Private Paths to Protecting Places: The Creation of a Conservation Infrastructure in the American South Since 1889 by Christopher R. Eklund A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama May 10, 2015 Copyright 2015 by Christopher R. Eklund Approved by Aaron Shapiro, Chair, Associate Professor of History Jennifer Brooks, Associate Professorof History Cathleen Giustino, Mills Carter Professor of History David Lucsko, Associate Professor of History Abstract This dissertation investigates changes in the ways individuals protected private land in the twentieth century American South. In contrast with iconic parks like Yellowstone or the heavily industrialized lands of the Northeast, most land in the American South was broadly populated, privately owned, and overwhelmingly rural. In this distinct American region, private initiatives to protect land began much earlier than commonly assumed and the motivation remained strong from the late nineteenth century to the present. The methods for protecting lands changed dramatically over the course of the twentieth century, and the twentieth century witnessed a correlation between the successes of the environmental movement and a higher likelihood of private efforts to protect land as the public’s ecological knowledge grew. Ultimately, the phenomenal twentieth century increase in private conservation reflects a trend away from government-managed parks while also highlighting a growing public interest in protecting lands from development. These gradual alterations in the ways Americans protected their land demonstrates sweeping changes in American culture, the role of the state in society, and citizens’ engagement with the environment. ii Acknowledgments When I read my first academic monograph many years ago, I was struck by the length of the acknowledgments. Having completed a dissertation, my perspective changed and now the space allotted to recognizing those who helped make this work possible seems wholly inadequate. This brief list is my attempt to credit these people. Perhaps the most enjoyable part of writing a dissertation is conducting the research. This project started as a research paper which took me to the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park Archives where I met James Ogden and first encountered Adolph Ochs’s plans to create a park for Chattanooga. From this seed, the rest of the dissertation grew to explore the histories of other parks. I am indebted to the staff of MARBL at Emory’s Woodruff Library, the staff of the Southern Historical Collection, and particularly Carie Chesarino at the North Carolina State Archives in Raleigh. Thanks also to Sarah Downing at the Outer Banks History Center. Dan Jones, CEO of 21st Century Parks, generously gave of his time to clarify his organization’s history. Research on the Cumberland Trail and Bowater Pocket Wildernesses introduced me to Andy Wright of the Tennessee State Park System and Kevin Gallagher at Resolute Forest Products. They both provided documents, a quiet place to research, and stimulating conversation. This project received generous research funding from the Forest History Society and the Filson Historical Society. At the Forest History Society, Steven Anderson, Jamie Lewis, and Eben Lehman offered encouragement and insight. Cheryl Oakes was an asset iii not only in the archives, but in talking through many of the theoretical underpinnings of the dissertation with good humor and constructive criticism. At the Filson, Jennifer Cole, Heather Stone, Jana Meyer, Aaron Rosenblum, and Glen Crothers not only made an out- of-towner welcome, but pointed me in new research directions. The Auburn History Department has been a wonderful academic home, offering both intellectual stimulation and the support necessary to complete this project. Special thanks go to Charles Israel, who was chair for the majority of this project and introduced me to Auburn in his New South seminar, and David Carter, who served as GPO for most of my circuitous path to completion. Of course, those members who had the greatest impact on my time at Auburn are the members of my committee, including David Lucsko, and Cathleen Giustino. I want to thank Jennifer Brooks, who offered frank advice, constructive criticism, and particularly helped keep me focused and engaged in the final two years of my time at Auburn. Aaron Shapiro was an excellent adviser, combining patience with timely prodding and always encouraging me to think deeper about this project. I am also deeply grateful for his continued interest in seeing the project to fruition despite the professional challenges. Finally, I must thank those who provided the non-academic support that made this work possible. Chuck King was always interested in “talking history,” and I also thank him for welcoming me into his family. Jennifer Eklund provided timely distractions and moments of brilliant insight. Rick and Karen Eklund were encouraging parents at every step, even when the path seemed treacherous. Finally, my greatest thanks go to my daughter, Grace, and my wife, Courtney. They are what is good in this world. Thank you Courtney for building your life with me, I am truly blessed. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ iii List of Figures....................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................... vii Introduction: “America’s Best Idea” or “Dispossessed Wilderness?” Conceptions of American Parks and Conservation ..................................................................... 1 Chapter One: “Leading Spirits” and “Generous Offers:” Louisville, Chattanooga, and Creating Public Parks for the Urban Masses ................................................... 38 Chapter Two: From “Lands Nobody Wanted” to Lands “Fiercely Protected:” Culture, Nature, and Tourism at the Outer Banks of North Carolina ............................... 88 Chapter Three: “To Continue to Preserve and Cherish:” The Eno River, Ichauway Plantation, Conservation Easements, and Twentieth Century Environmentalism ..................................................................................... 135 Chapter Four: “Trying to Be a Good Neighbor:” Bowater Paper Company’s “Pocket Wilderness Program” in Tennessee, 1967-2007 ............................................ 201 Conclusion: Louisville’s 21st Century Parks, Public Private Partnerships, and the Legacies of Private Efforts to Conserve Land .................................................. 238 References ....................................................................................................................... 253 v List of Figures Illustration 1 Selection from “Master Plan Alternatives: Eno River State Park” ........................................ 167 vi List of Abbreviations BRP---------Blue Ridge Parkway CCC--------Civilian Conservation Corps ERA--------Eno River Association FWS--------Fish and Wildlife Service GSMNP----Great Smoky Mountains National Park OBX--------Outer Banks, North Carolina ORRRC----Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission NPS---------National Park Service TCWP------Tennessee Citizens for Wilderness Preservation TVA--------Tennessee Valley Authority USFS-------United States Forest Service vii Introduction: “America’s Best Idea” or “Dispossessed Wilderness?” Conceptions of American Parks and Conservation “The National Parks: America's Best Idea is the story of an idea as uniquely American as the Declaration of Independence and just as radical: that the most special places in the nation should be preserved, not for royalty or the rich, but for everyone.” Ken Burns, 2009 “It was agreed that the wilderness experience was shared by many and was a genuine emotion. It was also agreed the experience could be just as valid standing in the center of 100 acres of woodlands as 5,000 square miles of woodlands.” Dick Dyer, 1991 In the fall of 2007, the National Audubon Society and the Defenders of Wildlife filed a lawsuit against the National Park Service (NPS) over the agency’s off-road vehicle policies at the Cape Hatteras National Seashore. Pitting non-governmental environmental groups against one of the largest and most visible conservation bureaucracies in the world, the lawsuit sought to halt the Park Service decades-old policy of allowing four-wheel drive vehicles access to the beaches where endangered species of sea turtles and migratory birds nest. 1 The reactions to the lawsuit from the NPS, local tourism promoters, and national environmentalists were strong. The Audubon Society argued the off-road vehicle (ORV) access policies damaged the nesting grounds of 1 Ted Williams, “Beach Bullies,” Audubon Magazine, September-October 2012. See also, Committee on Natural Resources, Report on the Preserving Access to Cape Hatteras National Seashore Recreational Area Act. H.R. REP No 113-146. 1 protected species and literally crushed young sea turtles before they had a chance to make their first swim. ORV advocates viewed the lawsuit as evidence of “eco-freak” meddling and a closing of public