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Planetary Boundaries Must not be Crossed for the Survival of Humanity

Mohajan, Haradhan

Assistant Professor, Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh.

14 November 2015

Online at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/83003/ MPRA Paper No. 83003, posted 08 Dec 2017 06:15 UTC Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

Planetary Boundaries Must not be Crossed for the Survival of Humanity

Haradhan Kumar Mohajan

Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Abstract At present we are living in an increasingly globalized world. The scientific impact of the planetary boundary framework is based on biological, physical and chemical structures, and also is an important item for the . During the last five decades, global , food production, and energy consumption have increased remarkably. For the growing population, sustainable economic development and standard of living, including living space, food, fuel, and other materials by sustaining services and are necessary. This article tries to identify the policy on the basis of planetary boundaries. This planet has limited natural resources but human beings are using these in unplanned and competitive ways. Since 2008 scientists have been identified nine planetary boundary processes. These provide a safe space for innovation, growth and development in the detection of human prosperity. Out of these nine boundaries four have already been passed due to human activities and two boundaries still need to be determined. If these nine boundaries passed due to unconsciousness and unplanned activities of humankind, then the living of the will face threat for the survival. The paper analyzes sufficient theoretical analysis to make it interesting to the readers. The study stresses on sustainable development policy for the welfare of humanities. The results of the study are presented by chemical reactions and sufficient numerical scientific data. An attempt has been taken here to create consciousness among the nations of the world about the effects of the crossing of the planetary boundaries.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Environmental Sustainability, Emissions, Nitrogen and Cycle, Planetary Boundaries.

1 Introduction1 three branches of scientific inquiry are as At the end of the 20th and at the follows: beginning of the 21st century the concept of 1. Earth system and sustainability planetary boundaries (PBs) become a . pioneer issue to the environment experts. 2. Scale of human action in relation to These are common and essential items for the capacity of the planet to sustain all nations of the world. PB concept rests on it. 3. Shocks and abrupt change in social- ecological systems from local to Corresponding author: Haradhan Kumar Mohajan, global scales. Premier University, Chittagong, Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]. 1

Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

Different aspects of the environment, such each year. The proposed boundary is set at as, biological (biotic), physical (abiotic), 10 per million species per year social, cultural, and technological factors [122]. Johan Rockström and his co-authors affect the health status of human population studied that the cycles of Nitrogen (N2) and as well as other species within the Phosphorus (P) are essential for plant [1] growth on the earth [105]. R. J. Diaz and R. During the past five decades, global Rosenberg indicated that excess N2 and P are population, food production, and energy liable to negative human health and consumption have increased approximately environmental impacts such as, 2.5-fold, 3-fold and 5-fold, respectively [38, and loss of habitat and biodiversity 48]. As the global human population is [26]. A. Webb studied that the layer is growing faster, the additional land will be natural filter and protective shield that needed for living space and agricultural surrounds the earth to protect human, animal production. An important issue is how to fish and plants from the harmful ultra violet meet growing human demands for living (UV–B) radiations [138]. M. Molina and space, food, fuel, and other materials by F.S. Rowland confirmed that human sustaining ecosystem services and produced chemicals could destroy O3 and biodiversity [80]. deplete the [85]. WHO and Global increase of use, fossil fuel UNICEF estimated that about 4,500 children consumption and the cultivation of die in a day for the lack of drinking water leguminous crops, have been doubled the supply and sanitation facilities. About 1.8 rate at which biologically available nitrogen million people die every year from (N2) enters the terrestrial diarrhoeal diseases [141]. B. Rimal compared to preindustrial levels [45]. indicated that change effects on Industrial and anthropogenic activities global environmental change and landscape have increased that cause ascription [101]. IPCC demonstrated that serious global environmental problem. As a ambient particles are responsible for result agricultural production and water adverse health effects, creation of haze supply has reduced, human health pollution both in urban and in the rural area, deteriorated, created serious visibility reduction on human and influence problem in the atmosphere. on [56]. J. C. Orr and his co-authors revealed that acidification effects on 2 Literature Review food webs, fisheries (shellfish), marine In 2009, a group of 29 internationally ecosystems (corals, coralline algae, mollusks renowned scientists led by Johan Rockström and some plankton), coastal and and have identified and tourism [91]. The US Environmental quantified a set of nine PBs [103]. The Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that Intergovernmental Panel on there are 80,000 to 100,000 chemicals on the (IPCC) and N. Stern expressed that global global market [131]. B. Lomborg stated that warming is due to continuous increase of hundreds of tons of hazardous waste are GHG emissions which causes global climate released to the air, water, and land by change [56, 119]. The Economics of industry every hour of every day and the Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) chemical industry is the biggest source of indicated that at present more than 100 such waste [71]. species out of a million are going extinct

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200

3 Methodology of the Study the basis of planetary boundaries. The The article is prepared on the basis of scientists have been identified nine planetary secondary data of previous published boundaries. Beyond of these boundaries articles, books and various research reports anthropogenic change will put the earth of the scientists. In this study we have system outside a safe operating space for the contributed the knowledge and experience of humanity. The 21st century faces critical the present human activities that making the social and economic problems and we have earth to the unsafe place for the living to work together for the survival of the organisms in future. The concept of the humanity by solving these problems planetary boundary comes in the beginning efficiently. We hope the readers will be of the 21st century. Due to population benefited and will be realized the growth there is an enormous change in importance of the planetary boundary for the global economy. At the same time with sustainable development at present and in competitive economy the industrialized future. countries emit greenhouse gases which cause global climate change. Ocean 5 Brief Histories of Planetary Boundaries acidification, stratospheric ozone depletion, In 2008, an interdisciplinary group of atmospheric aerosol loading, excess use of scientists started the discussions about nitrogen and phosphorus, and chemical planetary boundaries (PBs) in a workshop pollution has created serious problems for convened by the Stockholm Resilience the safe survival of the humankind and other Centre, the Stockholm Environment Institute creatures. Land is one of the most important and the Tällberg Foundation. In 2009, a natural resources and used for residential, group of 29 internationally renowned commercial and agricultural purposes. But scientists (led by Johan Rockström from the human beings are overusing the lands for Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will their needs which are threat for the future Steffen from the Australian National generations. Water is an essential element University) identified and quantified a set of for all living organisms. But the use and nine PBs within which humanity can abuse of water has increased widespread continue to develop and thrive for , water quality deterioration, generations to come, the so-called ‘safe and the destruction of freshwater resources. space for humanity’. After 2009, the concept We need to think and act accordingly to of PBs has gained strong interest not only make the earth safe and nice living place for throughout the scientific community but also the future generation. In 2009, a group of 29 within the world of policy-making and civil internationally renowned scientists led by society [94, 103]. Johan Rockström and Will Steffen identified The PBs provides a safe space for and quantified a set of nine PBs for the so- innovation, growth and development in the called ‘safe space for humanity’. In this pursuit of human prosperity. Within this safe study we have worked on the nine PBs to operating space, low likelihood of harming send message to all nations for the the earth’s life support systems, such that consciousness of these PBs. they are able to continue to support growth and human development [102]. 4 Aims and Objective of the Study Earlier approaches of PB were [42]: i) The aim and objective of this study is to human actions as embedded in earth’s life- identify sustainable development policy on support system [89], ii) a human-dominated

