Occassional Contributions 3 Inventory And

Occassional Contributions 3

Inventory and review of ethnobotanical research in Namibia: First steps towards a central “register’ of indigenous plant knowledge

Patricia Craven and Sian Sullivan

Contents

Introduction ...... 2

Sources ...... 3

Procedure ...... 4

Categories ...... 4

A provisional list of ethnobotanical sources ...... 10

Key to the categories in which sources are organised ...... 10

Sources listed alphabetically ...... 11

Sources by category ...... 38

Problems ...... 41

Future Studies ...... 42

The Role of the National Botanical Research Institute ...... 43

Bibliography ...... 43

Titles in the Series

Introduction

The Namibian Government is in the process of formulating legislation to control more effectively both trade in, and the commercial development of, its biological resources. Two major national concerns are driving this initiative. First, that commercial trade in particular species might result in unsustainable exploitation, thereby degrading elements of the country’s biodiversity 1. Prerequisites for approval of any application to enter into such trade thus should be biological survey data regarding the supply and recruitment of the resource, accompanied by monitoring of offtake effects and the establishment of feedback procedures ensuring necessary adjustments in quantities removed.

The second fear is that commercial interests in biological resources will be pursued without consideration of existing use-values and knowledge regarding such resources. The danger here is that local knowledge and practice regarding biodiversity are exploited in the development of indigenous genetic resources (including synthesis and patenting of isolated components), without recompense to people whose pre-existing biological knowledge is rendered invisible by being communally-held and part of an oral, i.e. unpublished, tradition. This is particularly pertinent where local knowledge regarding plants (and invertebrates) is held and acted upon by groups and individuals who may be relatively under-represented due to emphases on animal wildlife and/or range management in many natural resource management initiatives. For example, both animal wildlife and livestock management may be treated as male domains of decision-making: thus there is a strong argument to be made for an increased focus on the wider resource base which people use and know about, as the basis for more inclusive dialogue regarding rural development and conservation, and particularly in relation to providing an enabling environment for the participation of women in such initiatives (cf. Sullivan 1999, 2000 ).

Given this context, it is urgent that Namibia acknowledges the significance of information already in the public domain regarding uses of biological resources. Such information can be readily accessed by outside interests. Namibia’s proposed biotrade legislation will attempt to ensure that commercial exploitation of indigenous species is accompanied by the protection of local user and intellectual property rights, as well as the contractual return of tangible benefits. The non-governmental organisation Centre for Research Information Action in Africa - Southern Africa Development and Consulting (CRIAA SA-DC) is already working with user groups in support of fair trade in particular natural resources (cf. Lombard 1997a; CRIAA SA-DC 1998 ), and this approach could become something of a “blueprint” for future applications to trade in Namibia’s biological resources. A central ‘register’ of what is already published regarding local uses and biological knowledge will greatly support these initiatives by providing ease of access to, and enhancing control over, the complex wealth of existing information regarding plants held by Namibia’s diverse cultures. A secondary benefit will be the identification of gaps in ethnobotanical research, particularly with regard to under-representation of user groups, species of potential interest, threatened plants, and geographical area.

As part of a “Useful Plants Programme” as recommended by the NBRI (Maggs 1996), as well as the “Medicinal Plant Project” initiated by the NBRI in 1998, it is proposed, therefore, that a comprehensive database of available information regarding plant uses and ethnobotanical 2 knowledge be developed,

1 For example, as may be happening with current export levels of the medicinal plant Devil’s Claw, Harpagophytum spp. (cf. Nott 1986 , CRIAA SA-DC 1997 ). 2 Ethnobotany is a rapidly evolving discipline. Until recently it consisted primarily of the compilation of lists of plants used “traditionally”, with records of vernacular names and sometimes brief descriptions of uses. Over the past two decades it has become a recognised scientific discipline in its own right, requiring a multidisciplinary approach with an understanding of botany and anthropology. Its focus is not only on how plants are used, but also how they are perceived and managed and the myriad reciprocal relationships between human societies and the plants on which they depend (cf. Martin 1995; Cotton 1996). Following Alexiades (1996), three important methodological components have been indentified as: a. the collection of adequate voucher specimens; b. quantification and monitoring of ethnobotanical data and patterns of resource use; c. and respect for the ownership and user rights of local people. These conform with a formulation of ethnobotany as “economic botany” (cf. Alexiades 1996), i.e. with a focus on the utilitarian aspects of peoples’ relationships with plants as resources. A contrasting approach concentrates on how people view species and classify them (cf. Berlin 1994). 4 preferably in line with the NBRI’s updated database of flora (Craven 1999). This is absolutely essential. First, to ensure that the state can institute effective control over potential “bio-prospecters”, through being aware of the information for particular species which is already “out there”, i.e. published 3; and second, to advise outside researchers and organisations as to research needs that are in line with national priorities.

This paper takes a step towards the compilation of such a database by identifying the literature sources pertaining to plant use in Namibia on which we consider it should be based. The purpose of the paper is thus to provide a provisional list of the literature and other sources (e.g. museum and herbarium holdings) that include information on local uses and knowledge of indigenous plant resources. References regarding a few naturalised and cultivated plants that appear to have become part of local subsistence and tradition are also included. Entries range from ethnobotanical studies in Namibia, suitable for use in the compilation of a comprehensive database, to references of general interest not based on original work or reliable data. They have been organised into categories describing what is covered by each source, focusing particularly on the level of detail they incorporate and on the accuracy of species identifications. As well as indicating the sources to be prioritised for entry into a central ethnobotanical database, our intention is to provide an initial idea of areas that ideally could form the focus of future research.

The paper is structured as follows. After a brief outline of the range of Namibian ethnobotanical sources reviewed for this paper our procedure for categorising each source is reviewed, followed by detailed definitions of each category. A list of ethnobotanical sources and their categories forms the main body or data section of the paper. Our concluding discussion considers some of the problems apparent in Namibian ethnobotanical research, as well as possible future research directions and the potential role of the NBRI in supporting and initiating such research. Throughout the text, references that appear in the inventory of ethnobotanical sources are underlined. References supporting the text only are listed in a separate bibliography at the end of the paper. All species referred to in this paper are identified by their scientific and sometimes their common English names but it should be noted that many of these also have local Namibian names and uses.

