; subgenera represented, keel, 458, 488, 685 leg-wag (sound component), 463, 482- 2Iff, 62f,75f,96ff,211ff Kei (Ki) Is. (Pacific O.): material, 596; 85, 496, 523-24, 644 (Table 12), 660 Inez, Brother (donor), 603 recorded spp., 77ff, 98ff (Table 21), 685 Inhaca I., see Mozambique Kellogg, C. R., 28, 47, 303 leg-wave (in display), 483, 496, 524, 658 institutions (Uca collections examined): Kemp, S., 302 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), 685 abbreviations, addresses, names, 591, Kenya: material, 599, 611; recorded spp., Leiden, see institutions 678; collections transferred, NYZS to 105ff, 292ff leks, 512, 517, 685 USNM, 591; material examined, 592- keys, 615-31 Lenz, H., 61,93-94, 301-302 614; systematic uncertainities, location kinesthesia, 474 Leprieur, Mr. (donor), 146 GENERAL INDEX 731 leptochelous, 685. See also dimorphism, male: juvenile attempts to mate, 121, Mediterranean Sea: paleogeography, of major claw 450; meral stridulation confined to 434; Uca absent from, 122, 639 Le Sueur, Mr. (donor), 322 juveniles, 457; taxonomic treatment of, (Table 7) Liberia: American subgenus reported, 11. See also text: Systematic Section, megalops, 10, 472, 527, 686 327. See also Africa, west recurrent topics "Morphology" and membrane-vibration (sound component), light, 444, 474. See also nocturnal ac­ "Social Behavior"; Chap. 3, mor­ 484, 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table tivity phology; Chaps. 5, 6, social behavior 21), 686 Lin, C. C, 47, 84, 94, 102, 302 man, activities and effects: canning, 44, Mer des Indes, see Indian O. Line Is. (incl. Fanning, Penrhyn, Ton- 446; claw harvest, 118, 446; favorable Mergui Archipelago, see Burma gareva) (Pacific O.): material, 596; effect of human proximity, 446-47; recorded sp., 77ff habitat destruction and pollution, 447 merus, 686; of ambulatories, 461-62; of line, raised, 685. See also stria de Man, J. G., 20, 31, 35, 37-38, 41-43, major cheliped, 14, 456-57; of small Linnaeus, C, 3, 20,85, 85, 89, 92-93, 93, 51, 57, 61, 66, 66, 69, 80-81, 93-94, cheliped, 460, 462 204, 324, 326,495,597-98 102-103, 107-108, 123, 289, 289-291, methods, 4-5, 9-13, 664-77; casts of Linsenmair, K. E., 499 298-99, 299, 301-303, 592, 593 burrows, 474; need for minimal Linsley, E. G., 5 mandible, 685 handling, 506, 510 localities, geographic, 12-13 mangroves, 445-47, 685 Mexico (incl. Baja or Lower California): Lockington, W. N., 132, 135, 142, 182, Mantel, L. H., 440, 448, 469, 471 distribution, zoogeography, 432, 438- 232,234-35, 235, 317, 325, 608 Manton, S. M., 472 39 locomotion, 462, 472 manus, 686; of ambulatories, 462; of Atlantic coast: material, 602-603, Loo Choo Is., see Ryukyu Is. major cheliped, 457-60; of small 605, 607-608, 613; recorded spp., Lopez, J. (donor), 605 cheliped, 460 136ff, 163ff, 168ff, 190ff, 200ff, 209ff, Lorenz, K., 5, 487, 519-20, 681 manus-push (in combat), 487, 522, 654 223ff, 236ff, 304ff Louisiana, see United States of America, (Tables 15, 16) Pacific coast: material, 601, 603- Gulf coast west of Florida manus-rub (in combat), 488, 522, 646 605, 608, 614; nomenclature, 325; re­ Lower California, see Mexico, Pacific and 649 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 654 corded spp., 128ff, 163ff, 180ff, 183ff, coast (Tables 15, 16), 686 232ff,314ff, 319ff Lubang, see Philippine Is. maps, 12,409-10 See also California, Gulf of Lucas, H., 157,186, 187-88, 188, 281-82, Marcgrave, G., de Liebstad, 3, 114, 146, Mexico, Gulf of, see: United States of 284 ["Luc."], 285, 285, 317, 325, 610 146,148, 148, 324, 324 America, Gulf coast west of Florida Ludeking, E. W. A. (donor), 289 margins (of carapace), 451, 453-54, 686 and Florida; Mexico, Atlantic coast Luederwaldt, H., 165, 167, 231, 307 Mariana Is. (incl. Saipan) (Pacific O.): Mezozoic Circumtropical Fauna, 434 lunge (agonistic behavior), 479, 484, 522, recorded sp., 292ff Micronesia (incl. Cardina Is., Ngardok, 660 (Table 21), 685 Warier, P. R., 471, 478 Babelthaob) (Pacific O.): recorded Luzon (Luzone), see Philippine Is. Marquesas Is. (Pacific O.): distribution, spp., 85ff, 286ff, 292ff. See also Palau, 96, 431; material, 599; recorded sp., Caroline, Mariana, and Marshall Is. 98ff mid-Atlantic barrier, 434-35 Macao: recorded sp., 25ff Marshall Is. (Pacific O.): material, 596- mid-Pacific route, 435 Maccagno, T., 51, 61, 82, 94-95, 103, 97, 599; recorded spp., 77ff, 85ff, 98ff 108, 132, 160, 166-67, 166-67, 172, Martens, E. von, 171, 198 Miers, E. J., 47, 69, 81, 93-94, 123, 301- 179, 182, 182, 188, 198, 227, 231, 235, Martinique, see West Indies 302 270, 291, 302-303, 307, 321, 603 Maryland, see