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 planet [134], and iii) work in ecological coming to an end in these very years [21, economics on global biophysical constraints 116]. The PBs are values for control for the expansion of the economic variables that are either at a ‘safe’ distance subsystem [17, 22, 23]. from thresholds, for processes with Johan Rockström and his co-authors in a evidence of threshold behavior or at Feature argued that “To avoid dangerous levels for processes without catastrophic environmental change evidence of thresholds [103]. humanity must stay within defined planetary The precedent era the ‘’ has boundary for a range of essential Earth- permitted human civilizations to thrive, system processes. If one boundary is especially because it guaranteed a stable transgressed, then safe levels for other warm period (for 10,000 years ca.) without processes would risk triggering abrupt or dramatic variations, which is not usual in the irreversible environmental changes.” For history of humans’ appearance on the earth example, converting the Amazon rainforest [117]. to a grassland or savanna could influence globally and 6 Nine Planetary Boundaries ultimately affect in Eastern Nine planetary boundary (PB) processes Asia through changes in rainfall [103]. have been identified, which are as follows The concept of PBs has recently been (figure 1): Climate change, stratospheric introduced towards the earth system, ozone depletion, , land through which it becomes possible to define use change, freshwater use, rate of the biological, physical and chemical , interference with global structures that enable the development of nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, aerosol complex human societies in the last 10,000 loading and chemical pollution have been years (the Holocene period during which we identified [102]. A clear strength of the nine developed agriculture, villages, cities and PB frameworks is that it offers a contemporary civilizations) to define a ‘Safe comprehensive and possibly exhaustive set Operating Space for Humanity’ [24]. Human of non-weighted variables to capture key societies developed since Holocene period global environmental challenges rather than from small groups of hunter-gatherers existing single-issue indicators and footprint through larger agricultural communities to tools, for example, the as an global urban-industrial society in the 21st indicator of national environmental century [60]. The (anthropo performance. Seven of these nine were for man and cene for new) started around the possible to quantify at present by identifying beginning of 1800 with the Industrial control variables (e.g., for climate change, Revolution in England and concluded its atmospheric CO2 concentration) and setting first stage after II in 1945. In the specific boundary values (e.g., 350 ppm Anthropocene, human is accelerating CO2) [88]. These nine boundaries are departure from the stable environmental expected to lead to an increased risk to one conditions of the past 12,000 years into a or more aspects of human wellbeing, or new, unknown state of the earth. This period would undermine the resilience of the earth has been characterized mainly by an system as a whole [102]. Beyond of these enormous expansion in the use of fossil boundaries anthropogenic change will put fuels, first coal and then oil and gas. The 2nd the earth system outside a safe operating stage of Anthropocene started in 1945 and is space for humanity [73]. The identification

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 of the nine PBs was not based on available (table 1). data and two have not yet been quantified

Table 1: The nine planetary boundaries [103]. Earth system Proposed Most recent Control variables process boundary measurement Climate change 1. Atmospheric CO2 concentration (parts per 350 ppm 393.81 ppm million). +1 W/m2 +1.87 W/m2 2. Change in radioactive forcing (W/m2). Ocean acidification Global mean saturation state of aragonite in 2.75 2.90 surface sea water. Stratospheric ozone Concentration of ozone (Dobson units). 276 DU 283 DU Depletion Biogeochemical 1. Amount of N2 removed from the atmosphere 35 Mt 121 Mt flows: nitrogen for human use (millions of tons per year). cycle and phosphorus 2. Quantity of P flowing into the 11 Mt 8.5–9.5 Mt cycle (millions of tons per year). Atmospheric aerosol Overall particulate concentration in the To be To be loading atmosphere, on a regional basis. determined determined use Consumption of fresh water by humans (km3 4,000 km3 2,600 km3 per year). Land use change Percentage of global land cover converted to 15% 11.7% cropland. Rate of biodiversity Extinction rate (number of species per million 10 E/MSY >100 E/MSY loss species per year). Chemical pollution For example, amount emitted to, or To be To be concentration of persistent organic pollutants, determined determined , endocrine disrupters, and nuclear waste in the global environment, or the effect on ecosystem and functioning thereof.

The red areas show the position of each biosphere integrity, the scientists call ‘core boundary. The safe operating spaces for the boundaries’ [118]. It is estimated that within boundaries are within the green area (Figure a very short time world will face the 1). Out of these nine boundaries four have difficulties of shortage of freshwater, change already been passed due to human activities: in land use, ocean acidification and Climate change, loss of biosphere integrity, interference with the global phosphorous land-system change, altered [102]. cycles (phosphorus and nitrogen), whilst two The PBs are not fixed and they represent boundaries still need to be determined estimates of how close to an uncertainty (atmospheric aerosol loading and chemical zone that the global human community can pollution). Two of these, climate change and act, without seriously challenging the

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 continuation of the current state of the planet [43].

6.1 Climate Change Global warming is due to continuous increase of GHG emissions. The current concentrations of GHG in space have increased since the (in 1750) from a CO2 equivalent of 280 parts per million (ppm) to 450 ppm [84, 119]. The global surface temperature has increased ≈ 0.20C per decade in the last three decades. 0 Global warming is now +0.6 C in the past three decades and +0.80C in the past century, and continued warming in the first Figure 1: Planetary Boundaries [102] half of the 21st century is consistent with the recent rate of +0.20C per decade [50, 81]. Climate boundary is based on two critical The atmospheric concentrations of CO2 grew thresholds parameters: Atmospheric 80% from 1970 to 2004, and recently exceed concentration of CO2 and by far the natural range over the last 650,000 [56]. The PB for climate change was years [56]. proposed the CO2 level as a maximum 350 Scientific research shows that ice loss ppm (table 1) and in 2014 it is crossed 400 from Antarctica and Greenland has ppm. The radiative forcing should not accelerated over the last 20 years which will exceed 1 Wm–2 above pre-industrial levels raise the sea level. From satellite data and but the change in radiative forcing is 1.8 climate models, scientists calculated that the Wm–2 [105, 107]. two polar ice sheets are losing enough ice to In the 21st century carbon budget of 1,456 raise sea levels by 1.3 mm each year and GtCO2 would result in a lower than 2°C scientists observed that the sea levels are warming at 450 CO2eq. At the time of this rising by about 3 mm per year. By 2006, the analysis in 2007, this global carbon budget Greenland and Antarctic sheets were losing would correspond to annual emissions of a combined mass of 475 Gt of ice per year. 14.5 GtCO2/y, and per capita emissions of If these increases continue water from the no more than 2 tons CO2/y [77, 126]. two polar ice sheets could have added 15 cm More recent analysis expresses that 20C to the average global sea level by 2050. A target requires 21 GtCO2eq/y in 2050, and rise of similar size is expected to come from assuming that 76% of these are CO2 a combination of melt water from mountain emissions give a budget of 16 GtCO2/y glaciers and thermal expansion of sea water [129]. It is true that about 50% of global [9]. CO2 emissions produced by 11% of people.