Sources

Namibian ethnobotanical documentation is available in a diversity of sources. The literature ranges from detailed studies to brief overviews and appears in a wide variety of publications including journals, both scientific and popular, and unpublished reports. Their authors have a variety of backgrounds; from travellers, missionaries, anthropologists, historians, botanists and medical professionals to interested non-specialist observers. Herbaria and museums also constitute important sources of information and additional material is found in applied fields, including biochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Most of the sources can be found in the NBRI library. Alternatively, sources are stored at the National Library and at the libraries of Namibian institutions such as the Directorate of Environmental Affairs (DEA) of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN). The NBRI and the authors of this paper would welcome information concerning relevant material that we have overlooked in preparation of this inventory of ethnobotanical sources.

3 See also discussion in, for example, Gonzales (1995), Mugabe et al ., (1996) and Egziabher (1999), regarding the problems faced by developing countries in ensuring community ownership rights over biological resources (e.g. via trade-related intellectual property rights and community patenting), despite recognition of these rights by signatories of the 1992 International Convention on Biological Diversity. 5

Procedure

It is beyond the scope of the paper to discuss every entry in detail or to analyse the relevant aspects of each for an ethnobotany database. After assessment and review, entries in the bibliography were arranged into categories clarified below.

The initial division is between:

1. sources considered suitable for the entry of ethnobotanical information into a “Useful Plants” database (A-R), i.e. based on original field work and preferably with voucher specimens or correctly identified plant species. The first three categories (A-C) are considered of particular utility for the database. Because these are limited in Namibia, complementary sources, e.g. of historical value, are included in order to widen the information base (D-R);

2. sources of interest but with relatively little practical value for a “Useful Plants” database, i.e. not based on original research, or requiring clarification of species identifications and/or anthropological information regarding knowledge and uses (categories XA-XF).

Some sources are placed in more than one category, reflecting the range of information they contain. Table 1 provides a summary of Namibian ethnobotanical sources listed by the category that we have assigned them. Sources marked with * have not been seen by the authors.

Categories

A Original ethnobotanical research This category includes all research in Namibia based on original fieldwork of both local names and uses, and accompanied by either voucher specimens or species identifications by the National Herbarium. It is split into three subcategories. i. Large-scale surveys, i.e. regional and broader, with good voucher specimens Formal interest in ethnobotanical information in Namibia began with the publication of a book on Namibian “veldkost” 4 by Dinter (1912) , a prolific collector and very active botanist. The only original ethnobotanical work carried out in Namibia on a fairly large-scale with field work, documentation of plant use and with voucher specimens housed in the National Herbarium remains that of Giess & Snyman (1986) , Maguire (1954, 1978) who collected nearly 3000 sheets of material of 687 plants, Malan & Owen Smith (1974) , Rodin (1981, 1985) and Sullivan (1998) . The plants of Köhler (1989-1997) were identified by National Herbarium staff and some are incorporated under the names of Giess or Müller. ii. Small-scale studies Ethnobotanical research on a smaller scale (in both time and space) includes Dentlinger (1977) , Du Pisani (1978a, 1983) , Leger (1997) , Steyn (1981) , Steyn & Du Pisani (1985) , Story (1959) and Sullivan (1993a and b, 1996a) . The plants supporting these studies were generally identified by the National Herbarium but, with the exception of Story (1959) and Sullivan who have supportive specimens housed in the Herbarium, voucher specimens were not collected. Reference to information from previous researchers is also included in most of these studies. Von Koenen (1996) includes numerous references as well as data from personal experience regarding indigenous and naturalised plants. His specimens were generally identified by the National Herbarium. Van den Eynden et al . (1992) could be placed here as they collected specimens and did field work; however the timing of the study co-incided with dry conditions and thus few plants were positively identified and the authors relied on previous studies carried out in the area and throughout Namibia.

4 Literally “field-food”. 6 iii. Studies incorporating quantitative analysis and/or monitoring of patterns of plant resource use To date, most ethnobotanical research in Namibia does not include information on either the numbers of informants interviewed, i.e. which might indicate problems of representativeness of the information, or analysis of contemporary patterns of resource use, i.e. which might play an important role in identifying and supporting local user groups in natural resources management and trade initiatives. However, see Sullivan (1994, 1998) for analyses of natural resources use at ‘household’ level in the former Damaraland and Sullivan (1993a and b) for smaller-scale surveys of resource-use at Khowarib settlement, Khorixas District, and in Oshana, north-central Namibia (the latter based on data collected in 1992 by Cunningham and Hamata).

B Ethnobotanical study of specific uses and/or plant groups This category identifies studies that focus on a specific aspect of plant resource use. In 1966, Giess, for example, published papers on “veldkos” from information obtained while working as the curator of the Herbarium. Also included are studies of food use by the Herero of Katutura (Otto 1979a ), Nama hut- building (Haacke 1982 ), and seed-collecting, perfume and food-gathering by Damara people (Sullivan 1999, 2000 and in press ). Regarding the uses of specific plant groups, see Maggs (1998) for Cucurbitaceae and Larsen (in progress) for spinaches.

C Collections and National Herbarium records This category includes ethnobotanical information that has been noted on herbarium labels at the National Herbarium, but which is not available as separate publications (i.e. listed under category A). An example is the ethnobotanical work by Maggs (1988), who initiated a project in the Caprivi to obtain a record of plants used by the Lozi-speaking people. This work is supported by detailed information on excellent herbarium specimens, but time constraints have prevented publication of the data to date. Ethnobotanical information found only on herbarium labels is currently being incorporated into the Herbarium database. These data are being “flagged” within the database to provide easy access to species with known local names and uses. The Tree Atlas Project, under the auspices of the NBRI, is mapping trees and shrubs of Namibia. Additional information on uses, common names, etc. are also included in the database and on incorporated voucher specimens.

