Of Theories of Factors As a Part of the Learning Process

DOCUMENT RESUME EM 007 009 ED 025 159 By-Ball, John, Ed; Byrnes,Francis C., Ed. Communication. INST-7BBB00599 Research, Principles, andPractices in Visual Land Grant Colleges,Washington, D.C. National Association ofState Universities and Instruction, Washington,D.C. Spons Agency-Departmentof Audiovisual Pub Date 60 Note- 168p. 16th Street,N.W., Instruction, NationalEducation Assn.,1201 Available from-Departmentof Audiovisual Washington, D.C. 20036(14.00). EDRS. EDRS Price MF-10.76 HCNot Available from *Communication Communication, *Communication(Thought Transfer), Descriptors- AudiovisualAids, Audiovisual Perceptual Development,Pictorial Stimuli, *Manuals, Models,Nonverbal Learning, Perception, Visual Skills, Information Theory, Discrimination, *VisualLearning. *Visual Research Prolects,Research Utilization, Visual Stimuli Project inAgricultural Communications,a Under the sponsorshipof the National reader or authors has beencompiled to serve as a series of 14lessons by various modelsof visualcommunications.Several trainingmanualin thefieldof themselves outlined and evaluated.Many studieswhich concern communications are channel, message,and of source, encoding ordecoding methods, with the concepts structure, andfunction of visual receiver aredescribed briefly.The development, reference made tothe part thatinddualdifferences, perception aresketched, with Several specifictheories of motivation, and setplayinvisual communication. for planningand presented in acondensed form.Some guidelines perception are choice and useof effective evaluating a communicationsprogram arelaid down. The medium for visualcommunication arediscussed. Some design and appropriate filing visualmaterials are solutions to problems inobtaining, coordinating,storing, and roles of drive, cue,response,reward, andvisual offered. Researchstudies on the surveyed. An factors as a partof the learning processof communication are extensivebibliography is included.(JY) PROCESS WITHMICROFICHE PUBLISHER'S AND PRICES. FICHE REPRODUCTIONMICRO- ONLY.

EB025159

Research, Principles, and Practices in Visual Communication

Departmentof Audiovisual InstructionNational Education Association Research, Principles, and Practices in Visual Communication

- This book was originally published as a partof the Communication Training Program developedby the National Project in Agricultural Communicationsfor the American Association of Land-Grant Collegesand State Universities. The present edition is a reprint of theoriginal work and has been published by the Departmentof Audiovisual Instruction as a contribution to scholarshipin the field of visual communication.

Permission to reproduce this copyrighted work has been granted to the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) and to the organization operating under contract with the Office to Education to reproduce documents included in the ERIC system by means of microfiche only, but this right is not conferred to any users of the microfiche received from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.Further reproduction of any part requires permission of the copyright owner.

published by The Department of Audiovisual Instruction of the National Education Association

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Research, Principles,and Practices in VisualCommunication.

Contributing Authors J. Stacy Adams John Ball Erwin P. Bettinghaus John Oliver Cook George Gerbner Martin Krampen A. A. Lumsdaino Nathan Maccoby Robert, C. Snider I. A. Taylor Hal R. Taylor

Edited by John Ball and Francis C. Byrnes

E00251.59 Foreword

"Is it possible tointer-relate in a meaningful This foreword attemptsto answer the two ques- and theory pertinentto percep- be raised aboutthis book ; way research tions most likely to tion, learning,communication, and visual pre- What is it? How didit come about? Project in Agricul- sentation ? Since 1954, the National "How, when, and whydo what kinds ofvisual tural Communicationshas been engagedin de- training programs in presentation enhancethe attention-value, un- veloping and conducting oracceptability of specific communication. Primaryaudiences for these pro- derstandability, grams havebeen the state andfield staffs of the communications? Services, but many other "In the answers tosuch questions mustlie Agricultural Extension fundamental theme for groups andagencies have enrolledin and bene- the basic structure or fited by the programs. a trainingunit in visualcommunication." in communi- Earlier NPAC training programs Throughout 1959, aseries of conferences pro- cation concentrated onthe basic elementsof the out- and on the specific areas duced the plan for thetraining program, the communication process, line for this book,and a team of competent,dedi- of oral and writtencommunication. These pro- lesson demands for cated people responsiblefor preparing grams andtheir effects stimulated for the book.The book communication. plans and/or chapters a similarunit in visual and the training programwere launchedsimul- Recognizing that theultimate audience for any 1960, at the firstof several in visual communicationwould be taneously in January, new program to two-week trainingsessions. essentially the same asthat already exposed (NPAC) and theeditors regard the basic, oral, andwritten units, NPAC sawin The publisher and plan an opportunity to reinforcethe the book as apreliminary edition, this development expanded edition withinthe year. Theexpanded previous instructionwhile at the sametime pro- and for training in visual com- edition will be extendedby several chapters, viding a solid base further integrationwill eliminateduplication. munication. numbered throughoutto facili- Since suitable referencematerial in the field Paragraphs are trainers and was extremelylimited, tate use as areference manual for of visual communication teachers. Little of thecontent of thetraining pro- NPAC decided to sponsorthe writing, editingand gram will befound in the trainingguide; content printing of this basicreader in communication, guide by use ofthe paragraph with special emphasis onthe visual aspects.This is referenced in the part by the adviceand numbers in the book. decision was sparked in bibliographic referencegenerally contributions of some 50 personswho partici- The style of All the follows that of theauthor of thechapter. pated in the planningand development of consolidated in the compre- training unit in visualcommunication. references have been hensive bibliographyat the end,listing all items Late in 1958, NPACmailed a preliminaryout- bibliog- in visual communica- mentioned in the book.A more extensive line for a training program raphy is contemplatedin later editions.In in- tion to more than50 educators,communication numbers are used specialists, trainingdirectors, dexing the book,the paragraph theorists, visual instead of pages. and agriculturaleditors.Along with the out- reference follows : As a whole, thebook is a working line, NPAC commented as manual. Editorialdecisions have beenbased on "To make asignificant contribution,this and use- relevant criteria whichemphasized convenience unit must grow outof and relate to the fulness. The editorshope that the bookwill open and establishedtheory and research onhow whole range of researchper- and learn. In what ways, to the reader the people communicate tinent to visualcommunication, andthat the for instance, dowhat kinds of visualapproaches readers to interestingand retention, and applica- bibliography will direct facilitate the learning, fruitful areas ofknowledge. tion of knowledge,concepts, and skills? zr.=

Acknowledgments

Although it seems an almost impossible task to list and thank all the persons and institutions who have contributed substantially to the production of this book and the related training program, the NPAC publicly expresses appreciation as follows : 1. To the Agricultural Extension Services and related elements of the various Land-Grant institutions whose support, cooperation, and confidence made possible the various communication training programs. 2. To the more than 50 persons who gave generously of time, ideas, and materials to facilitate development of the visual communication training program. 3. To the many individuals and publishers who permitted reproduction and adaptation of previously published materials for use in this book and related training program. 4. To members of the Division of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Education Association, for assistance in finding consultative .talent, materials, and resources. 5. To staff members and various departments, colleges, and services of Michigan State Univer- sity for a wide range of facilities and services necessary to the planning, development, and illustration of the book and training program. 6. To W. K. Kellogg Foundation whose finan- cial support since 1953 has made possible the general operations of the National Project in Agri- cultural Communications. _ ,

