"I Don't See Any Method At All": The Problem of Actorly Transformation Author(s): KEVIN ESCH Source: Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 58, No. 1/2 (SPRING/SUMMER 2006), pp. 95-107 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the University Film & Video Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20688519 . Accessed: 29/01/2014 07:53

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This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions "I Don't See AnyMethod At All": The Problem of ActorlyTransformation

KEVIN ESGH

Captain Willard (): "They toldme that you had gone totally insane, and that your methods were unsound."

Colonel Kurtz (): "Aremy methods unsound?"

Captain Willard: "I don't see any method at all, sir."

?Apocalypse Now

in 1980, having previously garnered an Brando. The filmitself famously makes the con academy award forBest SupportingActor as nection inthe finalscene, as an aging LaMotta Vito Corleone inThe Godfather Part II (1974)?a rehearses fora nightclubroutine by reciting characterfirst played byMarlon Brando?Rob Brando's legendary "I couldah been a conten ertDe Niro received theBest ActorOscar forhis dah" speech fromOn theWaterfront (1954). performanceof JakeLa Motta inRaging Bull. It Echoing the tempestof debate thathad swirled was a performance that, then as now, proved around Brando and theMethod performersin difficultto ignore.The commercialand critical the , however,many criticsfelt something consensus suggested that, whatever the con missing inDe Niro's role,even as theywere siderablemerits of Martin Scorsese's contribu overwhelmedby it."What De Nirodoes in this tions,most of thefilm's impactderived from picture isn'tacting, exactly," writes Pauline De Niro's acting; LouisMenand even argues Kael. "I'm not surewhat it is.Though itmay at that "everything Scorsese does is contrived to some level be awesome, itdefinitely isn't plea letthat performance stand at the centerof our surable" (874). Andrew Sarris's review says De attention"(61). ThoughRaging Bull and Scor Nirooutdoes LonChaney "inwreaking havoc sese lostBest Pictureand Best Directorhonors on one's metabolism forthe sake of shocking to RobertRedford's Ordinary People (a decision and depressing [his]audience," and concludes still ridiculedby film critics), by decade's end by revisitingthat finalnightclub scene: "... I thefilm was at the topof best-of lists inPre can onlygasp at the deeply affectingaptness miere and Time,and it is now listedon theNa and audacity and virtuosityof the conceit. tional FilmRegistry of the Libraryof Congress. Between them,De Niroand Scorsese and their De Niro's astonishing sixty-poundweight associates end up with a breathtakinglynew gain forthe scenes of LaMotta's lateryears dimension ofmemory and regret.If only Icould was heavilypublicized and dominated reviews feel the slightestmoral resonance as well, but I of thefilm. Like theOscar victories,which sug don't, and thatmakes all thedifference" (55). gested De Niroas theMethod heir to Brando, The dichotomies evident inthe criticalrecep critics linkedthe performanceto an earlier tion to De Niro's performancein Raging Bull? generationof Method actors, particularly adulationmixed with disapproval and disgust, recognitionof an extraordinarydevotion to craft mixedwith uncertaintyabout whether itquali Kevin Esch is completing his dissertation, "In the fiesas craftat all?are of this Moment: Myth and Method in Contemporary Hol typical unprec lywood Film Acting," at the University of Iowa. edented but increasinglycommon approach to

JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 95 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions acting that Iwill call "actorly transformation." fidelity of performance, not merely screen How do we make sense of a performance move idolatry and/or sexual appeal. ment that seems on one hand utterly sense Changing an actor's appearance through less, even dangerous, and on the other hand makeup or prosthetics, for example, has a long exceptionallydedicated and even (given the and distinguished historyin film performance, attention itoften receives) financiallyshrewd? and certain actors were acclaimed for their re What relationdoes ithave to the firstgenera markable series of guises. Paul Muni,who was tionof Method actors, towhich it is frequently nominated forfive duringhis linked(as inthe scene fromRaging Bull) but career and won forthe titlerole inThe Story of which had a markedlydifferent attitude toward LouisPasteur (1935), became well known for the actor's instrument,the human body?While his extensive research and makeup enhance actorlytransformation has sometimes been ment infilms likeLouis Pasteur, The Good Earth seen as only an expression of exercise culture (1937). The LifeofEmile Zola (1937), and Juarez and weight-loss fads, these explanations failto (1939). By at least one account, his interpreta consider the impactof vast changes inthe Hol tion of Zola was uncanny: "[A] Frenchman, then lywoodentertainment industry since theMeth resident inLos Angeles, who saw The Lifeof od's culturalzenith inthe 1950s. As both David EmileZola... [said] the characterizationof Cook and JonLewis have described, the 1970s Zola by Paul Muni was perfectnot only inmake and 1980s saw 's corporate struc up but also inpeculiarities of movement and tureand financingstrategies shiftprofoundly, speech. Thiswitness to the film'sauthenticity towarda business model premised on diver had known EmileZola personallyand had been sification and risk aversion. As an example, present at the trialof Captain Dreyfus" (van den the related industrydevoted to insuring(and, Ecker330). increasingly,policing) actors has attempted to The actorwho won themost acclaim for graft a culture of personal responsibility onto his radical physical changes, as Andrew Sar an industry culturally defined by excess. For ds notes inhis Raging Bull review,was Lon these reasons, Hollywood became less toler Chaney, "Man of a Thousand Faces" (and hon ant of the kindof rebelliousartistry generally ored ina biopic of the same titlestarring James associated with the Method?even as it strove Cagney). Chaney's corporeal expressiveness to preserve its audacious reputation?and the may be the closest historicalprecursor to the opportunityarose foran approach to acting actorly transformation trend. Voted most popu thatevoked theMethod's behavioral extremes larmale box-officestar by theatricalexhibitors at the same time that itfetishized discipline. in1928 and 1929?a notable span because it bridges the transitionto sound, whichwas so A New "Method" difficultfor many silent performers?Chaney employed his famousmakeup case (donated to The termactorly transformation is meant to the NaturalHistory Museum inLos Angeles af separate thismode of performancefrom other terhis death in1930) to create fantasticalphys popular formsof body or facial alterationthat iognomies insuch filmsas Oliver Twist(1922), film actors have employed. Actorly transforma TheHunchback ofNotre Dame (1923), Phantom tionhas twodistinguishing characteristics: of theOpera (1925), andMr. Wu (1927).1He first, the actor's body itself must be trans regularlyportrayed characters who are (orare formed through concentrated, film-specific, pretendingto be) missing limbsor suffering self-imposed body alteration?especially otherdisfigurements. Chaney's dedication weight gain or loss?not simplythrough pros oftendrove him to painfulbodily contortions theticenhancement (althoughprosthetics may inthe service of a role, likethe criminalgenius sometimes accompany it);second, the stated Blizzard fromThe Penalty (1920), a filmthat purpose of said transformation must be greater "lingersover Chaney's abilityto manipulate his