D Local names Vernacular names have been documented by various authors but the availability of equivalent Latin binomials is often limited. Exceptions are the lists by Keet (1951) , De Winter (±1958) , Le Roux (1971) , Eiseb et al . (1991) and Von Koenen (1996) who have provided lists of common names with botanical equivalents. The Lozi names acquired through Fanshawe’s (1956) work as a forester in Zimbabwe were incorporated into Le Roux’s more extensive list. Wiss (n.d.) includes common names gained from personal experience and literature in the Botanical Section of the newsletter of the Namibia Scientific Society (formerly the South West Africa Scientific Society). A list of local names for plants is forthcoming (Craven & Kolberg in prep.).

E Studies including ecological or population biology data regarding the supply of a resource, or impacts of use on the resource-base As stated in the introduction, it is essential that any commercialisation of biological resources is accompanied by ecological survey data and a monitoring procedure to assess both the supply of, and impacts of use on, the resource. This type of information is extremely limited for plant resources used locally or exported from Namibia. Exceptions are Nott (1986) , Cunningham et al. (1992) , Konstant et al . (1995) and Sullivan et al . (1995) who focused on specific resources ( Harpagophytum spp. and Hyphaene petersiana ). Sullivan and Konstant (1997) and Sullivan (1993a and b, 1998, 1999) provide broader ecological survey data of resource-use impacts in relation to local uses. Studies which focus exclusively on the impacts of livestock on herbaceous range resources are not included here, and forestry studies focusing on fuelwood have also been omitted. CRIAA SA-DC have initiated numerous surveys, especially on Harpagophytum (Strohbach 1999, 2000).

F Folk classification and taxonomy While perhaps not of immediate relevance to the protection of either intellectual property rights or biological resources, local classificatory schemes, linguisitic information and perceptions of biodiversity can provide complementary material regarding useful species. Qualitative information of this kind may be particularly significant in increasing understanding of culturally-mediated knowledge of land and resources. As such it can make an important contribution to current policy initiatives such as Community-Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) and the establishment of conservancies, not least with regard to framing issues of access to, and management of, natural resources in locally relevant terms and metaphors. It may also contribute to the building of appropriate biotrade agreements and legislation. In some cases, such information might feed into formal taxonomy questions (cf. Damara classification of Cordia sinensis in Sullivan (1998, 1999a ): areas of uncertainty regarding plant taxonomic details can provide a fruitful avenue for ethnobotanical research.

G Commercial exploitation As far back as 1911 the German industry investigated the possibility of using the !nara ( Acanthosicyos horridus ) as an almond substitute or for commercial oil production. Seeds were also sent to interested parties in the then Union of South Africa who ran an internal and small scale !nara trade along the northern Cape Coast (Lau & Reiner 1993 ).

To date, plant species forming the focus of commercial exploitation in Namibia fall into five categories:

1. Food plants : e.g. the !nara, manketti ( Schinziophyton rautanenii)

2. Medicinal plants : e.g. Devil’s Claw ( Harpagophytum spp.) (cf. Nott 1986 ; Lombard 1997b )

3. Plants with cosmetic value : e.g. oil from the kernels of the Marula ( Sclerocarya birrea ), which is being harvested and traded (Lombard 1997a ; CRIAA SA-DC 1998 )

4. Plants used in craft production : e.g. species used as weaving and dye material for basketry (including Hyphaene petersiana leaves and the root bark of Berchemia discolor ); species used for wood carving; the carving of jewelry and other artifacts from the kernels of the vegetable ivory palm (H. petersiana )

5. Plants used for thatching : this category is particularly important in north-eastern Namibia and needs research urgently.

With the exception of a survey of Harpagophytum conducted over a decade ago (Nott 1986 ), a small- scale survey of H. petersiana basketry resources (Cunningham et al. 1992 ; Konstant et al . 1995 ; Sullivan et al. 1995 ), and a recent report involving local people in estimations of Manketti nut yields (Botelle 1999 ), few of these species have been the subject of ecological or population biology research to determine the status of the resource. Again, this points to a major priority for future research.

H Museum collections Museum collections can provide a useful source of ethnobotanical information. The exhibit of plants with local names and uses collected by Sister Solomons while working on a mission station in southern Namibia, for example, can be viewed in the Keetmanshoop Museum. Some museum exhibits are documented in articles, e.g. Kavango wood carvings housed in the Swakomund Museum with comments on changes noted over the years (Sandelowsky 1974 ) or wooden pipes with reed stems as illustrated in Otto (1979b) . The quantity of material of ethnobotanical interest originating in Namibia that is housed in museums outside this country is unknown.

I Observations by early travellers, explorers and missionaries A wealth of observation of Namibian plant uses was recorded in the journals of early travellers such as Alexander (1838) and Baines (1864), missionaries (Hahn 1887 ), army officers (von François 1896 ) and traders (Andersson 1856 ). Recent publications of such works often include photographs and updated plant names. Tönjes (1996) , for example, includes photographs of wood utensils, fishing traps and

8 musical instruments made from local plants taken during his work as a missionary with the Kwanyama people.

Much of this information is extremely interesting and informative. However, as Lau (1979, 1987) points out, representations of “traditional” practices in the writings of these early European visitors to Namibia are often misleading, incorrect or based on observations of small unrepresentative groups. For example Lebzelter (1934a) collected his material on ‘the Damara’ at Okombahe in 1920, which in the 1870s was already a settlement of a wide variety of people. Similarly Vedder’s material for the Damara is from a remote and impoverished group of ‘Bergdamara’ in the Otavi mountains (Vedder 1923 ). Neither group can be seen as representative of Damara-speaking people as a whole, who in any case are an amalgam of some 11 diverse groups with different dialects and resource-use histories (Fuller 1993). Significantly in this case, such information has been uncritically used to support an idea of the Damara as “culturally hunter-gatherers” (Mbuende 1986; Kambatuku et al. 1995) - a classification that may both negate historical experiences of dispossession of land and livestock, and undermine contemporary requirements and claims to land for pastoral management.