Contents Study Page 1 1. Process: The ConceptualBasis for Communication 4 2. The Interaction Model:Perception andCommunication

16 3. Communication Models

29 4. The S-M-C-R Model

33 5. The Interpreter Model

38 6. Communication Effects

51 7. Perception and VisualCommunication

71 8. Some Other Theoriesof Perception

79 9. A Basis for Decisionsin PlanningCommunications

91 10.Research in Audio-VisualCommunication

107 11.Perception and Design

119 12.Selection and Use ofVisual Media

129 13.General Principles ofEvaluation

138 14.Administration: VisualCommunication Programs

147 Authors and Editors

148 Bibliography

156 Index L Process: The Conceptual Basis for Communication Study

prepared by John Ball

1.1 The Concept of Process communication situation, but also each aspect of communication situations. Yet this enlarged focus 1.11 Before the concept of process, men does not reduce communication to a hopeless thought of the world as a place where things hap- jungle of tangled events but rather makes clear pened more or less independently of each other both the reasons for communication failures and most of the time. The relationships between the bases of communication success. events were often interpreted as magical rather than natural and organic. Science in its early development studied static rather than dynamic re- 1.2 A Case Study of Process lationships, and fixed answers were sought to solve fixed problems. 1.21 To begin, we shall consider a proc- With the concept of process, we are able to think ess involving only one person: a man unloading about and grasp the implications of events that his camera. are going on, events that are complex structure of events which in turn are complex structures of 1.22 The man has a goal, a PURPOSE. events. Thus we are able to approach human We also know that he must have a VALUE for events, such as communication situations, and to this kind of activity, to make him consider it study them without oversimplification, with worthwhile to expend energy in this way. He is awareness of the operating variables, and with surrounded by his ENVIRONMENT. All of these proper awareness of the limitations of our study. may change during the process: the goal may It is the concept of process that prevents our sup- change to include an evaluation of how it is pos- plying easy formulas for communication and that sible to get film out of a camera without jamming permits us instead to promise an approach that is the mechanism ; the value may be sidetracked by realistic and based firmly on current knowledge a higher priority, such as a phone call sending the in a range of scientific fields. man out on an emergency errand ; the environment may get hotter or colder or lighter or darker, 1.12 Communication itself is a process, and if the man is unloading his camera on a train, a complex of events operating in several dimen- he may enter a tunnel and be forced to stop the sions of space and time, and always involving the process. attitudes, the knowledge, the communication skills of more than one person and the social and cul- 1.23 The man keeps feeding his PRES- tural context in which he is located. To consider ENT OBSERVATION into the process: stimuli of communication, then, it is necessary to focus the sight, sound, and feeling particularly are opera- mind on more than one eventperhaps dozens of tive in permitting him to continue the process eventstaking place simultaneously or consecu- successfully. Also, he keeps feeding in his PAST tively or partly simultaneously and partly con- EXPERIENCE with cameras, particularly this secutively, events which take place at different camera, and with the kinds of events that require rates of development and with different impor- manipulation of small mechanical objects by the tance and different effect. fingers. Also, each event in the process becomes The process of communication requires the same part of the man's IMMEDIATE PAST EXPERI- extended and diverse kind of awareness that is ENCE, and influences the developing process. If required for driving a car on a busy street, amid the man lacks past experience, he can develop a stimuli from all directions. This enlarged focus body of immediate past experience by trial and of mind is required for considering not only each error, and proceed on immediate past experience

1 and present observation alone. Weshould note 1.3 A Case Study of that the man observes things other thanthe Communication camera, and things aboutthe camera irrelevant to his purpose; that he remembers thingsthat are 1.31 Finally, let us consider the whole also irrelevant, and may in fact bethinking about process of unloading the camera as acommunica- another kind of subject entirely whilehe is un- tion process, in a different situation. Now we see loading the camera ; and that only partof the im- that our man sells cameras in his store, andis en- mediate past experience is relevant to thedevelop- gaged in showing a customer the way the camera ing process. is loaded and unloaded. The purposes of thesalesman and his customer aredifferent: the sales- 1.24 The camera itself bringsin its man wishes to create afavorable attitude toward shape or FORM a functional designwhich helps the camera as a device that is easy to operate, to shape the process; in a senseit represents the and to teach the customer so clearly that the cus- crystallized experience of past processes.The tomer will not be disappointed in the results he form is both limiting and freeing.Although it is later obtains. The customer wishes to find how to unlikely that the man will try to changethe cam- use his new camera, but he is lessinterested in era itself, and thus muststay within its functional means than in ends, and what he wants asquickly capacities, the fac; that the designerhas already as possible is pictures. Thus he maygive inade- done so much of his work for himfrees the man quate attention to a portion of the demonstration creative adaptations. that is not clearly connected with taking pictures. to use his energy to make In the demonstration situPtion neither person has 1.25 Now let us introduce a variable: a the purpose that ordinarily will be dominant when human being seven years old whohas been in the a camera is being unloaded: the purposeof get- environment all along, but farenough away not to ting the film out so that it can be processed. just broken his toy be noticed. This small boy has 1.32 Besides having different purposes, airplane, and as he tells whathappened, with great the salesman and his customer have different excitement, the man continues tounload his cam- values (and these values are interrelated with the era. We nowhave a cluster of processes.The un- purposes), different images of expectation of each loading-camera process continueswhile the boy other, two different sets of past experiences to concludes a successfulprocess-of-securing-atten- feed into the process of unloading the camera, and tion-and-repair-for airplane and the manbegins two different interpretations of the immediate the communication process ofcalming-and-sooth- past experience relevant to the developing process. ing-the-boy and the thought statesof the process They share the same environment and receive fixing-the-plane. Several new purposeshave de- many of the same stimuli, but their interpreta- veloped, and a new value priorityhas been estab- tions of their present observation also differ. lished. The camera is laid aside, andthe already- 1.33 Perhaps the salesman will as a re- planned repair job is begun. sult of long practice use highly developed habits With the addition of this second of muscuh,r coordination in manipulating the cam- 1.26 era; while these habits are anaid in getting the person, another conceptis added to the factors When canvira unloaded, they may be abarrier to com- shaping the process: the idea of IMAGE. munication if the salesman takes parts of the proc- did not have the man was unloading the camera he ess so much for grantedthat he fails to recognize to be concerned with the attitudeof the camera a need to demonstrate them. toward him ; he did not have to projectimages of the EXPECTATIONS of the camera,and eval- 1.34 The communication process we are uate his actions in terms of thoseexpectations. describing, in which a salesman is communicating But while cameras do not have expectations, with a customer, uses many CODES. Gesture is small boys do have: and the way the man talks a code; the salesman uses gesturewhen he points and acts is perhaps even more important tothe his finger at a part of the camera to which he boy than the fact that the ai/plane eventually wishes to call attention. Perhaps the salesman gets fixed. Thus the man reacts not only to the will use graphic art as a code if he shows the stimuli he receives from the boy, but to a complex customer a diagram in a book of instructions. image of expectation that he has formed as a re- But the chief codes that will be used are demon- sult of many past events, an image of expecta- stration and language. Demonstration provides tion which serves as both a pattern and a stand- the customer with present observation of the proc- ard of behavior. ess in action; languageprovides him with a set