96 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRI NO/SUMMER 2006 ?2006 BYTHE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UN IVERSITYOF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions body, strapped intoa harness tomake itap on the set ofMarathon Man (1976) sets the pear as ifhis legs are amputated at the knees" tone forthe prevailingcounterargument to the (Studlar234). Despite the extraordinaryphysi extremesof the newMethod. At one pointdur cal dedication to these roles,however, there is ingthe shoot, Hoffmanstayed up all nightto no indicationthat either Chaney orMuni chose, lendauthenticity to his character's insomnia; as an alternative to makeup and prosthetics, to the Shakespearean-trained Olivier responded gain or loseweight or otherwise change their to his bedraggled costar, "Whydon't you try bodies fora part. acting, dear boy?"3 Similar attitudes are appar Also distinctfrom the actorlytransformation ent in numerous interviews with actors. "Listen, under discussion is the trend,beginning inthe Ifeel very strongly," the actor LindsayCrouse actionmovies of the 1980s, forstars to develop has said, "and I teach my students this: you're theirbodies throughbodybuilding, becoming either an actor or you're not_For the most themselvesa site of spectacle within the bom part,going to thatextreme is bull, that's some bast of the film.With precedents inthe work one who is not an actor. You don't have to cut of some earlier actors (Steve Reeves, e.g.), your legoff at the hip to play a paraplegic" (qtd. the tendencywas popularized bySylvester in Zucker 28). Crouse's example, whether in Stallone inthe Rocky and Rambo films,Linda tentionallyor not, recallsMarlon Brando's first Hamilton inTerminator 2: JudgmentDay (1991), starringrole inFred Zinnemann's social prob and the paradigmaticArnold Schwarzenegger lemfilm The Men (1950). Brando receivedcriti throughouthis filmcareer; ithas been carried cal acclaim forhis performanceas a paraplegic on more recentlyby stars likeBrad Pitt inFight war veteranpiecing his lifeback togetherin a Club (1991) and Troy(2004) and Hugh Jack stateside veterans' hospital?a role forwhich man \r\X-Men (2000). Other actors, such as Brando prepared by spending severalmonths inSpeed (1994), have signaled with paraplegic vets. Crouse,who studiedwith changes incareer direction by bulkingup Uta Hagen and SanfordMeisner, goes on to while also switchingover to the action genre. say thatan actor's body isan instrumentthat Yet since action cinema has been the primary needs to be disciplined, but not abused, inthe domainwhere actors have dramatized their service of a part.The alternative"is liketelling bodies in this way, these transformations are a sculptor he has to mutilate himself in order not discussed in "actorly" terms?as signs of to learnhow to chop away at a block" (qtd. in dedication to the craftof acting. Instead,these Zucker28). LikeOlivier, Crouse believes thata performancesand filmshave been viewed lineexists beyondwhich an actor abandons his symptomatically,as examples of Reaganite ide professionalism inthe pursuitof a role. ology or reactionsto underminedmasculinity RobertDe Niro frequentlysurfaces in these in a postindustrial economy.2 Stallone's work in interviewsas the apotheosis of thiskind of Cop Land (1997), on the other hand?as an ag extreme acting preparation. According to Eli ingsheriff of a troubledJersey town, a role for Wallach, a foundingmember of and frequent which he stopped exercisingand added several moderatorat theActors Studio: inches to hismidriff?is a perfectexample of There are some actors who, if strategic "actorly transformation" as a way of they're going to play a coal miner, have to go down a mine reinvigorating an aging actor's career. and spend 3 months ina mine and get dirty Considerable controversyhas attended this and knowwhat the lifeis like,right? Some new turnin ,both within the actors don't have to go down in the mine. academic communityand among outside ob Theyput dirt on theirface, they come up out servers. film actors trans Many regard actorly of their mineshaft, and you say, "Gee, there's formation for a role as an even unnecessary, a coal miner." Right? One does it literally, the unprofessional indulgence. Laurence Olivier's other imagines, and I fit into the latter group, now-legendaryinstruction to Dustin Hoffman the imagining-what-it's-like.

JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 97 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I've just been reading about De Niro, who's of these performancesis beside the point. In a wonderful but he's been actor, playing order to assess how important this acting trend this catatonic [Awakenings, 1990], spend has become fora popular understandingof three months in this and two ing hospital "serious" acting,we can lookat themost highly months in that one. And that's where all the visible and economicallyproductive arbiter hypeand thepublicity is. (qtd. inZucker 161) of Hollywoodacting success, theAcademy Awards. The Oscars are considered In itself,Wallach's descriptionof De Niro's generally themost awards ceremonyfor the preparationto play a catatonic is littledifferent prestigious film and as the ulti fromBrando's preparationfor The Men, alluded Hollywood industry, year's mate honors aftera streamof awards leading to by LindsayCrouse. Yet forthis long-time to theOscars also receive themost Method actor,De Niro seems to stand forsome up them, with well be thinglarger: a tendencytoward overvaluing publicity, speculation beginning forenominees are announced and intensifying performancesof physicallyor psychologically untilthe winners are announced severalweeks damaged or otherwise marginal characters, in later. Inaddition, filmsthat win or are nominat largepart due to the demands of physical fidel ed for Awards can benefit at ityundertaken by the actor forthe role.Richard Academy greatly the box office,particularly contenders forBest Dreyfuss, who never trained formally, goes ever Picture,Best Actor,and Best Actress. further,arguing thatthis "something larger"is According to one ofOscar's worth at theActors Studio itself: study the box office, filmsthat were nominatedor thatwon survived in on more screens Someone who really minimized the power longer distribution, played of acting, the most damaging influence to nationally, and showed increased revenue the American theatrical culture?and culture per screen (Nelson et al 1-16). Followingthe even in a sense?was Lee larger Strasberg. awards, of course, Oscar glory also becomes ... There's an old story about what you had a way both tomarket actors infuture films to do in order to be able to get into Shake and for actors to justify greater compensation. speare's Globe Theater?you had to be an ac Simplyput, whatever fellowactors or filmcrit tor, a dancer, a mime, a juggler, a singer, and icsmay thinkof actorlytransformation, it has a you had to play kings and peasants, princes realand measurable impacton theHollywood and angels. None of this is demanded of us. and its in AfterWorld War II, basically industry place public perception. and De Niro'sOscar for said, "No, you have to play just this narrow Taking 1980 Raging spectrum," and Stella Adler said, "No, it's Bull as a startingpoint, and consideringevery not, it's bigger than that," and she was ex actor nominated foreach of the acting awards iled. All of my generation suffers from this; (BestActor/Actress and Best SupportingActor/ I suffer from it. Bobby De Niro, who, inmy Actress) up throughthe 2004 AcademyAwards, is the finest actor of opinion, my generation the results,even ifunscientific, are startling. and who could do almost anything, would be Twenty-seven actors have been nominated for that much better had we not all been so ter or receivedOscars in leadingor supporting ribly influenced by the restrictions put on us roles thatadvertised weight gain or loss or oth byStrasberg. (qtd. inZucker 80) er bodily transformation ?an average of more thanone a More the numbers Whether or notone agrees withWallach's and year. tellingly, have risen fromone decade to the Dreyfuss' assessments, however, one cannot significantly next: six were nominated or won in the deny that inthe last twodecades of Hollywood 1980s, nine inthe in and filmmaking,since De Niroand Raging Bull, 1990s (four 1998 1999 and twelve inthe firsthalf of the 2000s. much of "the hype and the publicity"has been alone), A brief of these roles indicates that given to rolesof thissort. Forpurposes of his survey while or loss is sometimes the toricalanalysis, debating the aestheticmerits weight gain pri mary "special effect"?as with De Niro in Rag

98 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ingBull, inPrizzi's Honor (1985), Untouchables [1987],Tom Hanks inRoad to EdwardNorton inAmerican HistoryX (1998), or Perdition [2002], inKiss ofDeath Renee Zellweger inboth Bridget Jones's Diary U995]. and JamieFoxx inAll) as well as many (2001) and ColdMountain (2003)?it is fre who have not (MattDamon inCourage Under quentlypart of a largerarsenal of physicaland Fire [1996] and The TalentedMr. Ripley [1999], prostheticalteration?the disguisingmakeup ToniCollette inMuriel's Wedding [1994],Beni Ben Kingsleysported inaddition to hisweight cio del Toro inFear and Loathing inLas Vegas loss forGandhi (1982), forexample, ormore [1998],Vincent D'Onofrio inFull Metal Jacket recentlythe prostheticjaw, jagged false teeth, [1997]and TheSalton Sea [2002],Val Kilmerin mottled skin,and dark contact lenses that Joe theKing [1999],and ChristianBale inThe helped CharlizeTheron become the heavier-set Machinist [2004]). Yet the prevailingattitude serial killerAileen Wuornos inMonster (2003).4 among observers is thatsuch rolesare farmore When combinedwith corporeal transformation, likelyto receiveawards thanother roles.Caryn these supplemental changes (and the time Jameshas written inthe New YorkTimes, on intensivepreparations thataccompany them) the occasion of Christian Bale's extraordinary reinforcethe rhetoricof dedication to craftinga sixty-three-poundweight loss forThe Machin "true" performance. As Stephen Holden writes ist,"It's one of the surestgambits inOscardom: ofTheron's performance,"At thevery least the ifan actor suddenly looksdangerously thinor disappearance of the cool and creamyblond unglamorously plump, that's acting!" James star intothe body of a ruddy,bedraggled street explains the trendsociologically by linkingit to person isan astounding cosmetic stunt.But theAmerican obsession withweight, dieting, ... Ms. Theron's transformation is not just a and plastic surgery,postulating that moviego matterof surfaces" (Ei). ers desperate to reconfiguretheir own bodies Given the financialbenefits reaped fromthe are fascinatedby an actor's abilityto laywaste exposure and aesthetic approval these films to his or her figureand then restore itafterward receivefrom the Academy Awards, we can say with the help of personal trainers. thatthis groundswell of actorlytransforma While theremay be some truthto this,james tionhas had an impactfar greater than even doesn't account forAmericans' long-standing the number of Oscar nominations suggests. interest in nutrition, diet fads, and exercise. Although the box-officefigures of even the At least as early as the 1910s and 1920s, the most award-winningfilm tend today to be sur numerous books and articles penned under passed by seasonal blockbusters?many more Douglas Fairbanks's name emphasized the people sawWill Smith inMen inBlack (1997) character-building virtues of exercise and clean than inhis Oscar-nominated role inAH (2001), living: "I see it," he wrote, "as the great antidote forexample?we can safelysay thatprized forthe softeningand demoralizingeffect of too performances are viewed farmore, on average, much civilization"(qtd. inStudlar46). Inhis thanperformances that win no awards, and twohistories of American eating habits,Harvey are projected on a greater number of American Levensteinhas traced these habits fromwhat screens. In fact, award-winning performances he calls the "New Nutrition,"which inthe 1890s are a means of justifying the continued invest first informed people about proteins, carbohy ment insmaller filmsthat have less broad drates, and fats; to the "NewerNutrition" of the based appeal. Depression era,with itsfocus on vitaminsand Of course, a number of other performances sufficientnutrient intake; to thedrive to reduce in recent decades have used actorly trans consumption,which he termsthe "Negative formationas partof theirtechnique without Nutrition."This lastperiod looksmost imme receivingOscars fortheir troubles. A sampling diate to us today,though itoriginated inthe would includeactors who have been nomi postwar period as health-consciousness and nated forother transformations(De Niro inThe gained ascendancy by the late1950s as fash

JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 99 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ion-consciousness, with the popularity of diet inHollywood ("The Rebel Hero: Launched and cookbooks, liquid-meal substitutes, and "low Almost Lost"), ("New Rebel cal" groceryproducts (Levenstein,136-37). Yet Hero Stars Emerge"), Brando, and James Dean. thishistory raises thequestion ofwhy actorly In fact, of the ten "rebel heroes" on one two transformation did not become a force in Hol page photo spread in the book, seven are asso lywoodacting untilthe 1980s. Whywas thisnot ciatedwith theMethod (Garfield,Clift, Brando,

partof theMethod approach of the 1950s? Dean, , Warren Beatty, and Dustin Hoffman),with FrankSinatra, Steve McQueen, and Peter Fonda out the list Taming the Method, or, Brando's rounding (Morella and There is littleneed here to Weight Problem Epstein 8-9). rehearse the numerous stories, recounted in "There are few spectacles corporate America dozens of biographies, of counterculturaldal more a enjoys than good counterculture," liance, sexual indiscretion and exploration, Thomas Frankhas observed (145). The ex profligacywith drugs and alcohol, and vehicu traordinarysuccess of theMethod in1950s larrecklessness thathave been erected around Hollywoodowed a great deal to the industry's many of these stars. Even a tragicfigure only embrace and nourishingof rebellion.Method tangentiallyconnected to theMethod, Marilyn actingwas activelymarketed as a revoltagainst Monroe, has been affected in remembranceby standard performancepractice, though infact, virtueof her briefstudy at theActors Studio. as CynthiaBaron has pointed out, itshared Lee Strasberg,who eulogized Monroe at her many similaritieswith the long-established funeral,lends artisticcredibility to her career by acting traditionstaught inthe studios' acting association, even as he enhances the sense of schools. A1954 article in Life magazine, exem a troubled lifelost too soon.5 plifyingthe publicizingof the "new" attitude The rebellious reputationof theMethod toward performance, documents Actors Studio and itsadherents had at least one significant members and sit drawback forthe industry,however. Simply put, ting at the counter of a late-night diner, observ the dangerous lives led by some of themost ingthe clientele,absorbing the atmosphere, so visibleMethod actors considerablyshortened thatthey might lateruse what theyhave found or otherwise damaged their careers, resulting in their own acting. A street accident provides in reduced return on investment for their stu the same opportunity,with the actors noting dios. Gift's alcoholism and drug abuse were the activitiesof the ambulance drivers.Not notorious,causing complicationson the sets onlyare these actors being shown takingtheir ofFrom Here toEternity (1953) and Hitchcock's lessons fromlife, the environmentsthey are /Confess (1953) and contributingto his car found inare onlymarginally respectable, on the crash duringthe productionof Raintree County fringes of the societal mainstream. (1957). His drug use, includingpainkillers, in The Hollywood industry,battered on multiple creased followingreconstructive surgery, which frontsin the 1950s, found inthe Method a lefthis fluidfeatures less flexible;by the time means to revitalizeits product and itscultural of his death in1966, Gift's eccentricitieshad cachet with a new, younger, postwar audience. so worn out hiswelcome with journaliststhat The rebellious lifestylesof a select fewyoung obituaries variously described him as "maver as Method actors became much a part of the ick" (kindly), "strange and impenetrable," "a Method mythologyas the acting itself,so much victim without a cause," and part of an acting so thata 1971book entitledRebels: TheRebel movement that had become "embarrassingly Hero inFilms was virtually(and implicitly)a obsolete" (Larsen; Pacey; Thorn;Long). Method historyas well, with chapterson john Dean, priorto the crash thatended his life Garfield,the firstStudio member to succeed on 30 September 1955, had already become

100 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions an insurance risk toWarner Bros., and a clause most long-standing representative ofthat era. had been put inhis contractfor Giant (1956) As such he deserves more detailed examina stipulatingno race-cardriving until his work on tion. Followinghis death in2004, themedia the filmwas complete; the accident occurred elegized himwith countless articles.Most of soon afterhe filmedhis lastscene. Graham the storieswere as predictable intheir focus as McCann relates the aftermath: in their omissions, and studying these remem brances reveals the conflictedcultural legacy RebelWithout a Cause and Giantwere both leftbehind by Brando and, by extension, the released Rebel on posthumously. opened Method. The general toneof the popular eulogy 3 October 1955?three days after Dean's can be summed up by theopening paragraph death. One studio executive is said to have of theNew YorkTimes obituary, inwhich Bran looked at the posters of Dean's movies and do was called "the rebellious who elec said, "Great career move, kid." The date prodigy trifieda generationand forevertransformed "9/30/55" was painted on walls, carved theart of screen butwhose into school desks and printed on to T-shirts. acting obstinacy Threethousand people attendedhis funeral and eccentricityprevented him fromfully real in Fairmount?dwarfing the local population. izingthe promiseof his earlygenius" (Lyman). A year later, Dean's studio was still receiving Anotherobituary describes himmore colloqui two thousand fan letters per week addressed ally as "neverquite Hollywood's cup of tea" to the star_ dead (Jacobs).Brando's death affordedthe press an ... At Dean's funeral Pastor Xen Harvey opportunitynot so much to reexaminehis life had said, "The career of James Dean has not as to rehearsean already oft-playedscript. It ended. Ithas justbegun. And God himselfis beginswith the revelatoryearly successes at directing the production." (162-63) theActors Studio, on Broadway inA Streetcar As seductive as the idea of Dean's career turn Named Desire (1951),and inhis filmswith di rectorElia the of ingon a fatefulcar crashmay be, however, Kazan, especially adaptation Streetcarand On the forwhich he itmerits additional scrutiny.Dean's firstfilm Waterfront, won his first Award. performancein East ofEden (1955) had been Academy The next of Brando's well received,despite or because of his stylistic stage popular history take as its the notorious indebtedness to Gift and Brando, actors whom might starting point that inthe New Yorkerin he worshipped and who served as models for profile appeared 1957. Written Truman "The Duke inHis his own acting. By most accounts, Dean was by Capote, Domain" takes in the film justbeginning to findhis own distinctiveap place Kyotoduring of and isone of the first proach. Of course it isonly a parlorgame to ing Sayonara (1957) sustained accounts of Brando that focuses less wonder what Dean might have become?and on his and more on his eccentricand howmuch more the studiosmight have prof acting difficult nature. The was so in ited?given twentymore years and films.What portrait revealing, that Brando?who had been warned about is clear, though, is that,while Hollywood's fact, director historyis pepperedwith figures,like Dean and Capote by JoshLogan?threatened to sue One Monroe, whose posthumous legendsdwarfed briefly Capote (Manso 428-34). worth at heralds a shift theirlifetime earnings, a sound business model passage quoting length inattitude about the actor fromhis tri hardlywelcomes such accidents. Converting 1947 inStreetcar to his role ten lateras these stars intoprofitable dead iconscould in umph years "theValentino of the fact be viewed as a necessary strategy to re bop generation."Capote's first encounter with Brando was rehears coup lostcapital. during als forthe a moment he Brando, the onlyone of the threeMethod Broadwayproduction, recallsas thevoice of the Brando goes myth-heroes to avoid a premature career end present on and "as to hear itself: and to liveand work intoold age, has been the on, thoughspeaking