J Anthropological and ethnological studies Numerous anthropological studies incorporating observations on plant use fall into this category. Unfortunately they often rely on vernacular names only with no botanical input and thus generally require follow-up research to confirm observations. The field diaries of Hoernlé, a South African anthropologist, edited by Carstens et al. (1987) include a list of plants, foods and medicines used by the Nama around 1923. Although her spelling of local names is somewhat erratic, tentative suggestions as to the species referred to are made by the editors. Van Tonder (1966) included plants used by the Hambukushu in his study and these have been incorporated into Gibson et al. (1981) in which an attempt is made to include botanical names.

K Archaeology Plant use in Namibia’s prehistory has been documented by a number of archaeologists and is generally supported by identifications of species by the National Herbarium, e.g. Wendt (1972, 1975) , Wadley (1979) , Kinahan (1990, 1991) and Smith & Jacobson (1995) . Some of Eichhorn’s data are presented in Albrecht et al. 2001 and her work in the Kaokoveld is ongoing (pers. comm.).

L Land use surveys including agricultural surveys Ethnobotanical information often emerges as a byproduct of other studies and, whilst usually rather limited, can be useful. An example is the range management research carried out by Homann & Seiffert (1996) in the Otjozondjupa Region. A few plants were identified here as being used as veterinary medicine.

M Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) Some information regarding plant use was included in the sociological report prepared as part of the EIA for the Epupa Hydro-electric scheme (Jacobsohn pers. comm. 1997 ). The information was based on previous work and only includes two of the most obvious plants. As yet, however, ethnobiological information is not a requirement in terms of the EIA legislation (cf. Republic of Namibia 1995). Given that EIAs include socio-economic impacts in their remit, and given the existing and potential importance of indigenous flora and fauna for subsistence, income and culture, we suggest that ethnobiology might be incorporated as an important component of the EIA process. This is particularly pertinent where the development in question affects farmers and herders in Namibia’s communal areas, and/or biodiversity with important local uses and associated knowledge. “Objective”, natural science descriptions of the area under review, as required by current EIA legislation, do not necessarily represent the socially- significant aspects of Namibia’s landscapes and, as such, may further marginalise indigenous representations and knowledge of environment.

N Newspapers and newsletters Interesting snippets of information have been published in local newspapers (cf. Kandjii 1997 ). While usually not supported by accurate species identifications, etc., they may introduce new issues that can form the focus of follow-up research. Importantly, they may introduce people to species of economic

9 potential, perhaps encouraging future exploitation (cf. Morley 1999 ).

O Botanical studies, especially taxonomic work Taxonomic studies that have been carried out on Namibian taxa often contribute ethnobotanical information that appears on herbarium labels, e.g. Venter (1979) on the genus Monsonia . This brings herbarium material not housed locally to our attention. Taxonomic work on taxa well-known for their local use-value, for example the !nara ( Acanthosicyos horridus ), invariably includes comments on their uses.

P Applied and related fields of research e.g. toxicology, genetic resources, chemical composition The nutritional value of many plants occurring in Namibia were tested at the National Food Research Institute in South Africa and values can be found in Wehmeyer (1986) . More recently the micronutrient content of some raw green leafy vegetables of the Northern Province were published. Some of these plants occur in Namibia (Steyn et al. 2001 ).The composition of the Kalahari truffle is discussed in Ackerman et al. (1975) 5. Chemical analysis of some medicinal and poisonous plants occurring in Namibia can be found in Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962 .

Many of the studies carried out in other countries on plants that also occur in Namibia are mentioned here, e.g. Eloff et al. 2001, Reid et al . (2001). Literature sources for naturalised species with known uses occurring in Namibia are also included, e.g. Acanthospermum hispidum (Cartagena et al. 2000).

Q Research in other countries, especially Namibia’s neighbours It may be appropriate to incorporate ethnobotanical material from other countries where this pertains to the same or closely related species and genera as those occurring in Namibia. This is particularly true for arid and semi-arid lands elsewhere in Africa, and for countries on Namibia’s borders. References for the former are not included in this inventory but some sources for the latter are listed. An important case relates to San peoples, among whom most of the work on plant use has been conducted in Botswana (cf. Maguire 1954 ; Heinz & Maguire 1974 ). For example, no exact locality is given for the observations by MacCrone (1937) on the how the tsamma ( Citrullus sp.) is used by San people of the Kalahari, but the data undoubtedly apply to Namibia as well as Botswana. We recommend that such data be used in the NBRI database with other work conducted outside Namibia on species that occur here selected only after assessment of their value to Namibia, e.g. as for detailed studies in Botswana on the tuber of morema ( Tylosema esculentum) (Bergström and Skarpe 1981) .

R Work in Progress Although research permits are necessary to work in Namibia and sometimes acquired, they do not always result in any form of documentation of the study. In addition mention is occasionally made of work in progress of which there is no official record. These must be followed up. Few studies of note are presently underway besides the German Development Service (DED) funded project on Community Forestry in North-Eastern Namibia carried out by A. Leffers.

S General overview Good general ethnobotanical information for southern Africa, including species occurring in Namibia, can be found in the three large volumes on southern African trees produced by Palmer and Pitman (1972) . This is extremely comprehensive with regard to its use of available references and also incorporates notes from field work and personal experience. A few well illustrated chapters discuss trees in relation to magic, poison, food and perceptions of plants.

5 Although this is a fungus and not a plant, it is included here because macrofungi currently fall within the scope of NBRI work. 10

Not recommended for data input to a “Useful Plants” database:

XA Material of general and contextual interest This category is by no means exhaustive. It includes articles on a great variety of subjects written for diverse purposes which we consider are of contextual significance in relation to ethnobotany and resource use and management. They range, for example, from unpublished lists of “veldkos”, compiled by members of the South Africa Defence Force for use in lectures to army personnel during the active period of operation in Namibia (Stark n.d. ; Triebner n.d. ), to booklets developed for communal farmers using information provided by communal farmers (Seely 1993 ). Inaccuracy concerning plant names compromises the utility of these contributions for the purposes of an ethnobotany database. Marsh (1994) considers all aspects of the role trees play in the lives of Oshiwambo-speaking people, north- central Namibia, including a review of possible changes in vegetation and its uses and how this might affect people. Homann & Rischkowsky (2001) provide an example from Namibia of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development being integrated into the research and development process.