United States of America, mill, gastric, see stomach MacGinitie, H. D., 431 Atlantic coast Miller, D. C, 114, 178-79, 198, 204, 228, MacKay, D. C. G., 450 Mascarene Is. (Indian O.): recorded 239,440-41,456,472 MacLeay, W. S., 103 sp., 98ff Milne-Edwards, A., 57, 61, 80, 93, 102, Macnae, W., 35, 38, 57, 61, 69, 95, 104, Massachusetts, see United States of 286, 290, 290, 302, 323, 595-97, 610, 108, 123, 303, 440-42, 445, 686 America, Atlantic coast north of 678. See also Edwards, A. and Ed­ Madagascar: distribution query, 327; Florida wards, A. M. key, 621-22; material, 593, 595, 597- material examined, 12-13, 591-614, 678 Milne-Edwards, H., 12, 20, 20, 32, 35, 99, 611; recorded spp., 32ff, 58ff, 77ff, Mathieu, Mr. (donor), 100 35, 37-38, 38, 47,47, 52, 55, 57-58, 57, 85ff, 98ff, 105ff, 292ff mating, see copulation 60, 60-61, 69, 80-81, 86, 89, 93-94, Maine (United States of America), 438 Matthews, L. H„ 495 96, 100, 101-103, 102-103, 123, 132, major, 685. See also: cheliped, major; maturity, gauge of, 450 135,138, 138-139, 140, 142, 142, 146- side, major Mauritania, see Africa, west 47, 146-49,149,157, 186, 187-88, 188, major-manus-drum (sound component), Mauritius (He de France, He Maurice) 227, 281-82, 284-85, 285, 291, 298, 483-85, 523-24, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Indian O.): material, 596, 599, 611; re­ 298-300, 301-302, 317, 323, 323-26, (Table 21), 685 corded spp., 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 292ff 592-95, 598-99, 601-602, 610-12, 678, major-merus-drum (sound component), maxillae, 456 678; omission of initial, 678. See also 457, 483, 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 maxillipeds, 686; first, 456; second, 445, Edw. and Edwards. (Table 21), 685 455-56, 469, 533-34; third, 455, 469 Mindanao, see Philippine Is. major-merus-rub (sound component), Mayr, E., 5, 431, 450, 526, 528, 678-87, Minei, Mr. (donor), 598 457, 479, 482, 485, 523, 644 (Table 12), 689-91 miniaturization, 449, 533 660 (Table 21), 685 McCulloch, A. R., 38, 57 minor-chela-tap (sound component), Malaya: key; 621-22; material, 592, 594, McLaughlin, R., 515 484, 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table 597-98, 611-12; recorded spp., 29ff, McNeil, F. A., 89, 94-95, 597 21), 686 32ff, 48fT, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 286ff, 292ff McNiel.J. A., 147, 152 minor, 686. See also: cheliped, minor; Malay Peninsula, see Malaya MCZ, see institutions cheliped, small; side, minor Malaysia, see: Borneo; Malaya measurements, 11, 449-51. See also text, minor-claw-rub (sound component), 482, Maldive Is. (Indian O.): recorded sp., Systematic Section, recurrent topic in 485, 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table 77ff spp. treatments 21), 686 732 GENERAL INDEX minor-merus-drum (sound component), Newcombe, C. L., 450 Okinawa, see Ryukyu Is. 483, 523-24, 644 (Table 12), 660 Newell, R. C, 440, 448 Oligocene, 434-35, 438 (Table 21), 686 New Guinea (incl. Kaiser-Wilhelm Oliveira, L. P. H. de, 148, 172, 196, 198, minor-merus-rub (sound component), Land, Territory of Papua and New 231,231,307 482, 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table Guinea, West Irian), hybrid subspp. Olivier, M., 81,93, 138, 227 21), 686 87, 530; key, 622-23; material 593-97; Oneroa, see Tuamotu Archipelago minor-wave (in display), 496, 658 (Table 599, 610, 612-13; recorded spp., 32ff, Ono, Y., 47, 302-303 20), 660 (Table 21), 686 52ff, 64ff, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 286ff, 292ff; d'Orbigny, A. D. (donor), 186, 284 Miocene, 433 zoogeography, 434, 437 orbit, 451, 453-54, 687. See also antero­ Miranda y Rivera, A. de., 123 New Hebrides (incl. Vanikoro) (Pacific lateral angle, crenellations Mississippi, see United States of Amer­ O.): recorded spp., 599ff, 613ff; organs, internal, 469 ica, Gulf states west of Florida Vanikoro as erroneous type-locality, orientation, 474 Mitchell, J. D., 238 60-61,327,330 orifice, afferent, see aperture, afferent Miyake, S., 38, 47, 57, 82, 95, 103, 291, New Jersey, see United States of Amer­ branchial 303 ica, Atlantic coast north of Florida origins of components (social behavior), Mjoberg, E. (donor), 41 New South Wales, see Australia see components, derivations Molucca Is. (incl. Amboina) (Indo­ New York, see United States of Amer­ Orr, P. R., 442 nesia): material, 593, 597, 599, 610, ica, Atlantic coast north of Florida Ortmann, A. E., 12, 14, 28, 37-38, 39, 612; recorded spp., 32ff, 52ff, 85ff, 98ff, New York Zoological Society, see insti­ 41, 42, 43, 47, 61, 66, 69, 81, 94, 102- 286ff, 292ff tutions 103, 108, 123, 142, 