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This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions , the director of A Streetcar Named Shochiku filmcompany and ShochikiTs reluc said at that and has Desire, time, recently tance to grant access to Japan's theatrical ac "Marlon is the best actor in repeated, just tivitiesfor the production. Forhis part,Brando the world." But ten years ago, on the re expresses frustrationover the scriptand boasts membered afternoon, he was still relatively to Capote, seriously or not, "I give up. I'm go unknown; at least, I hadn't a clue to who ingto walk throughthe part,and that's that. he might be when, arriving too early at the Sometimes I think knows thedifference Streetcar rehearsal, I found the auditorium nobody Brando's deserted and a brawny young man stretched anyway" (364). Though ultimately a out atop a table on the stage_I took him performancein Sayonara garnered him third fora stagehand.Or did until I lookedclosely Oscar nomination,Capote's piece signaled a at his face. Itwas as ifa stranger's head shift inthe public attitudetoward him?and it had been attached to the brawny body, as drew attentionas well to the corporeal changes in certain counterfeit photographs. For this thatwould more and more define him inhis face was so very untough, superimposing, later career. as itdid, an almost angelic refinement and As Brando's career moved into the 1960s, gentleness upon hard-jawed good looks_ his box-officepower declined; hewouldn't Not the least suggestion of [Tennessee] Wil returnto the rosterof top ten stars until1972's liams' unpoetic Kowalski. Itwas therefore an The Brando experience to observe, later that afternoon, Godfather. Increasingly, sabotaged hewas involved or with what chameleon ease Brando acquired productions with other the character's cruel and gaudy colors, how wise embarrassed the Hollywood industry,to superbly, like a guileful salamander, he considerable press retribution.The disastrous slithered into the part, how his own persona remakeof Mutiny on theBounty (1962),whose in hotel room evaporated?just as, this Kyoto twenty-six-million-dollarfinal budget was at the ten afterward, of years my 1947 memory timeeclipsed only by thatof Cleopatra (1963), Brando receded, disappeared into his 1957 was blamed exclusively on Brando's tempes self. And the the one present Brando, loung tuous behavior on set and his insistenceon ing there on the tatami and lazily puffing star treatmenton location inTahiti (including filtered cigarettes as he talked and talked, the New YorkTimes sent to him, was, of course, a different person?bound to having Sunday at the cost of A be. His body was thicker; his forehead was $27.94 perweek) (Carey156). higher_His eyes had changed. Although Saturday EveningPost cover story,"Six Million their caffe-espresso color was the same, Dollars Down the Drain:The Mutinyof Marlon the shyness, any traces of real vulnerability Brando," even quoted Robert Wise's prediction thatthey had formerlyheld, had leftthem; thatBounty, along with Cleopatra, portended now he looked at with people assurance, "the end of the star systemas itexists inHolly andwith what can onlybe called a pitying wood today" (qtd. inManso 548). Though plac expression, as though he dwelt in spheres of ingthe blame forthe film'soverrun budget, let enlightenment where they, to his regret, did alone the collapse of the star system,solely on not. (359-60) Brando's shoulders was surely unfair, MGM's stock the indi Capote renders Brando as an artist whose falling prices during production cated thatBrando had become a financial li self-absorptionand sense of entitlementhave and an insurance riskto begun to counteracthis artistry(a perception ability anyone seeking to him. his returnto thatwould come to defineCapote as well6). The employ Despite temporary with The result isa portraitof a difficultactor. JoshLogan Hollywood's good graces Godfather and BernardoBertolucci's Last inParis admits to Capote thathe feels "something lack Tango filmwhich nevertheless be ing in his rapport" with Brando?a communica (1973)~~a foreign came an American succes de scandale?Bran tionproblem exacerbated by the timehe spent do's was reconfirmed his tryingto salvage a failingrelationship with the unreliability only by rejectionof theAcademy Award forplaying Vito

