SVENSKA INSTITUTEN I ATHEN OCH ROM INSTITUTUM ATHENIENSE ATQUE INSTITUTUM ROMANUM REGNI SUECIAE
Opuscula Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome 12 2019
STOCKHOLM
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EDITOR Dr Julia Habetzeder Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies Stockholm University SE-106 91 Stockholm [email protected]
SECRETARY’S ADDRESS Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies Stockholm University SE-106 91 Stockholm [email protected]
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ISSN 2000-0898 ISBN 978-91-977799-1-3 © Svenska Institutet i Athen and Svenska Institutet i Rom Printed by TMG STHLM, Sweden 2019 Cover illustrations from Ingvarsson et al. in this volume, p. 23.
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Bioarchaeological field analysis of human remains from the mass graves at Phaleron, Greece With an introduction by Stella Chryssoulaki and an appendix by Anna Linderholm, Anna Kjellström, Vendela Kempe Lagerholm, and Maja Krzewińska
Abstract In 2016, archaeological excavations undertaken by the Ephorate of An- Keywords: Phaleron, Greece, Archaic, mass graves, osteology tiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands 3.8 km south-west of Athens, Greece, revealed mass burials of 79 skeletons in three rows. The burials are https://doi.org/10.30549/opathrom-12-02 dated to the 7th century BC. The anthropological field documentation was undertaken by The Swedish Institute of Athens, and followed estab- lished bioarchaeological protocols regarding taphonomic processes, age, sex, injuries, and pathological changes. The descriptions and interpreta- Introduction tions should be regarded as preliminary field observations. A majority of By Stella Chryssoulaki, ephor at the Ephorate of Antiquities of West the individuals were young adult or juvenile males, most of them without Attica, Piraeus and Islands signs of active disease and with a generally good oral health status, but with corroded iron shackles around their wrists. Cause of death could Death marks the final change in a person’s condition, since it not be determined although extensive and likely perimortem fractures were observed. The only object related to injury and/or possible cause interrupts the thread of life and stops time and its flow for of death was an arrowhead found in the chest of one of the skeletons. the family. Thus, death affects the society in which he/she was Why and where the individuals were killed is a matter of conjecture; the integrated. The burial process is a social act of the living mem- observations from the field documentation neither validate, nor disprove bers of a society undertaken to overthrow the idea of death the hypothesis that these individuals were captives and victims of the so- and to deal with the fear that it causes. The Phaleron cemetery called “Cylonian conspiracy” in the 7th century BC.* does not deviate from typical Archaic cemeteries, but it could be characterized as a more thorough image of Attic society in
* Acknowledgements: We are grateful to Dr Stella Chryssoulaki, ephor at logical Research at the School of Human Evolution and Social Change of the Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands for inviting Arizona State University and the Malcolm H. Wiener Laboratory for Ar- the Swedish Institute at Athens (SIA) to conduct a field documentation of chaeological Science at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. the skeletons in the mass graves at Phaleron. Two Swedish foundations pro- We thank the team of the Phaleron Bioarchaeological Project, especially vided the necessary funding for the anthropological field documentation: Prof. Jane Buikstra, Center for Bioarchaeological Research, Arizona State the Swedish Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences (Riksbankens University and Dr Panagiotis Karkanas, director of the Wiener Laboratory, Jubileumsfond, project no. INT16-1143:1) and the Royal Swedish Acad- for their excellent collaboration and advice. We are particularly grateful for emy of Letters (Kungl. Vitterhetsakademien); SIA provided additional the assistance given by the archaeologists Sevos Agouras, Ioannis Pappas, funding for the field documentation and Gustavianum—Uppsala Univer- and Nikos Tsanteikidis, and the conservators Panayota Gioni, Tatiana Pa- sity Museum provided additional funding for the report. Sincere thanks to nagopoulou, Paraskevi Peteinatou, and Panagiotis Simotas. Thanks to the Dr Arto Penttinen, former director at SIA for inviting us, swiftly arranging illustrator Konstantina Deli for all the plans, and to Ioannis Asvestas for the the necessary funding needed for this work and for his immense support photographs. Thanks to the workers at the Phaleron excavation for sharing during the whole project. Many thanks to Dr Jenny Wallensten, current their expertise and for the stimulating discussions during coffee breaks. For director at SIA for her commitment and support during the implementa- discussions and valuable comments on the text, special thanks to Dr Erika tion and completion of the project. Research engineer Stefan Lindgren Weiberg, Dr Anna Kjellström, Dr Lars Sundström, Hans Liss, Dr Brita Al- and Victor Lundström, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University made the roth, and Dr Anders Sundström. We also thank the reviewers for their help- 3D model with additional funding from SIA. Dr Anna Kjellström and Dr ful comments and suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. Many Maja Krzewinska, Stockholm University, were responsible for the sampling thanks to the editor Julia Habetzeder, and to Rebecca Montague for all their (aDNA, strontium, and 14C) funded by the Atlas Project (through Prof. efforts in a thorough and professional proofreading and their constructive Mattias Jakobsson) which will be shared with the Center for Bioarchaeo- comments on the final draft.
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Table 1. The percentage of burial types in relation to total number of of the major naturally formed seaports in Attica, a fact that burials excavated. can be deduced by the construction of the Phaleric Wall in 459–456 BC by Kimon.4 Type Number Percentage The cemetery occupies a large part of the coastal zone of Pit graves 961 (778 single graves, 53.43% (43.82% in 183 individuals in mass single graves, 10.17% the ancient Phaleron Bay and its use extended from the 8th to graves) in mass graves) 4th century BC. It has not been yet ascertained whether it was Pot burials 612 34.02% used by residents of Athens or residents of settlements from the Cist graves 63 3.50% Phaleron district itself. Nevertheless, the lack of residential re- Funeral pyres 119 6.61% mains in the surrounding Phaleron area in combination with Larnakes 17 0.94% the gradual establishment of Athenian cemeteries outside the Animal burials 18 1.00% city boundaries at the end of the 8th–beginning of the 7th cen- Tile–graves 3 0.16% tury BC5 strongly suggests that it was used by the inhabitants of Secondary cremations 3 0.16% Athens who, having frequent and easy access, could choose the Wooden coffin 1 0.05% southern extremity of Attic territory as a cemetery. Today, the cemetery is located in the eastern part of the the Archaic era. The Phaleron cemetery includes all kinds of Kallithea Municipal Sports and Leisure Park and extends burials: individual burials, as well as mass burials with traces across a sandy strip heading south-eastward and north-west- of violence. Τhe excavation of a considerable number of devi- ward up to at least the western boundary of the modern Syn- ant burials at Phaleron will fill a gap in archaeological research grou Avenue (Fig. 1). The cemetery’s width is estimated to into the issue of Archaic society’s behaviour towards burials 200 m. Recently, during the excavations for the construction that diverge from the norm. of the underground coastal boulevard, a pit burial was found just 317 metres south-east of the discovered easternmost part of the cemetery. The identification of this individual pit burial RESEARCH HISTORY may indicate the continuation of the cemetery, but its limits The history of the discovery of the Phaleron cemetery begins are not securely documented. If more burials were discovered in the late 19th century, when a number of recently found during the construction work, then the spatial extent of the vases from the area were sold to the British Museum.1 In 1911, cemetery could occupy the entire eastern part of the ancient a research excavation was carried out by the Archaeological Phaleron Bay. Service under the direction of Konstantinos Kourouniotis.2 A few years later, in 1915, as a result of the Phaleron Delta THE CEMETERY area redevelopment project, rescue excavations had to be car- 6 ried out, directed by Stratis Pelekidis.3 The construction of The excavated part of the cemetery yielded 1,797 burials, the racetrack in 1925 formed a way of protecting the rest of spanning over a period of four centuries (8th–4th century the cemetery since the area around the cemetery was declared BC), but it was in use mainly during the Archaic period (Ta- public land and thus became shielded from any construction ble 1). Pit graves represent the most common type of burials, work until 2012, when the building of the Stavros Niarchos then follow pot burials, funeral pyres, cist graves, larnakes, ani- Foundation Cultural Centre (SNFCC) began. In this con- mal burials, secondary cremations, tile graves, and one burial text, the Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and in a wooden coffinFig. ( 2). All burials were found below the Islands started conducting rescue excavations, which were same layer which is located at the current sea level and reaches carried on until 2016. Since then, the excavations have been up to 1.20 mbsl in depth. funded by the Ministry of Culture. The burials do not follow a particular orientation. No roads arriving to or paths crossing the cemetery were identi- fied, while overlapping burials were a recurrent occurrence. LOCATION The bigger part of the excavated cemetery was dug in sandy It is commonly known that during the period of the 8th to the layers (on the sandy coast) which make the traces of the pit 6th century BC the greater area of Phaleron Bay lay outside of cuts very difficult to detect. the boundaries and the walls of Athens. Phaleron Bay was one
4 Philippson & Kirsten 1952, 881. 1 Smith 1884, 176; Boehlau 1887, 47. 5 Morris 1989, 317; Dimitriadou 2012, 354. 2 Kourouniotis 1911, 246–251. 6 The number concerns the finds up to November 2017, since the excava- 3 Pelekidis 1916, 13–64. tion is still ongoing.
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Fig. 1. An aerial view of the site with the ongoing excavation. The mass grave of the captives is roofed by the white shelter. Photograph: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
BURIALS The pit graves are devoid of grave goods as a rule, and mostly area or vases broken for this purpose. Inside most pot burials, used for adults. In contrast, later burials (5th–4th centuries the offerings are usually miniature vessels and tableware ves- BC) usually contain vessels as offerings. There is great diver- sels, alabastra, pyxides, figurines, jewellery, and amulets. On sity in the positions of the dead; from various forms of supine several occasions other vessels used for ritual libations during (lying on their back)7 to lateral (lying on their side) and prone the burial can be detected outside the burial pot. A second (lying on their front, ie face down). Apart from the single type of child burials is the larnax (clay tub). In some cases big burials, double burials are also found in supine position. clay louteria are also used. The second most common kind of burial is the pot buri- Two other common burial types are the funeral pyres and als. They were usually intended for the burial of newborns and the cist graves. The pyres are classified into three categories: small children. In many cases these burial pots consist of parts simple pits dug into the surrounding sand, pits formed by clay of different vessels since quite a few of them indicate the “recy- tiles or flat stones, and funeral pyres constructed by tile bricks. cling” of the materials, meaning the reuse of the broken parts The cist graves consist of flat stones from the regional sedi- of vessels that obviously would be scattered throughout the mentary rock which usually formed the four sides of the grave and in some cases were used as cover stones as well. The variety in width of these graves varies depending either on the posi- tion of the dead or on the different burial customs. 7 With folded feet, hands straight down or folded on chest, etc.
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Fig. 2. Different types of burials in the same area: three pot burials, three cist-graves and one pyre (above) and a typical sector of the Phaleron cemetery (below): several pot-burials, two pit-graves and traces of one cist grave next to a pit grave. Photographs: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
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At the Phaleron cemetery animal burials, usually of horses, arms tied behind their backs, but without metal shackles, are common. One of them is a well-prepared burial of a horse most of them in a lateral position with their lower limbs bent buried in a pit. Remarkable examples include those of a pit at right angles. grave containing an adult accompanied by a horse head, and a The middle row, Row 2, involves 16 skeletons with their pit grave with an adult accompanied by a small domestic ani- arms tied behind their backs though no traces of metal mal (piglet). bounds were found. The eastern row, Row 3, consists of 16 The discovery of numerous adult burials that bore traces of skeletons buried in a simple pit, with their arms tied with iron violent treatment sets the Phaleron cemetery apart from most bonds around their wrists. According to their body position known cemeteries of Archaic Greece. These deviant burials they were thrown in and executed on-site. A limestone slab can be classified into two categories: the individual burials found placed on these burials could be characterized as a sema. and the mass burials. The first category consists of burials with As far as the taphonomy can offer information about the their arms tied behind the back with iron bonds or bonds of identity of the captives, we can note that they seem to have other perishable material as rope or leather. Several of them been given some rites to ease the passage to the Underworld were in prone position, face-down in the earth and with all as two libation vases were found on the corpse of the west row, limbs tied, an indirect indication of torture and violent death. Row 1. These were twooinochoai dated between the second In some cases it was noticed that the feet of some burials were third and the end of the 7th century BC.10 cut off from the lower limbs, maybe as a mutilation punish- Furthermore, the buried men had participated in actions ment before death or as a postmortem injury caused by sorcery that can be interpreted as of violent or warlike character. In practices. Many of these individuals had a stone slab as a mark- the east row, Row 3, lies a man who was wounded in his tho- er, sema, of the burial. Such indicators were located exclusively rax by an arrowhead, not far from an armed individual with a at burials where the buried person had suffered a violent death dagger hidden against his leg. The find of the dagger seems to and may have been considered as biaiothanatoi—i.e., a violent indicate that they were buried dressed and the knife hidden in death. a boot, otherwise it would certainly have been taken from its The first case of a mass burial ofbiaiothanatoi at Phaleron convicted owner. was identified in 1915 when a mass grave of 18 bound con- The dating of this mass burial to the second half of the 7th victs were found tied with iron bonds to a wooden plank, a century BC points to Athens in the beginning of an intense so-called tympanon, i.e., they had suffered the punishment of and at times violent political, social, and economic disorder, apotympanismos, i.e., beating to death with cudgels.8 which affected its further development. The city became the During the recent excavations 2015–2016 further mass scene of continuous civil conflicts and unrest, as the noble burials of captives or people who suffered violent death have families fought to come to power. The lower social classes—in been identified. A typical example is the mass grave located search of a better lot—also participated in these conflicts.11 56.6 m west of the grave treated in the article where 16 cap- Possibly, the mass burials in Phaleron, described in the follow- tives, with their arms tied behind their back were buried, ap- ing, bear witness to these troubled times. parently thrown into a trench without special care. But the most remarkable example so far is however the mass grave, found in 2016, of 79 captives buried in three trenches at the south–south-eastern part of the cemetery. They were found in the same layer which is located at the cur- rent sea level, at a depth of 0.15 masl to 1.15 mbsl. The western row, Row 1, consists of two groups of bound individuals, 47 individuals in total. The main group includes 40 individuals in a row, most of them manacled at the wrist.9 They have been laid very carefully one after the other. The second group of the row consists of eight skeletons with their
8 Pelekidis 1916, 13–64; Keramopoulos 1923. 9 During the excavation of the mass grave, a skull was found (no. 1247), which was given a temporary burial number (see Appendix 1). However, we cannot be sure that it belongs to the mass grave or to an earlier indi- vidual pit burial that was disturbed, because of the digging of the mass 10 The study of pottery is conducted by Dr Anna Alexandropoulou. grave pit (see Table 2 in the osteological field documentation). 11 Valavanis 2010, 43; Morris 1992, 24–25; Parker 1983, 16–17.
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Introduction to the osteological field tion.13 They were not examined and are not included in this report. documentation It is unlikely that the individuals in the mass graves died In 2016, mass burials arranged in three separate rows were re- from natural causes; there was little evidence of disease and vealed at the Phaleron Delta, 3.8 km south-west of Athens, a majority of the individuals were young–middle-aged males, Greece. The Ephorate of Piraeus, under the direction of Dr many of them with evidence of trauma to the skull that may Stella Chryssoulaki uncovered the skeletons between Febru- have been fatal. A majority of individuals had been shackled, ary and mid-July 2016. The material consists of 79 skeletons; metal clamps remaining on their wrists; some were probably the individuals were deposited in three rows in the periphery bound with perishable material, according to their arm posi- of the large Archaic cemetery at Phaleron, in a coastal marsh- tion. land/salty water context.12 Most of the skeletons were laid out in Row 1 (n = 47) in the west, with 16 skeletons in Row METHODS 2 (middle row) and 16 skeletons in Row 3 (east row) (Figs. The osteological field documentation followed established 3–7). The presence of twooinochoai found among the skel- bioarchaeological protocols in order to document and pre- etons in Row 1 (the west row) dates the burials to the 7th cen- liminarily analyse the skeletons in situ. Observations regard- tury BC. It has been discussed whether the mass burials could ing taphonomic processes, age, sex, injuries, and pathological be connected with the execution of the participants in a late changes were documented (see Appendix 1).14 7th-century coup, the so-called “Cylonian conspiracy”, briefly Estimation of sex, age, and stature was made using stan- mentioned by Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plutarch (Hdt. dard osteological methods recommended by Jane E. Buikstra, 5.71–5.72; Thuc. 1.126.2–1.126.12; Plut.Sol . 12.1–12.14). Douglas H. Ubelaker and Don Brothwell.15 Although metrics In May, as well as a few weeks in June and July 2016, an that would aid estimation of sex or stature were taken when anthropological field documentation of the skeletons was possible, conditions in the field prevented, in most cases, pre- completed by Dr Anne Ingvarsson and Ylva Bäckström. The cise measurements from being taken. excavation is yet unpublished, although important data were The anthropological field observations were registered on available at the time of documentation: plans, photographs, paper, using parts of the form developed by INFORCE, the notes from field diaries, and oral communication with the International Forensic Centre of Excellence, and California archaeologists, conservators, and workers provided us with State University, Chico: “Anthropology recording form, indi- background and details. vidual adult skeleton”.16 In addition, observations on archaeo- At the time of field documentation, all individuals except thanatology were registered on a separate form. We used the three skeletons in the southernmost part of the east row (Row recording form for “anthropologie de terrain” developed by the 3) had been partially exposed through the pedestal method, Villa Magna Project.17 i.e., the soil had been removed around the skeletons leaving Quantitative and qualitative observations regarding the the bones on soil pedestals for maximum visibility because the state of preservation were made according to the three stag- skeletons were not, at the time, allowed to be lifted for osteo- es described in the manual on human osteological methods logical analysis. Solid soil incrustations on excavated parts of from ADBOU—Unit of Anthropology at the Department the skeletons were common. Therefore, observations regard- of Forensic Medicine, University of Southern Denmark in ing age, sex, oral status, trauma, and pathologies are limited Odense.18 to what was possible to observe in the field. Complete exami- nation and subsequent cleaning of the bones will be neces- sary before a full osteological analysis of age, sex, oral status, 13 Sevos Agouras, pers. comm. 2016. fractures, and pathologies can be made. The descriptions and 14 Following completion of the osteological field analysis, the Cultural interpretations of the findings presented in this report are lim- Ministry granted permission for removal of some individuals from the ited to what was observed in the field and should thus to be site for the purpose of detailed osteological analyses under laboratory conditions. The Ephorate removed ten skeletons, which were transferred regarded as preliminary field observations. to the Wiener Laboratory in Athens for analyses by scholars at the Amer- Three additional skeletons were excavated between Rows ican School at Athens (ASCSA). Skeletons removed for analysis: Row 1, 1 and 2 (nos. 1274, 1345 and 1403). According to the archae- nos. 1253, 1296, 1365, 1281, 1383, 1356, and 1359; Row 2, nos. 1228, and 1267; Row 3, no. 1344. Conservators from the Ephorate of Antiqui- ologist, these skeletons derive from another context, and were ties of Piraeus conserved the skeletons. already excavated and lifted at the time of field documenta- 15 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Brothwell 1972. 16 http://www.fossilized.org/instruction/Forensic%20osteology/content/ main_skeletal_recording_form.pdf 17 Dufton & Fenwick 2012, fig. 7. 12 Chryssoulaki forthcoming. 18 http://www.adbou.dk/fileadmin/adbou/manualer/humostman2015.pdf
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Fig 3. Overview of the area of the mass graves. The drawing includes skeletons that are not considered to be related to the mass burials presented here.
All skeletons were photographed (e.g. overviews, close-ups Stockholm University (Fig. 8). Analyses of these samples are of teeth, injuries, and pathological changes), and loose and undertaken by the Archaeological Research Laboratory at fragmented bones were sampled for chemical analyses.19 Stockholm University (AFL), the Evolutionary Biology Cen- Further sampling for DNA analyses took place during the tre at Uppsala University, and the Center for Bioarchaeologi- spring of 2017 in co-operation with two researchers from cal Research (CBR) of Arizona State University, and will be published as separate papers. The AFL undertook the DNA analysis on teeth from 63 19 Most of the photographs were taken by Ingvarsson and Bäckström; individuals, aiming at whole genome sequencing. Unfortu- those in Figs. 16–17, 19–22, 25, 153, and 161 were taken by Giannis nately, the DNA preservation was too poor to allow for DNA Asvestas. The plans,Figs. 3–6 were made by Konstantina Deli; Stefan analyses, and not even sex determinations were possible to ac- Lindgren and Victor Lundström made the 3D model, Fig.10. Fig. 11 was complish (Appendix 2). made by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
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Fig. 7. Overview of the graves at Phaleron.
A 3D-scanning of the skeletons was carried out in June Spatial arrangement: position and deposition of 2016, by two researchers from the Humanities Laboratory at the individuals22 Lund University, Sweden (Figs. 9–10). The 3D model will be All individuals were buried at a depth of c. -3.70 m from the accessible on-line in the near future. modern ground surface and c. -0.70–1.05 m from the surface of the ancient sandy layer (Fig. 11).
Results Row 1 In Row 1, the west row, the 47 individuals were arranged side by side in a c. 16-m-long row aligned in a north–north-west/ TAPHONOMY AND PRESERVATION south–south-east direction in the western part of the cem- etery. Forty of the 47 individuals in Row 1 were placed in a Taphonomy is a term used to describe the natural or cultural more or less extended position, usually supine (lying on their processes affecting a once-living organism, transforming it back) or in a lateral position (on their side); seven individu- from the biosphere to the lithosphere.20 Within the field of als lay in a prone position (face down). All individuals were bioarchaeology, observation of and perimortem postmortem deposited in close connection to each other, often with limbs events and processes are made to understand the socio-cultur- of nearby individuals situated below or over each other with al aspects of the burial (e.g. signs of violence or of mortuary limbs intertwined. rituals) as well as how the depositional environment acted on Six individuals in the northern part of the row and six in- the remains and affected assemblage patterning.21 dividuals in the southern part of the row were missing parts of their skeletons (Table 2, Appendix 1, Figs. 12–14).
22 The skeletons were not numbered sequentially in the rows, and there- 20 Lyman 2010; Knüsel & Robb 2016. fore lists of numbers in the text and in the tables that are not sequential 21 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994, 95, 105; Knüsel & Robb 2016. represent the order of the skeletons as excavated.
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Fig. 8. Sampling at Phaleron, Dr Anna Kjellström, Stockholm University. Fig. 9. Work for the 3D digital model, by research engineer Stefan Lind- gren and Victor Lundström, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University.
Fig. 10. Part of the 3D digital model, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University. Fig. 11. The stratigraphy of the excavation at the Phaleron Delta.
Observations of a burial trench for the deceased individu- of deposition.23 The connection between the clamps could als were not recorded in the excavation diaries. Hence, at the not be observed at the time of the field documentation since end of the osteological field documentation it was decided to the clamps were severely corroded and partly covered in lumps make a small additional trial trench to elucidate if signs of a of soil. grave cut could be observed (Fig. 15). No clear demarcation The presence of shackles could not be confirmed for 15 -in indicating a cut could be noticed; although streaks of darker dividuals: seven individuals were either too poorly preserved areas were noted, these were present everywhere in the sand or were missing one or both limbs. The arm positions of eight and could not be defined as visual indications of a trench for individuals without observable shackles indicate that these the burials. individuals were perhaps not shackled but tied at the time of A majority of the skeletons in Row 1 had their arms posi- burial. In all but one case, the arms of these individuals were tioned over their heads or behind their backs. Shackles were folded behind the back (Table 3 and figures inAppendix 1). found on the wrists of 32 individuals, and for no. 1253 there A majority of the individuals were oriented east–west, were also traces of iron under the right knee (Table 3). Three with the head to the east. There are however some exceptions: individuals lying in a prone position in the northern part could have been tied together; the clamps found on the wrists of these skeletons seemed to have been interlocked at the time 23 Information from the notebooks, translated to English by Sevos Ag- ouras, pers. comm.
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Table 2. Missing skeletal parts in Row 1.
Skel. no. Missing skeletal parts Fig. no. 1245 Left part of the postcranial skeleton, parts of the right lower arm, right lower leg and foot as well as lumbar vertebrae. 1201 Larger part of the right arm/hand (except the proximal humerus), lower left arm (including the distal part of humerus). C. 1/3 femur diaphyses (cut?) as well as most parts of the lower legs. 1202 Facial bones, mandible, left arm and hand, lower left leg and foot. 1253 Facial bones and parts of the cranium, mandible, left arm and hand, right arm (except upper part of humerus) and hand, left and right femur (i.e., middle diaphysis–distal epiphyses), left tibia and fibula (proximal part–middle diaphysis). 1247 The postcranial skeleton. There is only a partial cranium, resting on top of the forehead (foramen magnum facing up). 1215 Right foot and lower tibia. 1366 Mandible and left humerus. 1318 A majority of the skeleton except parts of the lower arms, parts of left hand (two metacarpals and five phalanges partly 12, 13 visible) as well as the lower part of the body including legs and feet. The left foot and distal part of tibia were displaced and positioned lateral to the left tibia diaphysis, with toes pointing east. 1392 A majority of the skeleton except legs and feet (a small bag from the excavations contained some rib fragments, possibly belonging to this individual?). 1393 A majority of the skeleton except the lower part of a body (including legs and feet). The left foot was articulated but 14 displaced, found between the lower legs, medial to the left tibia. The superior/medial side of metatarsals nos. 1–4 facing up and pointing east. No phalanges were present/observable. 1373 Proximal 1/3 of right humerus, the lower arms and hand (parts of lower scapular body displaced?). 1354 Right lower leg and left foot.
Fig. 12. No. 1318, southern part of Row 1. Fig. 13. Detail of the left foot of no. 1318, Fig. 14. No. 1393: left foot articulated but The left foot and distal part of the left tibia positioned between the left tibia and the right displaced, found between the lower legs of the displaced and positioned lateral to the left tibia tibia of no. 1392. individual. diaphysis.
Nine individuals in Row 1 (nos. 1245, 1247, 1353, 1354, 1245 and no. 1247—only a cranium). Four individuals in the 1355, 1356, 1339, 1340, and 1376) were placed in a different southernmost part had their heads oriented towards the south orientation and their positions, when observable, were usually or south-east (nos. 1355, 1354, 1353, and 1356), one indi- more flexed compared with the majority of the individuals in vidual had the head oriented towards the west (no. 1399), and this row. Of these, two individuals in the northern part of the two individuals had their heads oriented towards the north- trench were oriented with their heads towards the west (no. east (nos. 1340 and 1376).
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The individuals in the northern part with missing skeletal parts were poorly preserved and fragmented, with possible ani- mal scavenging noted on one individual (no. 1296). In the field notebooks, it is mentioned that the burials nos. 1245, 1201, 1202, 1253, and 1247 were disturbed by a pit created for the use of a modern hippodrome that was in use from 1925–2003. Thus, the fragmentation and missing skeletal parts of these indi- viduals can probably be explained by this disturbance. The skeletons in the southern part of the row were quite well preserved and there were no visible cut marks, gnawing, or other postmortem destruction observable on the bones. However, there were also some isolated bones as well as parts of an articulated hand found in the same area (southern part of Row 1). These bones were found under, or in between the individuals nos. 1318, 1336, 1355, and 1373 (on the plan, Fig. 15. Profile of the trial trench, north-west of Row 1. these bones were given the preliminary identifiers A–F,Ta - ble 4, Fig. 6, see also Appendix 1, Row 1, after no. 1297). The other eight individuals in the middle to southern part of Although these bones and articulated elements such the the row were deposited in different orientations except in one hand (ID letter A) cannot be securely attributed to any of the case (no. 1387), where the skull was also oriented to the south individuals, it is likely that they belong to the some of the in- (this individual is included in Fig. 3 but not in Fig. 4). Most of complete individuals in the same area already mentioned. the other skeletons were oriented to the west, with skulls ori- Why five individuals in the southern part of Row 1 were miss- ented towards north (no. 1386 to the west). Two individuals ing significant parts of their skeletons is more difficult to clarify. had been uncovered and excavated c. 1–2 m east of no. 1397 It is however likely that the burial of no. 1336 and no. 1355, that (nos. 1403 and 1345); these individuals had already been lift- were found lying in different positions on top of, and across some ed at the time of field examination since they were regarded as 24 of the individuals with missing skeletal parts (nos. 1318, 1392, unconnected to the ones deposited in the rows (Fig. 3). 1393, and 1373), could have disturbed these earlier burials. Nine individuals were placed in a lateral position, four in- The deviant positions of skeletons nos. 1339, 1340, 1353, dividuals in a prone position, and three individuals in a supine 1354, and 1356 as well as nos. 1336 and 1355 makes it likely position. Shackles were not observed, but traces of rust were that these individuals are all later depositions. The deposition found on the wrists of no. 1267. The positions of arms and of no. 1376, however, must have been made earlier than no. wrists indicate that at least twelve individuals were tied at the 1375 since the skull of this individual was situated under the wrists at the time of deposition, probably with a rope of per- arms of no. 1375; it is thus likely that a short time passed be- ishable organic material. No. 1267 was missing parts of the tween the different depositions. lower legs, probably resulting from postmortem destruction, Furthermore, the deviant orientation of two individuals in but the right middle diaphyses of tibiae and fibulae were quite the northern part of the row makes it plausible that these indi- well preserved as well as both feet. viduals are also later or earlier depositions. A right hand, prob- The orientation of nos. 1267, 1298, 1268, 1269, 1370, ably belonging to the most northerly placed individual (no. 1351, 1389, and 1371, thus differ from nos. 1357, 1369, 1228, 1245) was located on top of the proximal femur of no. 1202 1368, 1386, 1388, 1387, and 1397, which makes it possible indicating that no. 1245 was deposited later. Whether the that the individuals in the two groups were deposited at differ- fragmentary and isolated cranium no. 1247 (found between ent occasions. There is also an empty space ofc. 0.4-0.5 m be- the legs of no. 1215) belongs to an earlier, or later deposition tween these two groups. Since the deposition of all skeletons of a complete body that was later disturbed, or whether only a in this row is similar in the same layer, it seems likely that the cranium was deposited, is unclear. depositions were made close in time, although the length of the interval between the depositions cannot be determined. Row 2 Row 2, the middle row of skeletons (n = 16), was located Row 3 c. 0.8–2 m east of Row 1, the west row. Eight of the individu- Row 3, the east row of skeletons (n = 16), was located c. 3.4 als in the northern to middle part of the row were deposited m east of the middle row, Row 2. A majority of the individu- in a more or less extended position in a north-west/south-east direction with skulls oriented towards the south/south-east. 24 Sevos Agouras, pers. comm. 2016.
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Table 3. Individuals with shackles and associated finds. (Y = yes; N = no.)
Skel. no. Row Shackles Posture Associated finds Remarks 1201 1 N Supine 1202 1 Y Supine (inclined on the left side) 1215 1 Y Prone 1245 1 N Supine 1247 1 N Prone 1253 1 N Supine Traces of metal under right knee. 1266 1 Y Supine Oinochoe 1281 1 Y Supine (skull resting on right side) 1289 1 Y Lateral (on right side) Marked discolouration on the parietals near the lambdoid suture. A dark demarcated area, possibly with some iron attached on the left and right parie- tal, adjacent to the lambdoid suture. 1296 1 Y Supine (skull resting on right side) 1297 1 Y Lateral (on right side) 1318 1 Y Supine 1324 1 Y Supine (skull resting on right side) 1325 1 Y Prone 1328 1 Y Supine (slightly on the left side) 1336 1 N Lateral (on left side) 1339 1 N Lateral (on right side) 1340 1 N Lateral (on right side) 1342 1 Y Prone 1343 1 Y Lateral (on left side, face almost prone) 1348 1 Y Supine 1349 1 Y Supine 1350 1 Y Supine (skull inclined on the right side) 1353 1 N Supine 1354 1 N Supine 1355 1 N Lateral (on left side) 1356 1 N Lateral (on left side) 1358 1 Y Supine 1359 1 Y Supine–lateral on left side (skull resting on left side) 1360 1 Y Prone Marked discolouration on the right parietal, posterior. 1361 1 Y Supine (skull resting on left side) 1363 1 Y Prone 1364 1 Y Supine 1365 1 Y Supine 1366 1 Y Supine 1373 1 N Supine 1374 1 Y Supine 1375 1 Y Supine (skull resting on the right side) 1376 1 Y Supine (skull and upper body) lateral on right lower body 1379 1 Y Lateral (on left side) A dark demarcated area with reddish-brown disco- louration on the left parietal. 1380 1 Y Lateral (on left side) A dark demarcated area on the frontal, possibly with some iron attached. 1381 1 Y Supine (skull resting on left side) 1382 1 N Supine (skull inclined to the left side) 1383 1 Y Supine (skull resting on the left side) 1390 1 Y Supine
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Table 3, continued.
Skel. no. Row Shackles Posture Associated finds Remarks 1392 1 N Supine Oinochoe 1393 1 N Supine 1228 2 N Lateral (on right side) Ring, left IV finger. 1267 2 ? Supine Ring, left IV finger. Traces of metal under the wrists. 1268 2 N Lateral (on right side) 1269 2 N Supine 1298 2 N Supine (skull resting on left side) 1351 2 N Prone (skull slightly on the left) 1357 2 N Lateral (on right side) 1368 2 N Lateral (on left side) 1369 2 N Prone (skull slightly on the right) 1370 2 N Prone (skull slightly on the right) Marked discolouration on right and left parietals. 1371 2 N Supine (slight on left side) 1386 2 N Lateral (on left side) Demarcated staining on right parietal, possibly from iron? 1387 2 N Lateral (on left side) 1388 2 N Lateral (on left side) 1389 2 N Lateral (on left side) 1397 2 N Lateral (on right side) 1271 3 Y Supine (postcranial skeleton on the left) 1272 3 Y Supine (skull on left side) Arrowhead, left thorax, near to the shoulder. 1275 3 N Supine (skull slightly on left side) 1276 3 N Lateral (on left side) 1277 3 N Lateral (on left side) 1285 3 N Lateral (on left side) 1294 3 Y Prone 1316 3 Y Lateral (on right side) A piece of limstone directly to the S of the hands. 1332 3 Y Supine (skull on left side) A piece of limestone directly to the SW of the skull 1333 3 Y Supine (skull slightly on left side) 1344 3 Y Prone (skull slightly on the right) Knife, medial to the left tibia 1384 3 Y Supine (skull on left side) Ceramics under the right knee. 1385 3 Y Lateral (on right side) A limestone slab on the lower arms. 1398 3 Y Lateral (on right side) A limestone slab on top of the knees. 1399 3 Y Lateral (on left side) 1400 3 Y Prone A white and weathered humerus was found c. 30 cm above the thorax
Table 4. Associated skeletal elements in Row 1.
Preliminary ID letters Skeletal elements A North of/partly on top of the right ulna of no. 1318: parts of a right hand; articulated carpals (not clearly distinguishable, but their position indicate capitate, hamate, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform), right metacarpals MCII–V (palmar side facing up) and two first phalanges possibly parts of the right hand of no. 1318? B East of no. 1336: a right humerus with a transverse postmortem crack on middle diaphysis. Distal part oriented towards north. C A left humerus with proximal epiphysis situated under the right lower leg of no. 1355. Epicondylar breadth 65 mm = male? D Between the right humerus of no. 1355 and the cranium of no. 1373, partly under the left lower leg of no. 1353 a right coxa, fragmented but complete, pubis was not observable, greater sciatic notch = 4 (male?). E North of the right scapula of no. 1373: a left, partly articulated hand with metacarpal II–V? and some carpals and phalan- ges, palmar side facing up, fingers pointing towards no. 1373 right scapula. Carpals and phalanges show transverse fractures. F Positioned across the left arm of no. 1355: a right radius not belonging to this individual.
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Fig. 16. No 1266, Oinochoe. Fig. 17. Nos. 1392 and 1393, Oinochoe.
als were aligned in a south-westerly/north-easterly direction individuals were exposed between depositions. The deviant with heads to the south-west; four individuals were aligned in position of no. 1376 (Row 1) found partly under no. 1375 a north–south direction with heads to the south. Seven indi- deposited according to the scheme in Row 1 (i.e., extended viduals were deposited in a lateral position, six individuals in on the back with hands above the head) indicates that no. supine position, and three individuals lay in prone positions. 1376 was deposited earlier; that there was little or almost no Shackles were observed on the wrists of twelve individuals, soil between these individuals indicates that only a short time while the wrists of the remaining four individuals were either elapsed between the depositions. missing or unobservable. In Row 2, unlike in Row 1, none of the skeletons was The four most northerly-located individuals, nos. 1285, found with their arms extended above their heads and shack- 1277, 1276, and 1275, have had their arms cut postmortem, ac- les were not observed (only traces of metal in the wrist of one cording to the field notebooks. The reason could have been to individual, no. 1267). The position of their arms and wrists access metal.25 At the time of the osteological documentation, indicate that their arms were nevertheless constrained; they no. 1285 was found missing both arms and the other three were probably tied rather than shackled. individuals had only parts of one or both humeri (upper arms) The positions of the individuals in Row 3 indicate that at preserved. The humeri of these individuals were very frag- least the four northerly individuals fell instantaneously (prob- mented and no cut marks could be noticed. Therefore, it was ably from standing position), as did probably some of the not possible to distinguish when, or whether their arms were other individuals in this row. A possible scenario is that the intentionally cut; it may be a result of post-depositional dis- individuals were tied to a high frame, with arms above their turbance. The position of these individuals, lateral and close head and executed at the spot; how this was done is unclear. to each other with legs bent at the knees suggest that they fell together on the spot, as did perhaps also nos. 1271 and 1272. Objects Few objects were found among the skeletons in the three rows The relation between the rows and the skeletons apart from the earlier-mentioned two oinochoai that were The relation and period between the depositions in three rows found in the northern and southern part of Row 1 (Figs. 16– could not be determined since there was no stratigraphic in- 17). However, two finger rings were found on the left fourth formation available. Nor could it be determined how long the finger on two individuals (nos. 1228 and 1267) in Row 2 (Figs. 18–19). Furthermore, a knife was found alongside the lower left leg, medial to the left tibia on an individual (no. 25 Sevos Agouras, pers. comm. 1344) in Row 3 (Fig. 20); it seems likely that the knife had
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Fig. 18. No. 1267, finger ring. Fig. 19. No. 1228, finger ring.
Fig. 21. No. 1272, arrowhead.
Fig. 20. No. 1344, knife found medial to the left tibia. Fig. 22. No. 1272, arrowhead after conservation.