6.2 Rate of Biodiversity Loss Biodiversity is the we depend on to sustain ecosystem functions, which is another PB of major concern that has been passed. Before industrialization the

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 extinction rate was less than one species per (figure 2) and , million species each year. At present more respectively. Both are biogeochemical than 100 species out of a million are going cycles and are very important for extinct each year. The proposed boundary is ecosystems. This transformation can be set at 10 species per million species per year carried out through both biological and [122]. In the last 20 years, about half of the physical processes [144]. The cycles of N2 recorded extinctions are primarily due to and P are essential for plant growth on the land-use change, species introductions, and earth. The availability of N2 and P in the increasingly climate change [94]. biosphere has increased massively over the Biodiversity is not only about species last decades [105]. The production of numbers but also concerns variability in industrial fertilizer and the cultivation of terms of habitats, ecosystems, and leguminous crops are major causes to [90]. increase of large scale N2 and P. Since the Biodiversity is one of the four “slow” increased production of N2 boundaries, which seem to be associated through the Haber–Bosch process and with local-to-regional scale thresholds rather increased mining of rock, the than global ones [104]. Biodiversity loss is consumption of inorganic fertilizers in considered as the single boundary where agriculture has increased exponentially. current rates of extinction put the earth Between 1950 and 1994, there was a system furthest outside the safe operating sustained increase in global annual space. It is a slow process without known consumption of N2 and P fertilizers from 3 to global-level thresholds, that there is 74 million tons N2 and from 2.4 to 13 incomplete knowledge on the role of million tons P [74]. biodiversity for ecosystem functioning The increased use of N2 and P fertilizers across scales, and that the suggested has allowed for producing the food boundary position was therefore highly necessary to support the rapidly growing uncertain [73]. Loss of biodiversity is now human population [44]. On the other hand called ‘Change in biosphere integrity’. mobilized N2 and P in watersheds enter Conversion of forest to cropland, groundwater and surface water and are increased use of nitrogen and phosphorus transported through freshwater to coastal fertilizers, and increased extraction of marine systems has resulted negative human freshwater for irrigation could all act health and environmental impacts such as, together to reduce biodiversity more than if groundwater pollution, loss of habitat and each of these variables acted independently biodiversity, an increase in frequency and [102]. severity of harmful algal blooms, If the corals are degraded due to , and fish kills [26, temperature rise, as a consequence of 98, 124]. climate change, not only the corals disappear but also the fish species associated with 6.3.1 them [46]. Nitrogen gas (N2) comprises 79% of the earth’s atmosphere. There are about 5 billion 6.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycle metric tons of N2 contained in the Nitrogen (N2) and Phosphorus (P) move atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial and marine among the atmosphere, , water, and biota, soil organic matter and sedimentary organisms in a process called the nitrogen rocks, and less than 2% is available to

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organisms. N2 is present in the environment can use). For this process requires energy, in a wide variety of chemical forms like, enzymes and minerals; + organic N2, ammonium (NH4 ), nitrite − − (NO2 ), nitrate (NO3 ), nitrous oxide (N2O), N2→NH3→R–NH2 nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Nitrogen is plentiful in the atmosphere, where ‘R’ indicates hydrocarbon ion. but limited in because of the strength of the triple bond that holds the two nitrogen Mineralization: Mineralization is the atoms together and often constrains plant process by which microbes decompose growth. To increase food production farmers organic N2 from manure, organic matter and use N2 fertilizer. N2 cycle consists of crop residues to ammonium; following processes: i) , ii) + mineralization, iii) , iv) R–NH2 →NH3 →NH4 . immobilization, v) denitrification, vi) volatilization, and vii) leaching [13]. Nitrification: Nitrification is the process by which convert ammonium to nitrate to obtain energy;

+ – – NH4 →NO2 → NO3 .

Immobilization: Immobilization refers to the process in which nitrate and ammonium are taken up by soil organisms and therefore become unavailable to crops;

+ – NH4 and/or NO3 → R–NH2.

Denitrification: Denitrification occurs when N2 is lost through the conversion of nitrate to gaseous forms of N2, such as nitric oxide, nitrous oxide and dinitrogen gas;

– – NO3 →NO2 → NO→ N2O →N2. Figure 2: Nitrogen Cycle [61] Volatilization: Volatilization is the loss of Simple interpretations of these 7 items are as N2 through the conversion of ammonium to follows [61]: ammonia gas, which is released to the atmosphere; Fixation: Fixation is the conversion of atmospheric N2 to a plant available form. + H2N–CO–NH2 →NH4 → NH3. This process is happen during the production of commercial fertilizers or during a Leaching: Leaching is a pathway of N2 loss biological process (legumes such as alfalfa, of a high concern to water quality. Soil soybeans and clovers convert atmospheric particles do not preserve nitrate very well N2 with specific bacteria, to a form plants because both are negatively charged. As a