XB “Photo-stories” Many aspects of ethnobotany in Namibia come alive in illustrated articles. The article by Jacobson (1981a) , for example, vividly describes the way that seeds are collected for food by Damara people from harvester ant nests near the Brandberg, while von Koenen’s (1964) article depicts processes of well construction using Faidherbia albida by the “Topnaar” or ≠Aonin Nama of the lower (!)Kuiseb River valley. !Nara ( Acanthosicyos horridus ) harvesting, again by the ≠Aonin Nama, is a favourite topic and photo-stories based on other original research have been written by Alford (1996) , Benson (1989) , Berry (1991) and Pfeifer (1979) . Again, these articles are significant because they reach a wide audience and, through stimulating interest in species with economic value, may encourage exploitation of such resources.

XC Bibliographies covered by this paper All ethnobotanical entries in the bibliography of South West African Botany by Giess (1989) , are included here. Other bibliographies include Liengme (1983) and Strohbach-Fricke (1995c) . The literature review by Sullivan (1996b) on people and plants on communal land in Namibia has an extensive bibliography which includes many related articles. In addition, NALIRIR, a Namibian Literature Database on Indigenous Resource Management has been compiled by Hillebrecht (1998) of the National Library of Namibia.

XD Forestry Timber products such as building poles and fuelwood are well documented for the northern communal areas by Erkkilä & Siiskonen (1992) . This book provides a good bibliography of relevant papers concerning people and wood use. The Forest Awareness and Tree Planting Project (FATPP) of the Ministry of Basic Education and Culture is accumulating bits of information (see Moller 1997 ) which is limited, but interesting.

Timber use goes beyond the mandate of NBRI and will be left to the Directorate of Forestry.

XE Environmental economics In recent years, and primarily as part of the Environmental Economics programme of the Directorate of Environmental Affairs, there has been a proliferation of papers on the economic value of Namibia’s natural resources for communities, especially in rural areas (cf. Ashley et al . 1994; Ashley et al . 1997; Barnes 1995 ). Some of these include attempts at economic evaluation of plant resources utilised by rural communities. LaFranchi (1996) and Ashley & LaFranchi (1997) , for example, review the use of gathered plant products in communally-managed areas, the latter focusing on Caprivi, and calculate income in monetary terms of these products. Kakujaha-Matundu (1996) provides a more in-depth study, focusing on a small number of species for an area of Omaheke.

Unfortunately, for the purposes of generating satisfactory information regarding useful plants the utility of these studies often is compromised. In the first instance, they are not usually supported by satisfactory plant identifications. Resource economics as an analytic approach for issues of local plant

11 use may be problematic for various reasons. First, motivations for utilising such resources are rarely strictly economic or utilitarian, meaning that value assessments based on replacement and/or opportunity costs have little relevance for the portrayal of such practices. Second, in arid and semi-arid environments the extent of plant resource use reflects rainfall-driven variations in primary productivity which makes calculations of average annual harvesting rates somewhat dubious. Finally, without ecological assessment of the resource supply, calculations or assumptions of ‘sustainable’ harvests are likely to be misleading.

XF General overviews There are a number of books (Fox & Norwood Young 1982 ) and papers (Peters 1990, 1996 ) that discuss or review aspects of ethnobotany from literature sources, including papers from Namibia. The original works on which these papers are based are included here in the first section of the inventory.

A provisional list of Namibian ethnobotanical sources

Key to the categories in which sources are organised:

A Original ethnobotanical research (with voucher specimens or good species identifications) Ai Large-scale surveys, i.e. regional and above, with good voucher specimens Aii Small-scale studies Aiii Studies incorporating quantitative analysis and/or monitoring of patterns of plant resource use B Ethnobotanical study of specific uses and/or plant groups C Collections and National Herbarium records D Local names E Studies including ecological or population biology data regarding the supply of a resource, or impacts of use on the resource base F Folk classification and taxonomy G Commercial exploitation H Museum collections I Observations by early travellers, explorers and missionaries J Anthropological and ethnological studies K Archaeology L Land use surveys including agricultural research M Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) N Newspapers and Newsletters O Botanical studies, especially taxonomic work P Applied and related fields of research, e.g. toxicology, genetics, etc. Q Research in other countries, especially Namibia’s neighbours R Work in progress S General overview

(Not recommended for data input to a “Useful Plants” database:) XA Material of general and contextual interest XB “Photo-stories” XC Bibliographies covered by this paper XD Forestry XE Environmental economics XF General overviews

Sources: Sources marked with * have not been seen by the authors.

Abou.Mandour, A.A. 1977. Pharmaceutical biological studies of the genus P* Harpagophytum . Second Communication. Tissue cultures of Harpagophytum procumbens . Planta Medica 31:238-244.

Ackerman, L.G.J., van Wyk, P.J. & du Plessis, L.M. 1975. Some aspects of the P composition of the Kalahari truffle or N'abba. South African Food Review 2,5:145-147.

Adesanya, S.A., Nia, R., Martin, M-T., Boukamcha, N., Montagnac, A. & Pais, M. 1999. P Stilbene derivatives from Cissus quadrangularis . Journal of Natural Products 62 :1694- 1695.

Ahmad, S., Malik, A., Afza, N. & Yasmin, R. 1999. A new withanolide glycoside from P Physalis peruviana . Journal of Natural Products 62:493-494.

Ahmed, A.A. 2000. Highly oxygenated monoterpenes from Chenopodium ambrosioides. P Journal of Natural Products 63, 989-991.

Albertyn, A.P.J. 1984. Die Ensiklopedie van name in Suidwes-afrika . Sigma Press, D Pretoria.

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Table 1. Namibian ethnobotanical sources by category.