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been attached to the leg of this individual (perhaps it could Post-depositional staining was found on a majority of the have been hidden under clothing?). skeletons; spotty reddish, purple, or brown-black discoloura- The only object related to injury and/or possible cause of tions were observed, probably resulting from minerals, plants, death was an arrowhead found in the chest of no. 1272, in and fungal material in the sandy soil; streaks of reddish in- Row 3 (Figs. 21–22). The arrowhead had been removed be- clusions were found everywhere in soil. It is possible that the fore the osteological field observation and the rib cage of this purple staining could derive from high levels of purple acid individual was at the time severely fragmented; it could not be phosphatase (PAP) enzyme known to produce this kind of determined if the arrow caused, or contributed to the death discolouration on bone31 as well as staining from manganese 32 of the individual. It is interesting, however, that the arrow- (II) carbonate (MnCO3). It is likely that the staining ob- head was found in the chest of an individual in Row 3, who served resulted from natural components of the soil. amongst other individuals in the northern part of row, may Reddish staining from the corroded iron shackles was also have been executed in standing position at the site (see above). observed on the skeletons, particularly in the area of the wrists and hands. Bone modification and surface changes A majority of the skeletons were covered with a solid crust/ Bone colour, weathering, fragmentation, and the presence soil matrix adhering to the bones, probably calcium carbonate 33 of gnawing are important clues aiding interpretations of the concretion. At the time of examination, the matrix was in mortuary treatment and other taphonomic processes. In life, most cases impossible to remove without damaging the bones; the skeleton is plastic and prone to changes depending on fac- this made the anthropological field observations challenging. tors such as lifestyle, cultural modifications, and disease. Af- The following changes, presented below by row, were not- ter death, however, the skeleton continues to change due to ed (see also Table 5). cultural or natural processes following postmortem handling of the body and the burial environment.26 Row 1 Since the skeletons were successively revealed between Feb- The entries in the field notebooks, as already mentioned, indi- ruary and July 2016, the majority was exposed for a long time cate post-depositional disturbances in the northern part of row before the field documentation was initiated. Unfortunately, 1. Modern excavations for a hippodrome seem to have disturbed the information in the field notebooks is brief; comments on the depositions of nos. 1245, 1201, 1202, 1253, and 1247. The colour and state of preservation were rarely noted at the time observations in the notebooks were supported by observations of excavation. Furthermore, there are few photographs from made during the anthropological field documentation. How- the excavation of the remains, probably partly because the ar- ever, no. 1215 was also found in a similarly poor condition as chaeological work was terminated on short notice.27 the skeletons already mentioned, but the field notebooks do The field observations on taphonomic changes (recorded not mention any evidence of disturbance in relation to this on paper on the form from INFORCE and California State individual. Since all the aforementioned skeletons were uncov- University, Chico, “12 Postmortem trauma”) is summarized ered first (revealed and cleaned during February–March 2016), in Table 5. they were exposed to changing environmental conditions for a At the time of field documentation, the colour of the skele- longer period of time than those in the southern part of the row. tons ranged from white to dark brown-almost black. Although In general, bleaching and erosion were most commonly the results from soil chemistry are not yet available, it seems found in the northern part (skeleton nos. 1245–1297). likely that the black patina on some of the skeletons derives Bleaching, with variable erosion, was also found on nos. from a soil rich in humic substances, roots, and decomposing 1342–1349 in the northern–middle part of the row (uncov- plant material, and the presence of minerals (e.g. manganese), ered late March–early April 2016). which are known to produce dark brown or black discoloura- The skeletons in the southern part of the row, nos. 1361– tion on bone.28 Algae from a salt-water context may also result 1390 (excluding nos. 1354, 1353, 1356, 1339, and 1340 which in dark brown or almost black patina on bone.29 Bleaching of were bleached and eroded) were largely brown/black in colour; the bone surface most likely resulted from a combination of only slight erosion and bleaching were noted on parts of these salt water (calcium carbonates) and prolonged sun exposure.30 skeletons. The brownish-black discolouration was not always limited to the cortices, in some cases it seems to have penetrated into parts of cancellous tissue of the limb bones following post-
26 Lyman 2010; Symes et al. 2014. 27 Sevos Agouras pers. comm. 2016. 28 Dupras & Schultz 2013; Borrini et al. 2012. 31 Cole & Waldron 2016. 29 Nawrocki et al. 1997, 540. 32 Dupras & Schultz 2013, 325. 30 Dupras & Schultz 2013, 336. 33 Dupras & Schultz 2013, 333–334.
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Table 5. Observations on taphonomy (Y = yes; N = no). Table 5 continued. Skel. no. Row Animal scavenging Bleaching Erosion Postmortem break etchingRoot Staining Excavation damage Skel. no. Row Animal scavenging Bleaching Erosion Postmortem break etchingRoot Staining Excavation damage
1201 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1380 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1202 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1381 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1215 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1382 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1245 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1383 1 N N N Y N Y Y 1247 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1390 1 N N N Y N Y Y 1253 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1392 1 N N N N N Y N 1266 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1393 1 N N N Y N Y Y 1281 1 N Y N Y N Y N 1228 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1289 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1267 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1296 1 Y Y Y Y N Y Y 1268 2 N Y N Y N Y Y 1297 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1269 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1318 1 N N N Y N Y Y 1298 2 N Y Y Y N Y N 1324 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1351 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1325 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1357 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1328 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1368 2 N Y N Y N Y Y 1336 1 N N N Y N Y N 1369 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1339 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1370 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1340 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1371 2 N Y N Y N Y Y 1342 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1386 2 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1343 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1387 2 N Y N Y N Y Y 1348 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1388 2 N Y N Y N Y N 1349 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1389 2 N Y N Y N Y Y 1350 1 N Y N N N Y N 1397 2 N Y Y Y N Y N 1353 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1271 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1354 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1272 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1355 1 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1275 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1356 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1276 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1358 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1277 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1359 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1285 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1360 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1294 3 N Y Y Y N Y N 1361 1 N N N N N Y N 1316 3 N Y Y Y N N Y 1363 1 N Y N Y N Y N 1332 3 N Y N Y N Y N 1364 1 N Y Y N N Y Y 1333 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1365 1 N Y N N N Y Y 1344 3 N Y Y Y N Y Y 1366 1 N N N Y N Y N 1384 3 N N Y Y N Y N 1373 1 N N N Y N Y Y 1385 3 N Y N Y N Y Y 1374 1 N N N Y N N N 1398 3 N N N Y N Y Y 1375 1 N Y N Y N Y Y 1399 3 N N N Y N Y Y 1376 1 N N N Y N Y N 1400 3 N N N Y N Y Y 1379 1 N Y N Y N Y Y
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Fig. 23. No. 1392, right femur, postmortem breakage with brownish- Fig. 24. No. 1296, left tibia with possible animal gnawing, puncturing, black discolouration. and postmortem destruction.
Fig. 25. Colour differences on skeletons in Row 3.
mortem breakage (Fig. 23). Furthermore, postmortem breaks, Row 2 staining, and excavation damage were noted on the majority of The skeletons in Row 2, the middle row, were quite well pre- these skeletons (all of them uncovered in late March 2016). served with a variable amount of staining and some bleaching Indications of animal scavenging were rarely observed; especially on the skulls. All skeletons were excavated during only one skeleton in the northern part of the row shows evi- March 2016. In the northern part of the row, the skeletons dence of animal gnawing and puncturing (no. 1296): left tibia were largely brown-black in colour. No animal scavenging was (anterio-lateral distal part of diaphysis): a puncture mark and noted, while erosion and excavation damage were found on shallow surface damage on cortical bone, possibly consistent a majority of the skeletons. Staining was noticed on all skel- with gnawing adjacent to an area of postmortem destruction etons and postmortem breaks were noticed on the majority. (Fig. 24).
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Table 6. Puncture marks (YA = young adult; MA = Middle adult).
Skel. no. Row Sex Age Puncture marks Posture 1343 1 Undetermined Adult (1) Right parietal, lateral part, a few cm anterior of the temporal squama: a small Lateral, on left depression with smooth to sharp margins penetrating the outer table. The inclination side (face almost of the depression indicates a penetration from the inferior right side by a sharp object. prone) Two faint concentric fracture lines are found superior to the puncture, probably not as- sociated with it. Excavation damage (e.g. from a pointed trowel) while the skull was still relatively damp cannot be excluded since the outer margin of the depression was light in colour. (2) Right temporal, posterior to the mastoid process: a shallow minor surface damage to the outer table, in the middle was found a 3 mm-wide oval-shaped puncture penetrating the bone. No evidence of tooth marks was noticed, and the defect shows light fracture margins—so likely excavation damage. 1349 1 Male MA (1) Right mandible, ramus: a puncture to the right mandibular ramus, a few mm supe- Supine rior of gonion. A small pushed-in bone flake is visible inside the puncture. Two slightly ragged fracture lines are radiating posterior and inferior from the puncture mark. 1269 2 Male YA (1) Left temporal, squama: a square/slightly elliptical puncture to the left temporal Supine squama with two fine radiating fracture lines on squama. There is no evidence of tooth marks from animal scavenging.
Row 3 A tentative interpretation is that they result from postmortem The vast majority of the skeletons in Row 3, the east row, were damage, possibly caused during excavation while bones were more poorly preserved than the other skeletons in Rows 1–2, still damp. However, sharp force perimortem trauma cannot though being excavated at the same time (early April 2016) be totally excluded in all cases. Informed interpretation can and thus equally exposed before documentation. No animal only be made following a full anthropological analysis, with scavenging was noticed, although bleaching, erosion, and observation of fracture margins under laboratory conditions. excavation damage were noticed on the majority of the skel- etons; extensive postmortem breaks were found on all, and Archaeothanatology staining was noted, in slight amount, on the majority. The bodily changes a corpse undergoes after death as a con- The upper part of the skeletons of nos. 1285, 1277, 1276, sequence of biological and cultural processes (e.g. treatment and 1275 were severely fragmented and totally bleached. The of the corpse) are essential information for interpretations of thoraces of nos. 1271 and 1272 were also in a poor state of the burial context.34 When human skeletal remains are un- preservation. Nos. 1294 and 1316 were somewhat better pre- covered, the state of articulation between skeletal elements is served, although with a hard crust of soil adhering to the cra- important for understanding the processes related to decom- nia. Nos. 1332, 1384, and 1385 were fairly well preserved and position; for example if a body was decomposing in full space not much bleached, probably because large parts of the skel- (covered), in empty space (exposed), or if parts of the body etons were still covered with soil. Nos. 1339 and 1344 were had been disturbed or displaced after burial. well preserved; their colour was brown with a dark patina on The observations regarding archaeothanatology are sum- the lower parts of the skeletons. marized in Tables 7 and 8. Nos. 1398, 1400, and 1399 were excavated in July 2016, at The articulation between skeletal elements as well as the the time of the field documentation. These skeletons were very position of limbs indicate that the bodies were all rapidly cov- well preserved and all had, at the time, the same dark brown- ered after deposition. However, some parts of the bodies were black colour, although the upper limbs were slightly lighter probably only partially covered, as evidenced by occasional in colour. The same colour differences were noted also on the signs of animal scavenging, weathering, and displaced but other skeletons in Row 3: the colour differences may indicate articulated body parts. Occasionally missing and dispersed that the deposition was made in a shallow trench, or on the skeletal elements may be due to later disturbances, but a time- contemporary soil surface where some parts had not been frame could not be determined; it could have happened soon properly covered, i.e. longer exposed to the elements (Fig. 25). after deposition, or much later. Postdepositional disturbances were noted in the northern and southern part of Row 1. Puncture marks Two individuals in Row 1, nos. 1343 and 1349, and one in- dividual in Row 2, no. 1269, exhibit puncture marks to the cranium or to the mandible (Table 6, Figs. 26–31). These de- fects/puncturing are not associated with evidence of gnawing. 34 Knüsel 2014; Duday 2009.
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Fig. 26. No. 1343, puncture mark, right parietal. Fig. 27. No. 1343, puncture mark, right temporal.
Fig. 28. No. 1349, puncture mark, right mandible. Fig. 29. No. 1349, close up of puncture mark, right mandible.
Fig. 30. No. 1269, puncture mark, left temporal. Fig. 31. No. 1269, close up of puncture mark, the left temporal.
PALAEODEMOGRAPHY Thus, skeletal development, and characteristics regarding Osteological estimations of biological age, sex, and stature biological age and sex are often complicated and imprecise of ancient populations often rely on evaluation of macro- regarding analyses of earlier populations. In this case, the scopic criteria in the skeleton. These estimations, however, data are even more uncertain because of the field situation rest on data derived from studies of modern populations. earlier mentioned.
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Table 7. State of articulation: skull, upper thorax, and general observation Table 7 continued. on body decomposition (C = connected; D = disconnected; A = absent; U = unobservable; ND = not determined; X = present).
Skel. Row Ligaments Full Empty Skel. Row Ligaments Full Empty no. space space no. space space temporo- cranio- atlanto- axial- temporo- cranio- atlanto- axial- mand atlanto axial C3 mand atlanto axial C3 left right left right 1201 1 A A U U U X X 1380 1 C C C C C X 1202 1 A A C C C X 1381 1 C C U D D X 1215 1 C C D C C X 1382 1 C C U U U X 1245 1 A C C C C X X 1383 1 C C U U C X 1247 1 A A A A A ? ? 1390 1 C C U U U X 1253 1 A A U U U X 1392 1 U U U U U X X 1266 1 C C C D C X 1393 1 A A A A A X X 1281 1 C C U U U X 1228 2 C C U U ? X 1289 1 U U U U U X 1267 2 C C U U U X 1296 1 C C U U U X 1268 2 C C C C C X 1297 1 C C U U C X 1269 2 C C U U U X 1318 1 U U U U U X X 1298 2 C C U U U X 1324 1 C C D C C X 1351 2 C C D U C X 1325 1 U C C C C X 1357 2 C C U U U X 1328 1 D D U U U X X 1368 2 C C C C C X 1336 1 C C U U U X 1369 2 C C C C ? X 1339 1 C C U U U X 1370 2 C C U U C X 1340 1 C C U U U X 1371 2 C C U C C X 1342 1 U C D C C X 1386 2 C C U U U X 1343 1 U U U U U X 1387 2 C C U U U X 1348 1 D D U U U X 1388 2 C C U U U X 1349 1 C U U U U X 1389 2 C C U C U X 1350 1 C C U U U X 1397 2 U U U U U X 1353 1 C C U U U X 1271 3 C C U C D ND 1354 1 C C U U C X 1272 3 U U U U U X 1355 1 C C U U U X 1275 3 C C U U U ND 1356 1 C C D C C X 1276 3 U U U U U ND 1358 1 C C U U U X 1277 3 U U U U U ND 1359 1 D D C D C X 1285 3 U U A/U A/U A/U X 1360 1 U D D D D X 1294 3 U C U U U ND 1361 1 C C U U C X 1316 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND 1363 1 C C D D C X 1332 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND 1364 1 U U U U U X 1333 3 C C U U U X 1365 1 U U U U U X 1344 3 U U U U U ND 1366 1 A A A A A X X 1384 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND 1373 1 U U U U U X 1385 3 D D U U U ND 1374 1 U U U U U X 1398 3 C U ND ND ND ND 1375 1 C U U U U X 1399 3 C C C U U X 1376 1 C C U U U X 1400 3 U U U U U ND 1379 1 C C U U U X
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Table 8. State of articulation, postcranial elements (C = connected; D = disconnected; A = absent; U = unobservable; ND = not determined; sin = left; dx = right).
Skel. Row State of articulartion no. Cervical columnCervical hand of the part Distal foot of the part Distal joint Scapula-humerus Atlanto-occipital Lumbar column Lumbar-sacrum Sacrum-iliac Knee-cap tarsals tibia, fibula- Ankle bones— tarsals Tarsals—meta -
sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx 1201 1 C3–C7 C D A A U C A U C D D D A A C C C C 1202 1 C A A A C A C C C C C C A A A C A C 1215 1 C C C U A C C D C C C C U D C A U A (fibula) 1245 1 C D C A A A C C A A A C A C A A A A 1247 1 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 1253 1 C A A C C A D U C C C C A A C C C C 1266 1 C U U C C D C C C D C D C U C D C C 1281 1 C3–C7 C C C C C U D U C C D D C C C C C C 1289 1 C U U U C C U U C U C U U U U C U C 1296 1 C D U U U C C C C C C C C A C A C C 1297 1 C U U C C C U U C C C C A A C C C C 1318 1 A U U C A A A A A C C C C C C C C C 1324 1 C C C C C C C D C C C C A D (col- C C C C lapsed, proba- bly C) 1325 1 C C D C U C C C C C C C C C C C C C 1328 1 C3–C7 C U C C C U D U C D C D U U U C C C 1336 1 U C C U C U D D U U C C D D C C C C 1339 1 U A C U U D U U U U U U C C C C C C 1340 1 C U U U U U C U C U U U U U U C U C 1342 1 C U U U U C U D C C C C U U U U U U 1343 1 U U U A A U A U D (L3– C C C C C C C C C L4) 1348 1 C U U U U D D U C C C C A C C C C C 1349 1 U U U U U C D U C C C C U C C C C C 1350 1 C6–C7 C C U C U C C U C C D C C C C C C C 1353 1 U U U C C A C U C D C C C C U U C U 1354 1 C U U U U C C U C C D C C A U U C U 1355 1 C U U U U U C U U U U U U U C U C U 1356 1 C U U C U U C U C U U U C C C C C C 1358 1 C U U C C D C U C U C C U A C C C C 1359 1 C U C C C C D C C D C C C C C C C C 1360 1 U C U D U D C D C C C C U U C C C C 1361 1 C U U U C U D U U D D D U C C U C U 1363 1 C2–C7 C C C C C C C D C C C C C C C C C C 1364 1 C U U C C C C U C D D C C C C C C C 1365 1 U U U U U D C U C C C C C C D D C C 1366 1 A U U C C A D A C C U C C U C C C C 1373 1 C U A U C C U U C C C C C C U C U C 1374 1 C C C U C C D U C D D D A A C C C C 1375 1 C3–C7 C U C C C D D U C C U D C C C C C C 1376 1 U U C U U D U U C C D D U U C C C C
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Table 8 continued.
Skel. Row State of articulartion no. Cervical columnCervical hand of the part Distal foot of the part Distal joint Scapula-humerus Atlanto-occipital Lumbar column Lumbar-sacrum Sacrum-iliac Knee-cap tarsals tibia, fibula- Ankle bones— tarsals Tarsals—meta -
sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx sin dx 1379 1 C A C C C A C U C C C C U U C C C C 1380 1 C U U C C U U C C D Y C D C C C C C 1381 1 C U C C C C C U C C U U U U C U C U 1382 1 C C D C U C C U C C D D C C C C C C 1383 1 C C U U C C C U C D C C C A C C C C 1390 1 C U C U U C C U C U C C A C U U U U 1392 1 A A A U U A A A A A A A C C C C C C 1393 1 A A A A C A A A D C C C C D (col- D C C C lapsed, proba- bly C) 1228 2 C C C C C C U U U U C U C ? C C C C 1267 2 C C C A A C C U U C U C A A A A A A 1268 2 C C C U U U C C D C C C C A C C ? ? 1269 2 C A C U U C C U C D C C C C C C C C 1298 2 U U U U U C U U D U U U C U U U U U 1351 2 U C C C C C C D C U U U U U C U C C 1357 2 U C U U U U U U U U C U U U U U U U 1368 2 ? C U C U U C C U U U U C U U U U U 1369 2 C U C U C U U C U U U U U U U C U C 1370 2 C C U U U C U C C U U U U U C U C U 1371 2 C U U C C C C U C D C C C C C C C C 1386 2 U C U U U U D U C U U U U U U C U U 1387 2 U U U U U U C U U U U U U U U U U U 1388 2 U U U C C U U U D C U C A A C C C C 1389 2 U C C U U U D U U U U U U U C C C C 1397 2 U C U C U U U U U U U U A D C U C U 1271 3 C U C U/A U/A C C U C C C C U D U U U U 1272 3 C U U U U U U U U U C C U U U U U U 1275 3 C A A U C U C U U U C C C C U C U C 1276 3 U A A U U C D U U U C C U D U U U U 1277 3 U U U U U U U D C D D C U C U U U U 1285 3 U A A A A A A A C C D C A A A C A A 1294 3 U U U U U D C U C D C C C U C U U U 1316 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 1332 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 1333 3 C C C U U U C U C C C C U C U U U U 1344 3 C U U U U C U U U U U U U U ? ? ? ? 1384 3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 1385 3 U U U C U D U U U U U U U U C U C U 1398 3 U U C U U U C U U U C U U U U U U U 1399 3 C C U C C U C C U U U U U U U C U C 1400 3 U U U U U C U U U U C C U U C C U C
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The estimation of age and sex was made through observa- dividuals had at least one criterion observable on the os coxae tions of observable morphological criteria on the skeleton. (pelvis). Three individuals had no criteria for sex estimation observable (no. 1247 and no. 1392 in Row 1, and no. 1277 Sex in the Row 3). The morphological criteria of the hip bone os( coxae) (grade The individuals generally display more gracile features on 1–5: greater sciatic notch; Y/N—preauricular sulcus; grade their skulls than on the os coxae: 34 of 71 (48%) observable 1–3: the rest) and the cranium (grade 1–3: grade 1–5: nuchal skulls showed at least one female feature, while only 6% of the crest, mastoid process, supraorbital margin, glabella, mental 62 individuals exhibited at least one female feature on the os eminence), presented by Buikstra and Ubelaker were priori- coxae. This is likely a consequence of the generally young mean tized for sex determinations.35 Since the most reliable indica- age at death; a majority of the individuals estimated to an age tors of sex are found on the os coxae, these features were given group were young (juvenile or young adults). Since many in- priority. If only one male or female feature alone could be dividuals were missing observable diagnostic criteria for sex observed, it was considered insufficient evidence for sex esti- determination, it cannot be ruled out conclusively that this mation (Table 9). Measurements of the postcranial skeleton sample also contains female individuals. The age of the indi- have also be used to aid sex determinations. In general, males vidual can affect dimorphic features in the skeleton; adoles- are larger and more robuste and have larger dimensions for ex- cent males may show gracile features on the cranium and old ample articulare surface dimension. females may display more robust masculine characteristics on 37 Apart from the evaluation of the dimorphic features of the the cranium. os coxa and the skull recommended by Buikstra and Ubelaker At least one post-cranial measurement indicative of sex Pelvis (grade 1–5: greater sciatic notch; Y/N—preauricular could be taken on 24 individuals, a majority of these mea- sulcus; grade 1–3: the rest), the following features were also surements indicated “Male” or “Male?” (54%). In total, 26 recorded and considered for sex determination:36 measurements indicative of sex were taken, a majority of these indicate “Male” (Table 11 and Appendix 1). Os coxae —Subpubic angle (narrow—male, wide—female, ambigu- Age ous—undetermined) Estimation of age-at-death was based on observations of the following criteria: epiphyseal union,38 morphological changes Skull of the pubic symphysis,39 tooth eruption,40 and dental wear.41 —Angle of the frontal (sloped—male, straight—female, am- General observations on suture closure were documented, biguous—undetermined) although the composite ectocranial scores recommended by —Presence of frontal and parietal eminences (absent—male, Buikstra and Ubelaker were not applicable since not all re- present—female, slight—undetermined) quired sites on the crania could be observed.42 The degree of —Orbital outline (square—male, rounded—female, ambigu- suture closure was however used to corroborate other criteria, ous—undetermined) or used as guidance when epiphyseal union was complete and —Gonial flare of the mandible (flared—male, no flare—fe- no other criteria were observable. male, ambiguous—undetermined) The following age groups were employed: Juvenile 12–19 Other—postcranial years; Young adult (YA) 20–34 years; Middle adult (MA) 35– 43 —Vertical diameter of humeral head 49 years; Old adult (OA) 50+ years; Adult ≥20 years. The —Maximum diameter of femoral head term “Adult” was used when complete union of epiphyses was —Epicondylar breadth of femur noted in addition with observation on tooth eruption and/or suture closure (Tables 12–13). A majority of the individuals demonstrated predominantly The observable criteria provided a general indication for male characteristics although 24 individuals (30%) could not age group; more precise age estimations were rarely possible. be determined to sex since criteria were either unobservable or inconclusive (Table 10). Seventy-one of 79 individuals had at least one criterion for 37 sex determination observable on the cranium, whereas 62 in- Walker 1995. 38 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994. 39 The Suchey-Brooks system in Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994. 40 Ubelaker 1989, fig. 71. 41 Brothwell 1972, 69, fig. 30. 35 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994. 42 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994. 36 White 1991; Krogman 1978; Stewart 1979; Spradley & Jantz 2011. 43 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Scheuer & Black 2000.
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Table 9. Observable criteria for sex estimation. Skel. no. Row skull—female Total no. criteria, skull—male Total no. criteria, skull—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteria,All skull Sex—cranium coxae—male Total no. criteria, coxae—female Total no. criteria, coxae—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteriaAll coxae Sex—coxae 1979) ments (Stewart fromSex measur - Final sex
1201 1 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male? Undetermined 1202 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined 1215 1 0 2 1 3 Male? 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male? 1245 1 0 0 3 3 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Female? Undetermined 1247 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1253 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined 1266 1 0 6 1 7 Male 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male Male? 1281 1 3 3 1 7 Undetermined 4 0 0 4 Male Undetermined Male 1289 1 0 5 0 5 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1296 1 3 3 2 8 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Female? Undetermined 1297 1 0 2 0 2 Male? 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1318 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 4 1 0 5 Male? Male 1324 1 0 8 1 9 Male 3 1 0 4 Male? Undetermined Male 1325 1 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1328 1 0 4 3 7 Male? 4 0 0 4 Male Male Male 1336 1 2 3 0 5 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined 1339 1 1 7 0 8 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1340 1 0 7 0 7 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1342 1 4 2 1 7 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined 1343 1 1 1 1 3 Undetermined 0 0 1 1 Undetermined Undetermined 1348 1 1 3 4 8 Undetermined 2 0 0 2 Male Male Male? 1349 1 0 5 2 7 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male Male 1350 1 0 4 4 8 Undetermined 4 0 0 4 Male Female? Male 1353 1 2 5 1 8 Male? 0 0 1 1 Undetermined Undetermined 1354 1 0 4 2 6 Male? 0 0 1 1 Undetermined Undetermined 1355 1 0 7 1 8 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1356 1 2 3 3 8 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1358 1 0 4 3 7 Male? 2 0 0 2 Male Male 1359 1 1 4 3 8 Male? 3 0 0 3 Male Undetermined Male 1360 1 0 4 1 5 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1361 1 1 3 3 7 Undetermined 4 1 0 5 Male Undetermined Male? 1363 1 1 2 5 8 Undetermined 0 0 1 1 Male? Undetermined 1364 1 2 2 3 7 Undetermined 5 0 0 5 Male Male 1365 1 1 0 4 5 Undetermined 2 0 0 2 Male Male? 1366 1 1 6 1 8 Male? 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined Male? 1373 1 2 5 1 8 Male? 1 0 3 4 Male Male Male? 1374 1 1 6 0 7 Male 4 0 0 4 Male Male? Male
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Table 9 continued. Skel. no. Row skull—female Total no. criteria, skull—male Total no. criteria, skull—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteria,All skull Sex—cranium coxae—male Total no. criteria, coxae—female Total no. criteria, coxae—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteriaAll coxae Sex—coxae 1979) ments (Stewart fromSex measur - Final sex
1375 1 1 4 3 8 Undetermined 2 1 0 3 Male? Male? 1376 1 1 0 0 1 Undetermined 4 0 0 4 Male Male 1379 1 0 5 1 6 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1380 1 1 5 2 8 Male 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male? 1381 1 2 5 1 8 Undetermined 2 0 1 3 Male? Male? 1382 1 0 6 2 8 Male 3 0 0 3 Male Male 1383 1 1 3 2 6 Undetermined 4 0 0 4 Male Male Male 1390 1 0 5 2 7 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1392 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male? Undetermined 1393 1 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 5 0 0 5 Male Male Male 1228 2 0 2 1 3 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1267 2 2 4 2 8 Undetermined 1 0 1 2 Undetermined Male Male? 1268 2 1 5 1 7 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1269 2 0 4 4 8 Male? 5 0 0 5 Male Male Male 1298 2 0 4 2 6 Male? 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Male? 1351 2 0 2 1 3 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male 1357 2 2 2 2 6 Undetermined 2 0 0 2 Male Male? 1368 2 1 6 2 9 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1369 2 1 6 0 7 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? Male 1370 2 2 3 1 6 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined Male? 1371 2 2 3 4 9 Undetermined 2 0 0 2 Male Male? 1386 2 0 6 3 9 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1387 2 0 1 2 3 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1388 2 0 4 1 5 Male 3 0 0 3 Male Undetermined Male 1389 2 0 1 1 2 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1397 2 0 0 1 1 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined 1271 3 0 3 3 6 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1272 3 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1275 3 0 1 3 4 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1276 3 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 2 0 1 3 Male? Male? 1277 3 0 0 0 0 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1285 3 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1294 3 1 0 3 4 Undetermined 0 0 1 1 Undetermined Undetermined 1316 3 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1332 3 0 1 2 3 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1333 3 1 2 2 5 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1344 3 0 2 0 2 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male?
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Table 9 continued. Skel. no. Row skull—female Total no. criteria, skull—male Total no. criteria, skull—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteria,All skull Sex—cranium coxae—male Total no. criteria, coxae—female Total no. criteria, coxae—ambigious Total no. criteria, criteriaAll coxae Sex—coxae 1979) ments (Stewart fromSex measur - Final sex
1384 3 0 3 0 3 Male 1 0 0 1 Male? Male? 1385 3 1 1 0 2 Undetermined 0 0 0 0 Undetermined Undetermined 1398 3 3 3 2 8 Undetermined 0 0 1 1 Undetermined Undetermined 1399 3 2 5 0 7 Male? 1 0 0 1 Male? Undetermined Male 1400 3 0 1 0 1 Undetermined 1 0 0 1 Male? Male?
Table 10. Sex distribution (n = individuals). Table 11. Post-cranial measurements indicative of sex (mm).
Sex n % Skel. Row Femur, left, Femur, right, Femur, right, Humerus, Humerus, Humerus, Male 24 30.4 no. maximum maximum epicondylar right, vertical left epicon- right, head diam- head diam- breadth head diam- dylar breadth epicondylar Male? 31 39.2 eter eter eter breadth Undetermined 24 30.4 1201 1 47 Female 0 0 1245 1 43 Female? 0 0 1266 1 48.1 Total 79 100 1281 1 44.1 1296 1 43 1324 1 46.3 1328 1 48 1348 1 47.7 1349 1 48 1350 1 43.4 1359 1 44.9 1361 1 46 44 1366 1 46 1373 1 51 1374 1 47.5 1383 1 48 1392 1 47 1393 1 48 1267 2 70 1269 2 67 1369 2 47 1370 2 78 Table 12 (below). Observable 1388 2 55 criteria for age estimation (n = individuals). 1399 3 47 63
Row Epiphyseal union (n) Tooth eruption (n) Tooth wear (n) Pubic symphysis (n) Suture closure (n) 1 45 30 24 20 40 2 16 10 6 2 15 3 14 11 4 3 10 Total 75 51 34 25 65
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Table 13a. Observation of age criteria and age estimation (U = unobservable; A = absent; L or sin = left; R or dx = right; Max = maxilla; Mand = mandible; Age = years).
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1201 1 U A U U >14 >25 >14 U U U U U U minimal–signi- U U Adult ficant 1202 1 U A U/A U/A >14 U/A >16 U U U U U U significant U U Adult 1215 1 U U U U >17 >20 U U U U/A U/A U U U almost oblite- U Adult rated 1245 1 U U/A U U/A >14 U/A >12 A A M3 sin erupted, M3 dx erupted, U 35–45 significant obliteration significant Middle adult M3 dx—U sin—U 1247 1 U A A A A A A A A A A A A U U U Adult 1253 1 U U/A U U/A >17 >25 >16 U/A U/A U/A U/A U/A U/A U U U Adult 1266 1 U U U 24–29 >20 >23 >20 U U M3 erupted dx, M3 dx—U?, M3 17–25 17–25 U U U Young adult sin—U sin—U 1281 1 U U U Fusing flake? >20 <27 >20 U I:1 (18.5) M3 sin—not M3—sin not U 17–25 U U open–minimal Young adult >16–21 erupted, dx—U erupted, dx—U 1289 1 U U U >18 >17 U >19 U U U U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult 1296 1 U U >19 U >17 <27 >17 U U A A 17–25 17–25 open U U Young adult 1297 1 U U U >29 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin—U, M3 U U U U open open Young adult dx erupted 1318 1 U U U U >16 c. 19, <27 >17, 18–19 I:1 (18.5) U U U U U U U U Juvenile 1324 1 U U U >23 >20 >23 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 sin, dx erup- M3 sin erupted, U U significant U minimal Middle adult ted, M3 dx—U M3 dx—U 1325 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U U U minimal Adult 1328 1 U U U >29 >20 20–24 >20 III:1 (28.7) U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin /dx U 25–35 significant–obli- significant–obli- open Young adult M3 sin—U erupted teration teration 1336 1 U U U U >17 >23 c. 20? U U U prob. A? U U U open open–minimal open Young adult 1339 1 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U minimal–signi- minimal minimal Adult dx—U dx—U ficant 1340 1 U U U >29 >17 U >20 U U U U 25–35 U significant U significant Young adult 1342 1 U U U >20 >15 >23 >18 U U U U U U open minimal minimal Adult 1343 1 U U U U >17 >20 >18 U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult 1348 1 U >25 U 24–29 >20 >23 >20 II:1 (23.4) II:1 (23.4) M3 sin erupted, A U 17–25 minimal U U Young adult M3 dx—A 1349 1 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U V:1 (45.6) M3 sin erupting, M3 sin/dx U dx 17–25, sin significant–obli- obliteration U Middle adult M3 dx—U/A erupted 25–35 teration 1350 1 U >25 U >29 >20 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 sin—A, M3 M3—dx erup- U dx 25–35, sin significant U U Middle adult dx erupted ted, M3—sin 17–25 erupted 1353 1 U U U U >17 >23 >15 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 25–35 open–minimal open–minimal U Young adult erupted erupted 1354 1 U U U >29 >16 >23 >20 U U M3 sin, present M3 sin/dx U 25–35 significant significant U Middle adult but not in situ, erupted M3 dx—A 1355 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin/dx—U U U open minimal open Young adult sin—U 1356 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx—U U U significant obliteration significant Adult dx—U/A 1358 1 U U/A U >29 >20 >20 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 dx/sin M3 erupted 25–35 25–35 significant U U Middle adult erupted 1359 1 U U U >20 >20 >23, <27? >20 II:1 (23.4) U M3 sin/dx M3 erupted U U minimal U minimal Young adult erupted
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Table 13b. Observation of age criteria and age estimation (U = unobservable; A = absent; L or sin = left; R or dx = right; Max = maxilla; Mand = mandible; Age = years).
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1201 1 U A U U >14 >25 >14 U U U U U U minimal–signi- U U Adult ficant 1202 1 U A U/A U/A >14 U/A >16 U U U U U U significant U U Adult 1215 1 U U U U >17 >20 U U U U/A U/A U U U almost oblite- U Adult rated 1245 1 U U/A U U/A >14 U/A >12 A A M3 sin erupted, M3 dx erupted, U 35–45 significant obliteration significant Middle adult M3 dx—U sin—U 1247 1 U A A A A A A A A A A A A U U U Adult 1253 1 U U/A U U/A >17 >25 >16 U/A U/A U/A U/A U/A U/A U U U Adult 1266 1 U U U 24–29 >20 >23 >20 U U M3 erupted dx, M3 dx—U?, M3 17–25 17–25 U U U Young adult sin—U sin—U 1281 1 U U U Fusing flake? >20 <27 >20 U I:1 (18.5) M3 sin—not M3—sin not U 17–25 U U open–minimal Young adult >16–21 erupted, dx—U erupted, dx—U 1289 1 U U U >18 >17 U >19 U U U U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult 1296 1 U U >19 U >17 <27 >17 U U A A 17–25 17–25 open U U Young adult 1297 1 U U U >29 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin—U, M3 U U U U open open Young adult dx erupted 1318 1 U U U U >16 c. 19, <27 >17, 18–19 I:1 (18.5) U U U U U U U U Juvenile 1324 1 U U U >23 >20 >23 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 sin, dx erup- M3 sin erupted, U U significant U minimal Middle adult ted, M3 dx—U M3 dx—U 1325 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U U U minimal Adult 1328 1 U U U >29 >20 20–24 >20 III:1 (28.7) U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin /dx U 25–35 significant–obli- significant–obli- open Young adult M3 sin—U erupted teration teration 1336 1 U U U U >17 >23 c. 20? U U U prob. A? U U U open open–minimal open Young adult 1339 1 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U minimal–signi- minimal minimal Adult dx—U dx—U ficant 1340 1 U U U >29 >17 U >20 U U U U 25–35 U significant U significant Young adult 1342 1 U U U >20 >15 >23 >18 U U U U U U open minimal minimal Adult 1343 1 U U U U >17 >20 >18 U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult 1348 1 U >25 U 24–29 >20 >23 >20 II:1 (23.4) II:1 (23.4) M3 sin erupted, A U 17–25 minimal U U Young adult M3 dx—A 1349 1 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U V:1 (45.6) M3 sin erupting, M3 sin/dx U dx 17–25, sin significant–obli- obliteration U Middle adult M3 dx—U/A erupted 25–35 teration 1350 1 U >25 U >29 >20 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 sin—A, M3 M3—dx erup- U dx 25–35, sin significant U U Middle adult dx erupted ted, M3—sin 17–25 erupted 1353 1 U U U U >17 >23 >15 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 25–35 open–minimal open–minimal U Young adult erupted erupted 1354 1 U U U >29 >16 >23 >20 U U M3 sin, present M3 sin/dx U 25–35 significant significant U Middle adult but not in situ, erupted M3 dx—A 1355 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin/dx—U U U open minimal open Young adult sin—U 1356 1 U U U U >20 >23 >20 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx—U U U significant obliteration significant Adult dx—U/A 1358 1 U U/A U >29 >20 >20 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 dx/sin M3 erupted 25–35 25–35 significant U U Middle adult erupted 1359 1 U U U >20 >20 >23, <27? >20 II:1 (23.4) U M3 sin/dx M3 erupted U U minimal U minimal Young adult erupted
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Table 13a continued.