2 each interpret only through portant in shaping theimage of expectation of symbols which he can has of the other, andthe image of expectation his past languageexperience. each has of himself andhis own behaviorin his MEANING for the role. Also, thecommunication processwill be 1.35 He may find CONTEXT from salesman's symbols ; andif the salesman isgood affected by the CULTURAL find meanings near which and in which thesalesman and his customer at his job the customer may that context differs the meanings the salesmanhad in mind for him to operateand to the extent find. However, no twopeople ever shareexactly for the two, a kind ofcross-cultural communica- the same meaning for asymboland communication becomes necessary. because the person tion breakdowns often occur 1.38 Between any twofactors in the encoding the message (wecall him the SOURCE) amongseveral or in the word total communication process, or assumes thatthe meaning he has is all of them, there maybe influence and counter- that he uses, so thatthe word will freezethe positive or both. Be- where any receiver who influence, either negative or meaning into the message cause of the waypast and futureinfluences can can read willtake it out intact. be traced it cannot besaid that a communication Even Actually there are manydifferent process begins, orends, at a certain point. 1.36 which seems to produce no consequence kinds of meaning; thesalesman may tell the cus- a message moving the camera'srewind ("nothing happens") willprobably influence later tomer that he is events ("I'll try a differentkind of message" or lever too jerkily andhave the customer respond readers or listeners.") not to the DENOTATIVEmeaning "Unless you "I'll approach some other slowly you may damage operate the lever more 1.39 The concept of processis one of the the mechanism" but to aCONNOTATIVE mean- most significant ideasof our time: perhaps,in- ing derived from his pastexperience and associa- deed, the most significant.Its implications reach tions: "You certainly seemto be a very nervous into every aspect ofhuman life and thought;it is person." Or the customer mayget a different the basis both ofmodern science and modern meaning from tone ofvoice than he getsfrom DYNAMICS in thermody- of philosophy. It is the words ; "You are veryquick to learn the use namics ;it is relativity, and theinterrelatedness the camera" may beinterpreted, because of in- of multiple events, andthe concept of space-time, tonation, to mean "I don't seewhy it takes you so and the nature of life. Yetit goes back to the first long to catch on to something sosimple." ancient philosopher whosaid you can never step in the same stream twice,and it clearly has just 1.37 The salesman and hiscustomer be- it does to several different SOCIAL as muchrelevance to communication as long to or are a part of Einstein. However sharply wenarrow our focus SYSTEMS, and areholding their conversation which establishes certain of attention in consideringvisual communication, within a social system it is important that wehold to awareness of the ROLE behaviors forsalesmen and for customers. specifics as part of between them is affectedby total process and approach The communication larger processes. their differingSTATUS. Role and status areim-

3 2.The InteractionModel: Perception andCommunication

prepared by George Gerbner

judgment in communication, and (5) a planof 2.1 Introduction practical activities grouped around key issues.I trust that these remarks will not be takeneither 2.11 As students of communication we professional position.Ii; is as final pronouncements as as pureprovocations to are in an ambiguous argument. My hope is that a discussion ofbroader easier to note differences ofbackground, training, and specialized interests andactivities among us perspectives and implications will make the than to decide what field of inquiry orbody of achievement of specialized objectives more mean- knowledge brings us together.Often we hang a ingful and memorable. shapeless Mother Hubbard called"communication" over that bodywhatever itisand, after the proper offerings to sometribal deities called 2.2Communication as a Field "verbal" or "non-verbal", "audio"and/or "visual" (depending on the season), wedrift from one 2.21 Preoccupation with the nature, specific topic, gadget, technique, orbit of informa- quality, and functions of communication is prob- tion to another, with occasionalrituals in honor ably as old as mankind. Indeed, we can view this of the Great Spirits "science"and "research." At concern as part of the evolutionary processwhich other times we act more asprofessionals (or even transformed some anthropoid creature into Homo competent technicians) should. But evenwhen we Sapiens, and which makes members of that species locate a common field of inquiry andfind at least into "our kind" of human beings. call com- parts of a body of knowledge we can 2.22 Yet the study of communication munication, we stillhave difficulty deciding professional field fountainhead by that name as a scientific and whether we are drinking from the is a newcomer in our vocabulary ofdisciplines. We of all the humanities, arts,and sciences, or navi- cannot be sure yet whether it is only a new name gating turbulent cross-currents ofestablished dis- standing for a variety of ill-fitting activities in the ciplines, looking for a chart and a charter. arts, sciences, and professions, or agenuinely new 2.12 No single occasion or group is go- approach to certain types of human problems. My ing to settle that problem.But no group of pro- hunch is that if communication survives the well- fessionals planning to take aclose look at the intentioned efforts of its adherents it might de- theory, practice, and teachingof visual (or any velop into a respectable discipline. other) communication can avoiddeveloping some bearing directly on 2.23 The magic of a new term, invoked views and plan of activities practices, to build that problem. Students,practitioners, research- to support budget, to defend ers, teachers,administrators coming together for academie or professional empires, fades quickly. the discussion of specialinterests in communica- Fashionable slogans elevated to the stature of tion have an opportunity to posethe question: theory but supported by unexaminedrationaliza- how do our immediate concernsfit into the broad- tions fall into disrepute. An approach tohuman est possible view ofcommunication as a field of problems can exist without magic and rationaliza- study? tions but not without a rationale. Arationaliza- tion is concocted to justify the existenceof some 2.13 I would like to take advantage of practice. A rationale cannot be concocted at all. advance some suggestions that opportunity, to It is the reason for the existenceof the practice. concerning (1) communication as aprofessional, that demand scientific, or scholarly discipline,(2) the analysis It is either rooted in developments (3) a conceptual reorganization of studies and approaches, orthe of communication rs a process, all. model of communication,(4) some standards of field has no good reason to exist at

4 : _ m.,-_, -.--...... _....,.."