148, 178, 291, 302- Monod,T., 123, 123-24 New Zealand: spp. described from, 323, 303,323,593, 593, 678 Moore, H. B., 440 326 osmoregulation, see regulation, osmotic Monte Bello Is. (Australia): material, Nicaragua Osorio, B., 123 592, 595; recorded spp., 32ff, 52ff Atlantic coast: material, 603-604; re­ ovary, 687 Moreira, C, 148, 167 corded spp., 163ff, 173ff overhead-circling (in waving display), Morgans, J. F. C, 61, 95, 104, 303, 440 Pacific coast: material, 601-603, 496, 524, 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table Morocco, see Africa, west 605, 607, 609-10, 614; recorded spp., 21), 687 Morphological Comparison and Com­ 128ff, 140ff, 143ff, 158ff, 163ff, 180ff, Owen, R., 323, 324 ment (topic), 11. See also text, Sys­ 183ff, 206ff, 254ff, 278ff, 282ff, 314ff, tematic Section, recurrent topic in spp. 319ff Pacific, central, see Pacific Ocean, is. treatments Nicobar Is. (Bay of Bengal): material, Pacific, eastern: allopatry, distribution, morphology, 11-13, 15-17, 448-70, 529- 592, 595; 598; questionable record, 432; faunal richness, 439; key, 625-29; 34. See also text, Systematic Section, 327; recorded spp., 32ff, 64ff, 77ff, 85ff, material, 600-605, 607-10, 613-14; recurrent topic 98ff, 292ff miniaturization, 533; recorded spp., mound, 453, 686 Nicolet, H., 188,285 112ff, 128ff, 133ff, 140ff, 143ff, 150ff, Mozambique: ecology, 441-42; material, Nicoya, Gulf of, see Costa Rica 158ff, 161ff, 163ff, 180ff, 183ff, 206ff, 599, 611; recorded spp., 58ff, 85ff, 98ff, Nigeria, see Africa west 220ff, 232ff, 244ff, 247ff, 25Iff, 254ff, 105ff, 292ff Nobili, G., 37-38, 51, 57, 81, 89, 94-95, 258ff, 26Iff, 264ff, 267ff, 27Iff, 274ff, Mozambique, Canal de, see Madagascar 103, 108, 123, 160, 166-67, 182, 188, 275ff, 278ff, 282ff, 308ff, 31 Iff, 314ff, mud, 686 198, 231, 229-31, 267, 270, 270, 291, 319ff; subgenera represented, 109ff, Miiller, F., 3, 468, 495 298, 302-303, 307, 321, 608,610 125ff, 154ff, 21 Iff; sympatry, 10, 447, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har­ Nobre,A., 123 534 vard University, see institutions nocturnal activity, 176, 444, 480-81, 502, Pacific is., see Pacific Ocean is. Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 504 Pacific Ocean, is. (east to Tuamotu and Paris, see institutions Nodder, E. R., 138 Marquesa Is.): distribution, zoogeog­ Musgrave, A., 95 nomenclature: as topic, 12; in systematic raphy, 432, 435, 437, 528; key, 622- mutual combat, see combat uncertainties, 322-27. See also text 23; mangrove distribution, 446; spp. Systematic Section, recurrent topic recorded from indefinite areas (central names: conventions, 678; geographic, "Type Material and Nomenclature" P., mid-P., P. Is., southern P., South 13,409, 591; scientific, 12-13. See also Nordmann, Mr. (donor), 55 P., South Seas, tropical P., tropical introductory comments, "Index to Sci­ North Borneo, see Borneo west P., western P., West P.), 32ff, 77ff, entific Names" and to this index North Carolina, see United States of 85ff, 98ff, 292ff, 593. See also: is., Nansei Is., see Ryukyu Is. America, Atlantic coast north of Caroline, Ellice, Fiji, Friendly, Gilbert, Natal, see Union of South Africa Florida Guam, Ki, Line, Mariana, Marquesas, National Museum of Natural History, Northern Territory, see Australia Marshall, New Hebrides, Palau, So­ Washington, see institutions North Vietnam: material, 594; recorded ciety, Samoa, Tuamotu, Wake; regions, Natur-Museum und Forschungs-Institut sp., 44ff Micronesia, Polynesia "Senckenberg," Frankfurt, see institu­ Nouvelle Caledonie, see New Caledonia paedomophism, 450-51, 455 tions N.S.W. (New South Wales), see Paffen, K.H.,431 Naviagori, Is., see Samoa Australia paint (marking), 669-70 Negros, see Philippine Is. Nutting, C. C, 323 Pakistan: key, 621-22; material, 595, 599, Negros Occidentals, see Philippine Is. NYZS, see institutions 611; recorded spp., 58ff, 105ff, 292ff; Negros Orientale, see Philippine Is. zoogeography, 432 Nemec, C, 55, 57 l'Ocean indien, see Indian Ocean Palau (Palao, Pelew) Is.: material, 593, Netherlands Antilles, see West Indies oceans, see Atlantic, eastern; America; 611; recorded - spp., 32ff, 85ff, 98ff, Netherlands West Indies, see West Indies Indian Ocean; Pacific, eastern; Pacific 286ff, 292ff New Caledonia (Nouvelle Caledonie): Ocean, is. Palawan, see Philippine Is. material, 593, 595-97, 599, 611, 613; Odessa: as erroneus type-locality, 55, 57, palm, 687. See also topic "Manus, Pollex recorded spp., 32ff, 52ff, 77ff, 85ff, 327,574 and Dactyl," 457-60 98ff, 286ff, 292ff; zoogeography, 437 Oesman, H. (donor), 598 Palmer, E. (donor), 608 GENERAL INDEX 