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1360 1 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U U M3 dx erupted U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult (only little visi- ble), M3—U 1361 1 U U U >29 >20 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin erupted, U dx 35–45, U obliteration significant–obli- Middle adult M3 sin—U M3 dx—U sin—U teration 1363 1 U U U >20 >17 >23 >17 U U M3 dx erupted M3 dx erupted 17–25 U open minimal open–minimal Young adult 1364 1 U A U >29 >17 c.25? >20 II:1 (23.4) U M3 erupted M3 dx not fully 17–25 17–25 open open U Young adult erupted 1365 1 U U U >18 >20 15–22, c. 19 >18–20 I (18.5) U A M3—dx not U U open U U Juvenile pres 1366 1 U U >19 >20 >17 >23 >20 U U M3 sin/dx A 17–25/25–35 U significant U U Young adult erupted 1373 1 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 sin/dx M3 dx erupted, U 17–25 significant U U Young adult erupted M3 sin—U 1374 1 U U U >29 >20 >23 >20 V:1 (45.6) U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx 25–35 25–35 significant U U Middle adult erupted erupted 1375 1 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 VI:1 (61.2) VI:1 (61.2) M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U sin 25–35 significant–obli- U U Old adult dx—U dx—U teration 1376 1 U >16 U >29 >20 >23 >19 U III:1 (28.7) U M3 sin erupted, U sin 17–25 significant U U Young adult dx—U 1379 1 A U U U >17 >23 c. 20 U U U U U U open minimal–signi- minimal Young adult ficant 1380 1 U U U U/A >17 U/A >17–20 U U M3 dx erupting, M3 dx erupting, U U open open open Juvenile M3 sin—U M3 sin—U 1381 1 U A U >29 >17 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) U M3 sin/dx A/U uneven wear uneven wear significant U U Young adult erupted 17–35 17–35 1382 1 U U U >17 >20 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) III:1 (28,7) U M3 sin—U, M3 U 25–35 significant U U Young adult dx—A 1383 1 U U U 16–21 >20 c. 19–20 c. 18–20 I:1 (18.5) I:1 (18.5) M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 17–25 open U U Juvenile erupted erupted 1390 1 U U U U >20 >23 >17 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 25–35 significant obliteration U Middle adult erupted erupted 1392 1 U U U U U U c. 20? U U U U U U U U U Young adult 1393 1 U U U U U <27 >20 U III:1 (28.7) U U U U U U U Young adult 1228 2 U U U >29 >20 U >20 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin—U, M3 U 35–45 significant minimal–signi- open–minimal Middle adult M3 dx—U dx—erupted ficant 1267 2 U U U 24–29 >20 >23 >19 U U M3 dx erupting, M3 sin/dx U 17–25 minimal minimal U Young adult M3 sin—U erupting 1268 2 U >20 U 16–21 (flake >20 >20 >19 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin/dx—U U U open–minimal minimal minimal Young adult missing) 1269 2 U <20 U <21 >20 <27 c.20 III:1 (28.7) III:1 (28.7) M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U U minimal–signi- minimal–signi- minimal Young adult erupted erupted ficant ficant 1298 2 U U U >29 >17 >20 >20 U U U U U U significant–obli- significant minimal–signi- Adult teration ficant 1351 2 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult 1357 2 U U U U >20 >23 >19 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, 17–25 U minimal minimal minimal Young adult dx—U dx—U 1368 2 U U U U >20 >20 >18 U U M3 sin U, dx— M3 sin U, dx— 17–25 U significant significant–obli- significant–com- Middle adult erupted erupted teration plete 1369 2 U U U >20 >20 U >19 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U open open open Young adult M3 dx—U M3 dx—U
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Table 13b continued.
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1360 1 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U U M3 dx erupted U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult (only little visi- ble), M3—U 1361 1 U U U >29 >20 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 dx erupted, M3 sin erupted, U dx 35–45, U obliteration significant–obli- Middle adult M3 sin—U M3 dx—U sin—U teration 1363 1 U U U >20 >17 >23 >17 U U M3 dx erupted M3 dx erupted 17–25 U open minimal open–minimal Young adult 1364 1 U A U >29 >17 c.25? >20 II:1 (23.4) U M3 erupted M3 dx not fully 17–25 17–25 open open U Young adult erupted 1365 1 U U U >18 >20 15–22, c. 19 >18–20 I (18.5) U A M3—dx not U U open U U Juvenile pres 1366 1 U U >19 >20 >17 >23 >20 U U M3 sin/dx A 17–25/25–35 U significant U U Young adult erupted 1373 1 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U IV:1 (35.2) M3 sin/dx M3 dx erupted, U 17–25 significant U U Young adult erupted M3 sin—U 1374 1 U U U >29 >20 >23 >20 V:1 (45.6) U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx 25–35 25–35 significant U U Middle adult erupted erupted 1375 1 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 VI:1 (61.2) VI:1 (61.2) M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U sin 25–35 significant–obli- U U Old adult dx—U dx—U teration 1376 1 U >16 U >29 >20 >23 >19 U III:1 (28.7) U M3 sin erupted, U sin 17–25 significant U U Young adult dx—U 1379 1 A U U U >17 >23 c. 20 U U U U U U open minimal–signi- minimal Young adult ficant 1380 1 U U U U/A >17 U/A >17–20 U U M3 dx erupting, M3 dx erupting, U U open open open Juvenile M3 sin—U M3 sin—U 1381 1 U A U >29 >17 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) U M3 sin/dx A/U uneven wear uneven wear significant U U Young adult erupted 17–35 17–35 1382 1 U U U >17 >20 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) III:1 (28,7) U M3 sin—U, M3 U 25–35 significant U U Young adult dx—A 1383 1 U U U 16–21 >20 c. 19–20 c. 18–20 I:1 (18.5) I:1 (18.5) M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 17–25 open U U Juvenile erupted erupted 1390 1 U U U U >20 >23 >17 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 25–35 significant obliteration U Middle adult erupted erupted 1392 1 U U U U U U c. 20? U U U U U U U U U Young adult 1393 1 U U U U U <27 >20 U III:1 (28.7) U U U U U U U Young adult 1228 2 U U U >29 >20 U >20 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin—U, M3 U 35–45 significant minimal–signi- open–minimal Middle adult M3 dx—U dx—erupted ficant 1267 2 U U U 24–29 >20 >23 >19 U U M3 dx erupting, M3 sin/dx U 17–25 minimal minimal U Young adult M3 sin—U erupting 1268 2 U >20 U 16–21 (flake >20 >20 >19 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin/dx—U U U open–minimal minimal minimal Young adult missing) 1269 2 U <20 U <21 >20 <27 c.20 III:1 (28.7) III:1 (28.7) M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U U minimal–signi- minimal–signi- minimal Young adult erupted erupted ficant ficant 1298 2 U U U >29 >17 >20 >20 U U U U U U significant–obli- significant minimal–signi- Adult teration ficant 1351 2 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U minimal minimal minimal Adult 1357 2 U U U U >20 >23 >19 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, 17–25 U minimal minimal minimal Young adult dx—U dx—U 1368 2 U U U U >20 >20 >18 U U M3 sin U, dx— M3 sin U, dx— 17–25 U significant significant–obli- significant–com- Middle adult erupted erupted teration plete 1369 2 U U U >20 >20 U >19 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U open open open Young adult M3 dx—U M3 dx—U
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Table 13a continued.
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1370 2 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin/dx—U U U open–minimal open–minimal open–minimal Adult 1371 2 U U U >29 >20 >23 >19 U U M3 sin U, M3 M3 sin U, M3 U 25–35 minimal minimal–signi- minimal Young adult dx—erupted dx—erupted ficant 1386 2 U U U 24–29 >20 U >19 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin erupted, U U open minimal–signi- open–minimal Young adult dx erupted M3 dx—U ficant 1387 2 U U U >20 >17 U >20 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx U U U U U Adult dx—U erupted 1388 2 U U U U >17 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 17–25 significant U U Middle adult erupted erupted 1389 2 U U U U >20 >23 >19 U U U U U U U U minimal Adult 1397 2 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U U U U U U U significant–com- significant Adult plete 1271 3 U U U U >15 U >18 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin—A, M3 U U U U U Adult M3 dx—U dx—U 1272 3 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin—U, M3 U 17–25 U open U minimal Juvenile dx not erupted 1275 3 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin—U, M3 U U U U U Adult dx erupted dx erupted 1276 3 U U U U >20 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) U U U U U U U U Young adult 1277 3 U U U >18 U U >18 U U U U U U U U U Adult 1285 3 U U U U U >23 >18 U U U M3 sin erupted, U U U U U Adult M3 dx—U 1294 3 U U U >23 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx—U U U U U significant Adult dx erupted 1316 3 U U U U >17 U >18 U U U U U (M2 sin, wear U significant significant significant Adult noticed but age assessment not observable) 1332 3 U U U U >15 >23 >17 II:1 (23.4) U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin U, M3 17–25 U U U U Young adult dx erupted dx erupted 1333 3 U U U 16–21 >17 <27 >20 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U U U minimal U Young adult erupted erupted 1344 3 U U U U U >20 U U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult 1384 3 U U U U >17 >23 U U V:1 (45.6) M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin—U, M3 35–45 35–45 significant U U Middle adult dx erupted dx erupted 1385 3 U U U U U U <18 U U M3 sin not erup- M3 sin/dx—U U No wear U U open Juvenile ted, M3 dx—U 1398 3 U U U 16–21 >17 c. 20–23 U U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U open–significant significant significant Young adult M3 dx—U M3 dx—U 1399 3 U U U >20 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin—U, M3 U U open–minimal significant significant Young adult dx erupting 1400 3 U U U >18 >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult
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Table 13b continued.
Epiphyseal fusion Pubic symphysis Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Suture closure (ectocranial) Age estimation Skel. Row Skull Thorax Ver tebral Shoulder Upper limbs Pelvis (coxae Lower limbs L R Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Coronal Sagittal Lambdoid Age group no. (cranium + (sternum + column girdle + sacrum + mandible) ribs) (clavicle + coccygis) scapula) 1370 2 U U U >20 >20 >23 >20 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin/dx—U U U open–minimal open–minimal open–minimal Adult 1371 2 U U U >29 >20 >23 >19 U U M3 sin U, M3 M3 sin U, M3 U 25–35 minimal minimal–signi- minimal Young adult dx—erupted dx—erupted ficant 1386 2 U U U 24–29 >20 U >19 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin erupted, U U open minimal–signi- open–minimal Young adult dx erupted M3 dx—U ficant 1387 2 U U U >20 >17 U >20 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx U U U U U Adult dx—U erupted 1388 2 U U U U >17 >23 >20 IV:1 (35.2) U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U 17–25 significant U U Middle adult erupted erupted 1389 2 U U U U >20 >23 >19 U U U U U U U U minimal Adult 1397 2 U U U U >17 >23 >20 U U U U U U U significant–com- significant Adult plete 1271 3 U U U U >15 U >18 U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin—A, M3 U U U U U Adult M3 dx—U dx—U 1272 3 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin—U, M3 U 17–25 U open U minimal Juvenile dx not erupted 1275 3 U U U U U U U U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin—U, M3 U U U U U Adult dx erupted dx erupted 1276 3 U U U U >20 >23 >20 III:1 (28.7) U U U U U U U U Young adult 1277 3 U U U >18 U U >18 U U U U U U U U U Adult 1285 3 U U U U U >23 >18 U U U M3 sin erupted, U U U U U Adult M3 dx—U 1294 3 U U U >23 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin/dx—U U U U U significant Adult dx erupted 1316 3 U U U U >17 U >18 U U U U U (M2 sin, wear U significant significant significant Adult noticed but age assessment not observable) 1332 3 U U U U >15 >23 >17 II:1 (23.4) U M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin U, M3 17–25 U U U U Young adult dx erupted dx erupted 1333 3 U U U 16–21 >17 <27 >20 U U M3 sin/dx M3 sin/dx U U U minimal U Young adult erupted erupted 1344 3 U U U U U >20 U U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult 1384 3 U U U U >17 >23 U U V:1 (45.6) M3 sin—U, M3 M3 sin—U, M3 35–45 35–45 significant U U Middle adult dx erupted dx erupted 1385 3 U U U U U U <18 U U M3 sin not erup- M3 sin/dx—U U No wear U U open Juvenile ted, M3 dx—U 1398 3 U U U 16–21 >17 c. 20–23 U U U M3 sin erupted, M3 sin erupted, U U open–significant significant significant Young adult M3 dx—U M3 dx—U 1399 3 U U U >20 >17 >23 >18 U U M3 sin/dx—U M3 sin—U, M3 U U open–minimal significant significant Young adult dx erupting 1400 3 U U U >18 >20 >23 >20 U U U U U U significant significant significant Adult
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Table 14. Age distribution. (Row 1) and 36% (Row 2); LEH = 32% (Row 1) and 21% (Row 2). Caries was noted in 13% and 7% of the individuals Age group n % in Rows 1 and 2 respectively. Juvenile (12–19 years) 6 7.6 Oral status is closely connected with diet, as well as general Young adult (20–34 years) 33 41.8 health status and lifestyle. Calculus is mineralized bacterial Middle adult (35–49 years) 13 16.4 plaque commonly found on the upper part of teeth. Calcu- lus frequency has been regarded closely connected to diet, al- Old adult (50+ years) 1 1.3 though a number of other factors such as salivary flow, oral hy- Adult (≥20 years) 26 32.9 giene, and cultural practices etc. are also influential and likely Total 79 100 underestimated.44 The formation of calculus and its relation- ship to diet is complicated: it has been associated both with Yet, when incomplete epiphyseal union and tooth eruption a diet high in carbohydrates and with a diet rich in protein. was noted, a narrower age-range is suggested in the skeletal A combination of low caries frequencies and high calculus catalogue (Appendix 1). frequencies has been regarded as indicative of a protein-rich 45 A majority of the individuals assigned to an age group diet. Calculus was noted in 19 individuals. were young, i.e. young adults or juveniles (74%, n = 39). A Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), commonly observed as substantial part of the individuals, however, could not be as- horizontal bands or pits of decreased enamel thickness on the signed to a specific age group. Of these, all were determined tooth crowns, is an indicator of metabolic stress. Although to be adults (33%, n = 26), but it cannot be excluded that old there are also other causes, LEH has been found to be closely 46 individuals are present within this category (Table 14). correlated with malnutrition and infectious disease. Since Epiphyseal union was observable in 95% of the individuals these lesions do not remodel, they are permanent records of (n = 75). Tooth eruption and tooth wear was observable in physiological stress episodes encountered during infancy and 47 63% and 49% of the individuals respectively, and 32% had the childhood when tooth crowns are forming. LEH was noted pubic symphysis observable. Observations on suture closure on 15 individuals. were noted in 87% of the individuals. Caries results from acid production by bacteria and high Only 18 (23%) of the individuals had all the aforemen- frequencies are often associated with a diet rich in carbohy- 48 tioned age-criteria observable, suggesting that many of these drates. Although the dietary composition and frequency of were somewhat older individuals, although their age profile eating/snacking are important, caries is considered a multifac- does not significantly deviate from the total sample. torial disease; fluoride intake, salivary production and compo- sition, general state of health, age, oral pH and hygiene as well Oral status as attrition are also important modifying factors influencing caries prevalence.49 Caries was noted in seven cases. The documentation of oral status included presence or ab- Periodontal disease (PD) results from a chronic, often sence of visible teeth: not erupted, erupting, erupted/pres- plaque-induced inflammation affecting first the soft tissues ent, tooth loss (AMTL), or unobservable ( antemortem Tables surrounding the teeth and then in advanced stages, the bone ), as well as observations on pathologies and fractures 15–16 with development of periodontal pockets and resorption of ( ). Tables 17–18 the alveoli.50 PD was noted on two individuals. The teeth and jaws of the individuals deposited in an ex- Antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) is multifactorial and re- tended position on their backs were variably exposed. More- lated to caries and many other factors such as heavy dental over, the lateral or prone position of some individuals made wear, trauma, tooth extraction, and PD.51 Caries and PD is observations on oral status difficult or sometimes impossible; closely linked with AMTL.52 AMTL was noted on two in- in some cases, the limbs of an adjacent individual covered the dividuals. jaws of the neighbouring skeleton. Since all teeth could not be examined in the field, frequen- cies of tooth pathology will not reflect the accurate individual 44 prevalence. The documentation of teeth in Row 3 was especially Lieverse 1999. 45 Lillie 1996. difficult because of the individuals’ position, so the observations 46 Goodman & Rose 1990; Larsen 2015, 44–48. on Rows 1 and 2 will only be briefly mentioned here. 47 Goodman et al. 1980. In total, 66 out of 79 individuals (83%) had ≥ 1 tooth 48 Hillson 1996, 269, 278. 49 observable. Calculus, followed by linear enamel hypoplasia Hillson 1996, 283–284. 50 Hillson 1996, 262. (LEH) and caries was most frequently observed on the indi- 51 Lukacs 2007. viduals in Row 1 (n = 38) and Row 2 (n = 14); calculus = 34% 52 Larsen 2015, 81.
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At the end of the osteological field documentation a sec- between the compact layers of bones in the cranium) with bi- ond, more detailed cleaning of teeth and jaws of the skeletons lateral porous or pinpoint lesions on the ectocranial surface was commenced on the instructions of Dr Chryssoulaki; the of the cranial vault particularly on the frontal, parietals, and cleaning was performed by a conservator (Panagiota Gki- the occipital.59 Similar changes may also be present on the up- oni) in order to prepare for and facilitate an additional ex- per roof of the orbits, so-called cribra orbitalia (CO).60 Both amination of the individuals’ oral status by a dentist (Maria lesions are regarded as an indication of anaemia in most cas- Deligiannaki).53 After the conservator’s cleaning, a second an- es.61 Acquired iron deficiency anaemia was for long time the thropological/osteological inspection was made in great haste most favoured explanation for these type of lesions. However, during the last days of the field documentation. As a result, it has recently been shown that iron deficiency anaemia does details may have been missed. not result in these types of lesions.62 In Mediterranean con- texts, where malaria has been endemic, PH has been associ- Stature ated with genetic anaemia such as thalassaemia, which in its 63 Skeletal growth and adult stature in earlier and modern popu- heterozygous form can protect the individual from malaria. lations are regarded as sensitive measurements of population J. Lawrence Angel hypothesized that a large number of PH health, living circumstances, and nutrition.54 cases in the Eastern Mediterranean developed as a response to 64 Measurements of long bones in situ were taken wherever malaria. Although, genetic causes may be involved in some possible. Since the skeletons were articulated and because the contexts, this explanation is now considered questionable in bones could not be lifted and measured on an osteometric many cases: the aetiology of PH and CO are not clear and board, the measurements are approximations (Table 19). The likely differ between geographical areas and contexts. In many result of the stature calculation is therefore necessarily tenta- cases, PH seems to result from nutritional megaloblastic anae- 65 tive and likely an underestimation of mean height (Table 20). mia or haemolytic anaemia. For stature estimation, the formula presented by Mildred Since most crania were intact at the time of the field analy- Trotter55 for European and American male samples was ap- sis, expansion of the diploë could rarely be observed; only one plied, and an average of the male and female stature was calcu- case of expanded diploë was noticed on a broken cranium, no. lated for individuals of undetermined sex. 1355, right parietal (Fig. 32). All PH lesions observed on 15 The individuals determined as males were estimated to be individuals consist of pinpoint porosities noted on the ecto- 162–177 cm (n = 48), and the individuals not determined to cranial vault, often close to sutures as well as unevenly distrib- sex were estimated to be 161–164 cm (n = 12). uted on the cranial bones (Fig. 33). CO was not noted; the orbits were more or less covered with soil and therefore often unobservable. 56 PALAEOPATHOLOGY PH was more frequently noted on individuals in Row 2 Palaeopathology concerns the identification of disease in skel- compared to Rows 1 and 3. However, a majority of the in- etal or mummified remains, human and animal.57 It aims to dividuals in Row 1 (70%) were placed in a supine position trace what illnesses were suffered by individuals during their (sometimes with the cranium slightly inclined on one side), life course through morphological observation of skeletal re- making documentation of the crania more difficult. Fewer -in mains or through chemical analyses. The evidence of acute or dividuals were deposited in supine positions in Rows 2 (25%) chronic illness and stress suffered by individuals provide a clue and 3 (37%). Thus, the positions of the individuals certainly to the health status in populations and individuals.58 influenced the observed PH prevalence since this lesion is Generally, two broad categories of pathologies were not- most commonly found on the parietal or occipital bosses ed: porotic hyperostosis (PH) and degenerative joint disease which could not always be observed on individuals in a supine (DJD); a few cases of periostitis and enthesophytosis were also position. observed (Tables 21–22). Degenerative joint disease (DJD) and osteoarthritis (OA) Porotic hyperostosis (PH), indicated on 15 individuals, is commonly found in archaeological skeletons as well as mod- is characterized by expansion of the diploë (a spongy tissue
59 Stuart-Macadam 1992. 53 The report from Maria Deligiannaki is unpublished. 60 Wa l ker et al. 2009. 54 Larsen 2015, 14–20. 61 Larsen 2015, 39. 55 Table 18.5 in White et al. 2012, 420; Trotter 1970. 62 Wa l ker et al. 2009. 56 Trauma is discussed in a separate section below. 63 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994, 120. 57 Ortner 2003, 8. 64 Angel 1975. 58 Larsen 2015, 7–9. 65 Wa l ker et al. 2009; Larsen 2015, 39.
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Table 15a. Oral status, maxilla (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; sin = left; dx = right).
Maxilla, sin Maxilla, dx Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1201 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1202 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1215 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1245 1 Fragment U U P or PM2? P or PM1? P P P ? U U U U U U U side? 1247 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1253 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1266 1 U U U U P P P P U U U U U U P U 1281 1 P P P P P P P Not erupted P P P U U U U U 1289 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1296 1 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P U 1297 1 U U U U U P P P U U U U U U U U 1318 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1324 1 P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U 1325 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1328 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1336 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P A unerupted 1339 1 P P P P P P P P P A possibly ante- P P U U U U mortem? 1340 1 P P P P P P U U P P P U U U U U 1342 1 U U U U U U U U P A/U P A/U A/U P P A/U 1343 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1348 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P A/U 1349 1 P P P P P P P Erupting P P P P P P P U/Q 1350 1 P P P P P AMTL P A/U P P P Root Root P P P 1353 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1354 1 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1355 1 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1356 1 P P U U U U U U A/U P P P P P P U 1358 1 U U U U U U P P U U U U P P P P 1359 1 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1360 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U P 1361 1 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P A/U alveolus P destroyed 1363 1 P P P P P P U U P P P P P A P P 1364 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1365 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U 1366 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1373 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1374 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P A postmortem or P P antemortem? 1375 1 P P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1376 1 U P P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1379 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P A 1380 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting 1381 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1382 1 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P U
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Table 15b. Oral status, maxilla (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; sin = left; dx = right).
Maxilla, sin Maxilla, dx Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1201 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1202 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1215 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1245 1 Fragment U U P or PM2? P or PM1? P P P ? U U U U U U U side? 1247 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1253 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1266 1 U U U U P P P P U U U U U U P U 1281 1 P P P P P P P Not erupted P P P U U U U U 1289 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1296 1 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P U 1297 1 U U U U U P P P U U U U U U U U 1318 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1324 1 P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U 1325 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1328 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1336 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P A unerupted 1339 1 P P P P P P P P P A possibly ante- P P U U U U mortem? 1340 1 P P P P P P U U P P P U U U U U 1342 1 U U U U U U U U P A/U P A/U A/U P P A/U 1343 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1348 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P A/U 1349 1 P P P P P P P Erupting P P P P P P P U/Q 1350 1 P P P P P AMTL P A/U P P P Root Root P P P 1353 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1354 1 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1355 1 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1356 1 P P U U U U U U A/U P P P P P P U 1358 1 U U U U U U P P U U U U P P P P 1359 1 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1360 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U P 1361 1 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P A/U alveolus P destroyed 1363 1 P P P P P P U U P P P P P A P P 1364 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1365 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U 1366 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1373 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1374 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P A postmortem or P P antemortem? 1375 1 P P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1376 1 U P P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1379 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P A 1380 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting 1381 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1382 1 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P U
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Table 15a continued.
Maxilla, sin Maxilla, dx Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1383 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1390 1 Root frag- Root frag- P P P P P P Missing Root fragment P P P P P P ment ment 1392 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1393 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1228 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U 1267 2 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P Erupting 1268 2 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1269 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1298 2 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P U U 1351 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1357 2 P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U U 1368 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1369 2 U P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1370 2 U P P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1371 2 P P P P U U U U P A P P P P P P 1386 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1387 2 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P A alveolus destroyed 1388 2 P P P P P P P P A alveolus P P P P P P P destroyed 1389 2 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P U 1397 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1271 3 P P P P P P A/U A/U P P P P P P P P 1272 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P Not erupted, visible in jaw 1275 3 P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U P P P P 1276 3 X A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1277 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1285 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1294 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1316 3 U U P U U U U U U U 1332 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P Root P P P 1333 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1344 3 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1384 3 U U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P 1385 3 U U U U P P P Not erupted, U U U U U U U U in jaw 1398 3 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P P P 1399 3 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting? 1400 3 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U
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Table 15b continued.
Maxilla, sin Maxilla, dx Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1383 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1390 1 Root frag- Root frag- P P P P P P Missing Root fragment P P P P P P ment ment 1392 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1393 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1228 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U 1267 2 P P P P P P P U P P P P P P P Erupting 1268 2 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1269 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1298 2 P P U U U U U U P P P P P P U U 1351 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1357 2 P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U U 1368 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1369 2 U P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1370 2 U P P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1371 2 P P P P U U U U P A P P P P P P 1386 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1387 2 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P A alveolus destroyed 1388 2 P P P P P P P P A alveolus P P P P P P P destroyed 1389 2 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P U 1397 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1271 3 P P P P P P A/U A/U P P P P P P P P 1272 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P Not erupted, visible in jaw 1275 3 P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U P P P P 1276 3 X A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1277 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1285 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1294 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1316 3 U U P U U U U U U U 1332 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P Root P P P 1333 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1344 3 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1384 3 U U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P 1385 3 U U U U P P P Not erupted, U U U U U U U U in jaw 1398 3 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P P P 1399 3 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting? 1400 3 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U
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Table 16a. Oral status, mandible (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; AM = antemortem; Peri = perimortem; PM = postmortem).
Mandible, left Mandible, right Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1201 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1202 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1215 1 U U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P 1245 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P U P 1247 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1253 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1266 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P 1281 1 P P P P P P P not erupted P P P U U U U U 1289 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1296 1 A A peri or A peri or P P P P A/not P P P P P P P A/not erupted? AM AM erupted? 1297 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1318 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1324 1 P P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U 1325 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1328 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1336 1 P U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P 1339 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1340 1 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1342 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P U 1343 1 U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P U 1348 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U 1349 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P AMTL? P P 1350 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1353 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1354 1 Root tip Root tip PM loss P P P P P PM or AM loss Root tip—AM/ Root tip—AM Root tip—AM AM loss—root AMTL P P (possibly some PM loss? loss loss tip in alveolus sign of bone infilling?) 1355 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1356 1 U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P U 1358 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1359 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1360 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1361 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1363 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1364 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1365 1 P P PM loss P P P P A/U PM loss P P P P P P A/U 1366 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1373 1 P P P P P P U U P P P P P P P P 1374 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1375 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U 1376 1 P P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U 1379 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P U U U U 1380 1 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting 1381 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U
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Table 16b. Oral status, mandible (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; AM = antemortem; Peri = perimortem; PM = postmortem).
Mandible, left Mandible, right Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1201 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1202 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1215 1 U U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P 1245 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P U P 1247 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1253 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1266 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U P P P 1281 1 P P P P P P P not erupted P P P U U U U U 1289 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1296 1 A A peri or A peri or P P P P A/not P P P P P P P A/not erupted? AM AM erupted? 1297 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1318 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1324 1 P P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U 1325 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1328 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1336 1 P U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P 1339 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1340 1 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1342 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P U 1343 1 U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P U 1348 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U 1349 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P AMTL? P P 1350 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1353 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1354 1 Root tip Root tip PM loss P P P P P PM or AM loss Root tip—AM/ Root tip—AM Root tip—AM AM loss—root AMTL P P (possibly some PM loss? loss loss tip in alveolus sign of bone infilling?) 1355 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1356 1 U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P U 1358 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1359 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1360 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1361 1 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1363 1 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1364 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1365 1 P P PM loss P P P P A/U PM loss P P P P P P A/U 1366 1 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1373 1 P P P P P P U U P P P P P P P P 1374 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1375 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U 1376 1 P P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U 1379 1 U U U U U U U U U U P P U U U U 1380 1 P P P P U U U U P P P P P P P Erupting 1381 1 P P P P P P P A/U P P P P P P P A/U
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Table 16a continued.
Mandible, left Mandible, right Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1382 1 P P P P P U U U P P P P P A P A 1383 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1390 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1392 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1393 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1228 2 P P P P P P U U A, PM destruction P P P P P P P 1267 2 P P P P P P P Erupting P P P P P P P Erupting 1268 2 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1269 2 P P P P P P P P U U U U U P P U 1298 2 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1351 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1357 2 P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U 1368 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1369 2 U P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1370 2 U U U U U P U U U U U U U U U U 1371 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1386 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1387 2 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1388 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1389 2 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1397 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1271 3 P P P P P P P Congenital A/U P P P P P P U absence? 1272 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1275 3 P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P P P P P P P P 1276 3 X A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1277 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1285 3 A/U A/U A/U P P P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1294 3 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1316 3 P? P? P? U U U U U U U U 1332 3 U P U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1333 3 P P P P P P U U P P P P P P P P 1344 3 U U U P P P P A/U U U U U U U U U 1384 3 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1385 3 U U P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1398 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1399 3 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1400 3 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U
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Table 16b continued.
Mandible, left Mandible, right Skel. Row All teeth I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C PM1 PM2 M1 M2 M3 no. A/U 1382 1 P P P P P U U U P P P P P A P A 1383 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1390 1 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1392 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1393 1 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1228 2 P P P P P P U U A, PM destruction P P P P P P P 1267 2 P P P P P P P Erupting P P P P P P P Erupting 1268 2 P P P P P P P U P P P U U U U U 1269 2 P P P P P P P P U U U U U P P U 1298 2 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1351 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1357 2 P P P P P P P P P P U U U U U U 1368 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1369 2 U P P P P P P P U U U U U U U U 1370 2 U U U U U P U U U U U U U U U U 1371 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1386 2 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1387 2 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P P 1388 2 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1389 2 U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1397 2 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 1271 3 P P P P P P P Congenital A/U P P P P P P U absence? 1272 3 P P P U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1275 3 P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U P P P P P P P P 1276 3 X A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1277 3 A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1285 3 A/U A/U A/U P P P P P A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U A/U 1294 3 U U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1316 3 P? P? P? U U U U U U U U 1332 3 U P U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1333 3 P P P P P P U U P P P P P P P P 1344 3 U U U P P P P A/U U U U U U U U U 1384 3 U U U U U U U U U U P P P P P P 1385 3 U U P P P P P U U U U U U U U U 1398 3 P P P P P P P P P P P P P U U U 1399 3 P U U U U U U U P P P P P P P U 1400 3 X U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U
Table 17. Summary of dental pathologies, fractures, and discolouration.
n individuals Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) 15 Calculus 19 Caries 7 Periodontal disease (PD) 2 Antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) 2 Fracture 4 Discolouration 9
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Table 18. Dental pathologies and discolouration (LEH = linear enamel hypoplasia; PD = periodontal disease ; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; CEJ = cementoenamel junction).
Skel. Row LEH Calculus Caries PD AMTL Fracture Discol- Pathology and discolouration, comments no. ouration 1245 1 X Right P1, mandible: labial enamel fracture. 1201 1 1202 1 1253 1 1215 1 1247 1 1266 1 1296 1 X X X Fracture on left I2 and C, mandible. 1297 1 1342 1 1343 1 X Right C, maxilla: LEH. 1325 1 1379 1 1380 1 X Right M2, mandible: possibly buccal caries—CEJ. 1381 1 X X Left M1, mandible: deep wear and caries (+ fractu- re?) buccal/mesial; right M1, mandible: almost no wear; right M2, mandible: deep wear occlusal/distal; Slight to medium calculus on right mandibular incisors and C. 1360 1 1358 1 X X Left PM2, M1, mandible: caries; left and right C, mandible: LEH; right I, mandible: extensive wear. 1289 1 1324 1 1328 1 X Incisors, mandible: slight calculus. 1359 1 X X Right C, PM1, PM2, maxilla: LEH, two lines; blue discolouration especially on teeth in mandible. 1363 1 X Right M1, maxilla: large abscess and periodontitis. 1364 1 X Left PM2, maxilla: rootin situ, caries, and possibly some caries on left M1 maxilla, as well? 1365 1 X X Left C, mandible: periodontitis; Left and right C and PMs, mandible: LEH. 1350 1 X X Mandibular teeth: medium LEH on all teeth, two lines; left M1, maxilla: AMTL. 1348 1 X Left and right incisors and C, mandible: LEH— slight; congenital absence of right M3, mandible and maxilla. 1281 1 1349 1 X Right I1, maxilla: chipped antemortem. 1374 1 X X Left and right incisors and premolars in mandible, and left and right maxilla: medium LEH, two lines on incisors and C; slight calculus. 1376 1 1375 1 X X X X Left I–C, mandible: medium calculus; left M3, man- dible: caries, buccal; LEH, slight; P1 left mandible, P2 left maxilla: slight chipped fracture anterior/ buccal; LEH on C–PM2, left maxilla. 1361 1 X Left and right I1–I2: calculus labial. 1366 1 X Mandible missing, marked reddish-brown-orange staining on all teeth in maxilla, esp. incisors.
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Table 18 continued.
Skel. Row LEH Calculus Caries PD AMTL Fracture Discol- Pathology and discolouration, comments no. ouration 1318 1 No cranium. 1336 1 X X Blue discolouration all teeth; right mandible, I2, C: slight calculus. 1392 1 No cranium. 1393 1 No cranium. 1355 1 X Left and right I1–I2, maxilla: slight LEH. 1373 1 X Left and right I1–C, maxilla: slight calculus. 1354 1 X Right M1, mandible: AMTL. 1353 1 X X Slight–medium calculus on I1–I2 sin, mandible and on dx I1–C; slight LEH on dx C and PM1 mandi- ble; medium calculus on sin and dx C maxilla. 1382 1 X Left I1–C and right I1–I2, mandible: medium calculus. 1383 1 1356 1 1390 1 X Left mandible, incisors and C: slight calculus. 1339 1 X X X Left C and P1, mandible: slight LEH; left I1, C, mandible and C, P1 maxilla: slight calculus; orange discolouration on all teeth. 1340 1 X Left and right I1, I2, C, mandible: slight calculus. 1267 2 X Slight blue discolouration. 1298 2 X Slight blue discolouration. 1268 2 X Slight blue discolouration. 1269 2 1370 2 X Slight calculus on sin C, P1, P2. 1351 2 1389 2 1371 2 X Right mandible, I2 and C: slight calculus. 1357 2 X Left and right maxilla: medium calculus on left and right I1–I2 maxilla; slight calculus left C maxilla. 1369 2 X Left mandible, C, PM1: slight calculus. 1228 2 1386 2 X X Left I1 and right I1, I2, maxilla, right C maxilla: LEH, 2 lines; blue discolouration on left and right I1, and right I2. 1368 2 X X X Slight calculus on all mandibular teeth; right ma- xilla: slight calculus on I1, I2; slight LEH on I1, left and right in maxilla; blue discolouration on right I2, maxilla and slight on I1, I2, C mandible. 1388 2 X X Right mandible, C, PM1, PM2: slight LEH; right maxilla M1: buccal caries, slight. 1387 2 1397 2 1285 3 1277 3 1276 3 1275 3 1271 3 1272 3 1294 3
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Table 18 continued.
Skel. Row LEH Calculus Caries PD AMTL Fracture Discol- Pathology and discolouration, comments no. ouration 1316 3 1332 3 1384 3 1385 3 1339 3 X Left mandible, M1: large caries buccal. 1344 3 1398 3 1400 3 1399 3 X Right mandible: slight calculus I2, C, M1.
Table 19. Measurements of limb bones (mm; blank = unobservable). Skel. no. Row length Femur, left, length Femur, right, length left,Tibia, length right, Tibia, length Fibula, right, length Humerus, left, length Humerus, right, length left, Radius, length right, Radius, length Ulna, left, length Ulna, right,
1201 1 1202 1 1215 1 410 1245 1 430 315 1247 1 1253 1 360 1266 1 430 310 1281 1 460 1289 1 410 310 1296 1 450 375 310 1297 1 460 1318 1 420 420 375 1324 1 440 1325 1 430 1328 1 450 1336 1 430 360 320 1339 1 420 1340 1 450 310 310 1342 1 420 1343 1 1348 1 420 1349 1 450 1350 1 420 1353 1 310 1354 1 380 290 290 1355 1 430 380 340 1356 1 430 310 1358 1 300–310 1359 1 430 1360 1 335 1361 1 380 310 280 1363 1 420
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Table 19 continued. Skel. no. Row length Femur, left, length Femur, right, length left,Tibia, length right, Tibia, length Fibula, right, length Humerus, left, length Humerus, right, length left, Radius, length right, Radius, length Ulna, left, length Ulna, right,
1364 1 385 1365 1 1366 1 410 340 300 1373 1 410 300 1374 1 325 1375 1 430 1376 1 420 360 320 240 275 1379 1 420 355 350 1380 1 420 1381 1 440 325 1382 1 410 410 325 290 1383 1 430 320 1390 1 390 290 230 1392 1 460 350 1393 1 450 1228 2 380 340 1267 2 410 310 235 1268 2 420 380 1269 2 430 340 330 250 280 1298 2 300 1351 2 440 350 330 1357 2 490 320 1368 2 340 300 1369 2 420 310 1370 2 400 340 1371 2 420 350 310 1386 2 430 325 1387 2 420 340 1388 2 440 360 310 1389 2 410 227 1397 2 430 340 310 1271 3 1272 3 1275 3 380 1276 3 1277 3 1285 3 1294 3 1316 3 1332 3 1333 3 1344 3 1384 3 1385 3 1398 3 1399 3 325 1400 3
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Table 20. Mean stature (n = individuals).
Mean stature Femur (n) Fibula (n) Humerus (n) Radius (n) Ulna (n) Total nos. n ≥1 measurements available Undetermined sex 160.6 (10) 163.8 (6) 12 Male–Male? 161.9 (41) 165.6 (1) 167.4 (28) 168.4 (5) 176.7 (2) 48
Table 21. Paleopathology (U = unobservable).
Skel. Row Porotic hyperostosis Periostitis Degenerative joint disease Enthesophytes no. (incl. osteophytosis) 1245 1 U U U U 1201 1 U U U U 1202 1 U U U U 1253 1 U U U U 1215 1 U U U U 1247 1 U U U U 1266 1 U U Clavicle, left: porosity and U osteophytes on the medial epiphysis. Osteoarthritis. 1296 1 U U U U 1297 1 U U U U 1342 1 U U U U 1343 1 U U U U 1325 1 U U U U 1379 1 U U U U 1380 1 Parietal, right: indistinct poro- U U U sity—true porosity on the right parietal. 1381 1 U U U U 1360 1 U U U U 1358 1 U U U U 1289 1 Occipital: indistinct porosity. U U U 1324 1 U U U U 1328 1 U U U U 1359 1 U U U U 1363 1 U U U U 1364 1 U U U U 1365 1 U U U U 1350 1 U U U U 1348 1 U U U U 1281 1 U U U U 1349 1 U U U U 1374 1 U U U U 1376 1 U U Vertebral column: slight lipping U anterior on thoracic vertebrae nos. 1–4. 1375 1 U U U U 1361 1 U U Vertebral column: medium U lipping on thoracic vertebral bodies, lumbar vertebra no. 5 and on sacrum-promotorium. 1366 1 U Tibia, right: healed periostitis U U on the distal diaphysis, medial border.