gain- for the exist- nication, beginning withrapid printing and 2.24 I think the reasons ing momentum withfilm, radio, andtelevision, ence ofcommunication as a newfield can be found characteristic of our age.The developments of the lastcentury. became the cultural in the trends and new mediaof communicationimpressed us with Some of these arephilosophical andscientific, and images technological, social, and their ability to transmit messages others are educational, across previousbarriers of space, time,and in- political. dividual ability or status.The media created new networks of influence, newaudiences, new mar- 2.25 The philosophicaland scientific de- partially in revoltagainst Aris- kets, and new institutionalempires. They also velopments arose and forms throughwhich to totelian logic andNewtonian mechanics, and par- gave us new means despair of makingmuch observe each other andthe world, and newpoints tially out of apparent the inner and outer sense outof shifting realityexisting outside of of view from which to survey the senses themselves.These trends usheredin environment. called "the age ofanalysis" in took on what is sometimes 2.33 The term "propaganda" philosophy, psychology,and the naturalsciences. centralized means the human new meanings.We found that The primary objectof analysis became could be used to blotout diver- of his experience,both of communication subject himself ; the study sity from thesynthetic images oflife presented. conscious and unconscious,became the "positive" "propaganda" knowledge. But since ap- On further reflectionand study, basis for "objective" was found todraw most of itsstrength from the pearances provedto be so subjective,the meaning popular cultureconsisting became confused withsole everyday context of of objectivity itself mostly of mass-producedcommunication prod- reliance on the poolingof subjectiveimpressions. single campaigns or mes- of these trends insocial uctsrather than from Whatever the weaknesses sages. and scientificphilosophyand this iscertainly focus not the place for r.critiquethey helped 2.34 Bigness, monopoly,costliness in attention on the natureand varieties of appear- cultural (as in other)industry broughtcentraliza- ances(phenomena), the processof interpreting tion of control,standardization of product,stream- experiences (observation,perception, learning), lined efficiency oftechniques, and increasing and the interpersonaland social contextin which penetration of influenceinto many spheresof appearances andexperiences weresymbolized, life. These developmentsbrought new delightsin- transmitted, and shared. to lives that seemdrab in retrospect ;they also raised new concerns aboutthe meaning offreedom 2.26 These focal points ofattention involved key aspectsof communication.More and in contemporary culture. morephilosophers, psychologists,physicists, and Large and intricatesystems of to use the term and toclaim 2.35 other scientists began all kinds demanded new waysof handling the mass could best be described as a Theo- that their approach of informationneeded for decision-making. "communication" approach. ries and methodsof data processing,information transmission, storageand retrieval ofcommuni- be developed. 2.3CommunicationRevolution cation records had to communication proc- philosophy 2.36 The study of 2.31 This trend in scientific effects became a necessarypart of pol- essentially new, and byitself it probably esses and was not icy-making in business,industry, and government. would never haveprovided impetus forthe de- methods of discipline. Such The implicationsof new media and velopment of communication as a learning were vigor- an impetus came,however, from thatworld of communication for human "posi- ously debated, thensoberly appraised.Studies objective events whosereal nature, the the tivists" claim, we canonly communicateabout and experience led to ageneral concern with successfully but neverdefinitely overall quality andcontext ofcommunication in more-or-less spilled assess. The"Communication Revolution"of our teaching. The"communication approach" consists of a seriesof over intolearning theory, thestudy and teaching time, it seems to others, such concrete historicaldevelopments whose natureand of spoken and writtenlanguage, and into relevance to human experience wecan and must ancient disciplines asrhetoric, esthetics,logic. In- assess. vestigation of the broadereducational implica- revolution was in- b e cam e tions of the communication 2.32 Communication products cultural consequenceshas mass-produced. The increasingtempo of tech- itiated, and study of nological-social-cultural developmentsin commu- begun. 5 2.4 Criteria for a Framework 2.52 Communication' is communicating. It is a pattern of doings, a process. This means 2.41 Can such diverse developments that it is a flow of events so interrelated that one provide the rationale for a coherent area of stud- act in the series derives part of its significance ies ? Certainly a general concern about a variety from all other acts, and can be fully grasped only of vaguely related processes and practices is not in the light of the total pattern. Can we analyze a sufficient basis for the existence of a discipline, such a fluid, dynamic, interrelated pattern of events ? We can, if we remember that in reality even if it suffices for the establishment of univer- it is fluid, dynamic, and interrelated and that sity departments, research institutes, journals, na- categories of analysis are frozen images ab- tional projects, and workshops. Such general con- stracted for purposes of discussion and under- cern is not sufficient because it does not provide standing. The historian Allen Nevins once defined a definition of tasks, an integrated approach to an event as "a force made momentarily visible." definite areas of problems, a conceptual frame- Let us use this concept to examine the pattern work for study and action. from different angles so that different aspects and relationships become "momentarily visible" ; 2.42 It is equally obvious that any defi- then let us capture this "vision" to see what it nitions, approaches and frameworks in communi- reveals of the forces behind it. cations should be hospitable to diverse interests, areas of specialization, and scientific points of 2.53 What kind of a process is com- view. They should accommodate the study of munication ? Any definition is bound to be arbi- structure as well as of function ; they should per- trary, so let us at least be practical. The existence mit the analysis of inner and interpersonal proc- of anything can be said to "communicate" its own esses as well as of social and institutional systems existence, so we cannot use the term in such a and relationships; they should allow for the exist- broad sense without blurring the special signifi- ence of subjective appearances as well as of ob- cance it should have for a workable definition. jective events; they should be suggestive of stand- We should find some ingredient, some special ards of judgment as well as of analytical dis- event embedded in this process we are to call com- tinctions. Finally, they should structure communi- munication that sets it apart from other processes. cation as a field and a process into manageable That special ingredient is the message or state- aspects, dimensions, and relationships. ment. 2.54 I look out the window and see a 2.43 Needless to say, no such paragon tree; that is not communication (at least by the of a model of communication exists. Our next definition I am proposing). But when I look at a task, therefore, is to build one.(Or, more seri- picture of that tree or hear someone say "there is ously, to suggest a way of conceptualizing and a tree outside the window" that is communication discussing communication that satisfies some of simply because the process included a message or these requirements, and gives us something to statement as an essential ingredient. We need point to when in doubt as to what we are talking not be too concerned with hairline distinctions and about.) borderline cases except perhaps as a form of intellectual exercise. But for those who take such exercise seriously, let me offer a more technical 2.5 The Interaction Model: definition : A message or statement is a special- The Statement ized, formally coded or symbolic or representative social event which makes possible inferences about 2.51 I would like to suggest a way of states, relationships, processes not directly translating our generalized concerns about com- observed.2 munication into a theoretical framework which 'The singular, communication, connotes the unitary con- can generate definitions, structure discussion, and cept of process. Communications tends to emphasize the lead to judgments. This will involve considera- pluralistic concept of a diversified field, or the multiple tions relevant to the analysis of process, to the ingredients of the process with emphasis on media, chan- characteristics of communication as a process, to nels, messages, etc. Generally, the singular form is used the diagrammatic representation of events, rela- throughout this book. 2For a more detailed statement see G. Gerbner, "On Con- tionships, and dimensions involved, to the content Analysis and Critical Research in Mass Communica- struction of a "model," and to standards and action,"Audio-Visual Communication Review,6:85-198, tivities that might flow from these. Spring 1958.