Category References (listed alphabetically)

A Original ethnobotanical research (with voucher specimens or good identifications) Ai Large-scale surveys, i.e. regional and above Giess & Snyman 1986; Köhler 1989-1997; Maguire 1954, 1978; Malan & Owen- Smith 1974; Rodin 1981, 1985; Sullivan 1998 Aii Small-scale studies Dentlinger 1977; Du Pisani 1978a; 1983; Kakujaha-Matundu 1996; Leger 1997; Ostermeier-Noczil 1997; Steyn 1981; Steyn & Du Pisani 1985; Story 1959; Sullivan 1993a & b, 1996a; Von Koenen 1996 Aiii Studies incorporating quantitative analysis and/or monitoring of patterns of resource use Sullivan 1993a & b, 1994, 1998

B Ethnobotanical study of specific uses and/or plant groups Bollig & Schulte 1999; Castell-Rudeshausen 1966; Cunningham et al . 1992; Du Pisani 1978b; Haacke 1982; Kirby 1942; Konstant et al. 1995; Larsen n.d.; Loeb et al . 1956; MacCalman & Grobbelaar 1965; Maggs 1998a, b & d; Otto 1977/8, 1979a & b, 1987; Sullivan 1998, 1999, in press, in prep.; Sullivan et al . 1995; Vedder 1951; Von Koenen 1977

C Collections and National Herbarium records Craven & Kolberg in prep.; Dinter 1912; Giess 1966a & b; Legere 1998, in prep.; Maggs in progress

D Local names Albertyn 1984; Brincker 1886, Brenzinger 1999*; Craven & Kolberg in prep.; De Winter ±1958; Eiseb et al . 1991; Fanshawe 1956*; Jacobi 1996; Keen 1996; Keet 1951; Legere 1998, in prep.; Le Roux 1971; Ohly 1998*; Rust 1969; Smith 1966; Snyman 1975; Von Koenen 1996; Wiss n.d.

E Studies including ecological or population biology data regarding the supply of a resources, or impacts of use on the resource base Cunningham et al . 1992; Hachveld in prep.; Homann & Rischkowsky 2001; Konstant et al. 1995; Nott 1986; Strohbach 1998, 1999, 2000; Sullivan 1993a & b, 1998, 1999; Sullivan et al. 1995; Sullivan & Konstant 1997

F Folk classification and taxonomy Sullivan 1998, 1999

G Commercial exploitation Botelle 1999; Cole et al. 1998; CRIAA SA-DC 1997, 1998, 1999; De Bruine & Clark 1976; Du Plessis 1999; Harrison 1996*; Lau & Reiner 1993; Lombard 1997a & b; Mander et al. 1996; Marshall 1998; Nott 1986; Sandelowsky 1990; Schultze 1907

H Museum collections Otto 1979b; Sandelowsky 1974; Shaw 1993; Shaw 1938a, b & c; Solomons n.d.

I Observations by early travellers, explorers and missionaries Alexander 1938; Andersson 1856; Baines 1864; Buttner 1879; Chapman 1971; Galton 1889; Gürich 1891; Hahn 1887; Irle 1907; Lebzelter 1934a; Möller 1974; Palgrave 1877; Passarge 1905; Range 1914; Schinz 1891; Sckär 1916; Seiner 1909; Serton 1954; Tindall 1959; Tönjes 1996; Vedder 1923, 1931, 1938, 1966; Von François 1896; Wandres 1909; Wilmsen 1997

J Anthropological and ethnological studies Albrecht et al. 2001; Bleek 1928; Bollig 1999b; Bosch 1964*; Budack 1977; Carstens et al. 1987; Du Pisani 1976a, 1981; Eichorn in prep.; Fourie 1926, 1966; Gibson et al. 1981; Malan 1973, 1974; Marshall 1976; Nurse & Jenkins 1976; Otto 1981; Schmidt- Hildersheim 1986; Van Tonder 1966; Werner 1989*

K Archaeology Eichorn in prep.; Hitzeroth 1976b; Hoernlé 1923*; Kinahan 1990, 1991; Sandelowsky 1977; Shackley 1985; Sievers 1984; Smith & Jacobson 1995; Sydow 1973; Wadley 1979, 1984; Webley 1982; Wendt 1972, 1975, 1980

L Land use surveys including agricultural research Homann & Seiffert 1996

M Environmental Impact Assessments Jacobsohn 1997; Wardell-Johnson et al. 1997

N Newspapers and newsletters Giess 1987; Jacobsen 1986; Kandjii 1997; Titus 1998

O Botanical studies, especially taxonomic work Ihlenfeldt & Hartmann 1970; Marloth 1888, 1893; Schweikerdt 1937; Van der Westhuizen & Eicker 1991; Venter 1979; Volk 1964; Von Treichman 1982, 1983, 1990

P Applied and related fields of research, e.g. toxicology, genetics Abou.Mandour 1977*; Ackerman et al. 1975; Adesanya et al. 1999; Ahmad et al. 1999; Ahmed 2000; Baghdikian et al. 1997; Baghdikian et al. 1999; Bauersfeld 1974*; Bedir & Khan 2000; Behan 1971*; Betti 1998*; Bieg 1939; Blank 1973*, 1974*; Boehm 1890*; Brückner 1981; Burger 1985*; Burger & de Villiers 1987; Burger et al. 1987; Burghouts 1985; Carney et. al . 1998; Cartagena et al. 2000; Chen et al . 1998; Chrubasik et al. 1996;

Circosta et al. 1984*; Circosta et al. 1985*; Costa De Pasquale et al. 1985*; Czygan & Abou-Mandour 1982*; Czygan & Kruger 1997*; Czygan et al. 1977*; De Jong 1985*; Dijoux-Franca et al. 2001; Eich et al. 1998*; Eich & Wegener 1997; Eichler & Koch 1970*; Eloff et al. 2001; Erdos et al. 1978; FAO 1986; Fickentscher 1963*; Fleurentin & Mortier 1997*; Fragoso-Serrano 1998; Franz et al. 1978, 1982*; Gaerdes 1967; Gengaihi et al. 1988; Guillerault et al. 1996*; Haag-Berrurier et al. 1978*; Hammer 1967*; Hulzebos 1987; Hylands 1986*; Jäger & van Staden 1995; Joubert & Cooper n.d.*; Kolberg 1995; Lanhers et al 1992*; Levy et al. 1936*; Litchi & Wartburg 1963*; Luy 1960*; Maggs 1998c; Marsh 1971; Neuwinger 1996; Niederle 1996*; Occhiuto et al. 1985; Orabi et al. 2000; Ragusa et al. 1984; Reid et al. 2001. Ringbom et al . 1998; Schmidt 1970*, 1972*; Schmidt et al. 1998; Schwartz 1958; Shaw et al. 1963; Steyn et al. 2001; Stierstorfer 1961*; Swanepoel 1997; Tunmann & Lux 1962*; Tunmann & Stiersdorfer 1964*; Vanhaelen et al. 1981*; Vanhaelen et al. 1981*; van Puyvelde et al. 1986; Versfeld & Britten 1916; Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Wegener 1998*; Wehmeyer 1969, 1971, 1976, 1986; Wenzel & Wegener 1995*; Wichtl 1998; Ziller & Franz 1979; Zorn 1958