733 palm-leg-rub (sound component): 482, bat, precopulatory behavior, waving post-megalops, 688 523, 644 (Table 12), 660 (Table 21), display postures, see behavior, agonistic 687 Phelps, W. H., Sr. (donor), 604, 606 prance (agonistic behavior), 479, 484, palp, 687 phenetics, numerical, 687 523, 660 (Table 21), 688 Panama Bay, see Panama (country) pheromones, 445, 503, 687 pnecopulatory behavior (incl. court­ Panama Canal: no migration through, Philadelphia, see institutions ship): definition, 682; general account, 531; sympatry at mouth, 446-47 Philippine Is. (incl. following: Cebu, 500-504; introduction, 3; irregular Panama, Canal Zone, see Canal Zone, Iloilo, Jolo, Lubang, Luzon, behavior, 508; leg-wagging in, 249; Panama Mindanao, Negros, Negros Occiden- major claw, unusual use in grasping Panama (country) tale, Negros Orientale, Palawan, female, 459, 504, 507; nocturnal, 176, Atlantic coast: material, 601; re­ Panay, Samal, Samar, Tawi Tawi; 502; tapping, plucking, 461, 503; as corded spp., 136ff, 190ff incl. also Gulf of Davao, Cebu Chan­ topic, 12. See also: copulation; fe­ Pacific coast: material, 600-603, nel, Sulu Province): behavior, 495, male; sound production; waving dis­ 605, 607, 609-10, 614; recorded spp., 505-506, 512, 520, 529; ecology, 441, play; in text, Systematic Section, re­ 112ff, 128ff, 133ff, 140ff, 150ff, 158ff, 443, 446-47; evolution, 529-30; hybrid current topic "Precopulatory Be­ 163ff, 180ff, 183ff, 220ff, 244ff, 247ff, subspp., 87, 294-95; key, 622-23; ma­ havior" in spp. treatments 25Iff, 254ff, 26Iff, 267ff, 278ff, 282flF, terial, 592-99, 611-13; recorded spp., predators, 3-4, 446 308ff, 31 Iff, 314ff, 319ff 32ff, 39ff, 49ff, 52ff, 64ff, 77ff, 85ff, pregape-rub (in combat), 479, 490, 647ff Panama, Gulf of: faunal richness, 432; 98ff, 286ff, 292ff; systematic uncertain­ (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 (Table wide tidal range, 443 ties, 323, 327; zoogeography, 434, 436- 21); 688 Panama, Isthmus of: allometry and, 432; 37,439 preservation (of specimens), 671-72 paleogeography, 433, 528. See also Philippines-East Indies axis: zoogeog­ process, inner (on gonopod), 464, 688 subspecies raphy, 85,434, 436-37 prolonged-leg-stretch (in waving dis­ Panay, see Philippine Is. Philippines-Java axis, see Philippines- play), 496, 524, 658 (Table 20), 660 Panikkar,N. K.,291,303 East Indies axis (Table 21), 688 Papua and New Guinea, Territory of, photography, methods, 666, 668 propodus, 688 see New Guinea phylogeny: definition, 687; within sub­ proportions, see growth, allometric; size Paris, see institutions genera, 24, 63, 76, 97, 110, 117, 127, pterygostomian region, 457 Parisi, B., 47, 94, 103, 303 156-57, 217-19; surveys, 18-20, 531- Puerto Rico, see West Indies Park, O., 440 33; zoogeography, evolutionary as­ Park, T., 440 pects, 435-36. See also: evolution; in Queensland, see Australia Passano, L. M., 448 text, Systematic Section in spp. treat­ Quoy, J. R. C. (donor), 60, 101 Patta, see Witu I. ments, recurrent topic "Morphological pattern, fixed-action, 686 (component) Comparison and Comment" Raben, K. von, 94 Peabody Museum of Natural History, physiology, 448, 471. See also: gills, res­ Raffles, Raffles Museum, Singapore, see Yale University, see institutions piration institutions Pearse, A. S., 31, 41, 55, 55, 57, 94-95, pile, 452, 465-66, 472, 503, 687 Raiatea, see Society Is. 103, 172, 175, 179, 204, 227, 302, 486, pillars, 499-500, 524-25, 687 rainfall, 443 495, 500, 506, 507, 595 pit, 687 raised-carpus (agonistic behavior), 482, Pearson, J., 455, 469 plasticity, 127, 217, 526-27 522, 660 (Table 21), 688 Pelew Is., see Palau Is. platydactyle, 142 Raj, B. S., 94 pellets: from burrowing, 472, 274; fecal, Pleistocene, 433-34 range (geographical): genus, 18; as topic, 472; from feeding, 456, 472 pleopod: definition, 687; in female, 465; 12; zoogeography, 431-39. See also in Pemba, see Tanzania in male, 463-65 text, Systematic Section: headings for Penrhyn, see Line Is. Pliocene, 433-35 subgenera, spp., and some subspp.; in pericardial sac, 471, 689 Pocock, R. I., 108 spp. treatments as recurrent topic periopod, see ambulatory pollex, 687. See also topic "Manus, range (home), 510 Peron, Mr. (donor), 322 Pollex and Dactyl," 557-60 range (measurements), see measure­ Persian Gulf (Iranian Gulf): material, pollex-base-rub (in combat), 498, 646, ments; size 611; recorded spp., 77ff, 292ff. and 650 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 Rankin, W. M., 307 Peru: distribution and zoogeography, (Table 21), 687 rap, rapping, 483, 485, 501, 688. See also 217, 432, 438; material, 601-03, 