102 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Corleone, thefirst such dismissal inthe history weighing in the 240s, admitted himselfto a of the ceremony.7 hospital forcontrolled fasting. However,the most literallyvisible evidence Despite this,he was stillseverely overweight of Brando's unpredictabilitywas his constantly when he arrived inthe Philippines, and Fran fluctuatingweight and the problems itcaused cis FordCoppola and his crewwere forcedto to his work never and reputation, more so reconceptualize the character, whom Joseph thanduring this period inthe 1960s and 70s. Conrad describes inHeart ofDarkness as with When Capote remarkedon Brando's thickness ered and gaunt. "I instantlythought I'd play and contrasted itto his lithemuscularity in him as fat,"Coppola remembers,"and show Streetcar, he introduced the before-and-after him as a guywho'd gone to seed. But he did structurecommon to discussions of Brando not want to be portrayed as fat. I said, 'Marlon, today?the T-shirtedyoung stargracing one what am I to do? Ican't show you as a trim side of theobituary, the Tahitian recluse of militaryguy, as the character is in the [John] Wellesian proportionsoccupying theother. Yet Milius script. Ican show you as a man who is Brandowas preoccupiedwith hisweight and indulginghis senses, but you don'twant me eating habits throughouthis life.The indexto to'" (qtd. inCowie 77). Instead, ratherthan PeterManso's heftybiography contains fifty using Brando's size as partof a fullyrealized fourreferences to Brando's weight problems character, Coppola and cinematographerVit and eating habits.Manso reportsthe actor's torioStoraro were forcedto obscure his girth, penchant forconsuming entire jarsof peanut shooting inclose-up and with chiaroscuro butterand boxes ofMallomars. What makes lighting,both ofwhich contributedto an ulti thismore thanmere gossipy titillation,though, mately static, confused characterization. are thefinancial and artisticconflicts resulting The difficultyin "reading" Brando as Kurtz is fromBrando's weight problems and his van apparent fromreviews of the film.John Simon ityabout hisweight. The costume designer on writes that "Brando.... has become an ob One-EyedJacks (1961) had to accommodate his scene, secular Buddha with shaven head and changes inbulk by installingelastic inBrando's ballooningmidriff, whose voice emerges like shirtsand trousers,which he still regularly the squeal of a mouse froma ridiculousmoun split (Manso 488). He dieted and lost twenty tain" (1247). Veronica Geng, suggesting even pounds forThe Appaloosa (1966), as a promise more clearlyan otherworldlycritical distance to directorSidney Furie,but gained itback dur from Kurtz, says, "Vittorio Storaro's camera re ingthe shoot; a body double was substituted veres Brando's shaved skull, defined by a cres forhim inseveral shots (Manso 612-16). His cent of light,the way [StanleyKubrick's] 2001 weight ballooned from170 to 210 duringthe reveres the solar system" (72). By contrast, An elongated productionof Mutiny (Carey162). thony Lane, writing about Coppola's "director's Bernardo Bertolucci shot Brando's one nude cut"Apocalypse Now Redux (2001), points out a scene inLast Tango inParis with the star and revelatory new scene where Brando appears in Maria Schneider entwined,to hide his excess fulldaylight: fat.Schneider latersaid, "Iwasn't excited by ... him,although my friendstold me Ishould be, [F]or the first and only time we get to observe that massive boulder of a and Idon't thinkhe was excited byme. He's head, as with threat as any of the carved old, almost fifty,you know,and he's flabbyand steady sculptures that encrust his temple? Kurtz he has a big... [she gestures to indicatea pot inthe shadows was puremystery, but the belly].And he was veryuptight about it"(qtd. in visible Kurtz has a proud Roman madness, Thompson 68). like something from the final volume of Gib farthe most extreme were By complications bon, that harks back sadly to Brando's Mark to yet come, however. Inpreparing for the role Antony in Julius Caesar, and urges you to of Colonel Kurtz inApocalypse Now, Brando,

JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO 58.1-2 / SPRING/SUMMER 2006 103 ?2006 BY THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions consider Coppola's movie less as a quest Perhaps one of themost neglected facetsof into the unknown and more as a meditation this increasingly risk-averse business strategy, on the American imperium_(354-55) especiallywhere actors are concerned, is the expanded roleof cast insurance inthe New ForLane, the added scene literallyfleshes out a Hollywood. Elizabeth0. Hubbartdescribes the previously incomprehensiblecharacter, makes extent to which insurance providers now exert the rolemore meaningfulwithin Brando's body controlover productionchoices and artistic ofwork, and unveils sociopolitical depths decisions, includingcasting: beneath the film'ssuperficial mythology?all because Kurtzwas at last revealed to the fully Bond companies have been known to send audience. The new scene hints at an briefly representatives to sit on a set and observe aesthetic reversal of Capote's then-and-now filming, monitor risks, and make recom moment: the lastgreat Method actor, foryears mendations_A stunt planned with a shrouded inbloated eccentricityand financial helicoptermight be changedto an airplane ifthe it. In self-destructiveness, suddenly revealed in a representative suggests addition, itis not unheard of for bond moment of artisticclarity. completion companies to recommend to the producer "Bloated eccentricity and financial self that a key player or director be replaced_ destructiveness" isalso an apt description To the audience, the idea of an underwriter of the press's reaction to Apocalypse Now. having final script approval may be shocking, While Coppola's filmshared the Palme d'Or at (sec. i; all subsequent legal references are to Cannes, several Oscar garnered nominations, Hubbart)9 and managed to recoup its investment costs, for enormous overruns many its exemplified Hardly a new phenomenon, cast insurance is an industryin crisis (alongwith the other high at least as old as Douglas Fairbanks's "scarred prestigedebacle of the day,Michael Cimino's face" policy (niz), and since the 1930s ithas In was Heaven's Gate [1980]). fact, the crisis been economically vital for Hollywood's elabo years earlier,and Hollywoodhad already begun rate and therefore risk-laden productions. How to in to radically change response it. Follow ever, contemporary insurance companies have ingthe industryrecession of 1969-1971, the become considerably more invasive regarding studios tookmajor steps to insurerenewed actors' health and conduct. Providers regularly stabilityand amortize the riskinherent in film request physicals administered by a company as making. Diversified investments such Disney endorsed physician. Older actors have some and Universal theme Columbia parks, Records, times been denied roles due to "unacceptable" and theMGM Grand hotel and casino mitigated health risks:for example, RayMilland saw possible losses. Conglomerationresulted in, his part inTrading Places (1983) given to Don among other deals, Paramount's purchase by Ameche afterthe insurancecompany deemed Gulf & Western and Transamerica's buyout of Milland's health inadequate. As was required United Artists. Outside investors, tax-shelter of james Dean, dangerous offscreenpursuits financing, and advanced sales to ancillary mar such as race-cardriving must be curtailed for kets enabled studios to financepictures using the durationof filming,as inthe cases of Paul littleof theirown money.8 Lastly,according to Newman and Tom Cruise (1D). JustinWyatt, the "high concept" blockbuster Beyond these documented health problems mentality?famouslydescribed bySteven and openly riskyhobbies, an actor's general Spielbergas movie ideas "thatyou can hold in behavior and privatehabits have become more your hand"?encouraged production of uncom closely scrutinized.Cases such as thatof Elliott plicated filmswith broad appeal and franchise Gould,who afterhis (possibly drug-provoked) possibilities,Jaws (1975) and StarWars (1977) outbursts on the set of the never-released A being the leadingearly examples. Glimpse of Tiger (1971)was effectivelyblack