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 result, nitrate easily moves with water in the tropospheric ozone, depletion of soil. stratospheric ozone and negatively affects Hence, in the N2 cycle processes of the quality of groundwater and surface fixation, mineralization and nitrification water. Hence, it has a serious impact on the increase plant available N2. On the other health of plants, animals and men, on the hand denitrification, volatilization, quality of ecosystems and on biodiversity. It immobilization, and leaching decrease N2 imposes a negative impact on the quality of permanently or temporarily from the root the environment and contributes to the zone. depletion of fossil fuel reserves [109]. N2 is an essential nutrient for organisms Ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere has as an integral part of DNA and RNA, amino tripled as the result of human activities. It is acids and chlorophyll (essential for a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as photosynthesis) [114]. N2 is also an essential an aerosol, decreasing air quality and element required for the growth and clinging to water droplets, eventually maintenance of all biological tissues of all resulting in nitric acid (HNO3) that produces living creatures, and often limits primary . Atmospheric NH3 and HNO3 also production in terrestrial and aquatic damage respiratory systems [114]. ecosystems [30, 69]. When deficient of N2 is The N2 cycle is of particular interest to happened, root systems and plant growth are ecologists because N2 availability can affect stunted, older leaves turn yellow and the the rate of key ecosystem processes, crop is low in crude protein. Without N2 including and plants will not grow and we would not exist decomposition. Human activities such as without food. N2 fertilizers have increased fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial N2 supply of food; feed and other bio-based fertilizers, and release of N2 in wastewater huge raw materials and also have improved have dramatically changed the global N2 the use efficiency of land and labor [109]. cycle [45]. About 121 million tons of N2 is used (the Ecosystem processes can increase with proposed boundary is set at 35 million tons N2 fertilization but anthropogenic input can per year or 5 kg per capita) from the also result in N2 saturation, which weakens atmosphere per year into reactive forms to productivity and can damage the health of make fertilizer for food production and other plants, animals, fish, and humans [133]. At non-food cultivation [39]. According to present about 33% of global N2 ‘budget’ current trajectories this figure will be more used to produce meat for the EU. than 600 million tons per year in 2100 [40]. Finally this N2 releases in the environment 6.3.2 The Phosphorus Cycle polluting waterways and the coastal zone, The phosphorus cycle is the accumulating in land systems and adding biogeochemical cycle that describes the some N2 to the atmosphere [74]. movement of phosphorus through the N2O has risen in the atmosphere as a lithosphere, , and biosphere. result of agricultural fertilization, Phosphate erodes from rocks and minerals. burning, cattle and feedlots and industrial Plants are able to incorporate phosphate sources [14]. It is one of the non-CO2 GHGs found in the soil into their tissues. This and causes global warming in the phosphate is then passed on to the next atmosphere [74]. N2 is also associated with trophic level when consumers eat the the formation of smog, acid rain and producers (plants). Consumers assimilate

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 this phosphate into teeth, bones, shells, etc. phospholipids) in cellular membranes, in As these organisms die, their , bones and teeth (the biomineral once again, become available for plants to ) [92,97]. Phosphate is taken repeat the cycle [148]. up directly by plants, algae and some Although phosphorus (P) is of great bacteria. Other sources of phosphates are the biological importance, it is not abundant in waste and remains of animals and plants, the biosphere. P is the 11th abundant element bird and bat guano accumulations and in the crust of the earth, comprising (Ca10(PO4)6(OH, F, Cl)2). Apatite is approximately 0.1% by mass and 13th in the most common naturally occurring P seawater [114]. P was discovered in containing mineral in the earth’s crust (over Hamburg, Germany by alchemist Hennig 95% of P). It is also found in high Brand in 1669 by heating urine to high concentrations in sedimentary rocks temperatures [7,32,47]. The human adult containing the fossilized waste or sediments body contains about 1.5 kg of P, mostly in of marine plants or animal [57]. the bones. There is no known substitute for It is also found in the form of inorganic P. It is one of the three key components of phosphate on land, in the form of phosphate fertilizers. It is crucial for the world’s food rock containing the fossilized waste, soil supply. About 90% of P is used globally for minerals and sediments of marine plants or food production. In agriculture, P is animal, as dissolved phosphate and involved in energy metabolism and phosphate sediments. P cannot be biosynthesis of nucleic acids and cell manufactured or extracted from the membranes and is required for energy atmosphere as like N2. P cannot be transfer reactions, respiration, and destroyed, since it has no gaseous phase. photosynthesis. Plants require highest 0.3– Humans excrete between 3–4 grams daily in 0.5% P in dry matter during vegetative urine but cows and hogs excrete 15–20 times growth [142]. Collectively, Morocco, China, that amount daily. Many tons of phosphate South Africa, the USA, Jordan and Russia rock are mined each year in the production hold over 95% of known, high quality, of fertilizers to replace some of the economically-recoverable phosphate rock. phosphates lost from farmland through The USA is fast running out of its domestic erosion and crop production [20]. high-grade reserves and is increasingly When rocks and sediments gradually importing rock from Morocco to process broke, phosphate is released. Some into high grade fertilizer for sale on the phosphate stays on land and cycles between world market [113]. Morocco holds organisms and soil. Plants bind phosphate approximately 82–85% of global reserves, into organic compounds when they absorb it followed by China at about 12% [58]. from soil or water. Organic phosphate It provides the phosphate-ester backbone moves through the foods, from producers to of DNA (the genetic material of most life) consumers, and to the rest of the ecosystem. and RNA, and it is crucial in the Other phosphate washes into rivers and transmission of chemical energy through the streams, where it dissolves. Some phosphate (ATP) molecule (the mixes to the ocean, where marine organisms energy-releasing molecule) and adenosine process and incorporate it into biological diphosphate (ADP). It is found as compounds [62]. – 2– 3– phosphates (H2PO4 , HPO4 and PO4 ), Phosphorus (P) is mined from rock and its (for example, as phosphoproteins and uses range from fertilizers to toothpaste.

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About 20 million tons of phosphorus is O3 was discovered in the laboratory in mined every year and around 8.5–9.5 the mid-1800. It has pungent odor that helps million tons (the proposed boundary is set at to detect even there are very small amount in 11 million tons per year) of it finds its way the air. The ozone layer was discovered in into the oceans [8]. The original definition 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry was criticized, partly because of the and Henri Buisson. Its properties were uncertainty of the science [108]. Global discovered in detail by the British phosphate reserves are rapidly being meteorologist Gordon Miller Bourne depleted, threatening the world’s future Dobson, who developed a simple ability to produce food. Phosphate rock, the spectrophotometer (the Dobson meter) basis for large scale fertilizer production, is which is used to measure stratospheric O3 a non-renewable resource. Current global from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 phosphate reserves might be depleted in the Dobson established a worldwide network of next 50–100 years, which is very significant O3 monitoring stations that operates for humanity. The US reserves of P to be continuously. Also the ‘Dobson unit (DU)’ depleted in the next 25 years [64]. is used to measure the total amount of ozone The original PB on the phosphorus cycle in a column overhead [112]. DUs are was included to reflect the risk of a global measured by how thick the layer of ozone ocean that would trigger a mass would be if it were compressed into one extinction of [49]. layer at 00C and with a pressure of one At the planetary scale, the additional atmosphere above it. Every 0.01 mm amounts of N2 and P activated by humans thickness of the layer is equal to one DU [4]. are now so large that they significantly It is discovered in the mid-1970s that perturb the global cycles of these two human-produced chemicals could destroy O3 important elements. and deplete the ozone layer [85]. Since the discovery it is observed that ozone depleting 6.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion chemicals are steadily increasing in the Ozone gas (O3) is a very small portion of atmosphere. In the ozone layer there are up the atmosphere, but its presence is vital to to 12,000 ozone molecules for every billion the welfare of the entire living organisms. air molecules, but in the earth surface are 20 O3 is found extensively (about 91% of to 100 molecules in billion air molecules atmospheric O3) in the lower part of the [34]. of the earth’s atmosphere at the The most sever O3 loss has been seen in ozone layer. The ozone layer is surrounding Antarctica during spring and winter, which the atmosphere at an altitude between 20 and is called ozone hole, as the O3 depletion is 50 km from the earth’s surface and with very large and localized there. In ozone hole thickness ranges of 2–8 km where O3 is region stratospheric ozone depletion is so continually created from O2, and destroyed, severe that levels fall below 200 DU but by absorption of high-energy radiation from normal concentration is 300 to 350 DU [2]. the and chemical reactions. The ozone O3 is destroyed by halogen source gases layer is natural filter and protective shield such as, certain chlorine (Cl2) and bromine that surrounds the earth to protect human, (Br2) containing chemicals. Most halogen animal fish and plants from the harmful ultra source gases are converted in the violet (UV–B) radiations [138]. stratosphere to reactive halogen gasses, namely chlorine monoxide (ClO) and