605, pollex-rub (in combat), 488, 646, and major-manus-drum 609-10; recorded spp., 128ff, 133ff, 649 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 Rasa, O.A.E., 515 140ff, 143ff, 150ff, 158ff, 163ff, 183ff, (Table 21), 687 rates, evolutionary, 435-36, 528, 530- 244ff, 254ff, 258ff, 26Iff, 264ff, 275ff, pollex-under-&-over-slide (in combat), 31 278ff,282ff, 314ff 488, 646, and 650 (Table 13), 652 Rathbun, M. J., 20, 31, 41, 41, 43, 51, Pesta, O., 94, 103, 142, 182, 303 (Table 14), 660 (Table 21), 687 51, 55, 57, 81, 83-84, 84, 95, 101, 101, pollution, 446 pesticides, 447 103, 108, 108-109, 112, 114, 114, 122- Polynesia: recorded spp., 77ff, 85ff, 98ff 23,127,131-32,131, 135, 138-39, 142, Peters, H. M., 128, 132, 246, 250, 257, Pope, E., 95 148-49, 152-53, 157, 157, 160, 167, 274,281,285,321,495 population, local, 687 172, 175, 178-79, 182, 183, 186-88, Petiver, J., 57, 93, 326 populations, marginal, 528 188-89, 198, 204, 210, 211, 227, 231, Pfeffer,G.,61,301 pore, genital (male), 687. See also gono- 234-35,235, 237-39, 238-39, 243, 243, phases (of social behavior): aggressive pore (female) 251,252-53, 253-54, 255, 256-57, 270, wandering, 487, 491-92, 505-507, 510, Porter, C. E., 186, 284-85 270-71,272-73, 272-73, 281, 285, 298- 514-15, 687; display, waving display, Portugal: claw harvest, 118; distribu­ 99, 302-303, 304, 306-307, 306-307, 487, 505-506, 687; feeding, non-ag­ tion, 432; material, 600; recorded sp., 311, 313, 313-14, 316, 317, 317, 319, gressive wandering, 505-506, 510; ter­ 118ff 320-21, 321, 323, 323, 325, 435, 480, ritorial, 505-506, 687; underground, posing, 506, 688 594, 597, 600-601, 605, 608-10, 612- 505-506, 687. See also droving, com­ post-combat behavior, see combat 14, 645 (Table 12) 734 GENERAL INDEX ratio, k, see k value St. Barthelemy, see West Indies Size: allometry and, 448-50; in combat Raut, M.R.,4, 446 St. Croix, see West Indies (relative), 487; in genus, 17; waving receptive behavior, see female St. Martin, see West Indies character and, 128. See also measure­ Red Sea: distribution, zoogeography, St. Thomas, see West Indies ments; in text, Systematic Section, re­ 75, 432, 434, 527; key, 620-21; ma­ Saipan, see Mariana Is. current topic in subgeneric treatments terial, 598; recorded spp., 77ff, 85ff, Sakai, T., 36, 38, 46-47, 84, 88, 94-95, Sloane, H., 146, 148, 324, 326 105ff, 292ff; salinity, 444; temperature, 102,291,302-303,593,597-98,611-13 Smith, S. I., 128, 132, 131-33, 135, 135, 442. See also Egypt, Ethiopia salinity, 443-44, 689 142, 142, 147-49, 147, 150, 153, 152- Reese, E. S., 495 Salmon, M., 114, 170-72, 175, 179, 190, 54, 160, 167, 172-73, 175, 175, 178, References and Synonymy: as topic, 12- 193-95, 198-205, 196-98, 203, 205, 182, 188, 190, 196, 198, 198, 200, 204, 13. See also text, Systematic Section, 225-26, 228, 237, 239, 444, 461, 463, 203-204, 210, 227, 285, 285, 317, 323, as recurrent topic 480-85, 495, 497-502, 504, 519, 523- 601,601-602,604-606 regeneration, 450-51 24, 529, 606-607,606, 645 (Table 12) Snook, H. J., 495 regions (of carapace): annotated list, 688; Salvador, see El Salvador sociality, increased: as evolutionary epibranchial, 471, 483; general ac­ Samal, see Philippine Is. trend, 534 count, 451; orbital, pterygostomian, Samar, see Philippine Is. Society Is. (Pacific O.): distribution, 437; suborbital, 454. See also: armature; Samoa (Navigadori Is.): distribution; material, 595, 597-98; questionable sound production 437; material, 596-98, 613; recorded record, 326; recorded spp., 52ff, 77ff, regions (geographical): list, 431, zooge­ spp., 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 292ff 98ff; systematic uncertainty, 322 ography, 431-39. See also: America; Samoan Is., see Samoa Solomon Is. (Pacific O.): material, 593, Indo-Pacific; distribution; range Sandeen, M.I., 448 613; recorded spp., 32ff, 292ff region, triangular (on major palm), 458 Sandwich Is., see Hawaii Somalia (Somaliland, Italian Somali- regulation, osmotic, 442, 688 Sankarankutty, C, 95, 303, 499 land): material, 599, 611; recorded Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Sarawak, see Borneo spp., 58ff, 98ff, 105ff, 292ff Leiden, see institutions Saussure, H. de, 132 Somaliland, see Somalia relationships, see phylogeny Say, T., 227 sound production: account, principal, releasers (of social behavior), 499 Schenkel, E. 38, 302-303 480-85; characteristics, 484-85; com­ reproduction, see copulation; female; Schmidt, K. P., 440, 445 ponents (behavioral), 481-84, 644 gonopods; gonopores; organs, inter­ Schmitt, W. L., 235, 318 (Table 12), 660 (Table 21); derivations, nal; male; precopulatory