6 (the vertical dimensionof the dia- The message is whatdistinguishes was produced about 2.55 but its exist- gram). Sometimes we caninfer some things communication from other processes, the source of the message(the circle at thetop of ence alone isnot sufficient forcommunication. But usually wealso want words on this paper.They are the vertical dimension). Let us consider the to make inferencesabout other eventsand sub- a message orstatement. Its codeis the English is forms; its content is jects ; we want toknow what the message language in one of its printed "about." (as we shall arguelater) the relationshipof this form to the act ofcommunicating. Yet these 2.58 For example, if whatI write here words on paper do notadd up to communication. is "really" only areflection of mypersonality, They are only one eventin a pattern whichin- mood and skill (orlack of skill) buthas no volves my thinking andwriting and your reading demonstrable relevance tothe communication and thinking, amongother things. process as itexists independentlyof my wishes, two distinguish- then for all practical purposesit is a useless state- 2.56 I just referred to happen to be interestedin my able dimensions in the process.My principal rela- ment (unless You iris that of producer ; your personality, skill or wishes,all of which are tionship to the statement relevant to our presentpurposes). If this state- principal relationship tothe statement is thatof of what we have so farby ment is "really"only about me and my use reader. Let us visualize evaluate its expressiveness, drawing circles for events(broadly interpreted), words, you could only and its grammar, itspleasing sensoryqualities, its lines for relationships,and using the vertical thoughts. You could horizontal for our twodimensions. efficiency in conveying my not assess its adequacy oraccuracy inthe light of Thus we have independently existingobservations and criteria about the process I amtrying to describe. If you asked "Why is thisso" and I answered"Because I think so" youwould have no recourse.A more objective appraisalwould be possible onlyif we specified at the outsetthat the nature ofwhat we are talkingabout, outside of thoughtsand wishes, is germane to thepattern of communication. obvious 2.59 While this might seem an Fig. 2.1. contention, it marks animportant distinctionin one's approach to thestudy of communication.It the "positivistic"conceptions dimension, and is at this point that along the vertical and models ofcommunication, useful asthey are for specialized analyticalpurposes, failto meet our criteriafor a framework inwhich to study Fig. 2.2. communication. Thesemodels (unlike, for example, the Westley-MacLeanmodel3) lack reference to anevent, subject matter,etc., to a seg- agents the ment of reality outsidethe communicating along the horizontaldimension. Although themselves, to the eventthe communicationis which I write and the paperand piece of paper on "about." type you read are notidentical, the "statement" links what I do andwhat you do into apattern we call communication.The processes and consequences ofthis pattern aredifferent from those of 2.6 The InteractionModel: other relationshipsbetween people. Mostof the The Event differences rest in thenature of the message. scheme that Messages have form(which may 2.61 If we omit from our 2.57 representation) as do all element of the processwhich is purportedly en- be a code, symbol, or represented, or "talkedabout" other objects and events;but they have acontent coded, symbolized, at times -- other events. Thiscontent no matterhow remote it may seem unlike that of most limited the range of usesand conse- (which, of course, is anattribute of a specialized we have quences we canattribute to communication orto form as used in acertain context andsituation) have excluded any can only bedefined in relation toother things not its study. Specifically, we inferrable from the message. in the message but 3See discussion ofWestley-MacLean model, 3.5.32. These "other things"include the way the message analysis of statements or of the process in terms get directly transferred to your mind; you are other than form, design, structure, subjective observing in your own particular way my way of associations and the like. We have no way of seeing and describing things. I perceive an event relating the message, its production, and its uses, in my own way and produce a statement about it ; to anything existing outside of the mind, the you preceive my statement about the event in your nervous system, the machine, or the institution own wayand react accordingly. Thus we need that comprisesthe communicating agent or one more element in our diagram (Fig. 2.4) that agency. Thus we have no way of explaining, stands for the particular way in which com- evaluating, or even understanding the message municating agents inquire into, perceive, inter- and its functions in the light of independently pret events and statements. Let a smaller circle existing events and points of view ; we cannot ask inside communicating agents stand for events and questions about its truth or validity ; and we can- statements "as perceived." not inquire into consequences other than its suc- writer cess in achieving aims and gratifying desires of inquires the communicating parties. into 2.62 We shall come back later to the significance of being able to establish such relationships and ask such questions. Now let us apply the argument of the preceding discourse reader to our diagram of the communication process. We tried to establish the point that as your attention is directed to the words you are reading, and in them to the events and concepts these words are "about," my attention in writing these words is directed to the events I am trying to describe. Fig. 2.4. That is, the producer of a statement "reads" (i.e. inquires into) events as the receiver of the statement reads the message. So we have two somewhat 2.8 The Interaction Model: similar relationships along the horizontal dimen- Aspects of the Process sion joined in a pattern through the common element, the statement (see Fig. 2.3). 2.81 We can, of course, extend the diagram indefinitely.4 We can put in any number inquires of communication sources and receivers, indicate into multiple statements, or events, etc. But the basic elements and relationships remain the same. So instead of complicating things at this point, let us reduce our diagram to the minimum necessary to a communication act, and give each part a generalized name. Then let us indicate a few other important aspects that play a part in the process but are not easily visualized. 2.82 We have identified two basic relationships in our scheme. The horizontal line Fig. 2.3. stands for our relationship with the world of events and statements. No single term can do justice to the complexity of this relationship ;it 2.7 The Interaction Model: involves ways of observation, conception, inquiry ; Perception it implies selection in a certain context. Let us call it the perceptual dimension. 2.71 This does not mean that you, the reader, cannot inquire directly into the nature of 2.83 The vertical line represents an- the events I am describing (although most of our other type of response to our environment: a re- communication involves things not directly ob- action that produces a change in the state of served or observable by most parties in the pro- 4Such extensions and a variety of applications can be cess). What it does mean is that as you read my found in G. Gerbner, "Toward a General Model of Com- statement you observe my way of inquiring into munication," A2ulio-Visua2 Communication Review, 4:171- and describing the event. Nor does my statement 199, Summer 1956.

8 affairs outside ofourselves.5If the product of this change is acommunication event (message, statement), we have theingredient which dis- tinguishes communicationfrom other processes. Communication events arecreated when someone uses some means(channels, media, facilities)in somecontrolled (i.e., non-random)fashion to produce a signal. Let usthen call this vertical production "response" the meansand controls dimension. 2.84 We also have threekindsof "events" represented bycircles in our diagram: Fig. 2.8 non-communication events,communication events and communicationagents or agencies. Let us define each of these ingeneral terms. 2.88 Four other aspectsremain to be ger- has an importantbearing 2.85 Non-communicationevents noted. Each of these communication act can beperceived by upon the processand study ofcommunication: mane to a which events and messages communication sources orproduced by communi- (a) The situation in and are perceived;(b) the percep- cationreceivers. Let thesebe singlecircles are produced generalized program. Thus an tual context in spaceand time in which messages marked E in our and perceived ;(c) administrative, event perceivedwould be : are produced legal, political, etc.,arrangements controllingthe Fig. 2.5. availability of messages ;and (d) the consequences And an event of communication actsaside from immediate reproduced -would be: actions or from desiredeffects. 2.89 Awkward as it is,the following verbal "model" ofcommunication has thevirtue of noting in a singlesentence ten basicelements Fig. 2.6. of the processidentified in our discussion :

2.86 Communication events are mes- AN EVENT (OR statements about events.Let us represent SOMEONE/PERCEIVES sages or 2 them by divided circlesmarked SE for "statement 1 about event." In Fig. 2.7, wehave diagrammed (a) a message perceived,and (b) message pro- STATEMENT) /ANDREACTS/IN A SITUA- duced: 3 4