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bromine monoxide (BrO) in chemical Polar O3 destruction cycles are cycle 2 and reactions involving radiation cycle 3 (say). As ClO abundances in Polar from the sun rays and destroy O3 [34]. Cl2 Regions, in cycle 2, ClO reacts with another can destroy about 100,000 ozone molecules ClO in the presence of sunlight and destroys and Br2 is more destructive than Cl2. Use of O3 [34]. chlorofluourocarbon (CFC) in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, methyl ClO + ClO → (ClO)2 bromide for storing agricultural crops and agricultural soil sterilization, fire (ClO)2+ sunlight (γ) → ClOO + Cl suppression, aerosol applications, foam blowing, sterilants, and solvents are main ClOO → Cl + O2 causes of destruction of the ozone layer [59, 125]. 2Cl + 2O3 → 2ClO + 2O2 Excess of harmful UV-B rays create skin cancer (damaging DNA) and cataracts in Result: 2O3 → 3O2. human, reduce crop yields and disrupt the marine food chain by destroying plankton in In cycle 3, ClO reacts with BrO in the the ocean. Destruction of ozone layer can presence of sunlight creates Cl and Br. make abrupt changes in weather and climate, Finally, Cl and Br react with O3 to release and forest fires and the rise in O2, consequently destroy O3. sea level to the shores of many in the world and disrupt the ecological balance [3]. ClO + BrO → BrCl + O2

6.4.1. Destructive Reactions of O3 BrCl + sunlight (γ) →Cl + Br Depletion Stratospheric O3 destruction cycle is cycle Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 1 (say). This cycle performs into two separate chemical reactions. The cycle starts Br + O3 → BrO + O2. with ClO or Cl. First ClO reacts with O to form Cl, and then Cl reacts with O3 and Result: 2O3 → 3O2. reforms ClO. The cycle then begins again with another of ClO with O. Because of Cl In cycle 4 (say), O3 reacts with OH/HO2 and or ClO is reformed each period, O3 creates O2 and OH, and this OH again start molecules are destroyed and Cl is new cycle [68]. considered a catalyst for O3 destruction. Atomic O is formed when ultraviolet OH +O3 → HO2 + 2O2 sunlight reacts with O3 and O2 molecules [34]. HO2 +O3 →OH +O2

ClO + O → Cl + O2 Result: 2O3 →3O2.

Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 6.4.2 Steps to Reduce Ozone Depletion In 1976, the United States Academy of Result: O + O3 → 2O2. Sciences linked the release of ozone deplet- ing substances (ODSs) representatives from

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24 countries signed the ‘1987 Montreal 6.5.1 Source of Water Protocol’ on ‘Substances that Deplete the Less than 3% of the water of the earth is Ozone Layer’, agreeing to start phasing out fresh; the rest is sea water and undrinkable the of ODSs in 1989 [128]. [136]. Of this more than 2.5% is frozen, The treaty has been amended several times, locked up in Antarctica, the Arctic and and at present more than 190 countries has glaciers and not available to human. Hence ratified it. In 1985, the British Antarctic humanity must rely only on 0.5% of all Survey (BAS) reported the damage to the human’s and ecosystems fresh water needs ozone layer above the earth’s surface. Only [130]. Of this 0.5% of world water the major the USA and the UK account for more than use is in the following [137]: 50% research, followed by Germany and • About 107 km3 is stored in Japan for ozone depletion. underground . Since 1950 On December 17, 2014 the US there has been a rapid expansion of Agency (EPA) ground water exploitation providing proposed to lower the national ambient air 50% of all drinking water, 40% quality standards (NAAQS) level for O3 to industrial water and 20% of 65–70 parts per billion (ppb). The current O3 irrigation water. level is 75 ppb [41]. • About 119,000 km3 net of rainfall is falling on land after accounting for 6.5 Global Use of Freshwater evaporation. Water is an essential element for all • About 19,000 km3 is in natural lakes. socio-economic development and for • More than 5,000 km3 is manmade maintaining healthy ecosystems for living storage facilities reservoirs, which organisms. It is the origin of every form of has been 7 fold increases in global life. Fresh water is essential for healthy and storage capacity since 1950. safe lives of human beings. Adequate and • About 2,120 km3 water is in rivers. safe water and sanitation services make Water resources are decreasing strength the nation’s health, education, life (especially in many developing countries) expectancy, well-being and social across the planet. Even in the 21st century 1 development, economy, security and person in 6 (1.1 billion people) has no access ecology [87, 136]. to safe drinkable water and 42% of the Clean water is needed for drinking, world’s population (2.6 billion people) live cooking, washing, and sanitation. It is also a in families with no proper means of key element of sustainable social and sanitation. About 4,500 children died in a economic development. Fresh water is found day for the lack of drinking water supply in lakes, rivers, and groundwater aquifers. and sanitation facilities. About 1.8 million The use and abuse of water has increased in people die every year from diarrhoeal the last few decades due to population diseases. Most of the people of Africa growth and economic expansion, which will (especially girls) have to collect water from create widespread water scarcity, water far distance and struggle to survive at quality deterioration, and the destruction of subsistence level [141]. Half of the urban freshwater resources [63]. population in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean suffers from one or more diseases associated with inadequate water and sanitation [65]. 13