behavior; Schone, H., 472, 478-79, 484, 486, 495, 254, 522-24; drumming, antiphonal, spermatophores 516 481; epibranchial region and, 471, 483; respiration, 455, 491; connections with Schone, H., 484, 495 evolution and, 534; frequency, 481; sound production, 483-84, 523 Schramm, A., 138-39 functions, 473, 480-81, 485, 511, 516; reversed-circular-wave (in display), 496, Schiitte, Mr. (donor), 80 historical review, 480-81; respiratory 524, 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21) Schwartz, B., 204,495,512 water .and, 471, 484; stridulation, 481- rhythms: in behavior, 442-43, 504-505, Seba, A., 81, 138-39, 148 83, 690; structures associated with, 534, 688; in color change, 466-68 semi-unflexed-wave, 496, 524, 658 (Table 453-54,456-58, 461, 463; substrate as Ribeiro, A., 124 20), 660 (Table 21), 689 sounding board, 511; vegetation and Richters, E., 61,93, 301 Semmelink, J. (donor), 66 vibration, 483-84; waving replaced by, ridge, 688; on major palm, 488, 689; on Sendler, A., 103, 227 481. See also: nocturnal activity; pre­ oribital floor, 453 Senegambia, see Africa, west copulatory behavior; in text, Sys­ right-clawed, 451, 487, 689 Seram (Indonesia): material, 594, 612; tematic Section, recurrent topic in spp. Rikitea, see Society Is. recorded spp., 52ff, 292ff treatments ritualization, 515-16, 519-24, 689 Serene, R., 47 sound recording equipment, 667 Robertson, J. D., 688 serrations, 453, 689 South Africa, see Union of South Africa Rochebrune, A. E., de (fils), 123, 123 setae: on ambulatories, 463; behavior South American shelf, 434 Roode Zee, see Red Sea and, 461; on carapace, 454; definition, South Carolina, see United States of R. P. (Republica Panama), see Panama 689; on gonopods, 464; on small cheli- America, Atlantic coast north of (country) peds, 460-61; spoon-tipped (on second Florida Rossignol, M., 124 maxilliped), 455-56, 689; on third South China Sea, see Anambas Is. Rouch, J., 4 maxilliped, 455. See also pile Southeast Asia, see Asia Roux,J., 38,69, 123,302 Sewell, R. B., 81,302 southern Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, is. rugosity, 452, 689 Seychelle Is.: material, 611; recorded South Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, is. Rumphius, G. E., 3, 85, 93, 94, 495 spp., 77ff, 292ff South Seas, see Pacific O., is. Riippell, E., 81 Shantung, see China Spain, recorded sp., 118ff Ryan, E. P., 503 Shaw, G., 138 speciation, 435-36, 530-31, 689. See also: Ryukyu (Loo Choo, Nansei, Riu Kiu, Shen, C, 28, 37, 47, 94, 102, 302 allopatry; evolution; phylogeny; sym- Ryu Kyu) Is. (incl. following: Irio- Shore, C. A., 179,204,227 patry mote, Ishiyaki, Kume-jima, Okinawa): Siam, see Thailand species, treatment of, 10-12 distribution, zoogeography, 75, 432, Siam, Gulf of, see Thailand spermatophore, 465, 504, 689 437-38; material, 593, 598-99, 611, van Siebold, Mr. (donor), 47 spine, 455, 689. See also setae 613; recorded spp., 32ff, 85ff, 98ff, Silas, E. G., 499 Sri Lanka, see Ceylon 286ff,292ff; spelling, 13 Silvestri, F. (donor), 230 Stebbing, T. R. R., 20, 61, 103, 108, 302- Simpson, G. G., 5, 103 303 Sinai Peninsula: recorded spp., 77ff, 105ff Stephensen, K., 227, 303 Sabah, see Borneo Singapore: material, 592, 594, 597, 611- sternum, 451, 689 sac, pericardial, 471, 689 12; recorded spp., 25ff, 29ff, 32ff, 48ff, Stimpson, W., 25, 27-28, 27-28, 31, 36, Safir,S. R.,204,495, 512 77ff, 85ff, 292ff; temperature tolerance, 36, 38, 47, 93, 99, 101-103, 101, 160, Sahuli Shelf: distribution, paleogeog- 442; salinity tolerance, 444 160, 178, 182, 180-82, 210, 209-10, raphy, 434, 439, 530 Sivertsen, E., 188 227, 302, 437, 592,602,604,607,678 GENERAL INDEX 735 stomach, 455, 689 Tanzania (incl. Pemba, Tanga, Tan­ tropical West Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, Stone, C. P. (donor), 131 ganyika Territory, Zanzibar): material, is. Stossich, M., 54 595-97,599, 611; recorded spp., 58ff, Tuamotu Archipelago (incl. Oneroa I.) Stout, J. F., 228, 444, 480, 483, 485, 495, 77ff, 85ff, 98ff, 105ff, 292ff (Pacific O.): distribution 75, 432, 530; 499, 501-502, 645 (Table 12) tapping in combat), 488-91, 644 (Table material, 593-94, 597; questionable Streets, T. H., 171-72, 317,322 12), 654 (Table 15), 655 (Table 18), 690 records, 326-27; recorded spp., 32ff, striae, 452-53, 689-90 Tashian, R. E., 192-93, 196-98, 203, 442, 39ff, 48ff, 77ff stridulation, see sound production 448, 499 tubercles: on carapace, 451-54; on major Studer, T., 123 Tawi Tawi, see Philippine Is. cheliped, 457-60; definition, 691; role style, 455, 690 taxonomy: numerical (techniques un­ in combat derivation, 522; in stridula­ subdactyl-and-subpollex-slide (in com­ used; see Preface); procedures, 4-5, tion, 481-83. See also: combat; sound bat), 489, 646 and 650 (Table 13), 652 9-13, 591, 615, 678. See also type production (Table 14), 660 (Table 21), 690 material Tweedie, M. W. F., 28, 27-29, 30-31, 31, subdactyl-and-suprapollex-saw (in com­ Teal, J. M., 179, 204, 228, 440, 442, 446, 51, 57, 69, 94-95, 103, 291, 302-303, bat), 491, 650-51 (Table 13), 652 448 444, 480, 486, 494-95, 513, 592, 592, (Table 14), 660 (Table 21), 690 Tehuantepec (seaway), 434 594,597-98,611-12,678 subgenera: characteristics, 633 (Table 1); temperature, 441-42, 671 type material: incl. in Material Ex­ definition, 690; distribution of, 431-32, Tenimber, see Timorlaut amined, Appendix A, 59Iff; in section, 639 (Table 7); treatment of, 9-11 terrestrial environment: as evolutionary "Systematic Uncertainties," 322-27; subspecies: definition, 690; in evolution, trend, 533 treatment as topic, 12. See also text, 528; transisthmian, 112, 145, 163, 183, territoriality: account, main, 510-13; in Systematic Section, recurrent topic 432, 436, 500; treatment of, 9-10. See evolution, 534; functions, 518-19; tol­ "Type Material and Nomenclature" also: coincidence, areas of; hybridiza­ eration of intruders, 473, 511 tion; Sunda Shelf Tesch,J.J., 37, 81,94, 103,303 Sulawesi, see Celebes Tethyan (realm, route, seaway), see uka, 38 Sulu, see Philippine Is. Tethys Umbgrove, J. H. F., 432 Sumatera, see Sumatra Tethys, Sea of, 55,433-35, 438, 528 underwater activity, 168,442 Sumatra (Sumatera) (Indonesia): ma­ Texas, see United* States of America, Union of South Africa (incl. Natal): dis­ terial, 592-94, 612; recorded spp., 29fT, Gulf coast west of Florida tribution, 18, 75; material, 595, 599, 32ff, 48ff, 52ff, 85fT, 286ff, 292rT; zoo­ Thailand (Siam): key, 622-23; material, 611; recorded spp., 58ff, 85ff, 98ff, geography, 432-37 592, 594, 612; recorded spp., 32ff, 48ff, 105ff, 292ff Sumbawa (Indonesia): material, 593; re­ 292ff; systematic uncertainty, 322; zoo­ United States National Museum, see in­ corded spp., 39ff, 48ff, 77ff geography, 437 stitutions Sunda region, see Sunda Shelf Thallwitz, J., 102 United States of America (U.S.A.): dis­ Sunda Shelf: distribution, paleogeog- Thompson, T. I., 515 tribution and zoogeography, 432, 438- raphy, subspeciation, 51, 69, 85, 295, threat, 478, 516, 690. See also behavior, 39, 527; keys, 625-29, 629-31; ma­ 434, 437-39, 527-28, 530, 535 agonistic terial, 600, 603, 605-608; questionable sunshine: activity and, 442, 444; color thumb: on gonopod, 463-64, 690. See record, 327 change and,468 also pollex recorded spp.: Atlantic coast, north superspecies; definition, 690; treatment Thursday I. (Australia): material, 596; of Florida (incl. Caroline, Connecti­ of9, 11 recorded spp., 32ff, 64ff, 72ff, 292ff, cut, Georgia, Maryland, Massa­ supraheel-rub (in combat), 490, 646 and tides, 443, 505 chusetts, New Jersey, New York, 651 (Table 13), 652 (Table 14), 660 Timorlaut (Tenimber) (Indonesia): ma­ North Carolina, South Carolina, (Table 21) terial, 612; recorded sp., 292ff Virginia), 176ff, 200ff, 223ff; Florida, Surinam (Suriname): material, 604, 606; Timur (Indonesia): recorded sp., 85ff 112ff, 168ff, 176ff, 190ff, 200ff, 223ff, recorded spp., 112, 143, 163, 168, 173, Tinbergen, N., 5, 520, 681 236ff, 304ff; Gulf coast, west of 190, 240 Tonga, see Friendly Is. Florida (incl. Alabama, Louisiana, Suvatti, C, 51,303 Tongareva, see Line Is. Mississippi, Texas), 176ff, 190ff, 200ff, Sverdrup, H.U.,431 Tongatabou (Tongatabu), see Friendly 209ff, 223ff, 236ff; Pacific coast (Cali­ Symons, C. T., 302, 495 Is. fornia, Washington), 232, 314 sympatric associates: treatment of topic, Tonkin, Gulf of (Indochina) (North Universitetets Zoologiske Museum, 12. See also text, Systematic Section, Vietnam): material, 594; recorded sp., Copenhagen, see institutions recurrent topic in spp. treatments 44ff tools (collecting), 669 University of Papua and New Guinea, sympatry, 499, 528-30, 534, 690 tooth, 690. See also tubercles Boroko, see institutions synchronous waving, see waving Torino, see institutions UPNG, see institutions synonymy, see References and Syn­ torsion (of gonopod), 463-64, 690 upper-and-lower-manus-rub (in combat), onymy transportation (of live crabs), 672-73 489, 646-47 and 650 (Table 13), 652 Trewartha, G. T., 431,440 (Table 14), 660 (Table 21), 691 Tahiti, see Society Is. Trinidad & Tobago (West Indies): com­ upset (in combat), 488, 691 Taiwan (Formosa): distribution, zooge­ bat, 486-87, 491-92; crabberies, 5, 44, Uruguay: distribution, 18, 432, 438; ma­ ography, 432, 436-38; key, 