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Table 21 continued.
Skel. Row Porotic hyperostosis Periostitis Degenerative joint disease Enthesophytes no. (incl. osteophytosis) 1318 1 U U U U 1336 1 Parietal: pinpoint porosity— U U U healed; Occipital: pinpoint porosity—healed. 1392 1 U U U U 1393 1 U Tibia, left: healed periostitis on U the proximal–middle diaphysis, medial border. 1355 1 Parietal, right: pinpoint porosity U U Fibula, left: entesophyte on the on dorsal part on the parietal, distal diaphysis. hypertrophy of the diploë. 1373 1 U U Vertebral column: medium U lipping on two thoracic bodies; Lower limbs, left patella: slight lipping. 1354 1 U U Vertebral column: medium U lipping on cervical vertebrae nos. 3–7. 1353 1 U U U U 1382 1 U U U U 1383 1 U U U U 1356 1 Parietal, right: indistinct—true U U U porosity near the saggital suture; Frontal: very indistinct porosity close to the coronal suture. Occipital: indistinct —true porosity close to the saggital suture. 1390 1 U U Vertebral column: significant U osteophytosis on three lower thoracic vertebral bodies— beginning to form a block; significant osteophytosis on lumbar vertebra no. 5. 1339 1 U U U U 1340 1 Parietal, left: true porosity on U U U posterior parietal, close to the lambdoid suture; Occipital, left: indinstinct porosity on part of the occipital, close to the lambdoid suture. 1267 2 U U U U 1298 2 U U U U 1268 2 U U U U 1269 2 Parietals: very indistinct U U U porosity on the posterior part, more pronounced on the right parietal, close to the saggital suture. 1370 2 Parietals: indistinct porosity U U U —true porosity on posterior parts; Occipital: indistinct porosity near the lambdoid suture; Frontal: indistinct poro- sity; Temporal, left: indistinct porosity above the meatus.
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Table 21 continued.
Skel. Row Porotic hyperostosis Periostitis Degenerative joint disease Enthesophytes no. (incl. osteophytosis) 1351 2 U U U U 1389 2 Parietal, right: indistinct U U U porosity close to the lambdoid suture; Occipital: indistinct porosity close to the lambdoid suture. 1371 2 Parietal, right: indistinct U U U porosity close to the lambdoid suture. 1357 2 Parietals: true porosity close to U U U the saggital suture; Occipital: true porosity—coalescing pores on the left occipital, close to the lambdoid suture. 1369 2 Parietals: indistinct porosity on U U Humerus, right: enthesophytes the posterior parietals close to on the distal diaphysis. the lambdoid suture; Occipi- tal: indistinct porosity close to the lambdoid suture. 1228 2 U U U U 1386 2 Parietals: indistinct porosity on U U U the left parietal, close to the sag- gital suture, true porosity on the right parietal, close to the sag- gital suture; Frontal: indistinct porosity on the posterior frontal close to the coronal suture; Oc- cipital: indistinct porosity close to the lambdoid suture. 1368 2 U U Vertebral column– lumbar U vertebral bodies: L1—body destroyed, not observable; L2 (inferior) medium osteophytes; L3 (superior) large osteophytes almost fused with L2; L4— largely destoyed; L5—superior medium–large ostheophytes, inferior–minimal osteophytes. 1388 2 U U U U 1387 2 U U U U 1397 2 U U U U 1285 3 U U U U 1277 3 U U U U 1276 3 U U U U 1275 3 U U U U 1271 3 U U U U 1272 3 U U U U 1294 3 U U U U 1316 3 U U U U 1332 3 U U U U 1384 3 U U U U 1385 3 U U U U 1333 3 Parietals: indistinct porosity U U U close to the sagittal suture only.
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Table 21 continued.
Skel. Row Porotic hyperostosis Periostitis Degenerative joint disease Enthesophytes no. (incl. osteophytosis) 1344 3 Parietals: indistinct porosity— U U U true porosity. 1398 3 U U U U 1400 3 U U U U 1399 3 U U U U
Table 22. Paleopathology (n = number of individuals; OA = osteoarthritis).
Row PH (n) % Periostitis (n) % Osteophytes (n) % OA (n) % Enthesophytes (n) % 1 6/47 12.8 2/47 4.2 6/47 13 1/47 2.1 1 2 2 7/16 48 0 0 1/16 6 0/16 0 1 6 3 2/16 12.5 0 0 0/16 0 0/16 0 0 0 Total 15/79 19 2/79 2.5 7/79 8.9 1/79 1.3 2/79 2.5
Fig. 32. No. 1355, expanded diploë, right parietal. Fig. 33. No. 1340, porosities, left parietal, left occipital.
ern populations. In this material, signs of DJD and OA was the ageing process, they are usually uncommon in individuals identified in seven individuals (9%). below 30 years of age.70 It seems possible, however, that cer- Osteoarthritis (OA) shows as lipping/bony spurs or osteo- tain activity patterns are a risk factor for the development of phytosis at the margins of joints in connection with porosity osteophytes, i.e. a radiographic study of former élite athletes on the joint surface and/or eburnation.66 It is a progressive, showed that individuals involved in the throwing disciplines, chronic condition resulting from loss of joint cartilage caus- as well as high jumpers, had a higher risk of developing os- ing bone-to-bone contact, which stimulates new bone forma- teophytosis in the lumbar vertebrae in comparison to runners tion.67 OA has been often associated with behavioural factors and other jumpers.71 such as the amount and type of physical activity undertaken.68 Osteophytes were most commonly noticed in Row 1; only Osteophytes, when observed in isolation, without signs one individual in Row 2 (and none in Row 3) show this le- of porosity and/or eburnation cannot be considered as OA.69 sion. Osteophytes were most commonly found in the verte- Joint changes in the form of marginal osteophytes/lipping, bral column, especially on the thoracic and lumbar vertebral especially in the spine, is one of the most normal outcomes of bodies. Since osteophytosis is usually connected with the age- ing process it is interesting to note that two of six individu- als identified with osteophytosis were young adults (YA), one
66 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994, 122. 67 Aufderheide & Rodrígues-Martin 1998, 93, 97. 68 Weiss 2006; Weiss & Jurmain 2007. 70 Aufderheide & Rodrígues-Martin 1998, 96. 69 Rogers & Waldron 1995, 26. 71 Schmitt et al. 2004.
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Table 23. Nonmetric traits (n = number of traits recorded). NONMETRIC TRAITS
Inca bone Bregmatic bone Apical bone Metopic suture (sutural ossicles) Wormian bones Other Total Nonmetric traits result from ossification failure or non-path- ological abnormal bone formation often visible as small extra bones located in cranial sutures, extra foramina, bony bridges, etc.76 Cranial nonmetric traits have long been used in popula- tion studies of biological distance since they show some heri- tability, although environmental factors may also play a role in Row 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 3 their development.77 Row 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 10 Fifteen individuals exhibit at least one nonmetric trait on Row 3 0 0 0 2 4 1 7 the cranium and one individual showed a postcranial trait. Total 2 2 1 4 9 2 20 Thirteen of 16 (81%) individuals with recorded nonmetric traits were found in Rows 2 and 3. However, since it was not individual could be determined only as “adult”, whereas three possible to record the presence or absence of nonmetric traits individuals were estimated as middle adults (MA). One indi- on all skeletons, theories regarding a possible genetic relation- vidual (no. 1266), a young adult male in Row 1, shows OA on ship between individuals cannot be suggested. the medial epiphysis of the left clavicle. The most frequently observed nonmetric traits were wor- Enthesophytes shows as bony projections or irregularities mian bones (n = 9) followed by the metopic suture (n = 4); at the insertion of tendons and ligaments which may develop all of them most commonly noted on individuals in Rows 2 as an effect of prolonged and inordinate muscular wear or and 3 (Table 23, Fig. 34). Bregmatic bones, inca bones, and an due to an inflammation, but they can also develop without apical bone were also noted. Other nonmetric traits observed a known cause.72 Although both osteophytes and entheso- includes enlarged parietal foramina (no. 1344, Row 3, Fig. phytes are often a skeletal response to stress, some individuals 35) and in one case a postcranial trait, so-called Allen’s fossa may be more prone to “bone formation”.73 Two individuals, (no. 1269, Row 2, Fig. 36). Allen’s fossa shows as a depression both determined as young adults, in Row 1 and Row 2 (nos. exposing the underlying trabeculae on the superior anterior 1355 and 1369), show small enthesophytes on the upper arm neck of the femur.78 This trait, along with other similar depres- (humerus) and on the lower leg (fibula). sions on other parts of the skeleton (e.g. humerus, clavicle) has Periostitis, or periosteal new bone formation is one of the often been noted on young adults, especially males, who car- most commonly reported pathological lesions in archaeo- ried out strenuous activities e.g. soldiers.79 logical human skeletal remains. Although any bone in the skeleton may be affected, the long bones, particularly the TRAUMA tibiae, most often show this lesion.74 Periostitis is a reaction to a pathological stimuli or a secondary reaction to trauma; it first appears as “woven bone formation” seen as a porous- Introduction like appearance on the outer surface of the bone which, when Skeletal trauma is a broad category that includes partial or healed, becomes remodelled and incorporated into the cortex complete fractures, dislocation of joints, disruption to the and show as lamellar bone-striations on the outer bone sur- nerve or blood supply, and plastic deformation of the bone face. The aetiology of periosteal reactions are rarely possible to contour.80 differentiate in archaeological skeletons.75 Two individuals in Numerous breaks were observed on the skeletons in the Row 1 show periostitis on the tibiae (nos. 1366 and 1393); in mass graves. Since the skeletons in situ were not fully exposed, both cases the periostitis was healed. Since no other patholo- interpretations regarding perimortem contra postmortem frac- gies were found on these individuals, it seems possible that the tures are tentative and in most cases based on fracture pat- periostitis resulted from a skin ulcer on their legs. It should be terns: only rarely were fracture margins possible to observe. noted, however that only the lower part of the skeleton of no. The interpretations of fractures and trauma should therefore 1393 was present. be regarded as probability statements.
76 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994, 85. 72 Larsen 1997, 188; Rogers et al. 1997. 77 Pink 2016, 225. 73 Rogers et al. 1997. 78 Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994, 94. 74 Weston 2012. 79 Mann & Hunt 2005, 144. 75 Ortner & Putschar 1985, 129–132. 80 Ortner 2003, 119.
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Fig. 34. No. 1389, wormian bones.
Fig. 36. No. 1269, Allen’s fossa. Fig. 35. No. 1344, enlarged parietal foramina.
Here only partial or complete fractures to the skeletons dividual, etc. Secondary infections could also be incorporated were observed. Following established forensic practices the in the antemortem process, also including signs of new bone fractures were divided in to three groups: (1) antemortem formation or bone resorption.82 fractures to fresh or green bone with evidence of healing that Perimortem fractures, identified in 14 (likelyperimortem would have occurred before death, (2) perimortem fractures to fracture)/25 (possible perimortem fracture) cases, are charac- green bone without evidence of healing, and (3) postmortem terized by fractures to “wet” or “green” bone when no remod- fractures to dry bone. elling at the fracture site is present.83 Though mostperimortem In this material, antemortem fracture was identified in one fractures are believed to be associated with the time of death individual (no. 1297 in Row 1, Fig. 37). Signs of remodelling of the individual, the time span for the perimortem period is at the fracture site characterize antemortem fractures. Al- highly variable since bones can retain their elasticity for sev- though the healing process starts almost immediately after in- eral weeks, sometimes even months after death depending on jury, the first signs of remodelling (rounded fracture margins) the burial environment.84 A number of macroscopic criteria in skeletonized remains is earliest visible a week after the in- can aid the interpretation of perimortem fractures. For ex- jury took place. The healing process progresses gradually until ample, fracture edges often have the same colour as the rest complete remodelling of the bone takes place.81 The time for of the bone, staining may be present, and fracture lines are this process is highly variable and dependent on several factors including age, type of fracture, earlier health status of the in-
82 Ortner & Putschar 1985, 63–65; Ubelaker & Montaperto 2014, 30–34. 83 Kimmerle & Baraybar 2008, 57. 81 Lovell 1997; Sauer 1998. 84 White et al. 2012, 460; Rodríguez-Martín 2006; Maples 1986, 219.
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commonly used criteria to analyse and aid interpretations re- garding the nature/category of fractures. Taphonomic factors may create pseudo-fractures mimicking perimortem trauma, but postmortem fractures can also hide perimortem trauma.90 An osteological analysis under laboratory conditions includ- ing observation of fracture margins and refitting of fragments is often necessary to enable cognisant interpretation regarding the prevalence of perimortem contra postmortem fractures. Trauma was documented through ocular inspection. Pho- tographs were taken but individual sketches of fracture pattern were not possible owing to the short time available for field documentation. Additionally, the photographs available are in many cases not clear enough for a reliable view of fracture pat- terning due to lack of time and lighting conditions at the site. antemortem Fig. 37. No. 1297, trauma to the left parietal. The perimortem fractures were divided in two groups, “likely perimortem fracture” (LPF) and “possible perimortem often smooth and the fracture margin bevelled, with ragged 85 fracture” (PPF). This division was inevitably subjective and edges less common. Skull fractures (in the case of blunt force based only on observations of fracture patterning and fracture trauma) often show bone fragments attached to the site of morphology characteristics. Furthermore, the division was in- injury (so called hinge fractures) with radiating fracture lines 86 fluenced by bone preservation, e.g. the extent ofpostmortem and/or concentric fractures lines rarely crossing the sutures. destruction associated with LPF and PPF. When extensive In archaeological contexts, it is often impossible to determine postmortem fragmentation was found in connection with, a cause, i.e. whether fractures resulted from acci- perimortem or partially obscuring the suspected perimortem fractures, or dents, intentional violence, or during burial/deposition of the 87 when radiating fracture lines could not be observed, the inju- body. ries were considered as PPF. Postmortem destruction of dry bones was identified on a majority of the individuals. These fractures result from a wide Results of the trauma analysis range of taphonomic factors (e.g. postmortem handling of bod- ies, soil pressure, burial environment, rodent gnawing, excava- The only case ofantemortem trauma was observed on a young tion damage, weathering, etc.). The fracture margins are often adult of undetermined sex in the northern part of Row 1 (no. dry and ragged, and because of the biomechanical properties 1297). This individual exhibited a completely healed oval- of bone and the loss of elasticity, bones tend to shatter into shaped wound (3 x 4.5 cm) on the posterior part of the left smaller fragments. The fracture margins are lighter than the parietal, close to the sagittal suture (Fig. 37). The injury was rest of the bone and fractures are often produced in a trans- most likely caused by blunt force impact resulting in a de- versally longitudal axis, or in sharp angles. Radiating fractures pressed cranial fracture. A differential diagnosis is trepanation (i.e. an intentional removal of a piece of the skull by methods and concentric fracture shapes with adhering bones are less 91 common.88 of scraping, drilling, or cutting).
Methods to document trauma Likely perimortem fractures (LPF) LPF were noted only on the crania and/or on the lower jaws In archaeological contexts, even more than in forensic set- in 14 of the 79 individuals (18%) (Table 24, Figs. 38–51). tings, differentiation betweenperimortem fractures and post- 89 All LPF appear to have resulted from blunt force trauma mortem breakage is often difficult, sometimes impossible. (BFT) and follow (to the extent it was possible to document) Observations regarding colour and shape of fracture margins, the criteria outlined by Nancy C. Lovell and others.92 fracture pattern morphology/angle of fracture margins, burial context, signs of weathering or excavation damage, etc., are
90 Calce & Rogers 2007; Galloway et al. 2014, 49–55. 91 Trepanations are known to have been carried out at least from the 85 Krovitz & Shipman 2007; Byers 2008, 286–287; Rodríguez-Martín 2006. Mesolithic–Neolithic and the procedure is mentioned by e.g. Hippo- 86 Kranioti 2015; Krovitz & Shipman 2007. crates and Galenos as a method of treating or relieving head trauma, Lis- 87 Dirkmaat et al. 2008, 42. ton & Day 2009. 88 Galloway et al. 2014, 49–55; Krovitz & Shipman 2007. 92 Lovell 1997; Rodríguez-Martin 2006; Galloway et al. 2014, 49–55; 89 Ortner & Putschar 1985, 72; Maples 1986, 221. DiMaio & DiMaio 2001, 148–155.
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Table 24. Description of fractures. Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) and possible perimortem fracture (PPF) (BFT = blunt force trauma; HBL = the so-called rule of the “hat brim line”, see below, p. 73).
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1245 1 U U Supine 1201 1 U U Supine 1202 1 U U Supine, incli- ned on the left side 1253 1 U U Supine 1215 1 U U Prone 1247 1 U U Prone 1266 1 U U Supine 1296 1 Left mandible, anterior body: a vertical, slightly 38 U Supine, skull oblique BFT fracture to the left mandibular body resting on right between the left and the right I1, at mentum. side The simple fracture line is smooth, with slightly jagged edges at the superior part. The left I2 and C tooth crowns are missing, probably fractured antemortem or perimortem. 1297 1 U U Lateral, on right side 1342 1 U U Prone 1343 1 U U Lateral, on left side (face almost prone) 1325 1 U U Prone 1379 1 U U Lateral, on left side (face almost prone) 1380 1 U Right temporal, a depressed comminuted fracture 67 Lateral, on left to the anterior and posterior part of the squama. side The fracture is within the HBL. Radiating fracture lines on the right parietal stopping at the coronal suture. There are also fractures on the right frontal that are not connected with fracture lines lines on the parietal. 1381 1 U Right temporal, involving also parts of the right 68 Supine, skull parietal and the right lateral frontal: a depressed resting on left comminuted almost concentric fracture to the side right temporal squama. No radiating fracture lines observed. The fracture is within the HBL. 1360 1 U U Prone 1358 1 U U (Skull lifted, no trauma visible). Supine 1289 1 U U Lateral, on right side 1324 1 U Left mandible, body: a vertical, slightly curved 52 Supine, skull fracture between the left PM1 and PM2, some resting on right flaking due topostmortem destruction is present side close to the fracture margin. Left temporal, left sphenoid, and part of the lateral left parietal: a depressed comminuted fracture to the left tem- poral squama, sphenoid, and lateral parietal. The fracture margin is largely smooth, although there is some postmortem destruction as well, with light margin. The fracture is within the HBL. There are very fine radiating fractures on the parietal.
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1328 1 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, and the lateral part 53 Supine (slightly of the right parietal: a depressed comminuted frac- on the left side) ture to the temporal squama, sphenoid, and lateral part of the parietal. The fracture margin is smooth on the posterio-lateral part of the parietal and there is postmortem destruction at the fracture margin on the anterio-lateral part of the parietal. One fine ra- diating fracture line is present on the posterior part of the parietal. The fracture is within and slightly above the HBL. Right mandible, body: a depressed comminuted fracture with a slightly curved, vertical fracture margin on the anterior part of the ramus, anterior to the angulus. The fracture is largely limi- ted to the outer table and the cancellous bone. 1359 1 Right temporal: a depressed comminuted fracture to 42 Supine–lateral the anterior temporal squama and the sphenoid and on left side, two associated concentric fractures to the parietal. skull resting on Three fine fracture lines radiate from the concentric left side fracture on the right parietal. The fracture is within the HBL. Postmortem fragmentation is visible at the posterior part of the squama; Left mandible: a ver- tical fracture below the left C that extends laterally and sets off in a horizontal-lateral direction forming a sharp angle on the lower part of the body. The fracture line is largely smooth with dark margins. 1363 1 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, right parietal, and 61 Prone right frontal: a depressed comminuted fracture to the right temporal squama, right sphenoid, the lateral margin of the parietal, and the lateral part of the frontal. The fracture margins are largely ragged and partly light in colour. The fracture is within and slightly above the HBL. A radiating fracture line extends from the posterior of parietal to the occipital, intersecting the lambdoid suture. A smo- oth hemispherical fracture margin on the posterio- lateral part of the frontal; fracture margins are dark with fine fracture lines radiating on the frontal. 1364 1 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, lateral part of 63 Supine the right parietal, and the right lateral part of the frontal: a large depressed comminuted fracture to the squamous part of the temporal, and sphenoid. Faint fracture lines radiate to the frontal and the parietal. The fracture is within and slightly above the HBL. Right mandible: an oblique fracture to the mandibular body, between the right I2 and C. The fracture margin is smooth, slightly curved with no jagged edges. 1365 1 U Right mandible, body: a single vertical slightly 62 Supine oblique fracture inferior to the right I2. 1350 1 U U Supine, skull inclined on the right side 1348 1 U Left mandible, body: a single oblique slightly cur- 54– Supine ved fracture to the left mandibular body, between 55 the left C and PM1. The edges are slightly ragged. Left femur, neck: an oblique slightly curved in- terthrochanteric oblique fracture on the femoral neck. Fracture margins were difficult to observe.
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1281 1 U U Supine, skull resting on right side 1349 1 U Right temporal, right parietal, and right sphe- 56– Supine noid: a depressed comminuted fracture on the 57 temporal squama, posterior part of parietal, and the sphenoid. The fracture shows a slightly con- centric outline with fracture margins somewhat ragged and varying in colour from dark to light. No radiating fractures were observed. The frac- ture is within and slightly above the HBL. Left mandible, body: an oblique fracture with slightly jagged edges to the left mandibular body, at PM2. 1374 1 Right mandible: an oblique fracture to the man- 44 Right temporal, right sphenoid: a depressed com- 65 Supine dibular body, between the right C and the right minuted fracture to the anterior temporal squama PM1. The fracture line is smooth. and the right sphenoid with a radiating fracture to the right parietal. The fracture is within and slightly above the HBL. Left mandible, body: an oblique fracture to the mandibular body between the right C and right PM1. The fracture line is partly smooth but with partly ragged edges. 1376 1 U U Supine (skull and upper body) lateral on right lower body 1375 1 U Left mandible, body: a vertical largely smooth 66 Supine, skull fracture with some ragged edge between the left resting on the I2 and the right I1. There is some fragmentation right side on the superior part of the alveoli. 1361 1 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, and lateral 60 Supine (cra- part of the right frontal: a comminuted almost nium resting on concentric fracture to the temporal squama, sphe- left side) noid, and lateral part of the frontal with radiating fractures to the frontal and the right supraorbital margin. The fracture is within the HBL. 1366 1 U Left temporal, left sphenoid: a depressed commi- 64 Supine nuted fracture to the sphenoid and the temporal squama with two faint circular fracture lines on the left frontal and left parietal. The fracture is within the HBL. Right sphenoid: a depressed fracture with faint concentric fractures on the parietal. The fracture is within the HBL. 1318 1 U U Supine 1336 1 Right temporal, right sphenoid, and the lateral- 39 U Lateral (on left posterior part of the right frontal: a depressed com- side) minuted fracture with largely smooth hemisphe- rical fracture margin. The fracture is within, and slightly above the HBL. The colour of the fracture margin varies from dark to light; some postmortem destruction was found in the middle part of the fracture. There are two associated concentric frac- ture lines on the right parietal with four radiating fracture lines between the concentric fractures. Right mandible, body: a vertical, slightly curved fracture between the right I2 and the right C. The fracture line is smooth, with some jagged edges due to postmortem destruction at the alveolar margin. The smooth fracture margin is dark in colour.
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1392 1 U U Supine 1393 1 U U Supine 1355 1 U U Lateral (on left side) 1373 1 Right temporal, right sphenoid: a depressed 43 U Supine (cra- comminuted fracture with a concentric fracture nium slightly margin to the sphenoid and anterior temporal inclined to the squama, two radiating fracture lines on the right left side) parietal. The fracture is within the HBL. 1354 1 U U Supine 1353 1 Right parietal/right sphenoid: a large depressed 40 Right mandible: a vertical fracture between the 58– Supine comminuted fracture with concentric fracture right I1 and the right I2. The fracture margins 59 lines to the right parietal. The fracture is within the are dark but the fracture line is slightly ragged. HBL. Right zygomatic, below the frontal process: Left femur: a sharp oblique intertrochanteric a horizontal/oblique fracture with a smooth fracture to the left femoral neck above the lesser fracture line. The fracture is within the HBL. Right trochanter. frontal, superior to the supraorbital margin on the lateral part of the orbit close to the zygomatic process: a small circular depressed comminuted fracture only penetrating the outer table. An obli- que fracture line is radiating out from the superior part of the frontal, the fracture line stops at the coronal suture. The fracture is within the HBL. Right frontal: above the supraorbital margin right to glabella: a small depressed fracture, oval-square shaped and limited to the outer table with one ra- diating fracture line stopping at the coronal suture. The fracture is within the HBL. The fracture line is slightly curved with parts of the fracture margin slightly ragged due to postmortem destruction. 1382 1 U U Supine, skull inclined to the left side 1383 1 Right temporal, right sphenoid: a comminuted 45 Right femur: an intertrochanteric fracture with 69 Supine, skull depressed fracture to the right anterior temporal an oblique fracture line extending from the resting on the squama and the right sphenoid associated with greater trochanter to the medial part of the pro- left side concentric fractures on the right parietal and poste- ximal diaphysis. The fracture line is smooth. No rior frontal-zygomatic arch. Radiating fractures are displacement visible. found on the right frontal and the right parietal. The fracture is within the HBL. Left frontal: a slightly oblique fracture with smooth margin extending from the supraorbital margin, the oblique fracture is crossed by a transverse fracture extending laterally towards the right orbit. The fracture is within the HBL. Right maxilla: a small depressed comminu- ted fracture to the infraorbital foramen, oval with smooth fracture margins. Left mandible: a vertical, slightly curved complete fracture to the mandibular body between the left I1–I2. The lower part of the fracture margin show slightly ragged fracture edges probably due to postmortem destruction.
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1356 1 Right temporal, right sphenoid: a depressed 41 Lateral (on left comminuted fracture to the anterior squama and the side) sphenoid with an associated concentric fracture on the right parietal and radiating faint fractures. The concentric fracture line stops at the lambdoid suture. The fractures are within the HBL. Right mandible: a comminuted fracture to the mandibular ramus, the fracture lines extend from the mandibular notch below the coronoid process. The fracture margins are largely smooth but slightly jagged on the inferior part. Right mandible: a vertical fracture to the right mandibular body below the right C. The fracture line is largely smooth but the inferior part of the fracture is slightly curved and jagged. 1390 1 Right mandible: an oblique complete fracture to 46 Right second metacarpal and right third metacar- 70 Supine the right mandibular body with smooth fracture pal: a transverse fracture to the middle diaphyses. margins between the right C and right PM1. The fracture margins are unobservable. 1339 1 U U Lateral (on right side) 1340 1 U U Lateral (on right side) 1267 2 U Left temporal, left sphenoid: a depressed commi- 71– Supine nuted fracture to the sphenoid and anterior part 72 of the temporal squama; no concentric fracture lines were observable. Some of the depressed fragments show light margins consistent with postmortem destruction. A possibly associated transverse fracture was noted on the left frontal, extending from the left part of the coronal suture to the metopic suture. The fracture is within the HBL. Right mandible: an oblique fracture to the right mandibular body at C, the inferior part of the fracture line show postmortem destruction with ragged edges. There is also a horizontal crack on the right mandibular ramus with partly sharp and ragged fracture margin indicating postmortem destruction. 1389 2 U U Supine (cra- nium resting on left side) 1268 2 U U Lateral (on right side) 1269 2 Left mandible: a vertical, slightly oblique fracture 47 U Supine to the mandibular body between the I2 and the C. The margin is largely smooth, with slightly jagged edges below the alveolar margin. 1370 2 U U Prone (cranium slightly on the right) 1351 2 U U Prone (cranium slightly on the left) 1389 2 U Right mandible, ramus: an oblique fracture with 73 Lateral (on left smooth outline extending from the the coronoid side) process to the angulus. 1371 2 U U Supine (slightly on left side)
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1357 2 U Left mandible: an oblique comminuted fracture 75 Lateral (on to the left mandibular ramus. The fracture line right side) extends from the posterior part of the coronoid process to the middle lateral part of ramus. 1369 2 U Left mandible: an oblique fracture to the man- 74 Prone (cranium dibular body, between the left I2 and PM1. The slightly on the fracture line seems smooth but was very difficult to right) observe because of the incrustations of soil firmly attached to the mandible at the fracture site. 1228 2 U U Lateral (on the right side) 1386 2 Right mandible: a hemispheric fracture to 48 Right temporal, right sphenoid, right lateral parietal, 48 Lateral (on the inferior part of the coronoid process with a and the right lateral frontal: a depressed commi- left side) radiating fine oblique fracture line extending to nuted fracture with one partly smooth concentric the angulus. fracture line on the right parietal and the posterior temporal. The fracture is within and slightly above the HBL. Postmortem fragmentation is also present, particularly on the frontal and on the parietal. 1368 2 U U Lateral (on the left side) 1388 2 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, and right 77– Lateral (on the parietal: a depressed comminuted fracture to the 78 left side) sphenoid and the anterior part of the temporal squama. Some postmortem destruction and fragmentation with light fracture margins is also visible at the fracture site. A concentric fine fracture line is present on the right parietal, no radiating fracture lines were observed. The fractu- re is within the HBL. Right mandible: a vertical fracture to the mandibular corpus posterior to the M3. The fracture margin is largely smooth. Right mandible: an oblique fracture to the mandibular body between the right and the left I1. The supe- rior part of the fracture line is smooth with some slightly ragged edges at inferior part of the frac- ture line possibly due to postmortem destruction. Left femur, distal 1/3 of the diaphysis: an obliqe complete fracture with smooth outline. 1387 2 U Right mandible: a vertical, slightly curved fractu- 76 Lateral (on left re to the mandibular body inferior of the right C side) and right I2. A connecting (incomplete) transver- se and slightly curved fracture line radiates from the vertical fracture on the inferior part of the body towards the posterior part. 1397 2 U U Lateral (on right side) 1285 3 U U Lateral (on left side) 1277 3 U U Lateral (on left side) 1276 3 U U Lateral (on left side) 1275 3 U U Supine (cra- nium slightly on left side)
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Table 24 continued.
Skel. Row Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) Fig. Possible perimortem fracture (PPF) Fig. Posture no. no. no. 1271 3 U Right temporal, right sphenoid, right zygomatic, 79 Supine and lateral part of the right parietal and right (postcranial lateral frontal: a depressed comminuted fracture skeleton on the with one partly smooth concentric fracture line on left) the right parietal. The fracture is within and above the HBL. Postmortem fragmentation is also visible at the site with some light and ragged edges. 1272 3 Right parietal: a small a depressed comminuted frac- 49 U Supine (cra- ture with concentric fracture margin to the posterior nium on left part of the parietal, next to the sagittal suture. Two side) faint radiating fracture lines meet with a complete transverse fracture across the right parietal (possibly postmortem). The fracture is within the HBL. 1294 3 U U (crust covers large part of the cranium). Prone 1316 3 Left parietal, left temporal, left sphenoid: an 50 Lateral (on extensive depressed comminuted fracture to the right side) right lateral part of the parietal, the temporal squama, and the left sphenoid. The parietal frac- ture is slightly concentric with a smooth fracture margin. Several radiating fracture lines extend across the left parietal. The fracture extends within and above the HBL. 1332 3 U U Supine (cra- nium on left side) 1384 3 U U Supine (cra- nium on left side) 1385 3 U U Lateral (on right side) 1333 3 Left frontal: a vertical fracture extends from the 51 Right mandible, body: an oblique fracture of the 80 Supine (cra- supraorbital margin in association with a small mandibular body extending from the right I2. The nium slightly depressed fracture (one small depressed bone superior part of the the fracture is largely smooth inclined to the flake). A faint oblique fracture line radiates from although ragged edges are noted on the inferior left side) the fracture on the supraorbital margin and stops part, possibly due to postmortem destruction. There at the coronal suture. The fracture is located is also a vertical incomplete fracture line visible on above the HBL. the mandibular body posterior and inferior to the right M3. This fracture is possibly connected to the oblique fracture in a horizontal plane but due to incomplete excavation the relation between the fracture lines could not be observed. 1344 3 U U Prone (cranium slightly on the right) 1398 3 U U Lateral (on right side) 1400 3 U U Prone 1399 3 U U Lateral (on left side)
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Fig. 38. No. 1296, LPF, left mandible. Fig. 39. No. 1336, LPF, right temporal and right mandible.
Fig. 40. No. 1353, LPF, right parietal, right Fig. 41. No. 1356, LPF, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible. zygomatic, right frontal.
Nine of 47 individuals (18%) in Row 1 show LPF fractures parasymphyseal fracture (no. 1356 in Row 1, Fig. 41). Midline to the cranium and/or to the lower jaw (Figs. 38–46), whereas fractures are not commonly found in adults.93 in Row 2, two of 16 individuals (12%) show LPF only to the Mandibular fractures are often caused either by blows lower jaw (Figs. 47–48). In Row 3, LPF were found on the to the chin through interpersonal violence, accidents, dur- crania in three of 16 individuals (19%) (Figs. 49–51). ing sports, or, in our time one of the most common causes is LPF to the mandible were found on 11% (n = 79) of the through road-traffic accidents.94 Unilateral corpus fractures, individuals: 15% (n = 47) in Row 1 and in 12% (n = 16) in which were most commonly found in this material (Figs. 38– Row 2. A majority of the mandibular fractures were single an- terior or unilateral fractures to the symphyseal/parasymphyse- al area, or to the mandibular body. Two individuals exhibited ramus fractures, one of which was found in connection with a 93 Galloway & Wedel 2014, 154–156. 94 Thapliyalet al. 2008.
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Fig. 42. No. 1359, LPF, right temporal, left mandible. Fig. 43. No. 1373, LPF, right temporal, right sphenoid.
Fig. 44. No. 1374, LPF, right mandible. Fig. 45. No. 1383, LPF, right temporal, right Fig. 46. No. 1390, LPF, right mandible. sphenoid, left frontal, right maxilla, and left mandible.
39 and 44–47), are usually caused by lateral impact radiating Depressed cranial fractures resulting from BFT are often from the point of impact.95 the result of interpersonal violence. Yet, fractures occurring The LPF on the cranium were primarily found in the tem- during, for instance, transportation of dead bodies, or during poral/sphenoid/parietal area or on the frontal (Figs. 39–43, deposition or burial of recently dead individuals, may produce 45, 48 and 50–51). Nine individuals exhibited depressed similar skeletal fractures.96 comminuted fractures to this area: six individuals in Row 1 Although the LPF encountered in this material could have and three individuals in Row 3. None of the individuals in resulted from interpersonal violence, other causes cannot be ex- Row 2 exhibited LPF to the cranium. The fractures were lo- cluded. In 64% (nine individuals of 14) the LPF were located cated on the right side of the cranium in seven of nine indi- on the side of the cranium facing up. Thus, some of the fractures viduals (78%). could have resulted from soil compression or from disturbances in connection with deposition when the skeletons were rela-
95 Unnewher et al. 2003, 329; Arbour 2008, 167; Kimmerle & Baraybar 2008, 167. 96 Byers 2008, 283; Dirkmaat et al. 2008; Kranioti 2015.
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Fig. 47. No. 1269, LPF, left mandible. Fig. 48. No. 1386, LPF, right mandible. Fig. 49. No. 1272, LPF, right parietal.
Fig. 50. No. 1316, LPF, left parietal, left temporal, left sphenoid. Fig. 51. No. 1333, LPF, left frontal.
tively fresh or moist. However, Alan Richard Moritz noted that (perhaps in front of a trench)—a blow from blunt object like a if the head was immobilized, i.e., resting on the ground a blow club, swung from lower to higher on the side of the head could would result in a comminuted fracture with inward displace- have resulted in the fractures noticed.98 ment on the cranium.97 This type of fractures was noted in nine In three of 14 individuals (21%) LPF skull fractures (i.e. individuals (nos. 1359, 1336, 1373, 1353, 1383, 1356, 1272, including mandible) were located on the side which was not 1316, and 1339—Row 3), which makes blows to the head on facing up. Of course, these could only be noticed when the individuals lying down possible. Another likely scenario is that some of the individuals were executed at site when kneeling
98 Ta’Ala et al. 2006, 996–1001. We thank Prof. Maria A. Liston for this 97 Moritz 1954. suggestion and the reference.
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skeletons were lying in a supine position or when the skull was Table 25. Distribution of likely and possible perimortem trauma (LPF inclined to the opposite side. and PPF) (n = no. of individuals). Interpersonal blunt force trauma to the skull from a right- LPF (n) % PPF (n) % handed opponent (in face-to face combat) are often encoun- Row 1 9 17.7 16 34 tered on the left side of the skull while fractures resulting from Row 2 2 12.5 7 44 falls are often linear and often found on the right side of the Row 3 3 18.7 2 12 head.99 In this material, seven of the nine individuals (78%) Total 14 17.7 25 31.6 with LPF cranial fractures, and five of nine individuals (55%) with LPF mandibular fractures showed fractures to the right side. These figures cannot be regarded as an accurate preva- with a blunt object to a victim lying down, fractures may be lence since often only one side of the crania and mandibles found on the side of the head and most likely within the HBL. were possible to observe in the field. Since the majority of the LPFs observed in this material In forensic settings, the differentiation of head trauma re- was located within, or slightly above the HBL, frequently on sulting from assault or falls is crucial. An often-used criterion the right side, it is likely that a number of them could have to aid these interpretations is the so-called rule of the “hat brim resulted from falls to the ground. However, most of the com- line” (HBL). The HBL is the area corresponding to the maxi- minuted BFT trauma with inward displacement likely result- mum circumference of the vault. Célia Kremer et al. defined the ed from assaults to the head when the individuals were lying HBL according to anthropometric landmarks on the skull to down or kneeling. make it applicable to a skull without soft tissue; inspired by the Frankfurt horizontal plane the superior margin passes through Possible perimortem fractures (PPF) the glabella and the inferior margin passes through the centre of A total of 25 individuals (32%) show evidence of PPF (Ta- the external auditory meatus.100 Fractures above the HBL line ble 25); 16 of 47 (34%) in Row 1, seven of 16 in Row 2 (44%) are often considered more likely to result from assaults whereas and two of 16 (12%) in Row 3 (Figs. 52–80). fractures occurring under or within this line more often result Most PPF were observed on the skull, especially in the from falls from standing height, or down stairs.101 In a study of temporal area and/or to the lower jaw (Figs. 52–54, 56–58, head trauma either resulting from falls from one’s own height, 60–68, 71–77 and 79–80). In Row 1, five individuals exhib- downstairs, or homicide-related blows with a blunt weapon, ited cranium fractures as well as fractures to the mandible, two Kremer et al. found that although fractures above the HBL individuals in Row 2 exhibited both cranium and mandible were associated with blows, fractures within the HBL were less fractures, while there were none in Row 3. All fractures seem conclusive.102 They also found that fractures from blows more to have resulted from BFT. commonly occurred on the left side, whereas fall-related frac- In 44% of the 16 individuals exhibiting mandible frac- tures were often found on the right side. tures, and in 50% of the 14 individuals with cranium fractures, Although fracture localization according to the HBL rule the trauma was situated on the side that was not facing up in is often suggested as one criterion for differentiating between the ground. It is thus possible that some of the fractures noted fractures resulting from a falls or other causes like violent could have been encountered before deposition of the bodies. assaults to the head, a number of forensic studies have ques- Five individuals, four in Row 1 and one in Row 2 show tioned this division and found that other criteria (e.g. side of evidence of possible postcranial BFT trauma: four individuals lateralization, calvaria fracture type, etc.) should be used in (nos. 1348, 1353, 1383, and 1388, Figs. 55, 59, 69, and 78) connection to the HBL rule, since it is not by itself diagnostic show possible trauma to the femur, and one individual (no. for differentiating between falls versus homicide-related frac- 1390, Fig. 70) exhibited transverse mid-shaft fractures to the tures.103 The HBL may be applicable for differentiating falls right second and third metacarpals. Three of four femur frac- from face-to-face combat. However, if an individual (in this tures were intertrochanteric fractures; one oblique fracture case likely shackled or otherwise constrained) was kneeling was found to the lower diaphysis. and executed by a blow to the head with a blunt object by an assailant standing behind the victim, or, if a blow to the skull Summary and conclusion The osteological field documentation of 79 individuals depos- 99 Aufderheide & Rodrígues-Martin 1998, 23; Kranioti 2015. ited in three rows at the Phaleron cemetery in a salty marsh- 100 Kremer et al. 2008. 101 Burk 2012, 197; Kranioti 2015; Spitz 1993, 236. land, i.e. in a beach context, shows that they were all primary 102 Kremer et al. 2008. depositions. However, the lengthy interval between excava- 103 Kremer et al. 2008; Guyomarc’h et al. 2010.