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Many governments, international 6.5.2 Water for Sustainability institutions and experts have expressed the At the beginning of the 21st century, the urgent need to establish a new development demand for clean water becomes a global agenda in the field of water management challenge. , rapid [36]. About one-third of the world’s , industrialization, food population lives in areas where experience production practices, changing lifestyles, some form of water stress that figure is poor water use strategies and economic likely to rise to two-thirds of the world’s development have led increase pressure on population by 2025 [37,65]. About 70% of water resources globally. On the other hand global water is used in agriculture sector and increasing demands for sources of clean it is expected the extra demand in agriculture water, combined with changing land use will grow by 45% by 2030, which is practices, aging infrastructure, and climate equivalent to an additional 1,400 m3 of change and variability pose significant water per year [123]. Global water threats to the international water resources. consumption at the end of the 20th century Waterborne disease also continues to becomes more than doubled since World threaten drinking water supplies [19,33]. War II. It is expected this figure will rise Water is not distributed evenly around another 25% by 2030 [145]. A recent study the world. About 9 countries of the world, led by McKinsey estimates that by 2030 for example, Brazil, Russia, China, Canada, global water demand will be 40%. This Indonesia, the USA, India, Columbia and the shortfall will hit the southwest United Democratic Republic of Congo possess 60% States, Australia, Africa, and East and of the world’s available fresh water supply Southeast Asia. The water risks in Asia are [136]. due to its vast population and economic Despite the advances made during the growth [75]. Water demand is increasing in past 40 years, there are the 21st century the power and energy sectors for cooling, challenges that continue to threaten the production and for shale gas and oil water supplies of every country. Failure to extraction. The US Energy Information manage the water to every people in an Administration (EIA) predicts that by 2035 integrated, sustainable manner will limit that demand will be double or even triples, economic prosperity and jeopardize human depending on global oil prices [29]. and aquatic ecosystem health [33]. The hydrological projections of the 6.5.3. Worldwide Water Use world’s freshwater resources have indicated The daily drinking water requirement per that the demand of freshwater is increasing person is 2–4 liters, but it takes 2,000 to worldwide [100]. Global water scarcity is 5,000 liters of water to produce one person’s expected to grow dramatically as daily food [37]. Domestic use of water is competition for water use increases in 11% in high-income countries and 8% in agricultural, urban and commercial sectors low- and middle- income countries. because of population growth and economic Industrial use of water increases with development [135]. Many countries of the country income, going from 10% for low- world are already facing water crises; and middle- income countries to 59% for mainly (in some countries of Africa) those high-income countries. Water use in are in arid and semi-arid regions. agricultural is 30% in high-income countries and 82% in low- and middle- income

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 countries. But in many developing nations, fundamental integrity of our life support irrigation accounts for over 90% of water systems. In many developing countries more withdrawn from available sources for use than 70% of industrial wastes are dumped [130]. untreated into waters where they pollute the Bottled water sales worldwide have usable water supply [147]. increased rapidly with global consumption now at more than 1,000 billion gallons a 6.6 Land Use Change year. Bottled water can cost as much as Land is one of the most important natural 10,000 times more than tap water. The USA resources. Land use change affects on global is the biggest consumer of bottled water. environmental change and landscape Peoples of the USA are consuming water ascription [101]. Land is mainly used for from disposable bottles at a rate of residential, commercial and agricultural more than 10 billion gallons each year which purposes. Land can also use for recreation, costs $11 billion. China is the 2nd largest wood production and biodiversity consumer of bottled water and it uses 7.7 preservation. The conversion of land may billion gallons (12.5% of global use), impact soil, water and atmosphere which are Mexico (population is one-third of the USA) global . Due to the is the 3rd largest consumer and it uses 7.5 large-scale and subsequent billion gallons (12.3% of global use) transformation of agricultural land in annually. Brazil uses 4.5 billion gallons and tropical areas affects on biodiversity, soil Indonesia uses 3.8 billion gallons of bottled degradation and the material resources to water annually [106]. support human needs. Changes in land use may impact on the climate change [66, 67, 6.5.4 Increase of Wastewater 79]. Urban areas are both consumers and producers of large amounts of wastewater. 6.7 Atmospheric Aerosol Loading Wastewater is created in various ways, such Airborne particulate matter or as, dissolved contents of fertilizers, chemical are found as organic or inorganic runoff, human waste, livestock manure and compositions and consist of solid and/or nutrients [19]. liquid particles of sizes in the range 0.01– The cultivation of nitrogen fixing crops 100 μm suspended in air, which occur and the manufacture of fertilizer convert through natural processes such as, volcanic about 120 million tons of N2 from the eruptions, windblown dust, sea spray, etc. atmosphere per year into reactive N2 (greater than 10 μm in diameter), or through containing compounds. Every year about 20 anthropogenic sources like industrial million tons of P is used as fertilizer [103]. emissions, automobile exhausts, etc. (less Wastewater may contain a range of than 10 μm in diameter) [99]. pathogens including bacteria, parasites, Ambient aerosol particles are responsible viruses and toxic chemicals such as heavy for adverse health effects, creation of haze metals and organic chemicals from pollution both in urban and in the rural area, agriculture, industry and domestic sources visibility reduction on human and influence [28]. on climate. On the other hand carbonaceous Lack of wastewater management has a aerosols can block solar radiation and scatter direct impact on the biological diversity of visible light and play an important role in aquatic ecosystems, disrupting the the earth’s radiative balance and in climate