Q Research in other countries, especially Namibia’s neighbours Barnard 1986, 1992; Bergström & Skarpe 1981; Biesele 1983; Biesele & Bousque 1979*; De Jong 1985; Fanshawe 1956*; Heinz & Maguire 1974; Keith & Renew 1975; Kok 1986; Leloup 1984a & b; Levy et al 1936; Luoga et al. 2000; MacCrone 1937; Maguire 1954; Morton 1962; Peters 1987; Veenendal 1984

R Work in progress Craven & Kolberg in prep.; Eichorn in prep.; Hachveld in prep.; Kinahan pers. comm.; Kolberg 1999; Larsen n.d.; Leffers pers. comm.; Legere in prep.; Network Sustainable Resource Management in the Kunene Region; National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek 1997, 1998

S General overview Palmer & Pitman 1972

XA Material of general and contextual interest Amire 1998/99; Anon 1902*, 1910*; Aronson & Thompson 1987*; Barnard 1998; Baum 1903*; Bollig 1997a & b; Botelle & Kowalski 1997; Botelle & Rohde; Breunig 1988; Bronte-Stewart 1960*; Bruwer 1961; Budack 1965, 1976, 1983; Byers; Cleverly 1903; Coetzee 2000; Cogill & Kiugu 1990*; Cunningham 1992, 1994, 1997a, b & c; Cunningham & Terry 1995*; Davis & Wynberg 1996; De Vos 1997; De Winter 1973*; Dinter 1900a* & b*; Directorate of Development Coordination 1984; Du Pisani 1976b; Du Toit et al. 1995; Ed. Scientiae 1988; EEAN 1994; Fischer E. 1966; Fischer, J. n.d; Gersdorff 1908*; Girvan 1995; Gouws 1999; Grimme 1910; Grobler 1995; Hangula 1998; Hangula et al. 1998; Hangula 1994; Haughton et al. 1939; Herre 1975; Hinz 1998; Hoff 1967; Höft & Höft 1997; Holtz 1909*; Iken et al. 1994; Infoscience 1994*; Jacobsohn 1988, 1990; Jacobson 1981b, 1984; Jacobson et al. 1995; Jenkins & Brain 1967; Jensen 1954; Kamwi & Mufeti 1995; Katjimune & Hengua 1998; Katjivena & Kauta 1997; Kinahan 1991; Köhler 1969, 1979; Kolberg 1999; Krieke 1995; Lange 1996*, 1997; Le Bean 1996; Lebzelter 1996; Leith 1999; Lumpkin 1994; Maggs 1988, 1992a & b, 1996; Marloth 1886; Marsh 1994; Marsh & Seely 1992; Matsaert 1996, 1997; McCalman 1979; Metzger 1950; Moritz 1970, 1971*, 1991; Murley 1999; Neuwinger 1996; O'Brien & Peters 1998; Rodenberg 1931*; Rohde 1993, 1994, 1997; Rohlwink 1973; Rossouw 1988; Rust 1983; Sandelowsky 1971,1976, 1980,1983; Sandelowsky et al . 1979; Sander, Bollig & Schulte 1998; Schippmann & Hachfeld 1999; Schneider, E. 1997; Schneider 1994; Schultze 1939*; Schulze 1906*; Seely 1993; Snyman 1986*; Stark n.d.; Storad 1991*; Strohbach 2000b; Strohbach-Fricke 1995d, 1996; Talavera et al. 2000; Thomas 1974; Timberlake 1999;Trieber n.d.; Van Damme et al. 1992; Van Damme & van den Eynden 2000; Van Warmelo 1962; Van Wyk et al. 1997; Van Wyk & Gericke 2000. Vedder 1930, 1931; Vietmeyer 1996; Visser 1998; Volkmann 1990; Von Gerard 1912;

Von Gersdorf 1908; WCMC 1995*; Wilhelm 1921-1922; Wilkins/Ellert 1999; Williams 1991; Wynberg 2000

XB “Photo-stories” Alford 1995, 1996; Benson 1989; Berry 1991; Budack 1979; Burke 1997; Jacobson 1981a; Le Roux 1995; MacCalman 1967; Otto 1984; Pfeifer 1979; Ross 1971; Von Koenen 1964; Von Koenen & Von Koenen 1964

XC Bibliographies covered by this paper Crouch & Arnold 1999; Giess 1989; Hillebrecht 1998; Liengme 1983; Strohbach-Fricke 1995c; Sullivan 1996b

XD Forestry CANAMCO Forestry Programme 1995; Erkkilä & Siiskonen 1992

XE Environmental economics Arnold et al. 1985; Ashley & LaFranchi 1997; Barnes 1995; Botha & van der Merwe 1987; Büschel 1998; Byers n.d.; Conroy 1996*; Harrison 1995*; Hay et al. 1990; Kakujaha- Matundu 1996; LaFranchi 1996; Le Roux 1992; Matsaert1997; Moller 1997*; Mosimane 1996, 1998*; Prié 1998*; Quan et al . 1994; Robinson 1996*; Saar 1995*; Steyn 1971*; Strohbach 1998, 1999, 2000

XF General overviews Coates Palgrave 1977; Fox & Norwood Young 1982; O’Brien 1988; Peters 1990, 1996; Peters et al. 1984; Peters et al. 1992; Strohbach-Fricke 1995a & b;

Problems

Ethnobotany is a time-consuming and inexact science, requiring a serious attempt to embrace plural perspectives on biological resources and a commitment towards accurate identification of the resources under discussion. Not surprisingly, several general problems regarding ethnobotanical research in Namibia can be identified and are detailed below. These reflect both the growth of the discipline as a whole, and the lack of a general framework guiding expectations of such researchers in Namibia.