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Fig. 52. No. 1324, PPF, left mandible, left temporal. Fig. 53. No. 1328, PPF, right parietal, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible.
Fig. 54. No. 1348, PPF, left mandible. Fig. 55. No. 1348, PPF, left femur.
tion and the osteological field documentation, as well as the The orientation and position of the skeletons in the three limited opportunity to observe all skeletal elements, makes rows varies and suggest that they were deposited at different interpretations of the skeletons and their context tentative. occasions. An interval between the depositions in the three A majority of the individuals were young adult or juvenile rows could not be established. However, the approximate males, most of them without signs of active disease and with a similar stratigraphical level, arrangement of the skeletons, as generally good oral health status. well as the short distance between the rows seem to suggest The articulated skeletons indicate that the bodies were de- that the depositions were made within a short period of time. posited in a shallow trench or on the ground and covered with Postmortem disturbances were noted particularly in the soil a short time after deposition. However, parts of the bodies southern and northern part of Row 1, where fragmentation, were probably poorly or only partially covered as evidenced dispersal, and removal of major parts of some skeletons were by a number of displaced but articulated skeletal parts located observed. The likely cause is that later depositions of two in- close to or in between the skeletons, occasionally missing skel- dividuals (nos. 1336 and 1355) disturbed the depositions of etal parts, and in one case evidence of animal scavenging. individuals nos. 1318, 1392, and 1393. In the northern part of
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Fig. 56. No. 1349, PPF, right temporal. Fig. 57. No. 1349, PPF, left mandible. Fig. 58. No. 1353, PPF, right mandible.
Fig. 59. No. 1353, PPF, left femur. Fig. 60. No. 1361, PPF, right temporal.
Fig. 61. No. 1363, PPF, right temporal. Fig. 62. No. 1365, PPF, right mandible.
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Fig. 63. No. 1364, PPF, right temporal, right mandible. Fig. 64. No. 1366, PPF, right sphenoid.
Fig. 65. No. 1374, PPF, right temporal, left mandible. Fig. 66. No. 1375, PPF, left mandible.
Fig. 67. No. 1380, PPF, right temporal. Fig. 68. No. 1381, PPF, right temporal.
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Fig. 69. No. 1383, PPF, right femur. Fig. 70. No. 1390, PPF, right second metacarpal and right third metacarpal.
Fig. 71. No. 1267, PPF, left temporal. Fig. 72. No. 1267, PPF, right mandible.
Fig. 73. No. 1389, PPF, right temporal, right mandible. Fig. 74. No. 1369, PPF, left mandible.
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Fig. 75. No. 1357, PPF, left mandible. Fig. 76. No. 1387, PPF, right mandible.
Fig. 77. No. 1388, PPF, right temporal, right mandible. Fig. 78. No. 1388, PPF, left femur.
the row, later construction works for a hippodrome may have In contrast to Row 1, the individuals in Row 2 seem some- disturbed the (earlier?) depositions of nos. 1245 and 1247. what haphazardly deposited; the orientation and position of The positions of a majority of individuals in Row 1 seem these individuals are largely variable. Eight individuals in the more or less arranged, i.e. most individuals were located side northern part of Row 2 are oriented approximately north– by side in supine position, often with limbs intertwined, heads south, with heads to the south, their skeletons overlapping each oriented to the east, and arms positioned over their heads with other. South of no. 1371 there is an empty space of c. 0.4-0.5 wrists shackled. m, and the following eight individuals in this row were found In the southern part of Row 1, seven individuals (nos. in different positions and orientation, overlapping each other. 1354, 1353, 1356, 1339, 1340, 1336, as well as no. 1355) The level of all skeletons is similar, but the different orientation seem to have been deposited later than the majority of the in- of the two groups in this row seems to suggest that they were dividuals in this row. These individuals are positioned north– deposited on different occasions but probably close in time. south, with skulls largely oriented to the south and with limb In Row 3, the northernmost three individuals, nos. 1285, bones sometimes overlapping the southernmost individuals in 1277, and 1276, are located close to each other in similar posi- the more orderly laid-out individuals in this part of the row. tions, i.e. on their left side with lower limbs bent at the knees. Since the individuals were already uncovered at the time of The positions of these individuals seem to indicate they col- documentation and no information about colour changes in lapsed/fell on the spot, almost like dominoes, as if they had the soil or additional observations was available at the time, it been lined up and executed. The individuals deposited in the could not be determined whether these seven individuals are middle to southern part of the row, however, are positioned associated with the same event/context as the rest of the indi- in a disorderly manner, partly on top of each other with limbs viduals in this row, nor the timespan between the depositions. more or less entwined but in similar orientation, approximate- ly east–west.
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Fig. 79. No. 1271, PPF, right temporal, right zygomatic, right parietal, Fig. 80. No. 1333, PPF, right mandible. right frontal.
The three individuals, nos. 1275, 1271, and 1272, lay in soil covering the skeletons consisted of sand without inclu- similar positions as the northernmost individuals, although sions of stones or other heavy objects. their skulls were in supine position or slightly inclined to the Perimortem fractures in other parts of the skeleton than left side. Nos. 1294 and 1316 were oriented likewise, although noted here cannot be excluded since postcranial fracture no. 1294 was in prone position partly covering no. 1316. All patterning, especially on thin and delicate bones such as the these individuals were oriented east–west, with skulls towards rib cage or hand/foot bones, were difficult to evaluate as the south-west. The three individuals in the southernmost part bones were often partially covered in soil, or poorly preserved were found more or less next to each other in different posi- through prolonged exposure. tions, occasionally with limbs positioned on top of the neigh- The scenario surrounding the depositions of the individuals bouring individual, with heads oriented to the south. in the mass graves at Phaleron is largely obscure and cannot be Although the circumstances surrounding the depositions elucidated through the osteological field observation. However, of the 79 individuals cannot be clarified at this stage, the short it seems likely that the individuals died within a short period distance between the rows, the stratigraphy and position of the of time, some of them more or less simultaneously. Why and skeletons, and the location of their more or less intertwined where the individuals were killed is a matter of conjecture; the limbs, as well as the largely articulated state of the skeletons observations from the field documentation neither validate, nor makes it likely that they were deposited within a short time disprove the hypothesis that these individuals were the captives span, although perhaps as a result of separate events. It is pos- and victims of the so-called “Cylonian conspiracy”. sible that some individuals could have been transported to the A hypothetical scenario is that a majority of the captives, site from elsewhere (almost or already dead?) and that some probably in poor physical condition, e.g. starved, dehydrat- bodies in Row 1 were arranged before they were covered. ed, and beaten but otherwise in good general health, were Cause of death could not be determined even in cases brought to Phaleron in shackles, some of them plausibly tied to a frame with ropes, as suggested by their positions. The when extensive and likely perimortem fractures were observed, since fractures produced during contact with the ground or individuals may have been pushed to the ground, some of during deposition/covering of the bodies may result in skele- them perhaps kneeling, before fatal blows/punches to the tal fractures that mimic but are not related to injuries inflicted head of the individuals not already dead were inflicted be- at, or shortly before death. The only object related to injury fore the bodies were covered. and/or possible cause of death was an arrowhead found in the ANNE INGVARSSON chest of no. 1272, in Row 3. Gustavianum, Uppsala University Museum Swedish Institute at Athens Many of the suspected skull fractures were lo- Akademigatan 3 Mitseon 9 perimortem 753 10 Uppsala, Sweden 117 42 Athens, Greece cated on the side of the skull facing up, i.e., when the skull was [email protected] inclined on one side, or when the individual was placed in a YLVA BÄCKSTRÖM lateral position. These may be the result of blunt force trauma, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History but taphonomic factors resulting in breaks mim- Lund University postmortem Box 192 icking perimortem fractures cannot be excluded. However, the 221 00 Lund, Sweden [email protected]
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Fig. 81. Skeletons, Row 1.
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Appendix 1 Relation to other skeletons left side of the body are missing; torso Right foot below the knee of skeleton (ribs and vertebrae) fragmented, and Skeletal catalogue no. 1202; left foot below the tibia and badly preserved. Bone stumps of both fibula of skeleton no. 1202 femurs (proximal parts) present. Right Finds arm stretched above the head; hands in DESCRIPTION Shackles: No/not observable shackle. Approximately half of the skel- For information regarding the data re- Estimate of sex: Undetermined eton is preserved, but the quality of the corded in this appendix, see above, un- Criteria: Skull, and measurement bones is bad and more than 2/3 of the der the heading “Methods”. Skull skeleton is fragmented and affected by Skull—trait Left L/R Right erosion. Angle of the frontal U Quantitative preservation: 2 ABBREVATIONS Frontal/parietal U Qualitative preservation: 1 A = absent eminences Position AMTL = antemortem tooth loss Nuchal crest U Skeleton: Supine—inclined to the left Cribra = cribra orbitalia Mastoid process 4 U Cranium: Supine—slightly to the left Dx = right Zygomatic bone U U Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left hand— LEH = linear enamel hypoplasia Orbital outline U U A, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper OA = Osteoarthritis Supraorbital margin U U limb—extended, Right hand—A, Right PH = porotic hyperostosis Glabella U lower limb—flexed Sin = left Gonial angle flare U U Relation to other skeletons U = unobservable Mental eminence U Right femur below the right hand of X = present Measurement skeleton no. 1245; knee joint on top of 47 cm (femur dx, maximum head) the right foot of skeleton no. 1201; right Estimate of age at death: Adult tibia below the left foot of skeleton no. Skeletons—Row 1 Criteria: epiphyses, and suture closure 1201; right arm (with shackle) below the (Fig. 81) Epiphyses left scapula of skeleton no. 1201 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Finds Thorax (sternum + ribs) A Shackles: Yes—right wrist Estimate of sex: Undetermined SKELETON NO. 1201—ROW 1 Vertebral column U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis (FIG. 82) Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Upper limbs >14 Skull Taphonomy/Preservation Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >25 Skull—trait Left L/R Right The skeleton is placed in a supine position Lower limbs >14 Angle of the frontal A in an E–W direction (cranium to the E). Frontal/parietal A The skeleton consists mainly of the torso Suture closure (ectocranial) eminences and a smashed cranium (mandible is miss- Coronal Minimal–significant Nuchal crest U ing). Both femurs are presented by bone Sagittal U Mastoid process U U stumps; only the proximal parts are pres- Lambdoid U Zygomatic bone A A ent. Approximately half of the skeleton is Orbital outline A A Pathology/Trauma preserved, but the quality of the bones is Supraorbital margin A A Antemortem trauma: U bad and more than 2/3 of the skeleton is Glabella A Likely perimortem trauma: U fragmented and affected by erosion. Gonial angle flare A A Possible perimortem trauma: U Quantitative preservation: 2 Mental eminence A Qualitative preservation: 1 Position SKELETON NO. 1202—ROW 1 Skeleton: Supine (FIG. 83) Cranium: Supine Taphonomy/Preservation Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left hand— The skeleton is placed in a supine po- A, Left lower limb—slightly flexed; sition in an E–W direction (cranium Right upper limb—A, Right hand—A, to the E). Visceral cranium smashed, Right lower limb—flexed mandible missing. Most parts of the
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Fig. 82. Skeleton no. 1201. Fig. 83. Skeleton no. 1202.
Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) found between the legs. The skeleton is Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Significant almost complete; only parts of the the Subpubic concavity A A Sagittal U feet are missing, but more than 2/3 of Ventral arc A A Lambdoid U the skeleton is badly preserved, eroded, Ischiopubic ramus A A and fragmented. Pathology/Trauma Subpubic angle A A Quantitative preservation: 3 Antemortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch 5 U Qualitative preservation: 1 Likely perimortem trauma: U Preauricularis sulcus U U Position Possible perimortem trauma: U Skeleton: Prone Estimate of age at death: Adult Nonmetric skeletal traits Cranium: Prone Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Metopic suture Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Epiphyses hand—extended, Left lower limb— Skull (cranium + mandible) U SKELETON NO. 1215—ROW 1 flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Thorax (sternum + ribs) A (FIG. 84) Vertebral column U/A hand—extended (on top of left hand), Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U/A Taphonomy/Preservation Right lower limb—flexed Upper limbs >14 The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U/A tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Skull of individual no. 1247 between the Lower limbs >16 the E), with hands in a shackle above legs (left and right femur) the head. A skull (individual no. 1247), Finds belonging to another individual, was Shackles: Yes—wrists
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Fig. 84. Skeleton no. 1215. Fig. 85. Skeleton no. 1245.
Estimate of sex: Male? Epiphyses SKELETON NO. 1245—ROW 1 Criteria: Skull Skull (cranium + mandible) U (FIG. 85) Skull Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Taphonomy/Preservation Skull—trait Left L/R Right Vertebral column U The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Angle of the frontal U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U tion in W–E direction (cranium to the Frontal/parietal No Upper limbs >17 W). The preserved skeleton consists eminences Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 mainly of the torso (fragmented and the Nuchal crest U Lower limbs U major part of the spinal column miss- Mastoid process 5 5 ing), and a smashed cranium; most parts Zygomatic bone U U Suture closure (ectocranial) Coronal U of the left side of the body are missing, Orbital outline U U as well as the lower parts of the arms and Supraorbital margin U U Sagittal Almost obliterated legs on the right side. Approximately Glabella U Lambdoid U half of the skeleton is preserved, but the Gonial angle flare 2 2 Pathology/Trauma quality of the bones is bad, and more Mental eminence U Antemortem trauma: U than 2/3 of the skeleton is fragmented Estimate of age at death: Adult Likely perimortem trauma: U and affected by erosion. Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Possible perimortem trauma: U? Quantitative preservation: 2 Qualitative preservation: 1
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Pelvis Relation to other skeletons Pelvis—trait Left Right The skull was found between the legs of Subpubic concavity A A skeleton no. 1215 Ventral arc A A Finds Ischiopubic ramus A A Shackles: No (only cranium present) Subpubic angle A A Estimate of sex: Undetermined Greater sciatic notch A 4 Criteria: Skull Preauricularis sulcus U U Skull Skull—trait Left L/R Right Measurement 45 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Angle of the frontal U Frontal/parietal U Estimate of age at death: Middle adult eminences Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Nuchal crest U eruption, and tooth wear Mastoid process U U Epiphyses Zygomatic bone U U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Orbital outline U U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U/A Supraorbital margin U U Vertebral column U Glabella U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U/A Gonial angle flare U U Upper limbs >14 Mental eminence U Fig. 86. Individual no. 1247. Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U/A Lower limbs >12 Estimate of age at death: Adult? Position Pathology/Trauma Skeleton: Supine—with emphasis on the Suture closure (ectocranial) Antemortem trauma: U right side Coronal Significant Likely perimortem trauma: U Cranium: Lateral—to the right Sagittal Obliteration Possible perimortem trauma: U Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left hand— Lambdoid Significant on top of left rib cage (disorganized bones), Tooth eruption, M3 SKELETON NO. 1253—ROW 1 Left lower limb—A, Right upper limb— Maxilla Mandible (FIG. 87) flexed, Right hand—palm upwards (con- Sin—erupted Dx—erupted nected bones), Right lower limb—flexed Dx—U Sin—U Taphonomy/Preservation Relation to other skeletons The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Right hand on right proximal femur of Tooth wear tion in an E–W direction (cranium to skeleton no. 1202 Maxilla Mandible the E), with arms probably placed above U 35–45 Finds the head. Only the proximal parts of left Pottery below humerus and femur Pathology/Trauma and right femora are preserved. Left up- Shackles: No Dental pathology: Enamel fracture on per limb is missing, ulna and radius and Estimate of sex: Undetermined right mandible P1 (labial) most of humerus from the right side is Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Antemortem trauma: U missing. Left and right hand are missing. Skull Likely perimortem trauma: U Visceral cranium is fragmented, man- Skull—trait Left L/R Right Possible perimortem trauma: U dible missing. Approximately half of the Angle of the frontal Ambi- skeleton is preserved. The quality of the guous bones is intermediate, and around 1/3– Frontal/parietal Slight INDIVIDUAL NO. 1247—ROW 1 2/3 of the bones have a pronounced de- eminences (FIG. 86) gree of erosion of surfaces and fragmen- Nuchal crest U Taphonomy/Preservation tation. Mastoid process A U Poorly preserved skeleton; only smashed Quantitative preservation: 2 Zygomatic bone 3 U skull present. Qualitative preservation: 2 Orbital outline A U Quantitative preservation: 1 Position Supraorbital margin A U Qualitative preservation: 1 Skeleton: Supine Glabella 3 Position Cranium: Supine Gonial angle flare A U Cranium: Prone Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left hand— Mental eminence A A, Left lower limb—extended, Right
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Fig. 87. Skeleton no. 1253. Fig. 88. Skeleton no. 1266.
upper limb—probably straight up, Right Estimate of age at death: Adult SKELETON NO. 1266—ROW 1 hand—A, Right lower limb—extended Criteria: Epiphyses (FIGS. 16 & 88) Relation to other skeletons Epiphyses Taphonomy/Preservation The left leg of skeleton no. 1215 is found Skull (cranium + mandible) U The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- below this skeleton Thorax (sternum + ribs) U/A tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Finds Vertebral column U the E), with hands in a shackle above Shackles: No, but iron found below the Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U/A the head. Left foot is disjointed and dis- right femur (could belong to a lower- Upper limbs >17 placed. The skeleton is almost complete; lying burial?) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >25 more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Estimate of sex: Undetermined Lower limbs >16 present, and they are well preserved. Criteria: Pelvis Pathology/Trauma Quantitative preservation: 3 Pelvis Antemortem trauma: U Qualitative preservation: 3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Likely perimortem trauma: U Position Subpubic concavity A A Possible perimortem trauma: U Skeleton: Supine Ventral arc A A Cranium: Supine Ischiopubic ramus A A Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed (above the Subpubic angle A A head), Left hand—U, Left lower limb— Greater sciatic notch U 5 extended, Right upper limb—flexed, Preauricularis sulcus U U Right hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed
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Relation to other skeletons SKELETON NO. 1281—ROW 1 Pelvis Right lower limb (femur, tibia, fibula, (FIG. 89) Pelvis—trait Left Right and foot) below the pelvic are of skel- Taphonomy/Preservation Subpubic concavity U 3 eton no. 1215 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Ventral arc U 3 Finds tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Ischiopubic ramus U 3 Oinochoe between the legs the NE), with hands in a shackle above Subpubic angle U U Shackles: Yes—wrists the head. Legs are crossed; left over right. Greater sciatic notch 5 4 Estimate of sex: Male? The skeleton is almost complete; more Preauricularis sulcus U U Criteria: Skull and measurement than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Measurement Skull and they are well preserved. 44.1 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Skull—trait Left L/R Right Quantitative preservation: 3 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Angle of the frontal Sloped Qualitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Frontal/parietal No Position bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth eminences Skeleton: Supine Nuchal crest U wear Cranium: Supine—inclined to the right Epiphyses Mastoid process U 5 side Zygomatic bone ? ? Skull (cranium + mandible) U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Orbital outline 3 U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Supraorbital margin 3 3 Vertebral column U ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Glabella 5 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + Fusing flake? hand—more extended, Right lower scapula) >16–21 Gonial angle flare U 3 limb—slightly flexed Upper limbs >20 Mental eminence A Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + <27 Measurement Left arm below the arm of skeleton no. coccygis) 48.1 cm (femur sin, maximum head) 1349 Lower limbs >20 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Finds Suture closure (ectocranial) Criteria: Epiphyses, tooth eruption, and Shackles: Yes—wrists Coronal U tooth wear Estimate of sex: Male Sagittal U Epiphyses Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Lambdoid Open–minimal Skull (cranium + mandible) U Skull Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pubic symphysis Vertebral column U Angle of the frontal Sloped Left Right Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 24–29 Frontal/parietal No U I:1, c. 18.5 eminences Upper limbs >20 Tooth eruption, M3 Nuchal crest 2 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Maxilla Mandible Mastoid process 4 U Lower limbs >20 Sin—not erupted Sin—not erupted Zygomatic bone 3 U Dx—U Dx—U Tooth eruption, M3 Orbital outline U U Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin 2 2 Tooth wear Sin—U Sin—U Glabella 2 Maxilla Mandible Dx—erupted Dx—U? Gonial angle flare 2 U U 17–25 Tooth wear Mental eminence U Stature: 170.89 cm (femur dx) Maxilla Mandible Pathology/Trauma 17–25 17–25 Antemortem trauma: U Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Likely perimortem trauma: U Pathology/Trauma Possible perimortem trauma: U Osteoarthritis: Porosity and osteophytes on clavicle (sin?) Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
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Fig. 89. Skeleton no. 1281. Fig. 90. Skeleton no. 1289.
SKELETON NO. 1289—ROW 1 Limbs: Left upper limb—almost extend- Skull (FIG. 90) ed, Left hand—U, Left lower limb— Skull—trait Left L/R Right Taphonomy/Preservation flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Angle of the frontal sloped The skeleton is placed on its right side hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed Frontal/parietal No in a NNE–SSW direction (cranium to Relation to other skeletons eminences the NNE), with hands in a shackle above Right arm below the left humerus of Nuchal crest 5 the head. Left femur is found at a much skeleton no. 1358; left arm above the Mastoid process 4 U higher level than the rest of the skeleton. left arm of skeleton no. 1358; left femur Zygomatic bone U U It is almost complete; more than 2/3 of above the left knee of skeleton no. 1358; Orbital outline U U Supraorbital margin U 4 the skeletal parts are present. The qual- right femur below the tibia of skeleton Glabella U ity of the bones is intermediate, and no. 1358 Gonial angle flare U U around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- Finds Mental eminence U nounced degree of erosion of surfaces Shackles: Yes—wrists and fragmentation. Estimate of sex: Male Quantitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Qualitative preservation: 2 Position Skeleton: Lateral—on the right side Cranium: Lateral—on the right side
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Pelvis Position Pathology/Trauma Pelvis—trait Left Right Skeleton: Supine Dental pathology: Linear enamel hypo- Subpubic concavity U U Cranium: Supine—resting on the right plasia right C mandible, slight calculus Ventral arc U U side right P2 mandible, and antemortem (?) Ischiopubic ramus U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left fracture left I2 and C, mandible. Subpubic angle U U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Antemortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch 5 U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Likely perimortem trauma: Yes Preauricularis sulcus U U U, Right lower limb—extended Possible perimortem trauma: U Estimate of age at death: Adult Relation to other skeletons Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Right humerus below the left arm of SKELETON NO. 1297—ROW 1 skeleton no. 1266 Epiphyses (FIGS. 37 & 92) Skull (cranium + mandible) U Finds Shackles: Yes—wrists Taphonomy/Preservation Thorax (sternum + ribs) U The skeleton is placed on its right side Vertebral column U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull, and measurement in an E–W direction (cranium to the Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >18 E), with hands in a shackle above the Skull Upper limbs >17 head. It is almost complete; more than Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present. The Lower limbs >19 Angle of the frontal Sloped Frontal/parietal No quality of the bones is intermediate, and Suture closure (ectocranial) eminences around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- Coronal Minimal Nuchal crest U nounced degree of erosion of surfaces Sagittal Minimal Mastoid process 2 U and fragmentation. Lambdoid Minimal Zygomatic bone 3 U Quantitative preservation: 3 Orbital outline 3 U Qualitative preservation: 2 Stature: 158.99 cm (femur sin) Supraorbital margin 2 U Position Pathology/Trauma Glabella 2 Skeleton: Lateral—on the right side Cribra/PH: Possibly Porotic hyperosto- Gonial angle flare 2 U Cranium: Lateral—on the right side sis on occipital Mental eminence 3 Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Antemortem trauma: U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Likely perimortem trauma: U Measurement Right upper limb—U, Right hand—U, 43 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Possible perimortem trauma: U Right lower limb—flexed Estimate of age at death: Young adult Nonmetric skeletal traits Relation to other skeletons Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Inca bone Right lower leg and foot are placed on tooth wear the lower legs of skeleton no. 1342 Epiphyses SKELETON NO. 1296—ROW 1 Finds Skull (cranium + mandible) U (FIGS. 24, 38, & 91) Shackles: Yes—wrists Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Taphonomy/Preservation Vertebral column >19 Criteria: Skull The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Skull tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Upper limbs >17 Skull—trait Left L/R Right the E), with wrists in shackles, above the Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) <27 Angle of the frontal U head. The skull is inclined on the right Lower limbs >17 side. Left leg is crossed over the right leg. Frontal/parietal U eminences Left foot is displaced between the two Suture closure (ectocranial) Nuchal crest U tibiae. The skeleton is almost complete; Coronal Open Mastoid process 4 U more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Sagittal U Zygomatic bone 1–2 U present. Around 1/3–2/3 of the bones Lambdoid U Orbital outline U U have a pronounced degree of erosion on Tooth wear Supraorbital margin U U the surfaces and are fragmented. Maxilla Mandible Glabella U Quantitative preservation: 3 17–25 17–25 Gonial angle flare 3 U Qualitative preservation: 2 Mental eminence U
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Fig. 91. Skeleton no. 1296. Fig. 92. Skeleton no. 1297.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Pathology/Trauma = male?; (D) A right coxa, fragmented but Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Antemortem trauma: U complete, pubis not observable, greater sci- tooth eruption Likely perimortem trauma: U atic notch= 4 male?, ilium resting on the Epiphyses Possible perimortem trauma: U lower legs of skeleton no. 1355; (E) A left Skull (cranium + mandible) U partly articulated hand with metacarpal Thorax (sternum + ribs) U FROM THE AREA OF SKELETONS II–V?, some carpals and phalanges with Vertebral column U NOS. 1318, 1336, 1355, AND 1373: transverse fractures, palmar side up, fingers Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 SOME UNASSOCIATED BONES pointing to skeleton no. 1373 right scapu- Upper limbs >17 (FIG. 6) la.; (F) A right radius, positioned across the Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 A) north of skeleton no. 1318—carpals left arm of skeleton no. 1355. Lower limbs >18 and metacarpals II–V and two first pha- Suture closure (ectocranial) langes laying on skeleton no. 1318 right SKELETON NO. 1318—ROW 1 Coronal U ulna; (B) A right humerus not belonging (FIGS. 12–13 & 93) Sagittal Open to any of the skeletons (?) with transverse Taphonomy/Preservation Lambdoid Open fracture on middle diaphysis, probably The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- postmortem; (C ) A left humerus with Tooth eruption, M3 tion in an E–W direction (cranium miss- proximal epiphysis under the right lower Maxilla Mandible ing), with hands in a shackle above the leg of skeleton no. 1355. Distal epiphysis Sin—U U head (probably in the E). The skeleton is Dx—erupted is fused, epicondylar measurement 65 mm significantly disturbed, probably by the
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Fig. 93. Skeleton no. 1318.. Fig. 94. Skeleton no. 1324.
interment of skeleton no. 1336. Only Relation to other skeletons Epiphyses legs, feet, the pelvic girdle, the lower part Skeleton no. 1336 is placed over the Skull (cranium + mandible) U of the lumbar spine, lower arms, and trunk of this skeleton (probably the rea- Thorax (sternum + ribs) U hands are present. Cranium and trunk son for the disturbances?) Vertebral column U are missing. The left foot is displaced be- Finds Shoulder girdle (clavicle + U side the left fibula. Some dispersed bones Shackles: Yes—wrists scapula) are found near to this skeleton; an ulna Estimate of sex: Male Upper limbs >16 and some phalanges of the hand. Less Criteria: Pelvis Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + c. 19, <27 coccygis) than 1/3 of the skeleton is preserved, Pelvis Lower limbs >17, 18–19 and the quality of the bones is poor, but Pelvis—trait Left Right the bones present are well preserved. Subpubic concavity 3 U Pubic symphysis Quantitative preservation: 1 Ventral arc 3 U Left Right Qualitative preservation: 3 Ischiopubic ramus 2 U I:1, c. 18.5 U Position Subpubic angle 3 U Stature: c. 161 cm (femur sin) Skeleton: Supine Greater sciatic notch 5 U Pathology/Trauma Cranium: Missing Preauricularis sulcus U U Antemortem trauma: U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Likely perimortem trauma: U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis Possible perimortem trauma: U Right upper limb—probably flexed, Right hand—U, Right lower limb—?
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SKELETON NO. 1324—ROW 1 Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Relation to other skeletons (FIGS. 52 & 94) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Skull below the right arm of skeleton no. Taphonomy/Preservation bic symphysis, and tooth eruption 1343; left leg partly below the right leg of The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Epiphyses skeleton no. 1343 tion in a NNE–SSW direction (cranium Skull (cranium + mandible) U Finds to the NNE), with hands in a shackle Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Shackles: Yes—wrists (connected with above the head (on a higher level). Head Vertebral column U skeletons nos. 1342 and 1343) is resting on its right side. The skeleton is Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >23 Estimate of sex: Male? almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Upper limbs >20 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis skeletal parts are present, and they are Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Skull well preserved. Lower limbs >20 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Angle of the frontal U Quantitative preservation: 3 Suture closure (ectocranial) Qualitative preservation: 3 Frontal/parietal U Coronal Significant eminences Position Sagittal U Nuchal crest U Skeleton: Supine Lambdoid Minimal Cranium: Lateral—on the right side Mastoid process U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Pubic symphysis Zygomatic bone U U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Left Right Orbital outline U U Supraorbital margin U U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— U IV:1, c. 35.2 Glabella U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Tooth eruption, M3 Gonial angle flare U 3 Relation to other skeletons Maxilla Mandible Mental eminence U The distal part of the right humerus is Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted under the hands of skeleton no.1289. Pelvis Finds Stature: 166.13 cm (femur dx) Pelvis—trait Left Right Shackles: Yes—wrists Pathology/Trauma Subpubic concavity U U Estimate of sex: Male Antemortem trauma: U Ventral arc U U Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Likely perimortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus U U Skull Possible perimortem trauma: Y Subpubic angle U U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Greater sciatic notch 3 4 Angle of the frontal Sloped SKELETON NO. 1325—ROW 1 Preauricularis sulcus U U Frontal/parietal No (FIG. 95) eminences Estimate of age at death: Adult Nuchal crest 4–5 Taphonomy/Preservation Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Mastoid process 4 U Epiphyses tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Zygomatic bone 2 U Skull (cranium + mandible) U the E), with hands in a shackle above the Orbital outline 3 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Supraorbital margin 3 3 head. The phalanges of the right hand Vertebral column U Glabella 4 are slightly displaced. The skeleton is Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Gonial angle flare 3 U almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Upper limbs >20 Mental eminence 4 skeletal parts are present, and they are Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 well preserved. Lower limbs >20 Pelvis Quantitative preservation: 3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Qualitative preservation: 3 Suture closure (ectocranial) Coronal U Subpubic concavity 3 3 Position Sagittal U Ventral arc 3 3 Skeleton: Prone Lambdoid Minimal Ischiopubic ramus U 2 Cranium: Prone Subpubic angle U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Greater sciatic notch 4 4 hand—U/A, Left lower limb—flexed, Pathology/Trauma Preauricularis sulcus U U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Antemortem trauma: U Measurement flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Likely perimortem trauma: U 46.3 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Possible perimortem trauma: U
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Fig. 95. Skeleton no. 1325. Fig. 96. Skeleton no. 1328.
SKELETON NO. 1328—ROW 1 Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull (FIGS. 53 & 96) Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Taphonomy/Preservation Position Angle of the frontal Sloped The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Skeleton: Supine (slightly on left side) Frontal/parietal Slight tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium Cranium: Supine—slightly to the left eminences to the NE, resting on the left side), with Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Nuchal crest U hands in a shackle above the head. Legs hand—extended, Left lower limb— Mastoid process 5 U are bent to the left; left leg resting on the flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Zygomatic bone 3 U lateral side and right standing up straight hand—flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Orbital outline 3 U (higher than the rest of the body). Left Relation to other skeletons Supraorbital margin 3 3 knee cap, right pelvis, right shoulder Right hand of skeleton no. 1363 below Glabella 3 Gonial angle flare U 3 joint, and the spinal column (displace- skull; left humerus below the left arm Mental eminence U ment between thoracic vertebra no. 12, and hand of skeleton no. 1359 and lumbar vertebra no. 1) are signifi- Finds cantly disturbed by depositional pro- Shackles: Yes—wrists cesses. The skeleton is almost complete; Estimate of sex: Male more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement present, and they are well preserved.
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Pelvis SKELETON NO. 1336—ROW 1 Pelvis Pelvis—trait Left Right (FIGS. 39 & 97) Pelvis—trait Left Right Subpubic concavity 3 U Taphonomy/Preservation Subpubic concavity U U Ventral arc 3 U The skeleton in placed on its left side in Ventral arc U U Ischiopubic ramus U U a N–S (upper body, with cranium to the Ischiopubic ramus U U Subpubic angle 3 U S) and an E–W direction (lower body). Subpubic angle U U Greater sciatic notch 5 U Hands are placed behind the back, no Greater sciatic notch U 5 Preauricularis sulcus U U shackles visible (but traces of iron). The Preauricularis sulcus U U Measurement skeleton is almost complete; more than Estimate of age at death: Young adult 48 cm (femur sin, maximum head) 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Estimate of age at death: Young adult they are well preserved. Epiphyses Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Qualitative preservation: 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U wear Position Vertebral column U Epiphyses Skeleton: Lateral—on the left side Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Cranium: Lateral—on the left side Upper limbs >17 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Vertebral column U hand—extended, Left lower limb— Lower limbs c. 20? Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 extended, Right upper limb—flexed, Suture closure (ectocranial) Upper limbs >20 Right hand—flexed, Right lower limb— Coronal Open Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) 20–24 extended Sagittal Open–minimal Lower limbs >20 Relation to other skeletons The skeleton is placed at an opposite an- Lambdoid Open Suture closure (ectocranial) gle to, and on top of skeletons nos. 1366, Pathology/Trauma Coronal Significant–obliterated 1318, 1392, and 1393 and is probably Cribra/PH: Porotic hyperostosis? Pin- Sagittal Significant–obliterated the reason why these latter skeletons are point porosity on parietal and occipi- Lambdoid Open poorly preserved. tal—healed Pubic symphysis Finds Dental pathology: Blue discolouration Left Right Shackles: ? on all teeth; I2, C—slight calculus in III:1 (28.7) U Estimate of sex: Undetermined mandible Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Antemortem trauma: U Tooth eruption, M3 Skull Likely perimortem trauma: X Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Possible perimortem trauma: U Sin—U Sin—erupted Angle of the frontal Sloped Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Frontal/parietal No SKELETON NO. 1339—ROW 1 Tooth wear eminences (FIG. 98) Maxilla Mandible Nuchal crest U 25–35 Mastoid process U 2 Taphonomy/Preservation Zygomatic bone U U The skeleton is placed on its right side Stature: c. 168.5 cm (femur sin) Orbital outline U U in an E–W (upper body, with cranium Pathology/Trauma Supraorbital margin U 2 to the W), and NW–SE (lower body, Dental pathology: Slight calculus on in- Glabella U with feet to the SE) direction. Hands are cisives, mandible Gonial angle flare U 3 placed behind the back. The skeleton is Antemortem trauma: U Mental eminence U almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Likely perimortem trauma: U skeletal parts are present, but it is very Possible perimortem trauma: Y fragmentary, dry, and cracked. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 2 Position Skeleton: Lateral—on the right side Cranium: Lateral—on the right side
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Fig. 97. Skeleton no. 1336. Fig. 98. Skeleton no. 1339.
Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Skull Pelvis hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Angle of the frontal Sloped Subpubic concavity U U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Frontal/parietal No Ventral arc U U Relation to other skeletons eminences Ischiopubic ramus U U The skull is placed on the feet of skeleton Nuchal crest 2 Subpubic angle U U no. 1340; the legs are placed on the skull Mastoid process 4 U Greater sciatic notch U 4 of skeleton no. 1340—creating a quad- Zygomatic bone U U Preauricularis sulcus U U rant in shape Orbital outline U 3 Supraorbital margin U 4 Estimate of age at death: Adult Finds Criteria: Suture closure, and tooth eruption Shackles: No, but according to field ob- Glabella 5 Suture closure (ectocranial) servations hands folded on the back— Gonial angle flare U U Coronal Minimal–significant tied Mental eminence 4 Sagittal Minimal Estimate of sex: Male Lambdoid Minimal Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Sin—erupted Sin—erupted Dx—U Dx—U
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Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Skull SKELETON NO. 1342—ROW 1 Pathology/Trauma Skull—trait Left L/R Right (FIG. 100) Dental pathology: Orange discoloura- Angle of the frontal Sloped Taphonomy/Preservation tion on all teeth; slight LEH on left C Frontal/parietal No The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- and P1 mandible; slight calculus on left eminences tion in an E–W direction (cranium to I1, and C, mandible; slight LEH on left Nuchal crest 4 the E), with hands in a shackle above the C, and P1, maxilla Mastoid process 5 U head. Skull is prone, resting on the left Antemortem trauma: U Zygomatic bone 3 U side. The skeleton is almost complete; Likely perimortem trauma: U Orbital outline U U more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Supraorbital margin 4 U Possible perimortem trauma: X present, and they are well preserved. Glabella 5 Quantitative preservation: 3 Gonial angle flare U U Qualitative preservation: 3 SKELETON NO. 1340—ROW 1 Mental eminence 4 (FIGS. 33 & 99) Position Pelvis Skeleton: Prone Taphonomy/Preservation Pelvis—trait Left Right Cranium: Prone—on left side The skeleton is placed on its right side in Subpubic concavity U U Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, Left a NE–SW (upper body, with cranium Ventral arc U U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- to the NE), and a N–S (lower body, Ischiopubic ramus U U ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right with feet to the N) direction. Hands are Subpubic angle U U hand—flexed, Right lower limb—flexed placed behind the back. Approximately Greater sciatic notch 4 4 half of the skeleton is preserved, and Relation to other skeletons Preauricularis sulcus U U Left tibia (proximal part) is below the these parts are in good condition. lower legs of skeleton no. 1297; right hu- Quantitative preservation: 2 Estimate of age at death: Young adult merus is above the skull of skeleton no. Qualitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and 1343 Position tooth wear Finds Skeleton: Lateral—on the right side Epiphyses Shackles: Yes—wrists, shackles connect- Cranium: Lateral—on the right side Skull (cranium + mandible) U ed with skeletons nos. 1343 and 1325 Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, Left Thorax (sternum + ribs) U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Vertebral column U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Right upper limb—U, Right hand—U, Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Right lower limb—flexed Upper limbs >17 Skull Skull—trait Left L/R Right Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Angle of the Straight Lower limbs >20 The skull is placed below the legs of skel- frontal eton no. 1339; the feet is placed below Suture closure (ectocranial) Frontal/parietal Yes the skull of skeleton no. 1339—creating Coronal Significant eminences a quadrant in shape Sagittal U Nuchal crest 5 Finds Lambdoid Significant Mastoid process U 4 Shackles: No, but according to field obser- Zygomatic bone U 1 vations hands folded on the back—tied Tooth wear Orbital outline U 1 Estimate of sex: Male Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital U 1 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis 25–35 U margin Glabella U Stature: 168.51 cm (femur sin) Gonial angle flare U 2 Pathology/Trauma Mental eminence U Dental pathology: Slight calculus on left and right I1, I2, and C, mandible Cribra/PH: “orange peel” porosity (healed) on posterior dx parietal and some on occipital Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
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Fig. 99. Skeleton no. 1340. Fig. 100. Skeleton no. 1342.
Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) Qualitative preservation: 3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Open Position Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal Minimal Skeleton: Lateral—on the left side Ventral arc U U Lambdoid Minimal Cranium: Lateral—on the left side, face Ischiopubic ramus U U almost prone Pathology/Trauma Subpubic angle U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Antemortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch 5 U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Likely perimortem trauma: U Preauricularis sulcus U U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Possible perimortem trauma: U U, Right lower limb—flexed Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Relation to other skeletons SKELETON NO. 1343—ROW 1 Right arm placed on skull of skeleton no. Epiphyses (FIGS. 26–27 & 101) 1325; right leg placed on left leg of skel- Skull (cranium + mandible) U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Taphonomy/Preservation eton no. 1325 Vertebral column U The skeleton is placed on its left side in Finds Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 an E–W direction (cranium to the E), Shackles: Yes—wrists, shackles connect- Upper limbs >15 with hands connected to a shackle above ed with skeletons nos. 1342 and 1325 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 the head. The skeleton is almost com- Estimate of sex: Undetermined Lower limbs >18 plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Criteria: Skull, and pelvis are present, and they are well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 3
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Skull SKELETON NO. 1348—ROW 1 Measurement Skull—trait Left L/R Right (FIGS. 54–55 & 102) 47.7 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Angle of the Straight Taphonomy/Preservation Estimate of age at death: Young adult frontal The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Frontal/parietal Slight tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth eminences the NE), with hands in a shackle above wear Nuchal crest U the head. The legs are bent, and the left Epiphyses Mastoid process U 4 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Zygomatic bone U U knee is sticking up above the rest of the Thorax (sternum + ribs) >25 Orbital outline U U body; the right leg is resting on its lateral Vertebral column U Supraorbital U U side. The skeleton is almost complete; margin more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 24–29 Glabella U present, and they are well preserved. Upper limbs >20 Gonial angle flare U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Mental eminence U Qualitative preservation: 3 Lower limbs >20 Position Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) Skeleton: Supine Coronal Minimal Pelvis—trait Left Right Cranium: Supine—slight inclination to Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal U the right Lambdoid U Ventral arc U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Ischiopubic ramus U U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Pubic symphysis Subpubic angle U U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Left Right Greater sciatic notch 3 U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed II:1, c. 23.4 II:1, c. 23.4 Preauricularis sulcus U U Relation to other skeletons Tooth eruption, M3 Estimate of age at death: Adult Right leg below the left leg of skeleton Maxilla Mandible Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure no. 1350; right arm above the left shoul- Sin—erupted Sin/dx—not present Epiphyses der of skeleton no. 1350 Dx—not present Skull (cranium + mandible) U Finds Tooth wear Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Shackles: Yes—wrists Maxilla Mandible Vertebral column U Estimate of sex: Male? U 17–25 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Upper limbs >17 Skull Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Lower limbs >18 Angle of the frontal Sloped Dental pathology: Congenital absence Frontal/parietal No of right M3 in mandible and maxilla; Suture closure (ectocranial) eminences slight linear hypoplasia on left and right Coronal Significant Nuchal crest U I–C, mandible Sagittal Significant Mastoid process 3 U trauma: U Lambdoid Significant Antemortem Zygomatic bone 2 U Likely perimortem trauma: U Pathology/Trauma Orbital outline 3 U Possible perimortem trauma: X Dental pathology: LEH on right C Supraorbital margin 2 2 (maxilla) Glabella 3 SKELETON NO. 1349—ROW 1 Other: A small resorptive bone lesion Gonial angle flare 2 U (FIGS. 28–29, 56–57, & 103) (or postmortem destruction?) Mental eminence 3 Taphonomy/Preservation Lytic lesion on the right parietal, close to Pelvis coronalis The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Pelvis—trait Left Right tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Antemortem trauma: U Subpubic concavity U U the NE), with hands in a shackle above Likely perimortem trauma: U Ventral arc 3 3 the head. The right arm is displaced. The Possible perimortem trauma: X Ischiopubic ramus U U skeleton is almost complete; more than Subpubic angle U U 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and Greater sciatic notch 4 4 they are well preserved. Preauricularis sulcus U U
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Fig. 101. Skeleton no. 1343. Fig. 102. Skeleton no. 1348.
Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull Pelvis Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Position Angle of the frontal Sloped Subpubic concavity U U Skeleton: Supine Frontal/parietal No Ventral arc U U Cranium: Supine—slightly inclined to eminences Ischiopubic ramus U U the right Nuchal crest U Subpubic angle U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Mastoid process 5 5 Greater sciatic notch 4 U hand—U, Left lower limb—extended, Zygomatic bone 2 2 Preauricularis sulcus U U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Orbital outline 2 2 Measurement U, Right lower limb—flexed Supraorbital margin 4 4 48 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Relation to other skeletons Glabella U Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Right arm above the left arm of skeleton Gonial angle flare 2 2 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- no. 1281 Mental eminence 4 bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Finds wear Shackles: Yes—wrists Estimate of sex: Male Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement
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Fig. 103. Skeleton no. 1349. Fig. 104. Skeleton no. 1350.
Epiphyses Tooth eruption, M3 SKELETON NO. 1350—ROW 1 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Maxilla Mandible (FIG. 104) Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Sin—erupting Sin/dx—erupted Taphonomy/Preservation Vertebral column U Dx—erupting/erupted? The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Tooth wear tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Upper limbs >20 Maxilla Mandible the NE), with hands in a shackle above Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 U Sin: 25–35 the head. The legs are bent, and the knees Lower limbs >20 Dx: 17–25 are sticking up above the rest of the body. The skeleton is almost complete; more Suture closure (ectocranial) Stature: 168.51 cm (femur dx) than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Coronal Significant–obliteration Pathology/Trauma and they are well preserved. Sagittal Obliteration Dental pathology: right I1 mandible — Quantitative preservation: 3 Lambdoid U chipped antemortem Qualitative preservation: 3 Antemortem trauma: U Pubic symphysis Position Likely perimortem trauma: U Left Right Skeleton: Supine Possible perimortem trauma: X U V:1, 45.6 Cranium: Supine, skull inclined on the right side Limbs: Left upper limb—slightly flexed, Left hand—slightly flexed, Left lower
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limb—slightly flexed, Right upper Pubic symphysis Skull limb—slightly flexed, Right hand—U, Left Right Skull—trait Left L/R Right Right lower limb—slightly flexed IV:1, 35.2 U Angle of the Straight Relation to other skeletons frontal Tooth eruption, M3 Right arm below the left arm of skeleton Frontal/parietal No Maxilla Mandible eminences no. 1365; left arm below the right arm of Sin—A Sin/dx—present Nuchal crest U skeleton no. 1348 Dx—present Mastoid process 5 U Finds Zygomatic bone 3 U Shackles: Yes—wrists Tooth wear Orbital outline 3 U Estimate of sex: Male Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital 2 U Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement U Sin: 17–25 Dx: 25–35 margin Skull Glabella 3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Gonial angle flare 3 U Angle of the frontal Sloped Pathology/Trauma Mental eminence 5 Frontal/parietal No Dental pathology: Medium LEH on all eminences teeth in mandible, 2 lines; AMTL M1 Pelvis Nuchal crest U sin (maxilla) Pelvis—trait Left Right Mastoid process 3 U Antemortem trauma: U Subpubic concavity U U Zygomatic bone 2 U Likely perimortem trauma: U Ventral arc U U Orbital outline 3 U Possible perimortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus U U Supraorbital margin 3 U Subpubic angle U U Glabella 3 Greater sciatic notch U 3 Gonial angle flare 3 U SKELETON NO. 1353—ROW 1 Preauricularis sulcus U U Mental eminence 3 (FIGS. 40, 58–59, & 105) Estimate of age at death: Young adult Taphonomy/Preservation Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Pelvis The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Pelvis—trait Left Right eruption, and tooth wear tion in a NW–SE direction (cranium Subpubic concavity 3 U to the SE), with hands behind the back. Epiphyses Ventral arc 3 U Skull (cranium + mandible) U skeletons nos. 1354 and 1355 cover the Ischiopubic ramus 3 U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U lower part of the body. The skeleton is Subpubic angle 4 U Vertebral column U almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Greater sciatic notch U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U skeletal parts are present, and they are Preauricularis sulcus U U Upper limbs >17 well preserved. Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Measurement Quantitative preservation: 3 Lower limbs >15 43.4 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Qualitative preservation: 3 Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Position Suture closure (ectocranial) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Skeleton: Supine Coronal Open–minimal bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Cranium: Supine Sagittal Open–minimal wear Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Lambdoid U Epiphyses hand—U, Left lower limb—extended, Tooth eruption, M3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Maxilla Mandible Thorax (sternum + ribs) >25 U, Right lower limb—extended Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted Vertebral column U Relation to other skeletons Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Right femur below skeleton no. 1354; Tooth wear Upper limbs >20 left femur and tibia below skeleton no. Maxilla Mandible Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 1355 U 25–35 Lower limbs >20 Finds Pathology/Trauma Shackles: No/not observable (but hands Suture closure (ectocranial) Dental pathology: Slight–medium cal- folded on the back and not visible— Coronal Significant culus on incisive left mandible and on Sagittal U skeleton resting on back) right I1–C ; slight linear hypoplasia on Lambdoid U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull, and pelvis
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Fig. 105. Skeleton no. 1353. Fig. 106. Skeleton no. 1354.
right C and P1 mandible; medium cal- plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Finds culus on left and right C maxilla. are present. The quality of the bones is Shackles: No/not observable (but hands Pronounced bilateral muscular markings intermediate, and around 1/3–2/3 of folded on the back and not visible— at mentalis. the bones have a pronounced degree of skeleton resting on back) Antemortem trauma: U erosion of surfaces and fragmentation. Estimate of sex: Undetermined Likely perimortem trauma: X Quantitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Possible perimortem trauma: X Qualitative preservation: 2 Skull Position Skull—trait Left L/R Right SKELETON NO. 1354—ROW 1 Skeleton: Supine Angle of the frontal U (FIG. 106) Cranium: Supine—slightly inclined to Frontal/parietal No the left eminences Taphonomy/Preservation Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Nuchal crest 4 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Mastoid process U 5 tion in a N–S direction (cranium to the Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Zygomatic bone 2 U S), with hands behind the back. Viscero- U, Right lower limb—flexed Orbital outline U U cranium is crushed. Both lower legs (tib- Relation to other skeletons Supraorbital margin 3 U ia and fibula) are missing; and also the The skeleton is lying on top of the lower Glabella 3 left foot. Part of the thorax is missing: part of skeleton no.1353 with legs across Gonial angle flare 3 U bodies of the thoracic vertebrae, and half skeleton no. 1355. Mental eminence 3 of the ribs. The skeleton is almost com-
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Pelvis this latter skeleton is quite fragmented. Epiphyses Pelvis—trait Left Right One right radius, not belonging to this Skull (cranium + mandible) U Subpubic concavity U U individual, was found on the distal part Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Ventral arc U U of left humerus. The skeleton is almost Vertebral column U Ischiopubic ramus U U complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Subpubic angle U U parts are present, and they are well pre- Upper limbs >20 Greater sciatic notch 3 U served. Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Preauricularis sulcus N N Quantitative preservation: 3 Lower limbs >20 Qualitative preservation: 3 Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Suture closure (ectocranial) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Position Coronal Open Skeleton: Lateral (on left side) eruption, and tooth wear Sagittal Minimal Cranium: Lateral (on left side) Epiphyses Lambdoid Open Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Skull (cranium + mandible) U hand—A/U, Left lower limb—flexed, Tooth eruption, M3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Vertebral column U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Maxilla Mandible Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 A/U, Right lower limb—flexed Sin—U Sin/dx—U Dx—erupted Upper limbs >16 Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Placed on top of skeletons nos. 1393 and Lower limbs >20 1373 Stature: 163.75 cm (femur dx) Finds Pathology/Trauma Suture closure (ectocranial) Shackles: No according to diary/hands Dental pathology: Slight LEH linear Coronal Significant folded on the back according to field ob- hypoplasia on left and right I1–I2 in Sagittal Significant servation maxilla Lambdoid U Estimate of sex: Male Cribra and PH: Pinpoint porosity on Tooth eruption, M3 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis dorsal part of right parietal, expanded Maxilla Mandible Skull diploë Sin—present, but not Sin/dx—erupted Skull—trait Left L/R Right Other: Entesophyte on left fibula (distal in situ Angle of the frontal Sloped diaphysis) Frontal/parietal No Antemortem trauma: U Tooth wear eminences Likely perimortem trauma: U Maxilla Mandible Nuchal crest 5 Possible perimortem trauma: X U 25–35 Mastoid process U 5 Pathology/Trauma Zygomatic bone U U SKELETON NO. 1356—ROW 1 Dental pathology: Ante mortem tooth Orbital outline U U (FIGS. 41 & 108) loss— right M1 mandible Supraorbital margin U 3 OA: Medium lipping on cervical verte- Glabella 4 Taphonomy/Preservation brae nos. 3–7 Gonial angle flare U 3 The skeleton in placed on its left side in Mental eminence 4 Antemortem trauma: U a N–S (upper body, with cranium to the S) and an E–W direction (lower body, Likely perimortem trauma: U Pelvis with feet to the W). Hands are placed Possible perimortem trauma: X Pelvis—trait Left Right Subpubic concavity U U behind the back. The skeleton is almost Ventral arc U U complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal SKELETON NO. 1355—ROW 1 parts are present, and they are well pre- (FIGS. 32 & 107) Ischiopubic ramus U U Subpubic angle U U served. Taphonomy/Preservation Greater sciatic notch U 5 Quantitative preservation: 3 The skeleton is placed on its left side in Preauricularis sulcus U U Qualitative preservation: 3 an approximate N–S direction (with cra- Position nium to the S). Legs are bent to the left. Estimate of age at death: Young adult Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Hands are placed behind the back. The Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Cranium: Lateral—on left side skeleton is placed at an opposite angle tooth eruption Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left to, and on top of skeletons nos.1373 and hand—probably flexed, Left lower 1393, and is probably the reason why
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Fig. 107. Skeleton no. 1355. Fig. 108. Skeleton no. 1356.
limb—flexed, Right upper limb—ex- Skull Pelvis tended, Right hand—flexed?, Right Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right lower limb—flexed Angle of the frontal Sloped Subpubic concavity U U Relation to other skeletons Frontal/parietal Yes Ventral arc U U Pelvis is close to skeleton no. 1353 and eminences Ischiopubic ramus U U feet close to skeleton no. 1354. Nuchal crest 4 Subpubic angle U U Finds Mastoid process U 4 Greater sciatic notch U 4 Shackles: No, but according to field ob- Zygomatic bone U 2 Preauricularis sulcus U U servations hands folded on the back— Orbital outline U U Estimate of age at death: Adult tied. Supraorbital margin U 2 Glabella 3 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Estimate of sex: Male? tooth eruption Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Gonial angle flare U 2 Mental eminence 3 Epiphyses Skull (cranium + mandible) U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Vertebral column U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Upper limbs >20 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Lower limbs >20
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Suture closure (ectocranial) no. 1358; the left leg of skeleton. no. Tooth eruption, M3 Coronal Significant 1289 is positioned over the left leg of Maxilla Mandible Sagittal Obliteration skeleton no. 1358. Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted and Lambdoid Significant Finds wear Shackles: Yes—wrists Tooth eruption, M3 Tooth wear Estimate of sex: Male Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Sin—U Sin—U 25–35 25–35 Dx—probably not present Dx—U Skull Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Stature: 163.75 cm (femur dx) Angle of the frontal Sloped Dental pathology: Caries on left P2 (and Pathology/Trauma Frontal/parietal No M1?) in mandible; linear enamel hypo- Cribra and PH: Pinpoint porosity on eminences plasia on left and right C in mandible; right parietal near the saggital suture; Nuchal crest U right I in mandible with extensive wear even more slight porosity on frontal and Mastoid process 4 4 Antemortem trauma: U occipital, close to sutures Zygomatic bone 3 U Likely perimortem trauma: U Antemortem trauma: U Orbital outline 2 2 Possible perimortem trauma: X Likely perimortem trauma: X Supraorbital margin 3 3 Possible trauma: U Glabella 5 perimortem SKELETON NO. 1359—ROW 1 Gonial angle flare U U (FIGS. 42 & 110) Mental eminence 3 SKELETON NO. 1358—ROW 1 Taphonomy/Preservation (FIG. 109) Pelvis The skeleton is placed in supine position Taphonomy/Preservation Pelvis—trait Left Right (especially the lower part of the body) in The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Subpubic concavity U U a NE–SW direction (cranium to the E), tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Ventral arc U 3 with hands in a shackle above the head. the E), with hands in a shackle above Ischiopubic ramus U U The upper body is slightly positioned to the head. Left humerus, right pelvis, and Subpubic angle U U the left side. The right leg is flexed over femur are significantly disturbed. The Greater sciatic notch 5 5 90 degrees. The left knee is sticking up skeleton is almost complete; more than Preauricularis sulcus U U above the rest of the body. The skeleton 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present. The Estimate of age at death: Middle adult is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the quality of the bones is intermediate, and Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- skeletal parts are present, and they are around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth well preserved. nounced degree of erosion of surfaces wear Quantitative preservation: 3 and fragmentation. Epiphyses Qualitative preservation: 3 Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Position Qualitative preservation: 2 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U/A Skeleton: Supine—inclined to the left Position Vertebral column U Cranium: Lateral—skull resting on left Skeleton: Supine Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 side Cranium: Supine Upper limbs >20 Limbs: Left upper limb—“extended”, Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 Left hand—U, Left lower limb—ex- hand—extended?, Left lower limb— Lower limbs >20 tended, Right upper limb—“extended”, flexed (knees pointing upwards), Right Right hand—palm upwards, Right low- upper limb—flexed, Right hand—ex- Suture closure (ectocranial) er limb—flexed tended?, Right lower limb—flexed Coronal Significant Relation to other skeletons (knees pointing upwards) Sagittal U Right arm above the left arm of skeleton Lambdoid U Relation to other skeletons no. 1328; left arm below the left arm of The right leg is positioned above the Pubic symphysis skeleton no. 1363 right leg of skeleton no. 1360; the right Left Right Finds arm of skeleton no. 1360 is positioned U IV:1, c. 35.2 Shackles: Yes—wrists over the right arm of skeleton no. 1358; Estimate of sex: Male the left arm of skeleton no. 1289 is posi- Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement tioned over the the left arm of skeleton
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Fig. 109. Skeleton no. 1358. Fig. 110. Skeleton no. 1359.
Skull Pelvis Epiphyses Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Skull (cranium + mandible) U Angle of the Straight Subpubic concavity 3 U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U frontal Ventral arc 3 U Vertebral column U Frontal/parietal Slight Ischiopubic ramus 3 U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 eminences Subpubic angle U U Upper limbs >20 Nuchal crest U Greater sciatic notch U U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23, Mastoid process U 5 Preauricularis sulcus U U <27? Zygomatic bone U 2 Lower limbs >20 Orbital outline 2 2 Measurement Supraorbital U 4 44.9 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Suture closure (ectocranial) margin Estimate of age at death: Young adult Coronal Minimal Glabella 4 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Sagittal U Gonial angle flare U 3 bic symphysis, and tooth eruption Lambdoid Minimal Mental eminence 3 Pubic symphysis Left Right II:2, c. 23.4 U
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Tooth eruption, M3 Skull SKELETON NO. 1361—ROW 1 Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right (FIGS. 60 & 112) Sin/dx—erupted dx—erupted Angle of the frontal Sloped Taphonomy/Preservation Frontal/parietal No The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) eminences tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Pathology/Trauma Nuchal crest 3 Dental pathology: Blue discolouration the E), with hands in a shackle above the Mastoid process U 4 head. The skeleton is almost complete; esp. in mandible; linear enamel hypopla- Zygomatic bone U 3 sia on right C, PM1, PM2 (max), 2 lines more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Orbital outline U U present, and they are well preserved. Other: Long neck Supraorbital margin U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Antemortem trauma: U Glabella U Qualitative preservation: 3 Likely perimortem trauma: X Gonial angle flare U 3 Position Possible perimortem trauma: U Mental eminence U Skeleton: Supine Pelvis Cranium: Lateral—resting on left side SKELETON NO. 1360—ROW 1 Pelvis—trait Left Right Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left (FIG. 111) Subpubic concavity U U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Taphonomy/Preservation Ventral arc U U Right upper limb—slightly flexed, Right The skeleton is placed in a prone position Ischiopubic ramus U U hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed in an E–W direction (cranium to the E), Subpubic angle U U Relation to other skeletons with hands in a shackle above the head. Greater sciatic notch 5 U Left knee below the right knee of skel- Left clavicle is displaced in a horizontal Preauricularis sulcus U U eton no. 1366; right knee below the left position. The skeleton is almost com- leg of skeleton no. 1375 Estimate of age at death: Adult plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Finds are present. The quality of the bones is Shackles: Yes—wrists tooth eruption intermediate, and around 1/3–2/3 of Estimate of sex: Male? Epiphyses the bones have a pronounced degree of Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull (cranium + mandible) U erosion of surfaces and fragmentation. Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Skull Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Vertebral column U Qualitative preservation: 2 Angle of the frontal Sloped Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Frontal/parietal No Position Upper limbs >17 Skeleton: Prone eminences Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Cranium: Lateral—on left side Nuchal crest U Lower limbs >20 Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, Left Mastoid process U 3 hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Suture closure (ectocranial) Zygomatic bone U 3 ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Coronal Minimal Orbital outline U U hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed. Sagittal Minimal Supraorbital margin U 2 Lambdoid Minimal Glabella 3 Relation to other skeletons Gonial angle flare U 3 Tooth eruption, M3 Mental eminence 3 Left pectoral girdle below the left elbow Maxilla Mandible of skeleton no. 1381; the right femur be- Sin—U Sin—U Pelvis low the right femur of skeleton no. 1358; Dx—erupted Dx—U Pelvis—trait Left Right left lower leg below the right leg of skel- Subpubic concavity U 2 Stature: 173.63 cm (humerus dx) eton no. 1381 Ventral arc U 3 Pathology/Trauma Finds Ischiopubic ramus U 3 Dental pathology: U Shackles: Yes—wrists Subpubic angle U 3 Other: Marked discolouration on right Estimate of sex: Male? Greater sciatic notch U 4 parietal (posterior) Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Preauricularis sulcus U U Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Measurement Possible perimortem trauma: U 46 cm (femur dx, maximum head)
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Fig. 111. Skeleton no. 1360. Fig. 112. Skeleton no. 1361.
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Tooth eruption, M3 SKELETON NO. 1363—ROW 1 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic Maxilla Mandible (FIGS. 61 & 113) symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Sin—U Sin—erupted Taphonomy/Preservation Epiphyses Dx—erupted Dx—U The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Skull (cranium + mandible) U Tooth wear tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Maxilla Mandible to the NE), arms extended in 90 degrees Vertebral column U U Dx—35–45 from the longitudinal axis of the body. Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Sin—U Shackles are found around both wrists. Upper limbs >20 The skeleton is almost complete; more Stature: 151.85 cm (femur dx) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Pathology/Trauma Lower limbs >20 and they are well preserved. Dental pathology: Calculus labial on left Quantitative preservation: 3 Suture closure (ectocranial) and right I1–I2 in mandible Qualitative preservation: 3 Coronal U Osteoarthritis: Medium lipping on ver- Sagittal Obliteration tebrae (thoracic vertebrae, lumbar verte- Position Skeleton: Prone Lambdoid Significant–obliteration bra no. 5, and promotorium on sacrum) Cranium: Lateral—on left side Antemortem trauma: U Pubic symphysis Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Likely perimortem trauma: U Left Right hand—extended, palm upwards, Left Possible perimortem trauma: X IV:1, c. 35.2 U lower limb—extended, Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand—extended,
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palm upwards, Right lower limb—ex- Tooth wear Skull tended Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Relation to other skeletons 17–25 U Angle of the Straight? Left arm below skeleton no. 1359; right frontal Pathology/Trauma arm below skeleton no. 1364; lower legs Frontal/parietal No Dental pathology: Large abscess and eminences and feet below skeleton no. 1364 periodontitis at the alveolus of right M1 Nuchal crest U Finds in maxilla Mastoid process U 3 Shackles: Yes—wrists Antemortem trauma: U Zygomatic bone 1 U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Likely perimortem trauma: U Orbital outline 1 U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Possible perimortem trauma: X Supraorbital 2 U Skull margin Skull—trait Left L/R Right Glabella U Angle of the frontal Sloped SKELETON NO. 1364—ROW 1 Gonial angle flare 2 U (FIGS. 63 & 114) Frontal/parietal Slight Mental eminence 4 eminences Taphonomy/Preservation Nuchal crest 3 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Pelvis Mastoid process U 4 tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Pelvis—trait Left Right Zygomatic bone U 2 the NE), with hands in a shackle above Subpubic concavity 3 3 Orbital outline 1 U the head. The skeleton is almost com- Ventral arc 3 3 Supraorbital margin U 3 plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Ischiopubic ramus 3 3 Glabella 3 are present, and they are well preserved. Subpubic angle 3 3 Gonial angle flare U 2 Quantitative preservation: 3 Greater sciatic notch 3 3 Mental eminence U Qualitative preservation: 3 Preauricularis sulcus U U Pelvis Position Estimate of age at death: Young adult Pelvis—trait Left Right Skeleton: Supine Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Subpubic concavity U U Cranium: Supine—some inclination to- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Ventral arc U U wards the left wear Ischiopubic ramus U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Epiphyses Subpubic angle U U hand—extended?, Left lower limb— Skull (cranium + mandible) U Greater sciatic notch 3 3 flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Thorax (sternum + ribs) A Preauricularis sulcus U U hand—flexed?, Right lower limb— Vertebral column U flexed Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Relation to other skeletons Upper limbs >17 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Lower limbs above the lower limbs of Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) . 25? eruption, and tooth wear c skeleton no. 1363 Lower limbs >20 Epiphyses Finds Skull (cranium + mandible) U Suture closure (ectocranial) Shackles: Yes—wrists Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Coronal Open Estimate of sex: Male Vertebral column U Sagittal Open Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Lambdoid U Upper limbs >17 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Pubic symphysis Left Right Lower limbs >17 II:1, 23.4 U Suture closure (ectocranial) Coronal Open Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Sagittal Minimal Dx—erupted Dx—not fully erupted Lambdoid Open–minimal Tooth wear Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Maxilla Mandible 17–25 17–25 Dx—erupted Dx—erupted
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Fig. 113. Skeleton no. 1363. Fig. 114. Skeleton no. 1364.
Stature: 153.04 cm (femur dx) almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Skull Pathology/Trauma skeletal parts are present, and they are Skull—trait Left L/R Right Dental pathology: P2 left maxilla, root well preserved. Angle of the frontal U in situ, caries, possibly some caries on left Quantitative preservation: 3 Frontal/parietal U M1 in maxilla as well? Qualitative preservation: 3 eminences Antemortem trauma: U Position Nuchal crest U Likely perimortem trauma: U Skeleton: Supine Mastoid process 3 U Possible perimortem trauma: X Cranium: Supine—some inclination to- Zygomatic bone 2 2 wards the right Orbital outline U U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Supraorbital margin 2 2 SKELETON NO. 1365—ROW 1 Glabella 3 (FIGS. 62 & 115) hand—U, Left lower limb—extended, Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Gonial angle flare 2 U Taphonomy/Preservation U, Right lower limb—flexed. Mental eminence 3 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Relation to other skeletons tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Left arm above the right arm of skeleton the NE), with hands in a shackle above no. 1350 the head. The right foot (with the bones Finds of the foot still articulated) is displaced Shackles: Yes—wrists between right and left tibia. The skull Estimate of sex: Male? has dropped backwards. The skeleton is Criteria: Skull, and pelvis
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Fig. 115. Skeleton no. 1365. Fig. 116. Skeleton no. 1366.
Pelvis Epiphyses Tooth eruption, M3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Skull (cranium + mandible) U Maxilla Mandible Subpubic concavity 3 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U A M3 dx—not present Ventral arc 3 3 Vertebral column U Pathology/Trauma Ischiopubic ramus U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >18 Dental pathology: Sin C, mandible; Subpubic angle U U Upper limbs >20 periodontis; LEH on right C and P in Greater sciatic notch U U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) 15–22, mandible Preauricularis sulcus U U c. 19 Lower limbs >18– Antemortem trauma: U Estimate of age at death: Juvenile 20 Likely perimortem trauma: U Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Possible perimortem trauma: X bic symphysis, and tooth eruption Suture closure (ectocranial) Coronal Open Sagittal U SKELETON NO. 1366—ROW 1 Lambdoid U (FIGS. 64 & 116) Pubic symphysis Taphonomy/Preservation The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Left Right I, 18.5 U tion in an E–W direction (cranium to the E), with hands in a shackle above the head. The mandible, and the left pecto-
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ral girdle and upper arm (clavicle, scap- Epiphyses Cranium: Supine—slightly bent to the left ula, and humerus) are missing. A lot of Skull (cranium + mandible) U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left bones of the thorax are fragmented and/ Thorax (sternum + ribs) U hand—U, Left lower limb—slightly flexed, or missing; no cervical vertebrae were Vertebral column >19 Right upper limb—A, Right hand—A, found, and just a few thoracic vertebrae, Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Right lower limb—slightly flexed lumbar vertebrae, and ribs. Only lumbar Upper limbs >17 Relation to other skeletons vertebrae nos. 4 and 5 are connected Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 The eastern part of this skeleton is cut by to sacrum. The skeleton is almost com- Lower limbs >20 skeleton no. 1355 plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Suture closure (ectocranial) Finds are present, and they are well preserved. Shackles: No—not observable Coronal Significant Quantitative preservation: 2 Sagittal U Estimate of sex: Male? Qualitative preservation: 3 Lambdoid U Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Position Skull Skeleton: Supine Tooth eruption, M3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Cranium: Supine—slightly inclined to Maxilla Mandible Angle of the frontal Sloped the left Sin/dx—erupted A Frontal/parietal No Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left eminences Tooth wear Nuchal crest U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Maxilla Mandible Mastoid process U 5 ed (almost), Right upper limb—flexed, 17–25/25–35 U Right hand—flexed, Right lower limb— Zygomatic bone U 3 flexed Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx) Orbital outline U 3 Relation to other skeletons Pathology/Trauma Supraorbital margin U 2 Right knee above left knee of skeleton Dental pathology: Mandible missing, Glabella 3 no. 1361; the legs of skeleton no. 1336 marked reddish-brown staining on all Gonial angle flare 1 1 are placed above the central parts of the teeth, especially incisors Mental eminence 5 body (probably causing the disturbanc- Other: Healed periostitis on right tibia Pelvis es seen in the skeleton of skeleton no. (distal diaphysis, medial border) Pelvis—trait Left Right 1366?) Antemortem trauma: U Subpubic concavity U 3 Finds Likely perimortem trauma: U Ventral arc U 3 Shackles: Yes—wrists Possible perimortem trauma: X Ischiopubic ramus U 3 Estimate of sex: Male? Subpubic angle U U Criteria: Skull, and measurement SKELETON NO. 1373—ROW 1 Greater sciatic notch U 4 Skull (FIGS. 43 & 117) Preauricularis sulcus U U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Taphonomy/Preservation Angle of the frontal Sloped Measurement The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- 51 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Frontal/parietal No eminences tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Estimate of age at death: Young adult Nuchal crest 4 the E). Right humerus is stretched above Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Mastoid process U 3 the head, but no shackle was found. bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Zygomatic bone U 3 The right arm (humerus, ulna, and ra- wear Orbital outline U 3 dius), and hand is missing, as well as the Epiphyses Supraorbital margin U 2 right fibula. Some bones from the hand Skull (cranium + mandible) U Glabella 4 (MCII–V, and some carpals), and a right Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Gonial angle flare U U pelvis (male) that does not belong to this Vertebral column U Mental eminence U individual, were found beside the right Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U shoulder. The skeleton is almost com- Upper limbs >17 Measurement plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 46 cm (femur dx, maximum head) are present, and they are well preserved. Lower limbs >20 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Quantitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Qualitative preservation: 3 eruption, and tooth wear Position Skeleton: Supine
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Fig. 117. Skeleton no. 1373. Fig. 118. Skeleton no. 1374.
Suture closure (ectocranial) OA: Medium lipping on two vertebrae Position Coronal Significant (thoracic bodies); slight lipping on left Skeleton: Supine Sagittal U patella Cranium: Supine Lambdoid U Antemortem trauma: U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Likely perimortem trauma: X hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Pubic symphysis Possible perimortem trauma: U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Left Right flexed, Right lower limb—flexed U IV:1, c. 35.2 SKELETON NO. 1374—ROW 1 Relation to other skeletons Tooth eruption, M3 (FIGS. 44, 65, & 118) Right leg below the left knee of skeleton Maxilla Mandible no. 1349; left arm below the arms of skel- Sin/dx—erupted Sin—U Taphonomy/Preservation eton no. 1376 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Dx—erupted Finds tion in a NNE–SSW direction (cranium Shackles: Yes—wrists Tooth wear to the NNE), with hands in a shackle Estimate of sex: Male Maxilla Mandible above the head. Thorax is fragmented. Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement U Dx/sin—17–25 The skeleton is almost complete; more Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx) than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Pathology/Trauma and they are well preserved. Dental pathology: Slight calculus on left Quantitative preservation: 3 and right I1–C in maxilla Qualitative preservation: 3
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Skull Tooth wear Skull Skull—trait Left L/R Right Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Angle of the Sloped 25–35 25–35 Angle of the frontal Sloped frontal Frontal/parietal No Frontal/parietal No Stature: 170.55 cm (humerus dx) eminences eminences Pathology/Trauma Nuchal crest U Nuchal crest U Dental pathology: linear enamel hypo- Mastoid process 3 U Mastoid process 4 U plasia, medium on incisors, canines, and Zygomatic bone 2 U Zygomatic bone 2 U premolars in left and right mandible and Orbital outline 3 U Orbital outline U U left and right maxilla, 2 lines; slight calcu- Supraorbital margin 3 U Supraorbital 2 U lus on incisors in mandible and left M1. Glabella 5 margin Other: Marked discolouration on right Gonial angle flare 2 U Glabella 4 parietal (posterior) Mental eminence 2 Gonial angle flare U 3 Antemortem trauma: U Mental eminence 5 Likely perimortem trauma: X Pelvis Possible perimortem trauma: X Pelvis—trait Left Right Pelvis Subpubic concavity 3 3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Ventral arc 1 1 Subpubic concavity 3 U SKELETON NO. 1375—ROW 1 Ischiopubic ramus 3 3 Ventral arc 3 U (FIGS. 66 & 119) Subpubic angle U U Ischiopubic ramus 3 U Taphonomy/Preservation Greater sciatic notch U U Subpubic angle U U The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Preauricularis sulcus U U Greater sciatic notch 5 U tion in a NE–SW direction (cranium to Preauricularis sulcus U U Estimate of age at death: Old adult the NE), with hands in a shackle above Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- the head. The knees are slightly bent. Measurement bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth 47.5 cm (femur dx, maximum head) Right humerus and left elbow joint wear Estimate of age at death: Middle adult (ulna) are disturbed by depositional pro- Epiphyses Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- cesses. The skeleton is almost complete; Skull (cranium + mandible) U bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Thorax (sternum + ribs) U present, and they are well preserved. wear Vertebral column U Quantitative preservation: 3 Epiphyses Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Qualitative preservation: 3 Upper limbs >20 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Position Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Vertebral column U Skeleton: Supine Lower limbs >20 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Cranium: Lateral—skull resting on the Upper limbs >20 right side Suture closure (ectocranial) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Coronal Significant–obliteration Lower limbs >20 hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Sagittal U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Lambdoid U Suture closure (ectocranial) U, Right lower limb—flexed Coronal Significant Pubic symphysis Relation to other skeletons Sagittal U Left Right Arms above the skull of skeleton no. 1376 Lambdoid U VI:1, c. 61.2 VI:1, c. 61.2 Finds Pubic symphysis Shackles: Yes—wrists Tooth eruption, M3 Left Right Estimate of sex: Male? Maxilla Mandible V:1, c. 45.6 U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Sin—erupted Sin—erupted Dx—U Dx—U Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted
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Fig. 119. Skeleton no. 1375. Fig. 120. Skeleton 1376.