624-25; 47, 56, 99-, 220, 222, 246, 249, 269-70, terial, 608; recorded sp., 229ff material, 594, 597, 612; name, 13; re­ 442, 503, 505, 512-13, 520, 673; key, d'Urville, D., 325 corded spp., 44ff, 83ff, 85ff, 98flf, 292 629fT; material, 600-601, 603-606, 608, U.S.A., see United States of America Takahasi, S., 47, 84, 95, 303, 474, 593 613; recorded spp. 112ff, 136ff, 143ff, Usinger, R. L., 5 Tarn, D. (donor), 611 163ff, 168ff, 173fT, 190ff, 240ff, 304ff; USNM, see institutions Tanga, see Tanzania rhythms, 505; sound production, 481, Tanganyika Territory, see Tanzania 483; weight, 450 Tanger, see Tangiers tripods, 668 Vancouver I., see Canada Tangiers (Tanger, Tangier): material, Troll, C, 431 Vanikoro, see New Hebrides 600; recorded sp., 118ff tropical Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, is. Vatova,A., 61, 104, 108,303 736 GENERAL INDEX

Venezuela: material, 600-604, 606, 608, of site, 511; functions, 517-18, 529; White, A., 21, 42, 51, 51, 57, 62, 66, 69, 613; recorded spp., 112ff, 136ff, 143ff, high intensity, 499, 501; historical re­ 69, 81, 89, 94, 101-103, 101-102, 298, 163ff, 168ff, 173ff, 190ff, 240ff, 304fT view, 3, 12, 494-95; phylogeny and, 301-302, 323,325-26, 594-95,598 Vernberg, F. J., 192-93, 196-98, 203, 18-19, 216-19, 495, 531-34; sound Whitelegge, T., 81 228,440-42,448,451,604 production and, 501; sympatry and, whitening: display, 466-68; 691; temper­ Verrill, A. E., 178, 204, 227, 507 499, 517, 529-30, 661 (Table 23); syn­ ature and,442 vertical-wave (in display), 496, 523-24, chronous waving, 300, 303, 518; ter­ withdrawal, 479,491, 691 658 (Table 20), 660 (Table 21), 691 ritory and, 511; temperature and, 441; Witu I. (Africa, east): recorded sp., 292ff Verwey, J., 69, 95, 299, 303, 442, 456, timing of, 496, 656-57 (Table 19), 658- Woodlark I. (western Pacific): recorded 472,486, 495 59 (Table 20); uninterrupted sessions, sp., 85ff vibration (in sound production), 482-84, 292, 518; during walking, 23, 100. Wotton, R. M., 198 501,691 components, 496, 658-59 (Table 20), Wright, H.O., 495, 522 video equipment, 667 660 (Table 21); derivations, 523-24; Wynne-Edwards, V. C, 513 Vilela.H., 118, 124 restricted to courtship, 501 Virginia, see United States of America, See also in text, Systematic Section, Xantus, J. (donor), 181 Atlantic coast, north of Florida recurrent heading in spp. treatments volume, large (as protection against weight, 450, 670-71 desiccation), 451-52, 455, 533 Werner, F., 123 Yale, see institutions Voris,H.K. (donor), 605 Western Australia, see Australia Yellow Sea: recorded spp., 44ff, 292ff. west Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, is. See also: Korea; Korea and Japanese Wake I. (Pacific O.): material, 596; re­ western Pacific, see Pacific Ocean, is. Seas corded sp., 77 West Indies (inch following is: Antigua, Yerkes, R. M.,227 Walker, A. O., 93 Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Curacao, Yokohama, see institutions wanderer: female, 691; male, see phase, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, His- Yokohama National University, see in­ non-aggressive wandering paniola, Jamaica, Martinique, Nether­ stitutions wnaderer, aggressive, see phase, aggres­ lands Antilles, Netherlands West Young, C.G. 139,148,227 sive wandering Indies, Puerto Rico, St. Barthelemy, Ward, M., 43, 57, 83, 95, 291, 495 St. Croix, St. Martin, St. Thomas; also Zanzibar, see Tanzania Warner, G. F., 114, 198,495 incl. Antilles, Antillen); allopatry, 527; Zehnter, L., 302 Washington, see institutions fossil, 433, 435; key, 629; material, zoeae, 10, 686, 691; food, 472; survival, Waterman, T. H. (ed.), 448, 469, 471 600-601, 603-605, 608, 613; systematic 528 wave: definition, 691; diminishing, 691; uncertainties, 323-25, 327; recorded zoogeography: current, see distribution; lateral, see lateral-wave; primary, spp., 112ff, 136ff, 143ff, 163ff, 168ff, evolutionary aspects, 435-36, 527-30; 691, vertical, see vertical-wave. See 190ff, 223ff, 236ff, 240ff, 304ff; zooge­ historical (paleogeography), 433-36 also waving display ography, 434. See also: Caribbean; Zoologisch Institut der Universitat, waving display: account, main, 494-99; Trinidad & Tobago Gottingen, see institutions adaptive values, 515; ambivalence, West Irian, see New Guinea Zoologisch Museum, Amsterdam, see in­ 495, 501, 517; definition, 682; elevation whirls, 485. See also major-manus-drum stitutions Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Crane, Jocelyn. Fiddler crabs of the world (Ocypodidae: genus Uca)

Bibliography: p. 1. Fiddler crabs. I. Title. QL444.M33C7 595'.3842 73-16781 ISBN 0-691-08102-6