1. Reliability of information is a serious issue for two main reasons. First, because results from working with just a few informants are sometimes extrapolated uncritically to whole communities, and second, because information regarding names and uses of plants is often not accompanied by good voucher specimens.

2. When working with names in the local vernacular, language is often a barrier between researchers (especially expatriates) and local people, resulting in inconsistent spelling of vernacular names and the use of common names without correct identification or verification. This is further complicated by issues such as dialectical differences between people considered to be of the same broad cultural/linguistic groupings, as well as variations in terminology over time.

3. The aridity dominating much of Namibia’s territory has resulted in some researchers being unable to identify plants within the time period of their funding. For example, despite enormous European Commission funding the work done by van den Eynden et al. (1992) was limited to a very dry period and over 8 plants in the Kuiseb and 14 in Sesfontein (out of 42 and 53 respectively) could not be identified, even to genus. In this case, the work could perhaps have usefully focused on unidentified useful plants listed for the study areas in previous work (cf. Du Pisani 1983 ), rather than reiterating local knowledge and uses which had already been published.

4. Rainfall-driven variability in primary productivity means that serious thought has to be given to situating quantitative studies within the range of variation in both plant biomass and species complement exhibited through time in Namibia’s arid and semi-arid areas.

5. Misconceptions and generalisations are sometimes a problem. An example given by Rashford (1987) concerns the Botswanan S ān for whom, despite being the subject of intense studies over the past twenty years, are considered to consume the seeds of the baobab tree ( Adansonia digitata ) only in times of “scarcity” or “famine”. In contrast, baobab seeds seem to be a preferred food that is seasonally available at the most difficult time of the year. This relates to a wider conception of gathered foods as “the poor man’s food”, consumed only in times of drought or famine. Monitoring of resource use among Damara herders, for example, instead suggests that gathered foods are consumed in times of high availability, and not related to declines in the availability of alternative foods (cf. Sullivan 1998, in press ). In other words, studies of resource use need to be contextualised within broader issues and assumptions, while taking care not to make inappropriate generalisations based on specific research findings.

Future studies

As well as the “registering” of existing ethnobotanical information, there is much scope for future studies of local plant knowledge and uses. Clear guidelines should be established, however, regarding participation of local people, the return of information gathered, and support for the protection of local rights over knowledge and uses of biological resources in line with Namibia’s Biotrade legislation. The inventory of available research presented in this paper suggests to us that future work, conducted in collaboration and communication with the NBRI, could most usefully incorporate the following.

1. The collection of good voucher specimens with detailed notes in line with the NBRI’s requirements for species identification and herbarium curation.

2. Some standardised means of procuring information regarding plant resources. This should include details of informants, i.e. age, gender, occupation etc., as well as details of how resources are prepared and utilised (e.g. following Croom (1983) for documentation of medicinal uses), and the monitoring of contemporary patterns of use (cf. the methods manuals of Martin (1995) and Cotton (1996)).

3. Ecological survey data regarding the supply and status of specific resources, especially for products which may be exploited commercially.

4. Information regarding folk taxonomy and classifications of resources.

5. Several geographical areas and cultural groups are under-represented in existing research. Following category Ai, detailed work has been conducted among the Himba of the Kunene Region, among the Kwanyama Owambo of north-central Namibia, the Xhoe of Caprivi and among the Damara of former Damaraland, primarily Khorixas District, Kunene Region. A number of smaller scale studies have also been conducted among Nama-speaking people at specific locations, e.g. the Kuiseb and the former Namaland. The east and certain groups in the north-eastern reaches of the country, with the exception of Maggs’ (1988) unpublished work in Caprivi and Köhler (1989-1997), are relatively under-researched. Furthermore, the detailed work conducted in the 1970s and 1980s is likely to be out-of-date with regard to contemporary patterns of resource use.

6. This inventory and review of ethnobotanical sources is not sufficient to allow the identification of species or genera that require further research. Compiling this type of detailed information should be a priority once available material regarding local knowledge and uses of Namibia’s flora has been registered in a “Useful Plants” database. This “register”, together with review of published work on related plants from elsewhere, will allow assessment of plants that may have economic potential as well as the clarification of gaps in research on indigenous species.

The role of the National Botanical Research Institute

As custodian of the National Collection housed in the National Herbarium, and institutional location of information relating to Namibia’s plant resources, the NBRI has a major advisory role to play in all areas of policy and planning, as well as research involving plant resources as components of national biodiversity. Three primary activities perhaps can be delineated.

1. Through its capacity to vet research and collection permits, the NBRI can guide proposed research to fill identified gaps in the existing information base regarding useful plants. Moreover, criteria to be included in proposed research (e.g. methodology, the collection of voucher specimens, etc.), as well as specifications for the training of and collaboration with Namibian fieldworkers, can be identified as requirements for permit approval. In this way, future research into plant resource use to some extent can be streamlined to fulfill national needs and conform with institutional expectations of research standards.

2. The NBRI does, and should, make an essential contribution to ethnobotanical and resource use work through the identification and curation of voucher specimens, and the subsequent incorporation of relevant information into the central flora database.

3. The above relates well to the NBRI’s own initiatives in this direction, namely the proposed coordination of a “Useful Plants” Programme (focusing on the identification, development and sustainable use of plants with economic potential (Maggs 1996)), and its approved Medicinal Plant Survey of Namibia Project. Increased awareness of these initiatives outside the NBRI is necessary to promote collaboration with independent researchers, institutional programmes and related project implementation, and to improve the quality of such agendas with regard to the generation and application of plant use information.

4. Information on plant use should be incorporated into other activities of the NBRI. Such knowledge is essential in affirming both local claims on knowledge regarding local plant species, and in identifying potentially threatened plants that should be listed as Red Data species or which require protection by law.

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