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[56]. They are scattered solar radiation and indicators available for particulate air can act as cloud condensation and ice nuclei pollution, such as PM2.5 (due to the negative [111]. The main component of carbonaceous influence on human health), there is not aerosol is organic carbon (OC), which is enough scientific knowledge to quantify the volatile while the rest is composed of black impact at the global scale [102]. carbon (BC). Carbonaceous aerosol is Atmospheric aerosols influence climate produced during incomplete combustion of directly through scattering and absorbing fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass burning radiation, and indirectly by acting as emissions [55]. condensation nuclei for clouds [93]. Aerosol sources are classified into two Aerosols may have weakened the rate of the types as follows [12]: global warming by some 30%, possibly up • Primary aerosols (>1 μm in to 50–80% [6]. diameter) are those that are emitted Aerosols have some effects on into the atmosphere directly as environment and human health as well as the condensed solids or liquids. For life of plants or animals. According to example, sea salt, mineral dust, World Health Organization (WHO), ozone, desert dust, re-entrained road dust particulate, matter, heavy metals and some and soot particles are clearly primary hydrocarbons present the priority pollutants particles. in the troposphere. The results of the long- • Secondary aerosols (between 0.1 and term studies confirm that the adverse health 1 μm in diameter) are formed within effects are mainly due to particulate matter, the atmosphere from gaseous especially small particles- less than 10 μm in precursors. For example, organic diameter, PM10 [100]. Lifetime of fine particles from the oxidation of particles (diameter < 2.5 μm) PM2.5 is from volatile organic compounds (VOC) days to weeks, travel distance ranges from and sulphates from the oxidation of 100 s to >1,000 s km. Lifetime of coarse SO2 or other sulphur containing particles (diameter < 10 μm) PM10 is gases are secondary particles. minutes to hours, and their travel distance Aerosols vary in shape, chemical varies from <1 km to 10 km [121]. composition and optical properties. For Aerosols have deleterious health effects example, 0.01 to 5 μm solid particles are as they often contain toxins and/or paint pigments, tobacco smoke, dust, sea- carcinogens that contribute to salt particles; 5 to 100 μm solid particles are cardiopulmonary diseases and mortality cement dust, wind-blown soil dust, foundry [96]. dust, pulverized coal, milled flower; 5 to 10,000 μm liquid particles are fog, smog, 6.8 Ocean Acidification mist, raindrops; 0.001 to 0.01 μm biological The basic chemistry of ocean origin particles are viruses, bacteria, pollen, acidification was first described in the early spores and 0.001 to 100 μm chemical 1970s, based on early models of CO2 formation atmospheric SO2 and metal oxides exchange at the air-sea interface and the form when fuels that contain metals are thermodynamics of the carbon system in burned [121]. seawater. Ocean acidification is closely As of 2009, the PB for ‘atmospheric linked with climate change [10,35,143]. The aerosol loading’ had not yet been quantified. first symposium on “The Ocean in a High- Although there are many assessments and CO2 World” in 2004 proved to be a

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 landmark event in ocean acidification and increases physiological hypercapnia, which also second symposium held in 2008 [16, has removed 30–40 μmol/kg carbonate ions 2– 91]. (CO3 ) from ocean bodies like the coral sea When anthropocentric CO2 increases in that normally contain between 250–300 the atmosphere and dissolves in seawater μmol/kg. Consequently, at present the ocean and then creates (H2CO3), has become more acidic (increased by 30%) releases hydrogen ions (H+), which increases by changing the ocean’s chemistry and coral acidity. These H+ increase ocean acidity and reefs are in threatened position [53]. It is 2– reduce ion (CO3 ) estimated that surface ocean pH is projected saturation. It is estimated that the surface to decrease by 0.4± 0.1 pH units by 2100 waters of the oceans have taken up about relative to pre-industrial conditions [76]. If 25% of the carbon generated by this situation happens then hundreds of anthropogenic activities since 1800 and thousands to millions of years will be altering seawater chemistry. CO2 is needed for coral reefs to be re-established, generally less soluble in warm water than in based on past records of natural cold water. As a result, marine waters near extinction events [132]. the poles have a much greater capacity for Increasing concentrations of atmospheric dissolving CO2 than do ocean waters in the CO2 is entering the ocean in ever increasing tropics [11]. amounts. CO2 combines with water to Shipping emissions annually release produce carbonic acid (CO2+H2O→H2CO3), about 9.5 million tons of sulphur (S) and which subsequently converts carbonate ions + 2– 16.2 million tons of nitric oxides (NO). (H2CO3→2H +CO3 ) into bicarbonate ions + 2– + – When these dissolved in seawater converted (2H +CO3 →H +HCO3 ). Some marine into the strong sulphuric (H2SO4) and nitric organisms use bicarbonate to form the – acids (HNO3) respectively [51]. Ocean compound calcium carbonate (2HCO3 + + acidification effects on food webs, fisheries Ca2 →CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O). CaCO3 builds (shellfish), marine ecosystems (corals, skeletons as in coral reefs, or protective coralline algae, mollusks and some shells as in snails. Hence, the decreases in 2– plankton), coastal erosion and tourism [91]. CO3 , decreases the saturation state of The upper layers of the ocean are now CaCO3 [52]. 0.7°C warmer due to global warming than Ocean warming is implicated in mass they were 100 years ago [72]. Since the mortality, increased disease, hypoxia, coral Industrial Revolution (1750) atmospheric bleaching, species invasions, phonological CO2 has increased. The oceans of the world shifts in planktonic food web dynamics, are absorbing CO2 at a faster rate than at any physiological limitation in oxygen delivery time in the past 800,000 years [86]. Present and increased costs of metabolism [54,95]. total human CO2 emissions are more than 10 Ocean acidification is a major threat to billion tons of carbon annually. Of this calcifying marine invertebrates because it 2– amount, 8.7±0.5 billion tons originates from decreases the availability of the CO3 fossil fuel combustion and cement required for skeletogenesis, and it exerts a production and another 1.2±0.7 billion tons direct pH effect [78]. Hypercapnia has a from deforestation [70]. The cumulative pervasive narcotic effect suppressing human CO2 emissions over the industrial era metabolism [15]. now amount to close to 560 billion tons [27]. Oceanic pH has decreased by 0.1 units,

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6.9 Chemical Pollution use each year. Global chemical production is Hundreds of thousands of different man- expected to double every 25 years, even as made and natural chemicals are harmful for global population increases at a much slower ecosystem or human health. The concepts of rate. Every day the chemists are inventing PBs for chemical pollution are needed for new chemicals and some of them are developing appropriate evaluation strategies harmful for human life [82,146]. to reduce global chemical risks and the Twelve most dangerous Persistent future development of sustainable chemical Organic Pollutants (POPs) are collectively technologies [103]. referred to as the dirty dozen. The first 9 are Primary types of chemical pollution are agricultural and landscape chemicals radioactive compounds, heavy metals (steel, (pesticides) and last 3 are industrial copper, gold etc.), and a wide range of chemicals. POPs are extremely toxic organic compounds of human origin. chemicals with acute and chronic effects on Chemical pollution affects other planetary pests, wildlife, and humans contact. Their boundaries, such as, biodiversity boundary uses, half-life in soil (years) and effects on by reducing the abundance of species and human health are given as follows [127]: climate change releasing CO2 by the burning 1. Aldrin: Uses as insecticide, half-life petroleum when chemicals are produced in soil is yet unknown and adverse [102]. health effects on human body are the Hundreds of tons of hazardous waste are development of carcinogenic, released to the air, water, and land by malaise, dizziness and nausea. industry every hour of every day and the 2. Chlordane: Uses as insect and chemical industry is the biggest source of termite control, half-life in soil is one such waste [71]. year and adverse health effect on During 1994–2008, Nigeria was the human body is carcinogenic creation. worst for gas flaring efficiency among the 3. Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane top eight flaring countries. At present (DDT): Uses as insecticide, half-life Nigeria is the second largest gas flaring in soil is 10–12 years, and adverse volume among the top 20 individual health effects on human body are the countries. Nigeria and Russia together development of cancer of liver and account for 40% of global gas flaring and immune system suppression. the top twenty countries account for 85% 4. Dieldrin: Uses as insecticide, half- [31]. life in soil is 5 years and adverse It is estimated that there are 80,000 to health effects on human body are 100,000 chemicals on the global market [18, liver and biliary cancer formation. 131]. Of the 80,000 chemicals in commerce, 5. Endrin: Uses as insecticide and 1,000 are known to be neurotoxic in rodenticide, half-life in soil is up to experiments, 200 are known to be 12 years and adverse health effect on neurotoxic in humans, and 5 (methyl human body is the development of mercury, arsenic, lead, polychlorinated cancers. biphenyls (PCBs), toluene) are known to be 6. Heptachlor: Uses as insect and toxic to human neurodevelopment [102]. termite control, half-life in soil is up According to the California Policy Research to 2 years and adverse health effects Center, about 2,000 potentially hazardous on human body are the formation of chemicals are introduced into commercial