Fig. 2.7 TION/AND THROUGHSOME MEANS/TO 5

MATERIALS/IN SOME 2.87 Communication agents oragencies MAKE AVAILABLE are representedby two concentriccircles. These 6 7 stand for sources,receivers, and their termsof communicating agents M perception. Let us mark CONTEXT/CONVEYINGCON- for man or machine(although they can also rep- FORM/AND resent institutions), andindicate the terms of per- 8 9 ception by attaching a prime(') sign to whatever of the is perceived or attendedto as the object TENT/WITH SOMECONSEQUENCE. communication. Thus we candiagram a communication act in which someoneperceives an 10 event and makes astatement about it whichis perceived by someone else(Fig. 2.8) : In the followingsections we shall reviewand describe each of theseelements in a more syste- 5Sometimes perception can beachieved only at the cost of changing the event beingobserved. matic fashion. 9 2.9 Steps in the Process indicating one feature of the situation. It is usually impractical to schematize a situationon a 2.91 We shall use a dramatized diagram generalized model. Step 5 marks the communica- (Fig. 2.9) of a communication act to retrace the tive nature of the reaction.It designates the ten steps of our verbal model. Thenwe shall re- means, the mediating channels and controls trans- view each of the elements in theprocess, and cite mitting a signal (here "voice"), as aline leading examples of questions that direct attention to each downward from the communicating agent, M, to as a major variable for study. We shall also de- the comunication product, SE. velop a truncated form of the basicdiagram to 2.95 indicate the place of most characteristicsof the The means serve to make available communication process within its materials to X designations. Availability forper- scope. ception is shown as Step 6, a line leading hori- 2.92 Assume that someone noticesa zontally from the communication product toan- house burning across thestreet and shouts other person, M. Use of some means becomesa "Fire!" to someone else. This act of communica- signal only if it is not random; that is, if it is in tion is illustrated below with each aspect ofthe some form. Step 7 indicates the formal character- process indicated on the diagram.° istics of the use of the means. It is representedas a half-circle attached to means, labeled S for sig- 2.93 Step 1 of our model is illustrated nal or statement. (Here form might be denotedas on the diagram as a human head representing a certain language sequence.) Every signal exists someone. This is the M of the generalized dia- in a context of other signals and statements. The gram, here a communication source. Nextcomes three circles of Step 8 along the horizontal,per- the event and its perception. The event,here a ceptual, dimension denote context. Again, it is burning house, is shownas circle E. Its percep- often impractical to schematize context except by tion is indicated as Step 2,a line leading horizon- considering it an ever-present feature of theper- tally from circle E, the event, toa circle inside M; ceptual aspect. the inside circle is labeled E' event E as perceived by M. In Step 3 ofour model, M reacts 2.96 The content qualities inherent in to having perceived the event. (If thisreaction in- M's use of means in S formare marked E to denote volves use of somemeans to produce a message, those qualities of SE, the communication product, it will be represented under Step 5.) which reflect, represent, symbolize,or refer to the event. Thus the total communication product, 2.94 Step 4 makes note of the fact that SE, means signal or statement S, about event E, all perceptions and reactionsoccur in a situation. in this case : "Fire !" The consequences of this M is shown observing E from behinda window, communication event can be appraised only in terms of all other aspects plus time ; Step 10, 6This illustration is drawn from the earlierarticle "To- therefore, cannot be adequately visualized. ward a General Model of Communication,"op. cit. 2.10 Analysis of the Model 1.Someone 2.10.1 Now we are ready to characterize 2. Perceivesan event each aspect more fully, and to crystallize the basic diagram. 3. And reacts 1. "Someone" the communi- 4. In a situation cating agent (source or receiver)may be a person, organization,etc., in any communication 5. Throughsome means transaction. The M of our diagram stands for the 6. To make available general physical and social characteristics of the materials parties involved in the communicationprocess senders or destination of messages, communicators 7.1n some form and their audiences. When wesay "She looked so 8. And context sincere that they believed her story,"or "He is too 9. Conveying content young to understand that picture" we are pointing to this variable as an important element in the O. With some process. When we discuss the structure, history, consequence or method of operation of a communication industry or enterprise, or the nature of its audiences, Fig. 2.9. A dramatized versionof the InteractionModel. we are dealing with M. 10 support claims for the generalsuperiority of any 2.10.2 2."...Perceives an event (or cognitive (hori- one medium,channel, or mode of perception over statement)" the perceptual to indicate that zontal) dimension of our diagraminvolves the all others. But there is evidence statements) and the choice of means hasimplications for the mean- relationship between events (and for their perceptual the way these might be recognized,perceived, ap- ings of messages, as well as proached. Perception is selective ; wemust select qualities, distribution, andavailability. from what is available, and do soin a certain con- 2.10.7 6."....To make available text of other things alsoavailable for perception. materials." Availability is one outcomeof the use Thus, selection, context, availability areimportant of means and controls to produce messages.We variables for study. So are thepsycho-physical have assigned it to theperceptual dimension to characteristics of the perceptual process,and its emphasize that the technical, legal,administra- social and experiential aspects.Perceptual as well tive, political, etc., functions incommunication as conceptualapproach, point of view, predisposi- need to be viewed in the lightof what they make tions, and need-value systems are amongthe sig- available for selection. While the"means and con- nificant aspects of this process. Inits most gen- trols" dimension calls attention toproduction and eral sense, this dimensionrepresents man's orien- distribution systems, the"availability" aspect tation to his environment, as well as thenature and emphasizes administrative andother arrange- structure of the environmentavailable for orien- ments determining freedom of accessto materials. tation and selected for attention orinquiry. 2.10.8 7."...In some form." The 2.10.3 3."...And reacts." Overt re- form of the communication eventis represented action to the perception of an event orstatement on the diagramby the S (for signal orstatement) has been assigned to the verticaldimension of our portion of SE, the message. Analysisof form may diagram. If this reaction leads to theproduction be structural, logical or psychological.Structural of a message, we have SE at thebottom end of the and logical analysis of formhave to do with such "means and controls" dimension; if itis some other internal relationships as design,style, organiza- kind of reaction, we can representits outcome by tion, syntax, sequence, code, statisticalproperties, a non-communicationevent, E. etc. Psychological analysis has todo with such external relationships as conventional usage,conno- 2.10.4 When we are dealing with the tations, associations, feelings orattitudes evoked communicative rea c t i on of acommunication in users. source, we have, of course,the production of a statement. But when we examinethe reaction of a 2.10.9 8."...And context."Con- communication receiver, we are dealingwith com- text is another aspect of theperceptual dimension. munication effects. We usually measurethese It is the composition of theperceptual field in against the aims of the communicators, orsatis- which a particular event or statementis selected factions of the receivers. (Whenmeasured by for perception. In other words,it is what comes other criteria, we shall call them"consequences.") before and after the message, orwhat surrounds the message in a particularcommunication situa- 2.10.5 4."...In a situation"All per- tion. The study of context focusesattention not on ception and reaction takes place in asituation. the general physical and social aspectsof the com- Certain aspects of the situation areoften over- munication situation, nor on thegeneral sequence looked in the analysis or planning ofcommunica- of activities followed in a presentation,but specif- tion. Some of these elements are physical: room ically on the effect of other messages uponthe per- size, location, light, heat, sound,condition of ception of the message selected. equipment, etc. Others are social: groupsize, composition, the structure of humanrelationships in- 2.10.10 9."...Conveying content." If volved.Still others are procedural: methodof we take SE asstanding for "statement about utilization and presentation ofcommunication event E," then we caninterpret the E aspect of materials, sequence of activities, etc. message SE as thoseexternal relationships of the statement which have reference towhat the mes- 2.10.6 5."...Through some means," sage is "about" (i.e.subject matter) or to other the means and control3 (vertical)dimension of events and functionsinferrable from messages our diagram. Here wedeal with choice of channels taken as objective records of specificcommunica- and media, and with techniques (aswell as institution acts. tional arrangements) of producing (or mass-producing) messages. New media and newtech- 2.10.11 This latter view of content is an niques stimulate much discussion andresearch unusual one, especially for thoseaccustomed to about relative values. There is noevidence to looking at messages only in termsof the struc- 11 tural, logical and psychological aspects of form. 2.10.14 10."...With some conse- I am not suggesting any mysterious "potential" quences." The intention of the previous category or "latent" characteristics outside of message was to broaden the scope of inquiry about com- forms. I am suggesting that there is another im- munication content. The intention here is to call portant way of looking at messages besides the attention to an area of "effects" outside thescope analysis of forms and of subjective associations. of those desired, anticipated,or recognized at any Whether we intend it or not, orare aware of it or one time. The need for this category arises in not, a specific message is not onlya vehicle for part from our view of contentas an objective signs and symbols but alsoan objective social social event. Once such an event is brought into event. It is not only a report but alsoa record. being it makes some contribution to certain ir- As such, its content includes the imprint of cir- reversible processes. The full "meaning" of this cumstances and points of view which may beun- contribution rests in the actualconsequences in- intended and unrecognized but whichare never- herent in the sum total of changes brought about. theless functional qualities of the communication transaction. Messages viewed as objective social 2.10.15 Frequently we are only inter- events may be a source of inference revealing (at ested in finding out how changes in behavior, least to the analyst) some things about theproc- ideas, attitudes, etc., consequent to the perception ess that produced them and about a range of con- of message relate topurposes of communicators, sequences quite apart from what sources and re- objectives stated in messages,or to needs and ceivers intend or "mean" by them. desires of receivers. We have classified this type of 2.10.12 effect analysis under study of "reaction." Study We may analyze a photograph of the full range ofconsequences in communica- not only to study subjectiveresponses to the con- tion includes the consideration of often unin- ventional forms reported in it but alsoto deter- tended or unrecognized effects. We should ask mine possible consequencesof theobjective not only "Was I successful?" but also "What else "points of view" recorded in it (e.g. bymeans of has changed, or is likely to change?"as the result camera angle or ways of lighting),whether or not of the communication. There 4+, are no communica- the subjects responding to the photographare tion "failures" except in terms of specific objec- aware of these "points of view." We may study tives.Every communicationacthasconse- a series of whiskey ads not to appraise their de- quences ; these are never limited to specific objec- sign qualities, measure their effectson sales or on tives; and the parties involved ina communica- ideas about whiskey, but to make inferencesabout tion transaction are oftenunaware of the full some more subtle social relationships recorded range of significant consequences. and reflected in them (suchas frequency with which their image of the "good life" involves the 2.10.16 If we analyze a communication services of Negro waiters or Filipino houseboys). "failure" in this light, we might find thatwe have We might want to study an exhibit not only toan- "succeeded" in communicating an actual relation- alyze the quality of graphics and the arrangement ship to our subject which conflicted withour of objects but to find out how adequately itre- stated purpose. Some wartime films which, in flects current knowledge abouta subject, and how order to emphasize the danger, unwittingly glori- honestly it expresses the state,purposes, and fied the Nazis had such "boomerang" effects. The functions of the organization arranging it. Orwe same can be true of communication "successes." might analyze magazine policiesor television pro- Some can deliver a 4th of July speech about de- gramming to see how it reflects regardless of mocracy in such an authoritarian manner that intentions, likes or dislikes the state of the in- when the eloquent words are forgotten onlya dustry and the approach of the business to the relationship of threat and fear remains. There world of events it communicates about. are teachers who feel that their communication 2.10.13 Content as a record of objective was effective if students pass a rigid examination relationships is not primarily a matter of skill, yet develop a dislike of the subjector even of talent,craftsmanship or showmanship.Itis learning. Absorbing an avalanche of information primarily a matter of wherewe actually stand in may narcotize rather than energize people. relation to the events, subjects, ideaswe communicate about, and whatwe actually do in spe- 2.10.17 Here we are concerned not only cific communication transactions. The questions with effectiveness but also with the total price to we ask about content as we defined it are pri- be paid for certain effects. Long range effects marily questions of truth and validity.These are often different from short range; behavior questions will lead us to the consideration ofa is sometimes in conflict with ideology, or not theory of judgment in communication. rationalized at all; unapparent effects may have 12 obligation of serious consequences ;desired effects, such as occupational hazards of a special tenden- professionals (including professors)to profess making people do the "right things" by "to avow pub- tious propaganda, may impoverishthe bases of i.e., (according to Webster's) the licly." I think those risks are worthtaking if they self-directiona consequence too costly in relevance of long run. help us examine our notions of the what we do to the priorities ofvalue we hold.