Tooth wear SKELETON NO. 1376—ROW 1 Position Maxilla Mandible (FIG. 120) Skeleton: Supine (skull and upper body), U Sin—25–35 Taphonomy/Preservation Lateral on the right side (lower body) Cranium: Supine Stature: 163.75 cm (femur dx) The upper part of the skeleton is placed Limbs: Left upper limb—slightly flexed, Pathology/Trauma in a supine position in a N–S direction Left hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Left I–C, mandible: medium calculus; (cranium to the N), and the lower part Right upper limb—slightly flexed, Right left M3, mandible: caries, buccal; LEH, in a lateral position (on the right side) hand—extended, Right lower limb—ex- slight—P1 left mandible, P2 left max- in an E–W direction between skeletons tended illa—slight chipped fracture anterior/ nos. 1375 and 1361. Hands are locked buccal; linear enamel hypoplasia on C– in a shackle above the head. Right femur Relation to other skeletons Skull below the arms of skeleton no. 1375 PM2, left maxilla. and left tibia are significantly disturbed Osteoarthritis: Slight lipping anterior by post-depositional processes; twisted Finds Shackles: Yes—wrists on thoracic vertebrae nos. 1–4 to a supine position. The skeleton is al- Estimate of sex: Male Antemortem trauma: U most complete; more than 2/3 of the Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Likely perimortem trauma: U skeletal parts are present, and they are Possible perimortem trauma: X well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 3
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Skull Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Pelvis Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Pelvis—trait Left Right Angle of the frontal U Antemortem trauma: U Subpubic concavity U U Frontal/parietal U Likely perimortem trauma: U Ventral arc U U eminences Possible perimortem trauma: X Ischiopubic ramus U U Nuchal crest U Subpubic angle U U Mastoid process U U Greater sciatic notch 5 5 SKELETON NO. 1379—ROW 1 Zygomatic bone 3 U Preauricularis sulcus U U Orbital outline U U (FIG. 121) Supraorbital margin 2 U Taphonomy/Preservation Estimate of age at death: Young adult Glabella U The skeleton is placed on its left side/ Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Gonial angle flare U U prone in an E–W direction (cranium to Epiphyses Mental eminence U the E), with the right hand connected to Skull (cranium + mandible) A a shackle above the head. The left arm Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Pelvis is probably located below the body. It Vertebral column U Pelvis—trait Left Right is almost complete; more than 2/3 of Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Subpubic concavity U 3 the skeletal parts are present. The qual- Upper limbs >17 Ventral arc U 3 ity of the bones is intermediate, and Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Ischiopubic ramus U 3 around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- Lower limbs c. 20 Subpubic angle U U nounced degree of erosion of surfaces Greater sciatic notch U 4 Suture closure (ectocranial) and fragmentation. Preauricularis sulcus U U Coronal Open Quantitative preservation: 3 Sagittal Minimal–significant Estimate of age at death: Young adult Qualitative preservation: 2 Lambdoid Minimal Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Position bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Skeleton: Lateral, on left side, prone Stature: 161.37 cm (femur sin) wear Cranium: Almost prone (on left side) Pathology/Trauma Epiphyses Limbs: Left upper limb— U , Left Antemortem trauma: U Skull (cranium + mandible) U hand— U, Left lower limb—flexed, Likely perimortem trauma: U Thorax (sternum + ribs) >16 Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Possible perimortem trauma: U Vertebral column U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Relation to other skeletons SKELETON NO. 1380—ROW 1 Upper limbs >20 Between skeleton no.1325 and skeleton (FIGS. 67 & 122) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 no.1380. The right arm is close to the Taphonomy/Preservation Lower limbs >19 back of no. 1380. The upper body of the skeleton is placed Suture closure (ectocranial) Finds on its left side; the lower body is supine. Shackles: Yes—right wrist (left not exca- Coronal Significant The skeleton is placed in an E–W direc- Sagittal U vated or not present) tion (cranium to the E), with at least the Lambdoid U Estimate of sex: Male right hand in a shackle above the head. Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Thorax is very fragmented. It is almost Pubic symphysis Skull complete; more than 2/3 of the skel- Left Right Skull—trait Left L/R Right etal parts are present. The quality of the U III:1, . 28.7 c Angle of the frontal Sloped bones is intermediate, and around 1/3– Frontal/parietal No 2/3 of the bones have a pronounced de- Tooth eruption, M3 eminences Maxilla Mandible gree of erosion of surfaces and fragmen- Nuchal crest U Sin/dx—U Sin—erupted tation. Mastoid process U 4 Dx—U Quantitative preservation: 3 Zygomatic bone U U Qualitative preservation: 2 Tooth wear Orbital outline U U Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin U 3 Position U Sin—17–25 Glabella 4 Skeleton: Lateral, on left side (upper Gonial angle flare U 5 body); supine (lower body) Mental eminence U Cranium: Lateral—on left side
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Fig. 121. Skeleton no. 1379. Fig. 122. Skeleton no. 1380.
Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, Left Skull Epiphyses hand—slightly flexed—pointed, Left Skull—trait Left L/R Right Skull (cranium + mandible) U lower limb—slightly flexed, Right up- Angle of the frontal Sloped Thorax (sternum + ribs) U per limb—flexed, Right hand—U, Right Frontal/parietal No Vertebral column U lower limb—slightly flexed eminences Shoulder girdle (clavicle + U/A Relation to other skeletons Nuchal crest 2 scapula) Feet and lower legs above the legs of skel- Mastoid process U 5 Upper limbs >17 eton no. 1381 Zygomatic bone U 2 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U/A Finds Orbital outline U 3 Lower limbs >17–20 Supraorbital margin U 3 Shackles: Yes—right wrist Suture closure (ectocranial) Glabella 3 Estimate of sex: Male? Coronal Open Gonial angle flare U U Criteria: Skull Sagittal Open Mental eminence 5 Lambdoid Open Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible tooth eruption Sin—U Sin—U Dx—erupting Dx—erupting
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Stature: 161.37 cm (femur sin) Skull Stature: 166.13 cm (femur dx) Pathology/Trauma Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Dental pathology: Possible buccal caries Angle of the frontal Sloped Dental pathology: M1 left mandible— on right M2 in mandible (CEJ) Frontal/parietal No deep wear and caries (fracture?)—buc- Cribra and PH: Possible Porotic hyper- eminences cal/mesial; M1 right mandible almost ostosis on right parietal—or postmortem Nuchal crest U no wear; M2 right mandible deep wear Other: Dark demarcated area with pos- Mastoid process 5 U occlusal/distal; slight to medium calcu- sibly some iron attached on frontal Zygomatic bone 2 U lus on right mandible incisors and C. Antemortem trauma: U Orbital outline 3 U Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Supraorbital margin 2 U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: X Glabella 2 Possible perimortem trauma: X Gonial angle flare 3 U Mental eminence 3 SKELETON NO. 1381—ROW 1 SKELETON NO. 1382—ROW 1 (FIGS. 68 & 123) Pelvis (FIG. 124) Pelvis—trait Left Right Taphonomy/Preservation Taphonomy/Preservation Subpubic concavity U U The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Ventral arc 3 U tion in an E–W direction (cranium to tion in an E–W direction (cranium to Ischiopubic ramus 3 U the E), with hands in a shackle above the the E), with wrists folded over the skull. Subpubic angle U U head. Left femur is twisted; the dorsal Right ulna, and hand are displaced. The Greater sciatic notch 3 U side with trochanter minor pointing up- skeleton is almost complete; more than Preauricularis sulcus U U wards. The skeleton is almost complete; 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Estimate of age at death: Young adult they are well preserved. present, and they are well preserved. Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Quantitative preservation: 3 Quantitative preservation: 3 bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Qualitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 3 wear Position Position Epiphyses Skeleton: Supine Skeleton: Supine Skull (cranium + mandible) U Cranium: Supine—skull inclined to the Cranium: Supine—skull resting on left Thorax (sternum + ribs) A left side side Vertebral column U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Upper limbs >17 Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 flexed, Right lower limb—flexed flexed, Right lower limb—flexed. Lower limbs >20 Relation to other skeletons Located between the skeleton no. 1373 Relation to other skeletons Suture closure (ectocranial) Right pelvis below femur (distal end) and skeleton no. 1383. The lower right Coronal Significant of skeleton no. 1380; left femur below Sagittal U leg is close to, and lateral to the left femur the right tibia of skeleton no. 1360; left Lambdoid U of skeleton no. 1373. tibia/fibula below the right tibia/fibula Finds and feet of skeleton no. 1380 Pubic symphysis Shackles: No but according to field ob- Finds Left Right servation wrists folded over the skull— Iron staining of soil, left of the left pelvis III:1, 28.7 U seems to have been tied Shackles: Yes—wrists Tooth eruption, M3 Estimate of sex: Male Estimate of sex: Male? Maxilla Mandible Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Sin/dx—erupted A/U Tooth wear Maxilla Mandible Uneven wear 17–35 Uneven wear 17–35
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Fig. 123. Skeleton no. 1381. Fig. 124. Skeleton no. 1382.
Skull Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Significant Angle of the frontal Sloped Subpubic concavity 5 5 Sagittal U Frontal/parietal No Ventral arc U U Lambdoid U eminences Ischiopubic ramus U U Pubic symphysis Nuchal crest U Subpubic angle 5 U Left Right Mastoid process U U Greater sciatic notch 5 U III:1, 28.7 III:1, 28.7 Zygomatic bone U 3 Preauricularis sulcus U U Orbital outline U 3 Tooth eruption, M3 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Supraorbital margin U 3 Maxilla Mandible Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic Glabella 4 U Sin—U Gonial angle flare (U 3) symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Dx—A Mental eminence 5 Epiphyses Skull (cranium + mandible) U Tooth wear Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Maxilla Mandible Vertebral column U U 25–35 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >17 Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx and sin) Upper limbs >20 Pathology/Trauma Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Dental pathology: medium calculus on Lower limbs >20 left I1–C, and right I1–I2, mandible
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Antemortem trauma: U Pelvis the E), with hands in a shackle above the Likely perimortem trauma: U Pelvis—trait Left Right head. The skeleton is almost complete; Possible perimortem trauma: X Subpubic concavity 3 U more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Ventral arc 3 U present, and they are well preserved. Ischiopubic ramus U U SKELETON NO. 1383—ROW 1 Quantitative preservation: 3 (FIGS. 45, 69, & 125) Subpubic angle 3 U Qualitative preservation: 3 Greater sciatic notch 5 U Position Taphonomy/Preservation Preauricularis sulcus U U Skeleton: Supine The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Cranium: Supine tion, slightly leaning to the left, in an Measurement 48 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left E–W direction (cranium to the E), with hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Estimate of age at death: Juvenile right wrist attached to a shackle above Right upper limb—flexed, Right the head. Legs bent to the left side. The Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth hand—extended, palm upwards, Right skeleton is almost complete; more than lower limb—flexed 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and wear Epiphyses Relation to other skeletons they are well preserved. Right arm placed above the right arm of Skull (cranium + mandible) U Quantitative preservation: 3 skeleton no. 1383 Qualitative preservation: 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Vertebral column U Finds Position Shackles: Yes—left wrist Skeleton: Supine—slightly leaning to Shoulder girdle (clavicle + 16–21 scapula) Estimate of sex: Male? the left Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Cranium: Lateral—skull resting on the Upper limbs ≥20 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) . 19–20 Skull left side c Lower limbs . 18–20 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left c Angle of the frontal Sloped hand—extended, palm upwards, Left Suture closure (ectocranial) Frontal/parietal No lower limb—flexed, Right upper limb— Coronal Open eminences extended above head, Right hand— Sagittal U Nuchal crest U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Lambdoid U Mastoid process U 5 Relation to other skeletons Zygomatic bone 3 U Pubic symphysis The right arm is placed below the right Orbital outline U U Left Right arm of skeleton no. 1390 Supraorbital margin 3 3 I:1, c. 18.5 I:1, c. 18.5 Finds Glabella 4 Shackles: Yes—right wrist Tooth eruption, M3 Gonial angle flare 3 U Estimate of sex: Male Maxilla Mandible Mental eminence 3 Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted Pelvis Skull Tooth wear Pelvis—trait Left Right Skull—trait Left L/R Right Maxilla Mandible Subpubic concavity U U Angle of the frontal Sloped U 17–25 Ventral arc U U Frontal/parietal No Ischiopubic ramus U U eminences Stature: 163.75 cm (femur dx) Subpubic angle U U Nuchal crest U Pathology/Trauma Greater sciatic notch 5 U Mastoid process U U Other: slightly s-shaped spine Preauricularis sulcus U U Zygomatic bone U 3 Antemortem trauma: U Orbital outline U U Likely perimortem trauma: X Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Supraorbital margin U 2 Possible perimortem trauma: X Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Glabella 3 eruption, and tooth wear Gonial angle flare U 3 Mental eminence 3 SKELETON NO. 1390—ROW 1 (FIGS. 46, 70, & 126) Taphonomy/Preservation The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E–W direction (cranium to
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Fig. 125. Skeleton no. 1383. Fig. 126. Skeleton no. 1390.
Epiphyses Stature: 154.23 cm (femur dx) the quality of the bones is poor, but the Skull (cranium + mandible) U Pathology/Trauma bones present are well preserved. Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Dental pathology: Slight calculus on in- Quantitative preservation: 3 Vertebral column U cisors in left mandible, and on left C Qualitative preservation: 3 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Osteoarthritis: Significant osteophytosis Position Upper limbs >20 on three lower vertebral bodies—begin- Skeleton: Supine (lower body) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 ning to form a block; significant osteo- Cranium: Cranium is missing Lower limbs >17 phytosis on lumbar vertebra no. 5 Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left hand— trauma: U A, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper Suture closure (ectocranial) Antemortem Likely trauma: X limb—A, Right hand—A, Right lower Coronal Significant perimortem Sagittal Obliteration Possible perimortem trauma: X limb—flexed Lambdoid U Relation to other skeletons SKELETON NO. 1392—ROW 1 Skeleton in skeleton no. 1336 is placed Tooth eruption, M3 (FIGS. 17, 23, & 127) where the upper body of this skeleton Maxilla Mandible should be Taphonomy/Preservation Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted Finds Only legs and feet are present; placed in Shackles: No/not observable Tooth wear a supine position in an E–W direction Estimate of sex: Undetermined Maxilla Mandible (cranium should be to the E). Less than Criteria: Measurement U 25–35 1/3 of the skeleton is preserved, and
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Quantitative preservation: 3 Skeletons—Row 2 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position (Fig. 128) Skeleton: Supine Cranium: Cranium is missing Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left hand— SKELETON NO. 1228—ROW 2 A, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper (FIGS. 19 & 129) limb—A, Right hand—A, Right lower Taphonomy/Preservation limb—flexed The skeleton is placed on its right side in Relation to other skeletons a NW–SE (with cranium to the NW) Right femur is placed on top of the left direction. Hands are placed in front of leg of skeleton no. 1392; left tibia on the the body, in the pelvis area. The right leg right leg of skeleton no. 1373 is much flexed; placed above the legs of Finds skeleton no. 1386 and skeleton no. 1369. Shackles: No/not observable The skull is crushed (post excavation Estimate of sex: Male damage). The skeleton is almost com- Criteria: Pelvis, and measurement plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Pelvis are present. The quality of the bones is Pelvis—trait Left Right intermediate, and around 1/3–2/3 of Subpubic concavity U 3 the bones have a pronounced degree of erosion of surfaces and fragmentation. Fig. 127. Skeleton no. 1392. Ventral arc U 3 Ischiopubic ramus U 3 Quantitative preservation: 3 Subpubic angle 3 U Qualitative preservation: 2 Measurement 47 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Greater sciatic notch 4 U Position Preauricularis sulcus U U Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Estimate of age at death: Young adult Cranium: Lateral—on right side Criteria: Epiphyses Measurement Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Epiphyses 48 cm (femur dx, maximum head) hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extended, Skull (cranium + mandible) U Estimate of age at death: Young adult Right upper limb—slightly flexed, Right Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis hand—flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Vertebral column U Epiphyses Relation to other skeletons Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Right leg above the legs of skeleton no. Upper limbs U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U 1386 and skeleton no. 1369 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Vertebral column U Lower limbs c. 20? Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Finds Ring on left 4th finger (MC IV -PH I ) Upper limbs U Pathology/Trauma Shackles: No Antemortem trauma: U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) <27 Lower limbs >20 Estimate of sex: Male? Likely perimortem trauma: U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Possible perimortem trauma: X Pubic symphysis Skull Left Right Skull—trait Left L/R Right SKELETON NO. 1393—ROW 1 U III:1, c. 28.7 Angle of the frontal U (FIGS. 14 & 17) Frontal/parietal U Stature: 168.51 cm (femur sin) eminences Taphonomy/Preservation Pathology/Trauma Nuchal crest 4 Only lumbar vertebrae, legs, and feet are Other: Healed periostitis on left tibia Mastoid process U 3 present; placed in a supine position in an (proximal–middle diaphysis, medial Zygomatic bone U 1 E–W direction (cranium should be to border) Orbital outline U U the E). The left foot is displaced between Antemortem trauma: U Supraorbital margin U U the lower legs. Less than 1/3 of the skel- Likely perimortem trauma: U Glabella 4 eton is preserved, and the quality of the Possible perimortem trauma: U Gonial angle flare U U bones is good and the bones present are Mental eminence U well preserved.
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Fig. 128. Skeletons, Row 2.
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Fig. 129. Skeleton no. 1228. Fig. 130. Skeleton no. 1267.
Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) SKELETON NO. 1267—ROW 2 Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Significant (FIGS. 18, 71–72, & 130) Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal Minimal–significant Taphonomy/Preservation Ventral arc U U Lambdoid Open–minimal The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Ischiopubic ramus U U tion in a NW–SE direction (cranium to Subpubic angle U U Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible the SE), with arms and hands folded over Greater sciatic notch 5 U Sin—erupted Sin—U the torso. Knee caps and feet are missing. Preauricularis sulcus U U Dx—U Dx—erupted The skeleton is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Tooth wear Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth and they are well preserved. Maxilla Mandible Quantitative preservation: 3 eruption, and tooth wear U 35–45 Epiphyses Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Stature: 175.17 cm (humerus dx) Position Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Pathology/Trauma Skeleton: Supine Vertebral column U Antemortem trauma: U Cranium: Supine Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 Likely perimortem trauma: U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Upper limbs >20 Possible perimortem trauma: U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Lower limbs >20
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hand—flexed, Right lower limb—ex- Suture closure (ectocranial) Skull tended Coronal Minimal Skull—trait Left L/R Right Relation to other skeletons Sagittal Minimal Angle of the frontal Sloped The skeleton is placed on top of skeleton Lambdoid U Frontal/parietal No no. 1298, the skull resting on the pelvis eminences Tooth eruption, M3 of skeleton no. 1298 Nuchal crest 5 Maxilla Mandible Finds Mastoid process 2 U Sin—U Sin/dx—erupting Zygomatic bone U U Finger ring on left hand (PH I, MC IV ) Dx—erupting Shackles: Traces of metal under in the Orbital outline U U wrists Tooth wear Supraorbital margin U U Estimate of sex: Male? Maxilla Mandible Glabella 3 Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement U 17–25 Gonial angle flare 3 U Mental eminence 4 Skull Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx) Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Pelvis Angle of the Straight Dental pathology: Slight blue discolou- Pelvis—trait Left Right frontal ration Subpubic concavity U U Frontal/parietal No Ventral arc U U eminences Antemortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus U U Nuchal crest U Likely perimortem trauma: U Subpubic angle U U Mastoid process 5 5 Possible perimortem trauma: X Greater sciatic notch 4 U Zygomatic bone 2 U Preauricularis sulcus U U Orbital outline 3 U SKELETON NO. 1268—ROW 2 Supraorbital 3 3 (FIG. 131) Estimate of age at death: Young adult margin Criteria: Epiphyses and suture closure Glabella 2 Taphonomy/Preservation The skeleton in placed on its right side Epiphyses Gonial angle flare 2 U in an E–W (upper body with cranium to Skull (cranium + mandible) U Mental eminence 5 the E), and N–S (lower body) direction; Thorax (sternum + ribs) >20 Pelvis that is in an angle of 90 degrees. Hands Vertebral column U Pelvis—trait Left Right are placed behind the back. The skeleton Shoulder girdle (clavicle + 16–21 (flake scapula) missing) Subpubic concavity 3 U is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Upper limbs >20 Ventral arc U U skeletal parts are present, and they are Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + >20 Ischiopubic ramus U U well preserved. coccygis) Subpubic angle U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Lower limbs >19 Greater sciatic notch 3 U Qualitative preservation: 3 Preauricularis sulcus U U Position Suture closure (ectocranial) Coronal Open–minimal Measurement Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Cranium: Lateral—on right side Sagittal Minimal 70 cm (humerus sin, epicondylar breadth) Lambdoid Minimal Estimate of age at death: Young adult Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth hand—flexed, Left lower limb—slightly Stature: 161.37 cm (femur sin) eruption, and tooth wear flexed, Right upper limb—U, Right Pathology/Trauma Epiphyses hand—flexed, Right lower limb—slight- Dental pathology: Slight blue discolou- Skull (cranium + mandible) U ly flexed. ration Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Relation to other skeletons Antemortem trauma: U Vertebral column U Head on the left femur of skeleton no. Likely perimortem trauma: U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 24–29 1269; legs on the mandible and neck of Possible perimortem trauma: X Upper limbs >20 skeleton no. 1298 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Finds Shackles: No SKELETON NO. 1269—ROW 2 Lower limbs >19 (FIGS. 30–31, 36, & 132) Estimate of sex: Male? Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Taphonomy/Preservation The skeleton is placed in a prone position in an almost N–S direction (cranium to
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Fig. 131. Skeleton no. 1268. Fig. 132. Skeleton no. 1269.
the S), with arms behind the back. The Estimate of sex: Male Pelvis skeleton is almost complete; more than Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Pelvis—trait Left Right 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and Skull Subpubic concavity U 3 they are well preserved. Skull—trait Left L/R Right Ventral arc U 3 Quantitative preservation: 3 Angle of the frontal Ambi- Ischiopubic ramus U 3 Qualitative preservation: 3 guous Subpubic angle U 3 Position Frontal/parietal Slight Greater sciatic notch 5 5 eminences Skeleton: Supine Preauricularis sulcus N N Cranium: Supine Nuchal crest U Mastoid process U 3 Measurement Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, Left Zygomatic bone 2 2 67 cm (humerus sin, epicondylar breadth) hand—extended, Left lower limb— Orbital outline 3 3 Estimate of age at death: Young adult extended, Right upper limb—flexed, Supraorbital margin 3 3 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- Right hand—extended, Right lower Glabella 4 bic symphysis, and tooth eruption limb—extended Gonial angle flare 3 3 Relation to other skeletons Mental eminence 5 Head of skeleton no. 1268 on the left femur Finds Shackles: No
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Epiphyses Finds Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Shackles: No Position Thorax (sternum + ribs) <20 Estimate of sex: Male? Skeleton: Prone Vertebral column U Criteria: Skull Cranium: Prone—cranium slightly on Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) <21 Skull the left Upper limbs >20 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) <27 Angle of the frontal Sloped hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Lower limbs c. 20 Frontal/parietal No ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right eminences hand—flexed, Right lower limb—ex- Suture closure (ectocranial) Nuchal crest 4 tended Coronal Minimal–significant Mastoid process 4 U Relation to other skeletons Sagittal Minimal–significant Zygomatic bone U 2 Lambdoid Minimal Right femur (distal) is below the right Orbital outline U U lower leg and foot of skeleton no. 1371; Pubic symphysis Supraorbital margin U 3 the left hand of skeleton no. 1389 against Left Right Glabella 3 the right parietal of this skeleton III:1, (28.7) III:1, (28.7) Gonial angle flare U U Finds Mental eminence U Shackles: No Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Estimate of age at death: Adult Estimate of sex: Male Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Epiphyses Skull Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Skull (cranium + mandible) U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Angle of the frontal U Antemortem trauma: U Vertebral column U Frontal/parietal No Likely perimortem trauma: X Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 eminences Possible perimortem trauma: X Upper limbs >17 Nuchal crest 5 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 Mastoid process U U Zygomatic bone U U SKELETON NO. 1298—ROW 2 Lower limbs >20 Orbital outline U U (FIG. 133) Suture closure (ectocranial) Supraorbital margin U U Taphonomy/Preservation Coronal Significant–obliteration Glabella U The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Sagittal Significant Gonial angle flare 2 U tion in a NW–SE direction (cranium Lambdoid Minimal–significant Mental eminence U to the SE), with arms and hands folded over the torso. The skeleton is almost Stature: 162.85 cm (humerus sin) Pelvis complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal Pathology/Trauma Pelvis—trait Left Right parts are present, and they are well pre- Dental pathology: Slight blue discolou- Subpubic concavity U U served. ration Ventral arc U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Antemortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus 3 U Qualitative preservation: 3 Likely perimortem trauma: U Subpubic angle U U Possible trauma: X Position perimortem Greater sciatic notch U U Skeleton: Supine Preauricularis sulcus U U Cranium: Supine—cranium resting on SKELETON NO. 1351—ROW 2 Estimate of age at death: Adult left side (FIG. 134) Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Taphonomy/Preservation Epiphyses hand—U, Left lower limb—slightly The skeleton is placed in a prone and Skull (cranium + mandible) U flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right outstretched position in a NW–SE Thorax (sternum + ribs) U hand—U, Right lower limb—U direction (cranium to the SE), hands Vertebral column U Relation to other skeletons crossed behind the back (probably tied). Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Lumbar vertebrae and pelvis below skel- The skeleton is almost complete; more Upper limbs >20 eton no. 1267; skull and neck under the than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 lower legs of skeleton no. 1268 and they are well preserved. Lower limbs >20 Quantitative preservation: 3
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Fig. 133. Skeleton no. 1298. Fig. 134. Skeleton no. 1351.
Suture closure (ectocranial) Hands are crossed behind the back. The Finds Coronal Minimal skeleton is incomplete, and the skull is Shackles: No Sagittal Minimal damaged. The quality of the bones is in- Estimate of sex: Male? Lambdoid Minimal termediate, and around 1/3–2/3 of the Criteria: Skull, and pelvis bones have a pronounced degree of ero- Skull Stature: 166.13 cm (femur sin) sion of surfaces and fragmentation. Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pathology/Trauma Quantitative preservation: 3 Angle of the frontal U Antemortem trauma: U Qualitative preservation: 2 Frontal/parietal U Likely perimortem trauma: U Position eminences Possible perimortem trauma: U Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Nuchal crest 3 Nonmetric skeletal traits Cranium: Lateral—on right side Mastoid process 4 U Small os inca in lambdoid suture Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Zygomatic bone 3 U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Orbital outline 1 U SKELETON NO. 1357—ROW 2 Right upper limb—U, Right hand— Supraorbital margin 3 U (FIGS. 75 & 135) flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Glabella U Gonial angle flare 3 U Taphonomy/Preservation Relation to other skeletons The skeleton is placed on its right side in The skeleton is lying directly N of skel- Mental eminence 2 an SW–NE (upper body with cranium eton no. 1369, and with the right arm- to the SW), and N–S (lower body) di- elbow of skeleton no. 1369 above the rection; almost at an angle of 45 degrees. right femur of no. 1357.
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Fig. 135. Skeleton no. 1357. Fig. 136. Skeleton no. 1368.
Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) SKELETON NO. 1368—ROW 2 Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Minimal (FIG. 136) Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal Minimal Taphonomy/Preservation Ventral arc U U Lambdoid Minimal The skeleton is placed on its left side in Ischiopubic ramus U U a NE–SW (upper body, with cranium Subpubic angle 4 U Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible to the NE) and an NW–SE direction Greater sciatic notch 4 U Sin—erupted Sin—erupted (lower body). Hands are placed behind Preauricularis sulcus U U Dx—U Dx—U the back (probably tied). The skeleton is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Estimate of age at death: Young adult Tooth wear Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth skeletal parts are present, and they are Maxilla Mandible well preserved. eruption, and tooth wear 17–25 U Epiphyses Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U Stature: 178.03 cm (femur sin) Qualitative preservation: 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Pathology/Trauma Position Vertebral column U Dental pathology: Medium calculus on Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U left and right I1–I2, maxilla; slight cal- Cranium: Lateral—on left side Upper limbs >20 culus on left C maxilla. Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Antemortem trauma: U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Lower limbs >19 Likely perimortem trauma: U ed, slightly flexed, Right upper limb— Possible perimortem trauma: X
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flexed, Right hand—U, Right lower Tooth wear Skull limb—extended, slightly flexed Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Relation to other skeletons 17–25 U Angle of the frontal Sloped Right hand of skeleton no. 1386 placed Frontal/parietal No Stature: 162.85 cm (humerus dx) on this skeleton eminences Pathology/Trauma Nuchal crest 4 Finds Dental pathology: Slight calculus on all Shackles: No Mastoid process 5 U mandibular teeth; right maxilla: slight Zygomatic bone 2 2 Estimate of sex: Male? calculus on I1, I2; slight linear enamel Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Orbital outline U U hypoplasia on I1, left and right in max- Supraorbital margin 4 U Skull illa; blue discolouration on right I2, Skull—trait Left L/R Right Glabella 4 maxilla and slight on I1, I2, C mandible Angle of the frontal Sloped Gonial angle flare 1 U Antemortem trauma: X Frontal/parietal No Mental eminence U eminences Likely perimortem trauma: U Pelvis Nuchal crest 4 Possible perimortem trauma: U Pelvis—trait Left Right Mastoid process U 4 Subpubic concavity U U Zygomatic bone U U SKELETON NO. 1369—ROW 2 Ventral arc U U Orbital outline U 3 (FIGS. 74 & 137) Ischiopubic ramus U U Supraorbital margin U 4 Taphonomy/Preservation Subpubic angle U U Glabella 3 The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Greater sciatic notch 5 U Gonial angle flare U 1 tion in a W–E direction (cranium to the Preauricularis sulcus U U Mental eminence 3 W), and a N–S (lower body) direction. Measurement Hands are placed behind the back with Pelvis 47 cm (femur sin, maximum head) Pelvis—trait Left Right the right hand on top (sticking up). The Estimate of age at death: Young adult skeleton is almost complete. The qual- Subpubic concavity U U Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and ity of the bones is intermediate, and Ventral arc U U tooth eruption Ischiopubic ramus U U around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- Epiphyses Subpubic angle U U nounced degree of erosion of surfaces Skull (cranium + mandible) U Greater sciatic notch U 5 and fragmentation. Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Preauricularis sulcus U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Vertebral column U Qualitative preservation: 2 Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Position Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth Upper limbs >20 Skeleton: Prone eruption, and tooth wear Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Cranium: Prone—cranium slightly on Epiphyses Lower limbs >19 the right Skull (cranium + mandible) U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Suture closure (ectocranial) Thorax (sternum + ribs) U hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Coronal Open Vertebral column U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Sagittal Open Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U U, Right lower limb—flexed Lambdoid Open Upper limbs >20 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 Relation to other skeletons Tooth eruption, M3 Lower legs below the right lower leg of Lower limbs >18 Maxilla Mandible skeleton no. 1228 and the lower legs of Sin—erupted Sin—erupted Suture closure (ectocranial) skeleton no. 1386 Dx—U Dx—U Coronal Significant Finds Sagittal Significant–obliteration Shackles: No Stature: 161.37 cm (femur sin) Lambdoid Significant–complete Estimate of sex: Male Pathology/Trauma Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement. Dental pathology: Slight calculus on C Tooth eruption, M3 and P1 in the left mandible Maxilla Mandible Antemortem trauma: U Sin—U Sin—U Likely perimortem trauma: U Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Possible perimortem trauma: X
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Fig. 137. Skeleton no. 1369. Fig. 138. Skeleton no. 1370.
SKELETON NO. 1370—ROW 2 Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (FIG. 138) Lower legs/feet below skull of skeleton Pelvis—trait Left Right Taphonomy/Preservation no. 1269 Subpubic concavity U U The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Finds Ventral arc U U tion in a NW–SE direction (cranium to Shackles: No Ischiopubic ramus U U the SE), almost in a recovery position. Estimate of sex: Male? Subpubic angle U U The skeleton is almost complete; more Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Greater sciatic notch 5 U than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Skull Preauricularis sulcus U U Skull—trait Left L/R Right and they are well preserved. Measurement Quantitative preservation: 3 Angle of the frontal Straight 78 cm (femur dx, epicondylar breadth) Qualitative preservation: 3 Frontal/parietal No eminences Estimate of age at death: Adult Position Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Skeleton: Prone Nuchal crest 5 Cranium: Prone—cranium slightly on Mastoid process 2 U the right side Zygomatic bone 2 U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Orbital outline U U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Supraorbital margin 4 U Right upper limb—U, Right hand—ex- Glabella 3 Gonial angle flare U U tended, Right lower limb—U Mental eminence U
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Epiphyses Skull Antemortem trauma: U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Likely perimortem trauma: U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Angle of the frontal Sloped Possible perimortem trauma: U Vertebral column U Frontal/parietal Slight Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 eminences Nuchal crest 3 SKELETON NO. 1386—ROW 2 Upper limbs >20 (FIGS. 48 & 140) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Mastoid process U 3 Lower limbs >20 Zygomatic bone U 2 Taphonomy/Preservation Orbital outline 1 1 The skeleton is placed on its left side in Suture closure (ectocranial) Supraorbital margin 3 U a 90 degrees angle in a SW–NE (upper Coronal Open–minimal Glabella 4 body, with cranium to the SW), and a Sagittal Open–minimal Gonial angle flare 1 U NW–SE direction (lower body). Hands Lambdoid Open–minimal Mental eminence 4 are placed behind the back (as if tied). The skeleton is almost complete; more Stature: 156.61 cm (femur dx) Pelvis Pathology/Trauma than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Pelvis—trait Left Right and they are well preserved. Dental pathology: Slight calculus on sin Subpubic concavity U U Quantitative preservation: 3 C, P1 and P2, mandible Ventral arc U U Qualitative preservation: 3 Antemortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus U U Position Likely perimortem trauma: U Subpubic angle 3 3 Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Possible perimortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch U 4 Cranium: Lateral—on left side Preauricularis sulcus U U Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left SKELETON NO. 1371—ROW 2 Estimate of age at death: Young adult hand—extended, Left lower limb— (FIG. 139) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Taphonomy/Preservation eruption, and tooth wear hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Epiphyses Relation to other skeletons tion (slightly on the left side) in a NW– Skull (cranium + mandible) U Lower legs and feet below the right low- SE direction (cranium to the SE), with Thorax (sternum + ribs) U er leg of skeleton no. 1228, but above the arms and hands folded over the torso Vertebral column U lower legs of skeleton no. 1369; the right (possibly tied). Left lower arm and hand Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >29 hand is resting on skeleton no. 1368 is sticking up. The skeleton is almost Upper limbs >20 Finds complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Shackles: No, but demarcated staining parts are present, and they are well pre- Lower limbs >19 on right parietal, possibly from iron? served. Suture closure (ectocranial) Estimate of sex: Male? Quantitative preservation: 3 Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Coronal Minimal Qualitative preservation: 3 Sagittal Minimal–significant Skull Position Skull—trait Left L/R Right Lambdoid Minimal Skeleton: Supine—slightly on left side Angle of the frontal Sloped Cranium: Supine—slightly on left side Tooth eruption, M3 Frontal/parietal No Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Maxilla Mandible eminences hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Sin—U Sin—U Nuchal crest 3 ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Mastoid process U 5 Zygomatic bone 2 2 hand—flexed, Right lower limb—ex- Tooth wear Orbital outline 3 3 tended Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin 5 U Relation to other skeletons U 25–35 Right leg above the left leg of skeleton Glabella 4 no. 1389 Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Gonial angle flare U 2 Finds Pathology/Trauma Mental eminence 3 Shackles: No Dental pathology: Slight calculus on I2 Estimate of sex: Male? and C in the right mandible Criteria: Skull, and pelvis
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Fig. 139. Skeleton no. 1371. Fig. 140. Skeleton no. 1386.
Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) SKELETON NO. 1387—ROW 2 Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Open (FIGS. 76 & 141) Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal Minimal–significant Taphonomy/Preservation Ventral arc U U Lambdoid Open–minimal The skeleton is placed on its left side in a Ischiopubic ramus U U N–S (with cranium to the S) direction. Subpubic angle U U Tooth eruption, M3 Maxilla Mandible Hands are placed behind the back. The Greater sciatic notch 5 U Sin—U Sin—erupted skull is crushed, probably damaged by Preauricularis sulcus U U Dx—erupted Dx—U excavation. The skeleton is almost com- plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Estimate of age at death: Young adult Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and are present, and they are well preserved. Pathology/Trauma tooth eruption Quantitative preservation: 3 Dental pathology: Left I1 and right Qualitative preservation: 3 Epiphyses I1, I2, maxilla, right C maxilla: LEH, Skull (cranium + mandible) U Position 2 lines; blue discolouration on left and Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Thorax (sternum + ribs) U right I1, and right I2. Vertebral column U Cranium: Lateral—on left side Antemortem trauma: U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 24–29 Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left Likely perimortem trauma: X Upper limbs >20 hand—U, Left lower limb—U, Right Possible perimortem trauma: X Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U upper limb—flexed, Right hand—U, Lower limbs >19 Right lower limb—extended
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Fig. 141. Skeleton no. 1387. Fig. 142. Skeleton no. 1388.
Relation to other skeletons Pelvis Tooth eruption, M3 Right elbow of 1388 close to/partly on, Pelvis—trait Left Right Maxilla Mandible the right coxae. Subpubic concavity U U Sin/dx—U Sin/dx—erupted Finds Ventral arc U U Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Shackles: No Ischiopubic ramus U U Pathology/Trauma Estimate of sex: Male? Subpubic angle U U Antemortem trauma: U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Greater sciatic notch U 4 Likely perimortem trauma: U Skull Preauricularis sulcus U U Possible perimortem trauma: X Skull—trait Left L/R Right Estimate of age at death: Adult Angle of the frontal U Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Frontal/parietal U SKELETON NO. 1388—ROW 2 eminences Epiphyses (FIGS. 77–78 & 142) Skull (cranium + mandible) U Nuchal crest 3 Taphonomy/Preservation Mastoid process U 3 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Vertebral column U The skeleton is placed on its left side in a Zygomatic bone U U N–S (with cranium to the N) direction. Orbital outline U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Upper limbs >17 Hands are placed behind the back; legs Supraorbital margin U U are bent. The skeleton is almost com- Glabella U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Lower limbs >20 plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Gonial angle flare U 3 are present, and they are well preserved. Mental eminence U
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Quantitative preservation: 3 Epiphyses Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull (cranium + mandible) U hand—flexed, Left lower limb—flexed, Position Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Vertebral column U flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Cranium: Lateral—on left side Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Relation to other skeletons Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left hand— Upper limbs >17 Left leg below the right leg of skeleton U, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 no. 1371 limb—flexed, Right hand—U, Right Lower limbs >20 Finds lower limb—flexed Shackles: No Suture closure (ectocranial) Relation to other skeletons Coronal Significant Estimate of sex: Male? The neck is resting under the legs of skel- Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Sagittal U eton no. 1368; the knees on the head of Lambdoid U Skull skeleton no. 1397 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Finds Pubic symphysis Angle of the frontal U Shackles: No Left Right Frontal/parietal U Estimate of sex: Male IV:1, 35.2 U eminences Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Nuchal crest 3 Tooth eruption, M3 Mastoid process U U Skull Maxilla Mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Zygomatic bone 2 U Sin /dx—erupted Sin /dx—erupted Angle of the frontal Sloped Orbital outline U U Frontal/parietal No Tooth wear Supraorbital margin U U eminences Maxilla Mandible Glabella U Nuchal crest U U 17–25 Gonial angle flare U 3 Mastoid process U 4 Mental eminence U Zygomatic bone 3 U Stature: 166.13 cm (femur dx) Pelvis Orbital outline U U Pathology/Trauma Pelvis—trait Left Right Supraorbital margin 3 U Dental pathology: Right mandible, C, Subpubic concavity U U Glabella 4 PM1, PM2: slight linear enamel hypo- Ventral arc U U Gonial angle flare U U plasia; Right maxilla M1: buccal caries, Ischiopubic ramus U U Mental eminence U slight Antemortem trauma: U Subpubic angle U U Pelvis Likely perimortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch U 5 Pelvis—trait Left Right Possible perimortem trauma: X Preauricularis sulcus U U Subpubic concavity 3 U Estimate of age at death: Adult Ventral arc 3 U Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Ischiopubic ramus 3 U SKELETON NO. 1389—ROW 2 (FIGS. 34, 73, & 143) Epiphyses Subpubic angle U U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Greater sciatic notch U U Taphonomy/Preservation Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Preauricularis sulcus U U The skeleton is placed on its left side in a 90 degrees angle in a SW–NE (upper Vertebral column U Measurement body, with cranium to the SW) and an Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U 55 cm (humerus dx, epicondylar breadth) NW–SE direction (lower body). Hands Upper limbs >20 Estimate of age at death: Middle adult are placed behind the back? The skeleton Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Lower limbs >19 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth skeletal parts are present, and they are Suture closure (ectocranial) wear well preserved. Coronal U Quantitative preservation: 3 Sagittal U Qualitative preservation: 3 Lambdoid Minimal Position Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx) Cranium: Lateral—on left side
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Fig. 143. Skeleton no. 1389. Fig. 144. Skeleton no. 1397.