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cancers, , stillbirths, birth world. The wastewaters generated from defects and liver disease. production processes of this industry include 7. Hexachloro-benzene (HCB): Uses as high concentration of chemicals such as fungicide, half-life in soil is 2.7–22.9 sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium years and adverse health effects on carbonate (Na2CO3), sodium sulfide (Na2S), human body are the development of bisulfites, elemental chlorine or chlorine cancers, mutations, birth defects, dioxide (Cl2O), calcium oxide (CaO), fetal and embryo , nervous hydrochloric acid (HCl), etc. [120]. disorder and liver disease. According to the Environmental 8. Mirextermiticide: Uses as Protection Agency (EPA), the average adult insecticide, half-life in soil is up to breathes 3,000 gallons of air per day. 10 years, and adverse health effects Inhaling certain air pollutants can worsen on human body are the creation of conditions such as asthma, and studies acute toxicity and possible cancers. estimate that thousands of people die 9. Toxaphane: Uses as insecticide, half- prematurely each year due to air pollution life in soil is 3 months to one year [115]. and adverse health effects on human Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a poisonous gas body are the development of that released by volcanoes and in various carcinogenic, chromosome industrial processes (by roasting metal aberrations, liver and kidney sulphide ores). It has a variety of industrial problems. applications, from refining raw materials for 10. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): preserving food. The poisonous gas SO2 is Uses as industry manufacture, co- considered as a local pollution problem planar, half-life in soil is 10 days to worldwide. It is emitted in the atmosphere 1.5 year and adverse health effects from both anthropogenic and natural on human body are cancers sources. It is estimated that anthropogenic mutations, births defects, fetal and sources account for more than 70% of SO2 embryo toxicity, neurological global emissions, half of which are from disorder and liver damage formation. fossil-fuel combustion [139]. It is considered 11. Dioxins: Uses to produce by- as severe health effect ingredient, both in product, half-life in soil is 10–12 short-term and long-term [83]. years and adverse health effects on The health effects caused by a short-term human body are the development of (a few minutes) exposures to SO2 are as peripheral neuropathies, fatigue, follows [5]: depression, liver disease and embryo (a) difficulty in breathing, (b) coughing, (c) toxicity. irritation of the nose, throat, lungs, (d) fluid 12. Furans: Uses to produce by-product, in lungs, (e) shortness of breath and (f) half-life in soil is 10–12 years and forms sulphuric acid in lungs. adverse health effects on human The health effects caused by long-term body are the development of exposure to SO2 are as follows [5]: peripheral neuropathies, embryo (a) temporary loss of smell, (b) headache, (c) toxicity and liver problems. nausea, (d) dizziness, (e) irritation of lungs, (f) phlegm, (g) coughing, (h) shortness of Pulp and paper industry is considered as breath, (i) bronchitis and (j) reduced fertility. one of the most polluter industry in the

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At present China becomes the highest [1]. The USA, China and other SO2 emitter in the world due to its reliance industrialized countries agreed to reduce on coal for energy generation. When SO2 GHG emissions. combines with moisture in the atmosphere, it Six dimensions of transformation for can form sulphuric acid (H2SO4), which is sustainability are as follows [105]: the main component of acid rain. Acid rain i. Global energy transformation (>80% destroys various living organisms (harmful reduction in CO2 emissions by for humans, animals and vegetation) and 2050). structures (paints, buildings, infrastructure ii. transformation (+70% and cultural resources) [83]. The World by 2050; sustainable intensification). Health Organization (WHO) estimated that iii. Urban sustainability transformation. acid rain seriously affects 30% of China’s iv. The population transition (aim for a total land area [140]. 9 billion world or below). Green chemistry and engineering (GCE) v. The biodiversity management involves designing and using chemical transformation (protect, restore, products and processes with the aim of manage; sustain critical biomes). eliminating or reducing their negative vi. Private and public governance impact on human health and the transformation (strengthen global environment [82]. governance). On 10 September 2010, California’s Department of Toxic Substances Control 8 Conclusions (DTSC) submitted its Green Chemistry In this study we have discussed the Proposed Regulation for Safer Consumer aspects of nine planetary boundaries. Products to the state’s Office of Beyond of these boundaries anthropogenic Administrative Law, triggering a 45-day change will put the earth system outside a public comment period and formal safe operating space for humanity. Four rulemaking process, which flesh out a boundaries; climate change, loss of process for identifying and prioritizing biosphere integrity, land-system change and chemicals in consumer products that may be altered biogeochemical cycles have already subject to additional restrictions [25]. been passed due to human activities. Scientists estimated that within a very short 7 Progress in Environment Protection time world will face the difficulties of The Thames in London, have been shortage of freshwater, change in land use, cleaned up and the air quality in major cities, ocean acidification and interference with the such as Los Angeles, is better. Synthetic global phosphorous cycle. In 2014 the pesticides once sprayed on our crops, such population of the world became 7.29 billion as DDT, have been banned in most and is growing developed countries, and lead has been continuously. For this vast population the removed from petroleum-based fuels. world faces various problems and the 21st Even though the major 12 Persistent century becomes a challenge for the survival Organic Pollutants (POPs) have now been of the mankind. At the same time industrial banned or restricted in most industrialized and anthropogenic activities have increased countries, but these chemicals continue to be air pollution which affect on human health. produced and exported to Third World It is the critical period that all the nations countries where regulations are negligent

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Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques 2015, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages: 184-200 should take attempts to make the earth safe Cycle, Worldwatch Institute, shelter for all living creatures. Washington, DC.

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