2.11 Summary Diagram 2.13Freedom, Responsibility 2.11.1 Our summary diagram of com- 2.13.1 We begin with the basic assump- munication appears in Fig. 2.10.It includes all tion that communication is a"humn:Lizing" pro- which could not but those elements of the process cess."Humanizing" Homo sapiens involves be assigned to any one aspect ordimension. changing reality in the light of changing conceptions of the requirements of survivaland welfare. Perceptual Dimension Our relotionship to 2.13.2 We can derive certain standards the world we face. from these premises if we can esiAblishthe ideal of communicationin Sitecitaj;Coii4i "humanizing"qualities -;i4voucotilw, social life. And we can arrive at somejudgments by applying these standards tocommunication functions, institutions, and practices. 2.13.3 The perceptual dimension of our model represents the process of inquiry,the selec- Means and Controls Dimension tion and perception of events andstatements in Our relationship to the statements we moke. some context of availability.The ideal state of affairs of this dimension of communicationis, I think, freedom. What we usually ask foralong this dimension is the availability of adiversity of events, statements, and points ofview, so that we might select freely in a representative contextof pertinent evidence. 2.13.4 But the quality of freedomalong Fig. 2.10.Summary diagram of communication. the perceptual dimension isneither an absolute quality nor an end in itself.It is physically, socially, and psychologicallystructured and deter- 2.12 Judgment mined. Its purpose is not merely toprovide exercise in choosing, but primarilyto provide the 2_12.1 The construction of a framework setting most favorable for themaking of correct for the study of communication involvedcritical choices. Let us then consider howthe structure of choices. We have contended, amongother things, freedom is determined and what the"rightness" that the acts of abstraction, recognition,and repre- of choices might mean. sentation carry within them often unwittingly the seeds of judgment. If I onlylook up from 2.13.5 The purpose of freedom in com- my chair and gazing upon anobject remark "I munication is to assure publicavailability of have done more than simple "sens- statements and points of viewpertinent to deci- see a chair," I popular ing."I have abstracted certaincharacteristics sion-making and self-government. The of the object, recognized andnamed them, re- definition of this freedom as "theright to say corded a relationship and a vantagepoint, and what I please" can lead to itsnegation if I have thus assigned to that object anapproximate role, access to a loudspeakerbut others don't. Freedom function, and value in the contextof our culture. to talk might abolish the freedomto be heard. That is why we have assignedfreedom to the 2.12.2 Our task would be incomplete horizontal dimension of inquiry andperception, without an effort to germinate theseeds of judg- and not to the vertical dimensionof the use of ment inherent in the much morecomplex task of means, channels,facilities for the production of building a conceptual frameworkfor the study of statements. communication. In this necessarilybrief form, the effort is likely to appear moreconclusive and 2.13.6 The structure of freedom is or- dogmatic than it means to be. Butbuch are the ganized diversity whether it pleases or not.It is 13 determined through the systematic use of means, ment, and decision-making serving the "human- channels, media, and other facilities for the pro- izing" ends of survival and welfare. duction (and mass-production) of statements. If Let me advance a proposition : Communication these means and facilities are to produce a struc- can help human insight to deal with realities of ture of freedom, they must be organized and used existence to the extent that its products are true, to that end. Freedom of use of facilities (the valid, and believable. Now let us develop the vertical "production" dimension of our diagram) meanings and implications of this proposition. on behalf of any other end, private or public, serves other ends.If the ideal structure of inquiry and perception along the horizontal dimen- 2.14 Truth sion is to be freedom, the essential quality along the vertical production dimension has to be con- 2.14.1 Truth in communication is a trol. Control of means and facilities to promote quality of content. It is not a "thing" that exists diversity of availability and freedom of selection independently of statements. Theuth of state- is a major administrative and governmental re- ment is a measure of qualities of correspondence, sponsibility in communications. adequacy and coherence of its relationship to the The determination of the structure of freedom event the statement is "about" a relationship in industrial culture as an administrative and asserted or recorded in what we defined as its governmental function is illustrated in Fig. 2.11 content. To judge the truth or falsity of a state- as the social relationship between the production ment (or the proposition for which it stands) we and the perceptual dimensions of our communica- need to examine its correspondence to the event tion model. (in the conventional forms of a culture), its adequacy in emphasis, intensity, etc., and its co- Communicating agencies herence with other statements about the event (Sources and receivers) known to be true or false. The truth quality of a Perception, Inquiry single specific proposition is dichotomous. Such a proposition can only be true or false, in the sense Point that the proposition 2 plus 2 equals 5 cannot be of view considered partially true or almost true, but only false. The truth quality of complex statement or of a body of statements can be expressed in terms of the qualities of single specific propositions con- Administrative and governmental tained in them. Truth quality is provisional only controls determine structure of freedom in communication in the sense that we might be unable to assess it or might assess it erroneously at any one time. Otherwise it can only be an absolute quality because both events and making statements about events are unique and irreversible occasions whose relationships to one anotherwith all their qualities are likewise unique and irreversible.7 Fig. 2.11. nt might be well to deal here briefly with some misconceptions which often arise at this point and lead to such questions as: "Is this an argument for 'absolutism'?" and The social responsibility to promote freedom in "Who is to determine this 'truth quality'?".I think this position is the only ideological defense against 'absolutism'. communications throughthe organizationof For if truth is itself a subjective judgment rather than an means and facilities to that end does not imply objective quality of statements to be appraised more or less that the structure of freedom is an absolute successfully, then absolute power over such judgments quality, or that it is diversity for its own sake. i.e., "thought control" could actually remake reality rather than only our consciousness of reality. Thus it is the Freedom of public communication in any society relativistic position that becomes an argument for "abso- can be considered an index of the extent to which lutism" as a viable social order. Our conception of the the state of affairs in communication permits truth quality of statements as an objective (and only in public insight to penetrate relevant realities of 4hat sense "absolute ) relationship to changing realities of existence makes the structure of freedom a necessary existence.It is an index of the complexity and condition for its assessment. Assessment by whom? By diversity of a communications structure organ- anyone who satisfies accepted criteria for the verification ized to enhance opportunities for learning, judg- of statements. Who communicates the human 2.14.2 We can illustrate this conception 2.14.5 or truth as anobjective relationship between relevance of scientific beliefs to thelayman? Who statements and events on ourdiagram (Fig. transforms true and valid perceptionsof the human condition into imaginativerepresenta- 2.12) : tions, in forms most people canunderstand, believe, and even enjoy? That, I think, is thesocial communication function of art. The"humanizing" role of art in communications is tosensitize us to the perceptionof relationships and points of view whose appraisal science makespossible. 2.14.6 The summary diagram (Fig. 2.13) illustrates ideal qualities andfunctions in social communications. 2.14.7 Along the horizontal dimension we see theideal process as valid perceptionsfreely selected in a representative contextof pertinent evidence. Adding "beliefs" as acontrolling factor in human actions, we find theideal quality along the vertical dimension as clearexpression of beliefs through effective means andforms. Combin- ing these with the hypothenuse of ourtriangle Fig. 2.12. representing truth, we formulatethe ideal qualities in communication as truebeliefs reflecting valid points of view freely selectedin a represen- 2.14.3 The content of statements, as we evidence and clearly also tative context of pertinent defined it, records not only a relationship but presented through effective meansand form,s. a vantage point fromwhich events are viewed. true beliefs The judgment of that aspect of content is con- Condensed into a briefer proposition : cerned with validity. The question of validity freely acquired and believablypresented. focuses attention not on the fidelity or accuracy of a statement but on thevalue attributes imparted through the particular approach or "point of The world we face: valid perceptions freely selected in view" apparent in the message. One can photo- o representative context of graph the same face in ways that make equally pertinent evidence "true" likenesses appear "good" or "evil" (e.g., by making a light cast shadows down or up) ; one can make two equallyfactual accounts of mur- der give the impression of either crime or hero- World of ism ; one can omit reference to events or claim no Events ond factual basis (as in purely persuasive or fictional Statements statements) and still imply an approach to events. The statements we make: clear ex- Judgment in such cases centers on the question of pression of belicfs validity. through effuctive means ond forms 2.14.4 The development of standards truth, is a for the assessment of validity, as of Government social process. The appraisal of thevalidity of To promote fret selection approaches and the truth qualityof statements in Art the light of current standards of reasonand evi- To make truth more believable dence is the activity we call science.The "human- Science izing" function of science incommunications is To moke beliefs truer the formulation of true statementsand valid approaches to inquiry. Fig. 2.13.