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This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions listedfor two years by insurers(iD), have led personally self-destructive and artistically and to insurers' greater reliance on "moral hazard" financially undependable. A new acting move clauses. Defined as "a characteristicof the mentwas needed thatwould renewthe reality insuredthat increases the probabilityof loss effectattributed to theMethod while curtailing to the insurer," moral hazard can be invoked the behavioral excesses stemmingfrom the by an insurerwho believes thatthe insuredor Method's countercultural connections. his employershave failed to disclose unsafe or behavior thatmay be well-known rumored Conclusion within theHollywood community, but which would not be revealed ina standard physical Regardless of criticismof RobertDe Niroby exam?anorexia, binge eating, or drug and al criticsand otheractors, the actorlytransforma cohol use, forexample (2C). One famous case tionhe popularized prompteda new attitude involvedthe 1994 lawsuitby RiverPhoenix's towardphysical discipline and roleprepara insurer,after his verypublic death froma drug tion thatcomplicated extra-filmicforms of overdose on the sidewalk outside LA.'s notori rebelliousness.Method concepts (however ous Viper Room forcedthe insurerto pay out farfrom actual practice) such as "being inthe $5.5 million to the producersof the nearlycom moment" and "becoming the part" were rarely pleted Phoenix filmDark Blood. Inan unprec more resonantthan with De Niro.Michael Mo edented move fora Hollywood insurer,a claim riarty,De Niro's costar inBang theDrum Slowly was filedagainst Phoenix's estate. The insur (i973)? reportsthat when he visited the set of ers argued thatPhoenix, a giftedyoung actor TaxiDriver (1976) he declined an introduction, frequentlycompared to JamesDean, breached saying,"Don't bother. Idon't know thatguy at contractwhen he didn't admit to drug use on all. Iknew Bruce Pearson [De Niro's character themedical certificate,and thathis estate was inBang theDrum]. Idon't knowTravis Bickle or liable forthe insurancepayment (2). Priorto Bobby De Niro" (qtd. inBaxter 101).According this legalaction, actors "were insulatedfrom toMeryl Streep, who workedwith De Niro in the insurers'remedies" (2D); inthe wake of the Stanley and Iris (1990), "Ifyou go deep intoa RiverPhoenix incident,calls fordrug testingof characterjack Nicholson isplaying, sooner or actors grew louder and the Screen Actors Guild later Jackwill pop out. But no matter how deep expressed concern over such "outrageous de you go intoa characterBobby is playing, itwill mands" (qtd. in introduction). be that character alt the way through. He's re Near the close of her article,Hubbart (an ally pure. He just Moves' acting. He's a pure attorneywriting for an insurance law journal) actor acting" (qtd. inTomlinson 535). A story adds hervoice to thatcall, saying thatas "re toldby Shelley Winters about thefilming of sponsible members of theirprofession," and RogerCorman's BloodyMama (1970) completes forthe economic bettermentof the industry, the picture: actors should accede todrug testing.The di end when lemmaHollywood faces, however, is revealed Towardthe of thefilm he OD's and theBarker must him inthat word "responsible." As an industry family bury hurriedly, Bobby insistedon gettinginto the grave so associated with and profitingfrom the thrillof the camera could record the dirt covering his rebellion,however vicarious, Hollywood still face. In the scene Iwas hysterical with grief, craves the of ifnot the factof it; spirit danger and I didn't realize until he was almost com afterall, one of the of highest high concept pletelycovered that itwas Bobbyand nota blockbusters inthe Gun 1980s, Top (1986), dummyin this grave. I immediatelystopped featured a code-named "Maver protagonist the scene and pulled him out, saying, "For ick."Though froma publicityperspective the Christ's sake, Bobby! Even Marlon [Brando] firstgeneration of Method stars had generated has never pulled such a dangerous stupid enormous attention,they had also proved

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This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions trick in a movie. This is not real life, it's only 5. From the firstepigraph in Baty: "When she first a film." came to me Iwas amazed at the startling sensitivity which she possessed and which had remained fresh His soft answer has puzzled me for years. and undimmed, struggling to express itself despite "But Shelley, for actors, aren't the movies our the life towhich she had been real life?" inTomlinson subjected." only (qtd. 595) 6. See Mendelsohn. 7. The Oscar incident?wherein Brando sent to For these actors, a encounter "professional" decline the award a woman calling herself Sacheen with De Niro suggests the impossibilityof a Littlefeather, who described the rejection as a re to American mistreatment and "personal" encounter. To be "in the moment," sponse misrepresenta tion of American incited forhim at least, requires intenseconcentration Indians?apparently Molly Haskell towrite a nine-installment consideration of and reserve at all moments. Any "dangerous Brando's career in the Village Voice. In the firstpart buried or stupid tricks"?being alive, say, gain she links the event to his improvisational Method ge ingsixty pounds, or any of theother dedicated nius, "his show-stopping theatrical instinct?operable on as physical tasks performedby De Niro's suc Academy night by remote control." "Just he il luminated so many bad pictures over the years?some cessors?must serve the film production, not of them as execrable as any Academy production?so upset it. he strikes sparks in an otherwise hopeless evening" (76). NOTES 8. For an excellent overview of these changes, see Cook seven and 1. See Blake; forone of the very few academic treat chapters eight. The of from a to an ments of Chaney, see Studlar. 9. example switching helicopter is a veiled reference to an infamous accident 2. See, for example, Tasker; Jeffords. airplane on the set of The Zone: The Movie 3. As ifOlivier had asked him the question instead, Twilight (1983), when Vic Morrow and two child actors says in an interview, "I just can't fake actor/director were blades?an incident acting. Iknow movies are an illusion, and maybe the decapitated by helicopter first rule is to fake it?but not forme. I'm too curious. that led to far greater scrutiny of cast safety by the insurance Iwant the experience. Iwant to deal with all the facts industry (Hubbart n78). of a character, thin or fat" (Watters 94). REFERENCES 4. A complete listof winners and nominees in cludes Robert De Niro, Best Actor 1980 (Raging Bull); Baron, Cynthia Ann. "Before Brando: Film Acting in Ben Kingsley, BA1982 (Gandhi); Jessica Lange, nomi the Hollywood Studio Era." Diss. U of Southern nated BA1982 (Frances); Kim Stanley/nominated California, 1996. Best Supporting Actress 1982 (Frances); JackNich Baty, S. Paige. American Monroe: The Making of a olson, nominated BA 1985 (Prizzi's Honor); Daniel Body Politic. Berkeley: U of California P, 1995. Day-Lewis, BA 1989 (My LeftFoot); Robert De Niro, Baxter, John.De Niro: A Biography. London: Harper nominated BA 1991 Daniel (Cape Fear); Day-Lewis, Collins, 2002. nominated BA 1993 (In the Name of the Father); Tom "Best of the Decade." Time 1 Jan. 1990:101. Hanks, BA 1993 (Philadelphia); Ralph Fiennes, nomi Blake, Michael F.A Thousand Faces: ion Chaney's nated BSA1993 (Schindlers List); Nicolas Cage, BA Unique Artistry inMotion Pictures. Vestal, NY: Ves 1995 Las Meryl Streep, nominated (Leaving Vegas); tal P, 1995. BA 1998 (One True Thing); Edward Norton, nominated -ion Chaney: The Man Behind the Thousand BA 1998 (American HistoryX); Russell Crowe, nomi Faces. Vestal, NY: Vestal, 1993. nated BA 1999 (The Insider); Hilary Swank, BA 1999 Capote, Truman. "The Duke in His Domain." LifeSto (Boys Don't Cry); Tom Hanks, nominated BA 2000 ries: Profiles from The New Yorker. Ed. David Rem (CastAway); Ed Harris, nominated BA 2000 (Pollock); nick. New York: Random, 2000. 355-81. Ellen Burstyn, nominated BA 2000 (Requiem for a Carey, Gary. Marlon Brando: The Only Contender. New Dream); Will Smith, nominated BA 2001 (Ali); Renee York: St. Martin's, 1985. nominated BA 2001 Zellweger, (BridgetJones's Diary); Cook, David A. Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Adrien Brody, BA 2002 (The Pianist); Nicolas Cage, Shadow ofWatergate and Vietnam, 1970-1979. nominated BA 2002 Charlize Theron, (Adaptation); New York: Scribner's, 2000. BA 2003 (Monster); Renee Zellweger, BSA 2003 (Cold Cowie, Peter. The Apocalypse Now Book. Cambridge: Mountain); Jamie Foxx, BA 2004 (Ray); Hilary Swank, Da Capo, 2001. BA 2004 (Million Dollar Baby); George Clooney, BSA "The Decade's Best." Premiere Nov. 1989:106-07. 2005 (Syriana). Frank, Thomas. "Alternative toWhat?" Commodify