Pathology/Trauma is not connected. The skeleton is almost Estimate of sex: Undetermined Antemortem trauma: U complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Likely perimortem trauma: U parts are present, and they are well pre- Skull Possible perimortem trauma: X served. Skull—trait Left L/R Right Quantitative preservation: 3 Angle of the frontal U Qualitative preservation: 3 Frontal/parietal U SKELETON NO. 1397—ROW 2 eminences (FIG. 144) Position Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Nuchal crest 3 Taphonomy/Preservation Cranium: Lateral—on right side Mastoid process U U The skeleton in placed on its right side in Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Zygomatic bone U U a N–S (upper body with cranium to the hand—flexed, Left lower limb—extend- Orbital outline U U N), and E–W (lower body with feet to ed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Supraorbital margin U U the W) direction; that is in an angle of hand—flexed, Right lower limb—ex- Glabella U 90 degrees. All phalanges of the left foot tended Gonial angle flare U U are missing. Hands are placed behind Relation to other skeletons Mental eminence U the back. Post-depositional processes The left knee of skeleton no. 1388 is significantly disturb several of the bones; placed on skull left scaphoid is found on the right femur, Finds right femur is rotated medially; right Shackles: No kneecap has slipped down; right radius
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Fig. 145. Skeletons, Row 3.
Pelvis Epiphyses Skeletons—Row 3 Pelvis—trait Left Right Skull (cranium + mandible) U Subpubic concavity U U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U (Fig. 145) Ventral arc U U Vertebral column U Ischiopubic ramus U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Subpubic angle U U Upper limbs >17 SKELETON NO. 1271—ROW 3 Greater sciatic notch 4 U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 (FIGS. 79 & 146) Preauricularis sulcus U U Lower limbs >20 Taphonomy/Preservation The skeleton is placed in a N–S direction Estimate of age at death: Adult Suture closure (ectocranial) (cranium to the S). The upper part of the Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Coronal U body is in a supine position; the lower part Sagittal Significant–complete is resting on its left side. Arms are slightly Lambdoid Significant bent to the left above the head, with the Pathology/Trauma hands in a shackle. The vertebral bodies Antemortem trauma: U are missing. The skeleton is almost com- Likely perimortem trauma: U plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Possible perimortem trauma: U are present, but the quality of the bones is
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Fig. 146. Skeleton 1271. Fig. 147. Skeleton no. 1272.
poor and more than 2/3 of the skeleton is Estimate of sex: Undetermined Epiphyses fragmented and affected by erosion. Criteria: Skull Skull (cranium + mandible) U Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Qualitative preservation: 1 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Vertebral column U Position Angle of the frontal Sloped Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Skeleton: Supine—postcranial skeleton Frontal/parietal Slight Upper limbs >15 on the left eminences Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Cranium: Supine Nuchal crest U Lower limbs >18 Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Mastoid process U U Tooth eruption, M3 hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed?, Zygomatic bone 2 U Maxilla Mandible Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Orbital outline U U Supraorbital margin 2 U Sin—erupted Sin—A extended, Right lower limb—flexed Dx—U Dx—U Relation to other skeletons Glabella 2 The skeleton is placed below skeleton no. Gonial angle flare 3 U Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) 1275, but above skeleton no. 1272; left Mental eminence 4 Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U tibia and fibula continue below skeleton Estimate of age at death: Adult Likely trauma: U no. 1275 Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption perimortem Finds Possible perimortem trauma: X Shackles: Yes—wrists
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SKELETON NO. 1272—ROW 3 Pelvis limb—extended, Right hand—A, Right (FIGS. 21–22, 49, & 147) Pelvis—trait Left Right lower limb—flexed Taphonomy/Preservation Subpubic concavity U U Relation to other skeletons The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Ventral arc U U Left pelvis is placed below the pelvic tion in a SSW–NNE direction (cranium Ischiopubic ramus U U girdle of skeleton no. 1276 to the SSW). Head is resting on its left Subpubic angle U U Finds side. Arms are slightly bent to the left Greater sciatic notch U 4 Shackles: No above the head, and hands are placed in Preauricularis sulcus U U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull a shackle. Both legs are extremely flexed. Estimate of age at death: Juvenile The skeleton is almost complete. The Criteria: Suture closure, tooth eruption, Skull quality of the bones is intermediate, and and tooth wear Skull—trait Left L/R Right Angle of the frontal U around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have a pro- Suture closure (ectocranial) nounced degree of erosion of surfaces Frontal/parietal U Coronal Open eminences and fragmentation. Sagittal minimal Quantitative preservation: 3 Nuchal crest U Qualitative preservation: 2 Tooth eruption, M3 Mastoid process U U Zygomatic bone U 2 Position Maxilla Mandible Skeleton: Supine Sin—U Sin/dx—U Orbital outline U U Dx—not erupted Supraorbital margin U 3 Cranium: Lateral—on left side Glabella 3 Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Tooth wear Gonial angle flare U 3 hand—U, Left lower limb—extremely Maxilla Mandible Mental eminence 3 flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right 17–25 U hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed Estimate of age at death: Adult Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Criteria: Tooth eruption Pathology/Trauma Relation to other skeletons Tooth eruption, M3 Antemortem trauma: U The pelvis is above the right knee of skel- Maxilla Mandible Likely perimortem trauma: X eton no. 1294; the left leg is below the Sin—U Sin—U Possible trauma: U right leg of skeleton no. 1271 perimortem Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Finds Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) SKELETON NO. 1275—ROW 3 Arrowhead, left thorax, near to the Pathology/Trauma (FIG. 148) shoulder. Antemortem trauma: U Shackles: Yes—wrists Taphonomy/Preservation Likely perimortem trauma: U Estimate of sex: Male? The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Possible perimortem trauma: U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis tion in a SSW–NNE direction (with Skull cranium to the SSW); its upper body on Skull—trait Left L/R Right a higher level. Head is slightly resting on SKELETON NO. 1276—ROW 3 (FIG. 149) Angle of the frontal U the left side. Arms are probably placed Frontal/parietal No above the head. Legs are flexed. The skel- Taphonomy/Preservation eminences eton is almost complete; more than 2/3 The skeleton is placed on its left side in a Nuchal crest U of the skeletal parts are present, but the SSW–NNE (with cranium to the SSW) Mastoid process U U quality of the bones is poor and more direction. The right leg is extremely Zygomatic bone U U than 2/3 of the skeleton is fragmented flexed (left leg is more or less unobserv- Orbital outline U U and affected by erosion. able). The skull is crushed. Arms and Supraorbital margin U U Quantitative preservation: 3 hands are more or less missing, but seem Glabella U Qualitative preservation: 1 to be stretched above the head. Approxi- Gonial angle flare U U Position mately half of the skeleton is preserved, Mental eminence U Skeleton: Supine but the quality of the bones is poor and Cranium: Supine—cranium slightly on more than 2/3 of the skeleton is frag- left side mented and affected by erosion. Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left hand— Quantitative preservation: 2 A, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper Qualitative preservation: 1
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Fig. 148. Skeleton no. 1275. Fig. 149. Skeleton no. 1276.
Position Pelvis Pubic symphysis Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Pelvis—trait Left Right Left Right Cranium: Lateral—on left side Subpubic concavity U 3 III:1, 28.7 U Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left hand— Ventral arc U 3 Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) A, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper Ischiopubic ramus U 2 Pathology/Trauma limb—U, Right hand—A, Right lower Subpubic angle U U Antemortem trauma: U limb—flexed Greater sciatic notch U U Likely perimortem trauma: U Relation to other skeletons Preauricularis sulcus U U Possible perimortem trauma: U Partly below skeleton no. 1277, and Estimate of age at death: Young adult partly above skeleton no. 1275 Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis Finds SKELETON NO. 1277—ROW 3 Epiphyses Shackles: No (FIG. 150) Skull (cranium + mandible) U Estimate of sex: Male? Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Taphonomy/Preservation Criteria: Pelvis Vertebral column U The skeleton is placed on its left side in Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U a SW–NE (with cranium to the SW) Upper limbs >20 direction. Legs are bent. The skull is Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 crushed; most of the mandible is miss- Lower limbs >20 ing. Arms and hands are more or less missing, but the right arm seems to be
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Fig. 150. Skeleton no. 1277. Fig. 151. Skeleton no. 1285.
stretched above the head. Left lower legs Estimate of sex: Undetermined SKELETON NO. 1285—ROW 3 are covered by soil. Approximately half Criteria: Neither skull, pelvis nor mea- (FIG. 151) of the skeleton is preserved, but the qual- surement are sufficiently preserved Taphonomy/Preservation ity of the bones is bad and more than Estimate of age at death: Adult The skeleton is probably placed on its left 2/3 of the skeleton is fragmented and af- Criteria: Epiphyses side in a SW–NE (with cranium to the fected by erosion. Epiphyses SW) direction. Legs are bent. The skull Quantitative preservation: 2 Skull (cranium + mandible) U is crushed; left mandible missing. Both Qualitative preservation: 1 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U arms and hands are missing. Approxi- Position Vertebral column U mately half of the skeleton is preserved, Skeleton: Lateral—on left side Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >18 but the quality of the bones is poor and Cranium: Lateral—on left side Upper limbs U more than 2/3 of the skeleton is frag- Limbs: Left upper limb—U, Left hand— Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U mented and affected by erosion. U, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper Lower limbs >18 Quantitative preservation: 2 limb—U, Right hand—U, Right lower Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Qualitative preservation: 1 limb—flexed Pathology/Trauma Position Relation to other skeletons Antemortem trauma: U Skeleton: Lateral—on the left side Between skeleton no.1285 and skeleton Likely perimortem trauma: U (probably) no. 1276. Possible perimortem trauma: U Cranium: U Finds Shackles: No
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Limbs: Left upper limb—A, Left The left elbow is dislocated, as is the left Epiphyses hand—A, Left lower limb—A, Right humerus. The skeleton is almost com- Skull (cranium + mandible) U upper limb—A, Right hand—A, Right plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Thorax (sternum + ribs) U lower limb—flexed are present, and they are well preserved. Vertebral column U Relation to other skeletons Quantitative preservation: 3 Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >23 North of skeleton no. 1277 Qualitative preservation: 3 Upper limbs >17 Finds Position Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Shackles: No Skeleton: Prone Lower limbs >18 Cranium: Prone—but bent backwards Estimate of sex: Undetermined Suture closure (ectocranial) Criteria: Skull Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Coronal U hand—U, Left lower limb—slightly Skull Sagittal U Skull—trait Left L/R Right flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Lambdoid Significant Angle of the frontal U hand—U, Right lower limb—slightly Frontal/parietal U flexed Tooth eruption, M3 eminences Relation to other skeletons Maxilla Mandible Nuchal crest U The skeleton is placed above the skel- Sin—U Sin/dx—U Mastoid process U 4 etons nos. 1316 and 1332; the right tibia Dx—erupted Zygomatic bone U U and fibula are placed below skeleton no. Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Orbital outline U U 1272 Pathology/Trauma Supraorbital margin U U Finds Antemortem trauma: U Glabella U Shackles: Yes—wrists Likely perimortem trauma: U Gonial angle flare U U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Possible perimortem trauma: U (crust Mental eminence U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis covers large part of the cranium) Estimate of age at death: Adult Skull Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Skull—trait Left L/R Right SKELETON NO. 1316—ROW 3 Angle of the frontal U Epiphyses (FIGS. 50 & 153) Skull (cranium + mandible) U Frontal/parietal U eminences Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Taphonomy/Preservation Nuchal crest U Vertebral column U The skeleton is placed on its right side Mastoid process U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U in a NE–SW direction (cranium to the Zygomatic bone U 3 Upper limbs U SW), with hands in a shackle above the Orbital outline U U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 head. Legs are bent to the right. A small Supraorbital margin U 3 Lower limbs >18 tabular piece of limestone is found di- Glabella 3–4 rectly to the S of the hands. Approxi- Tooth eruption, M3 Gonial angle flare 2 U mately half of the skeleton is preserved. Maxilla Mandible Mental eminence U The quality of the bones is intermediate, U Sin—erupted and around 1/3–2/3 of the bones have Pelvis Dx—U a pronounced degree of erosion of sur- Pelvis—trait Left Right Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Subpubic concavity U U faces and fragmentation. Pathology/Trauma Ventral arc U U Quantitative preservation: 2 Antemortem trauma: U Ischiopubic ramus U U Qualitative preservation: 2 Likely perimortem trauma: U Subpubic angle U U Position Possible perimortem trauma: U Greater sciatic notch U 3 Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Preauricularis sulcus U U Cranium: Lateral—on right side Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left SKELETON NO. 1294—ROW 3 Estimate of age at death: Adult hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, (FIG. 152) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Taphonomy/Preservation tooth eruption U/A, Right lower limb—flexed The skeleton is placed in a prone posi- Relation to other skeletons tion with outstretched legs in a NNE– Thorax below the skull of skeleton no. SSW direction (cranium to the SSW), 1294 with hands in a shackle above the head.
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Fig. 152. Skeleton no. 1294. Fig. 153. Skeleton no. 1316.
Finds Estimate of age at death: Adult Pathology/Trauma Shackles: Yes—wrists Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Dental pathology: No? Estimate of sex: Undetermined tooth wear Antemortem trauma: U Criteria: Skull Epiphyses Likely perimortem trauma: X Skull Skull (cranium + mandible) U Possible perimortem trauma: U Skull—trait Left L/R Right Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Angle of the frontal U Vertebral column U SKELETON NO. 1332—ROW 3 Frontal/parietal U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U (FIG. 154) eminences Upper limbs >17 Nuchal crest 4 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Taphonomy/Preservation Mastoid process U U Lower limbs >18 Skeleton is placed in a supine position in Zygomatic bone 2 U an approximate N–S direction (cranium Orbital outline U U Suture closure (ectocranial) to the S, and bent to the left), with hands Supraorbital margin U U Coronal Significant in a shackle above the head. A piece of Glabella U Sagittal Significant limestone is found directly to the SW Gonial angle flare U U Lambdoid Significant of the skull. A right tibia, not belonging Mental eminence U Tooth wear to this individual, was found above the Maxilla Mandible right arm. The skeleton is almost com- M2 sin wear U plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and they are well preserved.
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Quantitative preservation: 3 Tooth wear Pelvis Qualitative preservation: 3 Maxilla Mandible Pelvis—trait Left Right Position 17–25 U Subpubic concavity U U Skeleton: Supine Ventral arc U U Pathology/Trauma Cranium: Supine—cranium on left side Ischiopubic ramus U U Antemortem trauma: U Limbs: Left upper limb—unobservable, Subpubic angle U U Likely perimortem trauma: U Left hand—on top of left rib cage, Left Greater sciatic notch U 4 Possible perimortem trauma: U lower limb—absent, Right upper limb— Preauricularis sulcus U U flexed, Right hand—palm upwards, Estimate of age at death: Young adult Right lower limb—flexed Relation to SKELETON NO. 1333—ROW 3 (FIGS. 51, 80, & 155) Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and other skeletons tooth eruption The skeleton is partly below skeleton no. Taphonomy/Preservation Epiphyses 1316 The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Skull (cranium + mandible) U Finds tion in a N–S direction (cranium to Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Shackles: Yes—wrists the S), with hands in a shackle above Vertebral column U Estimate of sex: Undetermined the head. Right legs is flexed. Feet are Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 16–21 Criteria: Skull unobservable. The skeleton is almost Upper limbs >17 Skull complete. The quality of the bones is in- Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) <27 Skull—trait Left L/R Right termediate, and around 1/3–2/3 of the Lower limbs >20 Angle of the frontal U bones have a pronounced degree of ero- Frontal/parietal U sion of surfaces and fragmentation. Suture closure (ectocranial) eminences Quantitative preservation: 3 Coronal U Nuchal crest 5 Qualitative preservation: 2 Sagittal Minimal Mastoid process U 3 Position Lambdoid U Zygomatic bone U 2 Skeleton: Supine Orbital outline U U Tooth eruption, M3 Cranium: Supine—cranium slightly on Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin U U left side Sin/dx—erupted Sin/dx—erupted Glabella U Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Gonial angle flare U 2 hand—extended, Left lower limb—very Pathology/Trauma Mental eminence U flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Dental pathology: Large caries buccal on left M1 mandible Estimate of age at death: Young adult hand—flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Criteria: Epiphyses, pubic symphysis, Relation to other skeletons Antemortem trauma: U tooth eruption, and tooth wear Partly below skeleton no. 1385 Likely perimortem trauma: X Possible trauma: X Epiphyses Finds perimortem Skull (cranium + mandible) U Shackles: Yes Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Estimate of sex: Male? SKELETON NO. 1344—ROW 3 Vertebral column U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis (FIGS. 20, 35, & 156) Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Skull Taphonomy/Preservation Upper limbs >15 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Skeleton is placed in a prone position Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Angle of the frontal U in a NE–SW direction (cranium to the Lower limbs >17 Frontal/parietal U SW, resting slightly on the right side), eminences with hands in a shackle above the head. Pubic symphysis Nuchal crest U Right arm is unobservable, probably Left Right Mastoid process 4 U below the skull covered by soil. The skel- II:1, c. 23.4 U Zygomatic bone 2 U eton is almost complete; more than 2/3 Orbital outline 2 U Tooth eruption, M3 of the skeletal parts are present, and they Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin 2 2 Glabella 3 are well preserved. Sin—U Sin—U Quantitative preservation: 3 Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Gonial angle flare U U Mental eminence 4 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position Skeleton: Prone
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Fig. 154. Skeleton no. 1332. Fig. 155. Skeleton no. 1333.
Cranium: Prone—cranium slightly on Skull Pelvis the right Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Angle of the frontal U Subpubic concavity U U hand—extended, Left lower limb— Frontal/parietal No Ventral arc U U flexed, Right upper limb—U, Right eminences Ischiopubic ramus U U hand—flexed, Right lower limb—U Nuchal crest U Subpubic angle U U Relation to other skeletons Mastoid process U U Greater sciatic notch 5 U Partly below skeleton no. 1333 Zygomatic bone 3 U Preauricularis sulcus U U Finds Orbital outline U U Estimate of age at death: Adult Knife, medial of the left tibia Supraorbital margin U U Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Shackles: Yes—wrists Glabella U Gonial angle flare 3 U Epiphyses Estimate of sex: Male? Skull (cranium + mandible) U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Mental eminence U Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Vertebral column U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Upper limbs U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >20 Lower limbs U
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Fig. 156. Skeleton no. 1344. Fig. 157. Skeleton no. 1384.
Suture closure (ectocranial) than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, Estimate of sex: Male? Coronal Significant and they are well preserved. Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Sagittal Significant Quantitative preservation: 3 Skull Lambdoid Significant Qualitative preservation: 3 Skull—trait Left L/R Right Position Angle of the frontal U Pathology/Trauma Skeleton: Supine Frontal/parietal U Cribra and PH: left and right parietals Cranium: Lateral—on left side eminences with porosity, enlarged parietal foramina Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Nuchal crest U Antemortem trauma: U hand—U, Left lower limb—extremely Mastoid process U 4 Likely perimortem trauma: U flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Zygomatic bone U U Possible perimortem trauma: U hand—U, Right lower limb—flexed Orbital outline U U Relation to other skeletons Supraorbital margin U U SKELETON NO. 1384—ROW 3 Knee partly below skeleton no. 1332 and Glabella U (FIG. 157) skeleton no. 1316 Gonial angle flare 3 U Mental eminence 4–5 Taphonomy/Preservation Finds The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- Ceramics under the right knee. tion in an approximate N–S direction Shackles: Yes—wrists. Possibly right arm (cranium to the S, and bent to the left), tied with left arm of skeleton no. 1385, with hands in a shackle above the head. same clamp? The skeleton is almost complete; more
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Pelvis parts are present, and they are well pre- Tooth eruption, M3 Pelvis—trait Left Right served. Maxilla Mandible Subpubic concavity U U Quantitative preservation: 3 Sin—not erupted Sin/dx—U Ventral arc U 3 Qualitative preservation: 3 Dx—U Ischiopubic ramus U U Position Tooth wear Subpubic angle U U Skeleton: Lateral—on right side Maxilla Mandible Greater sciatic notch U U Cranium: Lateral—on right side, almost U No wear Preauricularis sulcus U U prone Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Pathology/Trauma Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Antemortem trauma: U Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- hand—U, Left lower limb—extended, Likely perimortem trauma: U bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth Right upper limb—U, Right hand—U, Possible perimortem trauma: X wear Right lower limb—flexed Epiphyses Relation to other skeletons Partly below skeleton no. 1384; left fe- Skull (cranium + mandible) U SKELETON NO. 1398—ROW 3 mur slightly above skeleton no. 1333 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U (FIG. 159) Vertebral column U Finds Taphonomy/Preservation Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U Shackles: Yes—wrists. Possibly left arm The skeleton is placed on its right side Upper limbs >17 tied with left arm of skeleton no. 1384, in a NNW–SSE direction (cranium to Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 same clamp? the SSE), with hands above the head. A Lower limbs U Estimate of sex: Undetermined limestone slab was placed on top of the Criteria: Skull knees. The skeleton is almost complete; Suture closure (ectocranial) Skull more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are Coronal Significant Skull—trait Left L/R Right present, and they are well preserved. Sagittal U Angle of the frontal U Quantitative preservation: 3 Lambdoid U Frontal/parietal U Qualitative preservation: 3 eminences Pubic symphysis Nuchal crest U Position Left Right Mastoid process 4 U Skeleton: Lateral—on right side U V:1, 45.6 Zygomatic bone 1 U Cranium: Lateral—on right side Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Tooth eruption, M3 Orbital outline U U hand—U, Left lower limb—slightly Maxilla Mandible Supraorbital margin 1 U flexed, Right upper limb—U, Right Sin—U Sin—U Glabella U Dx—erupted Dx—erupted Gonial angle flare U U hand—extended, Right lower limb— Mental eminence U slightly flexed Tooth wear Relation to other skeletons Maxilla Mandible Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Arms close to and east to the back of 35–45 35–45 Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth skeleton no. 1399. eruption, and tooth wear Pathology/Trauma Finds Antemortem trauma: U Epiphyses Shackles: Yes Skull (cranium + mandible) U Likely perimortem trauma: U Estimate of sex: Undetermined Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Possible perimortem trauma: U Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Vertebral column U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) U SKELETON NO. 1385—ROW 3 Upper limbs U (FIG. 158) Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) U Taphonomy/Preservation Lower limbs <18 The skeleton is placed on its right side in Suture closure (ectocranial) an approximate N–S direction (cranium Coronal U to the S), with hands in a shackle above Sagittal U the head. The lower arms are covered by Lambdoid Open a limestone slab. The skeleton is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal
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Fig. 158. Skeleton no. 1385. Fig. 159. Skeleton no. 1398.
Skull Pelvis Suture closure (ectocranial) Skull—trait Left L/R Right Pelvis—trait Left Right Coronal Open–significant Angle of the Straight Subpubic concavity U U Sagittal Significant frontal Ventral arc U U Lambdoid Significant Frontal/parietal Ambi- Ischiopubic ramus U U eminences guous Tooth eruption, M3 Subpubic angle U U Nuchal crest 4 Maxilla Mandible Greater sciatic notch 3 U Mastoid process 2 U Sin—erupted Sin—erupted Preauricularis sulcus U U Zygomatic bone 1 U Dx—U Dx—U Orbital outline U U Estimate of age at death: Young adult Pathology/Trauma Supraorbital 2 U Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Antemortem trauma: X margin tooth eruption Likely perimortem trauma: U Glabella 3 Epiphyses Possible perimortem trauma: U Gonial angle flare 3 U Skull (cranium + mandible) U Nonmetric skeletal traits Mental eminence 4 Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Coronal ossicle Vertebral column U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) 16–21 Upper limbs >17 Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) c. 20–23 Lower limbs U
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Fig. 160. Skeleton no. 1399. Fig. 161. Skeleton no. 1400.
SKELETON NO. 1399—ROW 3 Relation to other skeletons Pelvis (FIG. 160) Legs under the pelvis of skeleton no. 1400 Pelvis—trait Left Right Taphonomy/Preservation Finds Subpubic concavity U U The skeleton is placed on its left side in a Shackles: Yes—wrists Ventral arc U U NW–SE direction (cranium to the SE), Estimate of sex: Male Ischiopubic ramus U U with hands connected to a shackle above Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Subpubic angle U U the head, and bent legs. The skeleton is Skull Greater sciatic notch 4 U almost complete; more than 2/3 of the Skull—trait Left L/R Right Preauricularis sulcus U U Angle of the frontal Straight skeletal parts are present, and they are Measurement well preserved. Frontal/parietal No eminences 47 cm (humerus dx, vertical diameter of Quantitative preservation: 3 head) Qualitative preservation: 3 Nuchal crest 4 Mastoid process U 2 Estimate of age at death: Young adult Position Zygomatic bone U U Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and Skeleton: Lateral—on left side tooth eruption Cranium: Lateral—on left side Orbital outline U 3 Supraorbital U 4 Limbs: Left upper limb—extended, margin Left hand—flexed, Left lower limb— Glabella 4 flexed, Right upper limb—flexed, Right Gonial angle flare U U hand—flexed, Right lower limb—flexed Mental eminence U
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Epiphyses plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts Pelvis Skull (cranium + mandible) U are present, and they are well preserved. Pelvis—trait Left Right Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Quantitative preservation: 3 Subpubic concavity U U Vertebral column U Qualitative preservation: 3 Ventral arc U U Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >20 Position Ischiopubic ramus U U Upper limbs >17 Skeleton: Prone Subpubic angle U U Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Cranium: Prone Greater sciatic notch 4 U Lower limbs >18 Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left Preauricularis sulcus U U hand—U, Left lower limb—extended, Suture closure (ectocranial) Estimate of age at death: Adult Right upper limb—flexed, Right hand— Coronal Open–minimal. Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure U, Right lower limb—flexed Sagittal Significant Epiphyses Lambdoid Significant Relation to other skeletons Skull (cranium + mandible) U Below skeleton no. 1344 and . 30 cm c Thorax (sternum + ribs) U Tooth eruption, M3 above the thorax of skeleton no. 1400—a Vertebral column U Maxilla Mandible white and weathered humerus was found. Shoulder girdle (clavicle + scapula) >18 Sin/dx—U Sin—U Finds Dx—erupting Upper limbs >20 Shackles: Yes Pelvis (coxae + sacrum + coccygis) >23 Stature: 170.55 cm (humerus dx) Estimate of sex: Male? Lower limbs >20 Pathology/Trauma Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Dental pathology: Slight calculus on Skull Suture closure (ectocranial) right I2, C, and M1, mandible Skull—trait Left L/R Right Coronal Significant Antemortem trauma: U Angle of the frontal U Sagittal Significant Likely perimortem trauma: U Frontal/parietal No Lambdoid Significant eminences Possible perimortem trauma: X Nuchal crest U Pathology/Trauma trauma: U Mastoid process U U Antemortem Likely trauma: U SKELETON NO. 1400—ROW 3 Zygomatic bone U U perimortem Possible trauma: U (FIGS. 25 & 161) Orbital outline U U perimortem Nonmetric skeletal traits Taphonomy/Preservation Supraorbital margin U U Metopic suture; lambdoid ossicles Skeleton is placed in a prone position in Glabella U an approximate N–S direction (cranium Gonial angle flare U U to the S), with hands in a shackle above Mental eminence U the head. The skeleton is almost com-
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Appendix 2 Results of aDNA analyses of 63 individuals from Phaleron, Greece By Anna Linderholm, Anna Kjellström, Vendela Kempe Lagerholm, and Maja Krzewińska
DNA analyses of 63 individuals (i.e. samples from teeth) from cases two independent DNA extractions were performed, Phaleron, with the aim of whole genome sequencing, was un- followed by preparation and sequencing of two independent dertaken at the Archaeological Research Laboratory (AFL), DNA libraries. Stockholm University. All individuals were sub-sampled in On average 24,401,881 sequencing reads were obtained March 2017 directly at the excavation site at Phaleron, near from each of the individually sequenced DNA libraries, but Athens, Greece. The genetic analyses were performed in a only 7,012 mapped to the human genome, and the average dedicated ancient DNA Laboratory (AFL). The adopted proportion of human DNA was around 0.3% (Table 26). The methodology consisted of DNA extraction104 followed by mapped sequences were shown to have relatively high clon- blunt-end DNA library preparation105 and whole genome se- ality (number of repeated sequences) reaching >20% and quencing on Illumina HiSeq X platform (150bp, pair-end) at very poor damage patterns, probably resulting from very low Science for Life Laboratory in Stockholm. endogenous DNA content. The endogenous DNA content The generated raw sequencing data was analysed following was so low that in a number of individuals not a single DNA previously published procedures.106 Sequencing reads were de- sequence mapping to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was multiplexed based on index sequences107, followed by pair-end- identified. In others, the numbers did not allow for mtDNA read merging, trimming, and mapping to the human reference haplogroup identification which usually calls for at least 1x genome build 37, with BWA v. 0.7.13.108 Finally the PCR du- coverage of mtDNA genome for accurate estimation.112 Over- plicates were removed with FilterUniqueSAMCons.py.109 The all poor preservation did not even allow for sex identification presence of 3’ and 5’ cytosine deamination patterns characteris- of the individuals, which calls for at least 100,000 endogenous tic of ancient DNA110 was estimated using PMDtools.111 sequences to allow for reliable identification.113 The DNA preservation in the material from Phaleron was In conclusion, DNA preservation was too poor to allow very poor. All individuals were tested at least once and in 21 for any successful DNA analyses.
104 Malmström et al. 2009; Svensson et al. 2007; Yang et al. 1998. 105 Meyer & Kircher 2010. 106 Günther et al. 2018; 2015. 107 Meyer & Kircher 2010. 108 Li & Durbin 2010. 109 Kircher 2012. 110 Briggs et al. 2007; Hansen et al. 2001; Hofreiter et al. 2001; Orlando et al. 2011; Sawyer et al. 2012. 112 Vianello et al. 2013. 111 Skoglund et al. 2014. 113 Skoglund et al. 2013.
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Table 26. Summary of sequencing statistics.
No. Library ID Sample Human sequences Proportion human DNA Genome coverage Mt genome coverage 1 flr201-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1201 2,357 0.0011 0.00002 0.0000 2 flr202-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1202 4,380 0.0016 0.00011 0.0159 3 flr215-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1215 313 0.0021 0.00001 0.0000 4 flr215-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1215 4,706 0.0015 0.00012 0.0363 5 flr228-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1228 2,492 0.0021 0.00006 0.0062 6 flr245-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1245 4,657 0.0064 0.00013 0.0311 7 flr247-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1247 595 0.0007 0.00001 0.0000 8 flr253-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1253 1,383 0.0008 0.00001 0.0053 9 flr266-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1266 5,077 0.0023 0.00021 0.0184 10 flr267-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1267 118,152 0.0076 0.00474 0.0977 11 flr268-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1268 7,649 0.0144 0.00017 0.0000 12 flr269-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1269 2,403 0.0020 0.00007 0.0164 13 flr271-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1271 1,667 0.0016 0.00004 0.0061 14 flr271-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1271 5,978 0.0035 0.00018 0.0560 15 flr272-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1272 1,801 0.0112 0.00003 0.0000 16 flr276-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1276 6,265 0.0016 0.00008 0.0082 17 flr281-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1281 1,658 0.0046 0.00005 0.0000 18 flr285-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1285 1,564 0.0070 0.00001 0.0120 19 flr285-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1285 6,289 0.0006 0.00017 0.0443 20 flr289-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1289 2,515 0.0024 0.00008 0.0000 21 flr294-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1294 2,201 0.0017 0.00003 0.0000 22 flr296-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1296 2,673 0.0008 0.00006 0.0148 23 flr297-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1297 323 0.0015 0.00001 0.0000 24 flr297-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1297 6,708 0.0008 0.00019 0.0581 25 flr298-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1298 1,776 0.0009 0.00005 0.0106 26 flr298-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1298 4,316 0.0060 0.00009 0.0047 27 flr316-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1316 35,346 0.0073 0.00150 0.2037 28 flr316-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1316 11,624 0.0029 0.00031 0.0310 29 flr324-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1324 2,055 0.0013 0.00006 0.0000 30 flr324-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1324 7,751 0.0009 0.00020 0.0343 31 flr325-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1325 1,996 0.0011 0.00002 0.0000 32 flr328-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1328 10,761 0.0016 0.00033 0.0499 33 flr332-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1332 4,859 0.0027 0.00014 0.0059 34 flr333-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1333 6,041 0.0045 0.00022 0.0247 35 flr336-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1336 3,083 0.0135 0.00008 0.0028 36 flr339-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1339 308 0.0018 0.00001 0.0000 37 flr340-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1340 1,374 0.0018 0.00004 0.0000 38 flr342-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1342 3,095 0.0023 0.00008 0.0043 39 flr343-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1343 2,535 0.0038 0.00009 0.0000 40 flr344-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1344 6,399 0.0012 0.00017 0.0328
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Table 26 continued.
No. Library ID Sample Human sequences Proportion human DNA Genome coverage Mt genome coverage 41 flr348-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1348 815 0.0019 0.00002 0.0000 42 flr349-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1349 7,250 0.0042 0.00031 0.0056 43 flr350-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1350 7,340 0.0097 0.00030 0.0287 44 flr351-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1353 1,675 0.0012 0.00003 0.0000 45 flr353-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1354 7,648 0.0009 0.00024 0.0343 46 flr353-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1355 9,525 0.0059 0.00041 0.0892 47 flr354-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1354 33,176 0.0058 0.00148 0.1719 48 flr355-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1355 4,009 0.0063 0.00014 0.0000 49 flr355-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1355 4,521 0.0049 0.00014 0.0241 50 flr356-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1356 4,627 0.0026 0.00016 0.0000 51 flr357-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1357 1,028 0.0025 0.00003 0.0000 52 flr357-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1357 22,261 0.0033 0.00063 0.0328 53 flr358-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1358 3,652 0.0020 0.00011 0.0068 54 flr359-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1359 5,950 0.0032 0.00014 0.0247 55 flr360-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1360 1,128 0.0019 0.00003 0.0114 56 flr361-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1361 2,997 0.0014 0.00008 0.0000 57 flr363-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1363 5,811 0.0010 0.00014 0.0182 58 flr364-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1364 1,468 0.0017 0.00005 0.0218 59 flr365-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1365 3,457 0.0057 0.00012 0.0000 60 flr366-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1366 3,570 0.0028 0.00009 0.0278 61 flr366-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1366 9,949 0.0015 0.00032 0.0501 62 flr368-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1368 6,184 0.0099 0.00021 0.0000 63 flr369-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1369 9,130 0.0019 0.00031 0.0312 64 flr370-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1370 765 0.0018 0.00001 0.0091 65 flr370-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1370 7,012 0.0013 0.00024 0.0643 66 flr371-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1371 2,195 0.0029 0.00003 0.0075 67 flr371-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1371 10,451 0.0013 0.00026 0.0570 68 flr373-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1373 207 0.0007 0.00000 0.0000 69 flr373-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1373 5,049 0.0009 0.00014 0.1700 70 flr374-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1374 355 0.0018 0.00001 0.0000 71 flr374-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1374 35,346 0.0032 0.00107 0.0200 72 flr375-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1375 1,867 0.0014 0.00003 0.0070 73 flr375-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1375 6,738 0.0019 0.00018 0.0066 74 flr376-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1376 6,308 0.0029 0.00023 0.0502 75 flr376-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1376 5,763 0.0062 0.00026 0.0275 76 flr379-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1379 2,855 0.0117 0.00005 0.0000 77 flr379-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1379 2,277 0.0020 0.00004 0.0172 78 flr380-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1380 1,727 0.0017 0.00003 0.0000 79 flr380-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1380 8,402 0.0007 0.00022 0.0305 80 flr381-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1381 48,539 0.0064 0.00212 0.4799
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Table 26 continued.
No. Library ID Sample Human sequences Proportion human DNA Genome coverage Mt genome coverage 81 flr382-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1382 2,945 0.0016 0.00006 0.0073 82 flr382-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1382 10,123 0.0018 0.00021 0.0660 83 flr383-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1383 1,167 0.0017 0.00001 0.0000 84 flr384-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1384 1,404 0.0088 0.00003 0.0000 85 flr385-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1385 4,390 0.0033 0.00012 0.0311 86 flr386-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1386 1,634 0.0065 0.00003 0.0000 87 flr387-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1387 3,976 0.0024 0.00006 0.0066 88 flr388-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1388 8,935 0.0054 0.00033 0.0275 89 flr389-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1389 12,233 0.0032 0.00044 0.0091 90 flr390-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1390 3,374 0.0094 0.00013 0.0221 91 flr397-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1397 10,225 0.0034 0.00034 0.0536 92 flr397-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1397 4,430 0.0025 0.00006 0.0000 93 flr398-b2e1l1p1 Sk. 1398 3,927 0.0015 0.00002 0.2433 94 flr398-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1398 2,997 0.0014 0.00001 0.0599 95 flr399-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1399 6,961 0.0025 0.00001 0.0037 96 flr400-b1e1l1p1 Sk. 1400 2,968 0.0042 0.00002 0.0000
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