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This content downloaded from 89.177.149.45 on Wed, 29 Jan 2014 07:53:29 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Your Dissent: Salvos from The Baffler. Ed. Thomas Intensity,Dies at 80." New York Times 3 July2004: Frank and Matt Weiland. New York: Norton, 1997. Ai+. 145-61. Manso, Peter. Brando: The Biography. New York: Hy Geng, Veronica. "The Current Cinema: 'Mistah Kurtz perion, 1994. He Dead."* New Yorker 3 Sept. 1979:72. McCann, Graham. Rebel Males: Clift,Brando and Haskell, Molly. "A Myth Steps Down to a Soapbox." Dean. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1993. Village Voice 14 June 1973: 76. Menand, Louis. "Methods and Madnesses." Perspec Holden, Stephen. "A Murderous Journey to Self-De tives on Raging Bull. Ed. Steven G. Kellman. New struction." New York Times 24 Dec. 2003: Ei. York: G.K. Hall, 1994. Hubbart, Elizabeth 0. "When Worlds Collide: The Mendolsohn, Daniel. "The Truman Show." New York Intersection of Insurance and Motion Pictures." Times Book Review 5 Dec. 2004:15. Connecticut Insurance Law Journal 1996/1997. On Morella, Joe, and Edward Z. Epstein. Rebels: The Rebel line. LexisNexis. Legal Research/Law Reviews. 10 Hero in Films. New York: Citadel, 1971. Mar. 2005. Nelson, Randy A., et at. "What's an Oscar Worth?" Jacobs, Leonard. "Marlon Brando, 80, Dies: Electrified Economic Inquiry Jan. 2001:1-16. Broadway, Galvanized Silver Screen." Back Stage 9 Pacey, Ann. "Clift, the Tortured Star Who Hated Star July2004:1+. dom." London Sun 25 July1966: 6. James, Caryn. "Gaunt to Gargantuan and Back: The Sarris, Andrew. "Mean Fighter fromMean Streets." Atkins Method of Acting." New York Times 26 Oct. Village Voice 19 Nov. 1980: 55. 2004: Ei+. Simon, John. "$30 Million inSearch of an Author." Jeffords,Susan. Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculin National Review 28 Sept. 1979:1247. ity in the Reagan Era. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, Studlar, Gaylyn. This Mad Masquerade: Stardom and 1994. Masculinity in the JazzAge. New York: Columbia Kael, Pauline. "Raging Bull: Religious Pulp, or The UP, 1996. Incredible Hulk." For Keeps: 30 Years at theMovies. Tasker, Yvonne. Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre New York: Dutton, 1994. 874-79. and theAction Cinema. New York: Routledge, 1993. Lane, Anthony. "Apocalypse Now Redux." Nobody's Thorn, Robert. "Montgomery Clift: A Small Place in the Perfect: Writings from The New Yorker. New York: Sun." Esquire Mar. 1967:105+. Knopf, 2002.351-56. Thompson, David. Last Tango in Paris. London: BFI, Larsen, Dave. "Gift Tried to Attain Perfection as Ac 1998. tor." 24 July1966:1A+. Tomlinson, Doug, ed. Actors on Acting for the Screen: Levenstein, Harvey. Revolution at the Table: The Trans Rotes and Collaborations. New York: Garland, 1994. formation of theAmerican Diet. New York: Oxford Van den Ecker, Louis. "A Veteran's View of Hollywood UP, 1988. Authenticity." Hollywood Quarterly 4 (1950): --. Paradox of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in 323-31 Modern America. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Watters, Jim."Raging De Niro: A Fighting Actor Tackles Lewis, Jon.Whom God Wishes to Destroy: Francis Ford a Tough Role." Life Nov. 1980: 94. Coppola and the New Hollywood. Durham: Duke Zucker, Carole. Figures of Light: Actors and Directors UP, 1995. Illuminate theArt of Film Acting. New York: Plenum, Long, Barbara. "The Winner Who Lost: Montgomery 1995. Gift." Vogue 16 Nov. 1966:70+. Lyman, Rick. "Marlon Brando, Screen Giant of Electric

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