15 Communication Models

prepared by Erwin P. Bettinghaus

3.1 Ways of Looking at the fect, would show all possible aspects of some process, i.e., it would represent the process occur- Communication Process ring in the real world with perfect fidelity. Or to put it in another way, a perfect model would be 3.11 The Interaction Model discussed in isomorphic, i.e., the parts of the model would Chapter 2 represents a carefully prepared and correspond in an exact one-to-one relationship to fully developed approach to communication ;in the process as it exists in the real world. many ways it is the most useful approach yet outlined. However, it is but one of many ways of 3.23 Naturally, the limitations of the looking at the process of communication. Psy- graphic arts, and the automatic imposition of chologists, sociologists, businessmen, physicists, stasis that visualization carries, means that dy- agricultural specialists, and journalists represent namic, ongoing processes cannot be reproduced only a few of the professional groups whose mem- with perfect fidelity. Thus models range from bers have developed ways of looking at and talk- high to low fidelity in the degree with which they ing about the communication process in their represent processes. The criterion for selection of specialized fields. As the student of communica- a particular model in any given case is not based tion reads about communication, he soon finds primarily on the fidelity or correspondence to himself surrounded with a somewhat confusing reality of the particular model, but rather on the variety of definitions, charts and mathematical model's usefulness. symbols all purporting to explain or to represent the communication process. 3.24 The criterion of utility in selection of a model becomes more understandable 3.12 In many cases, the charts, dia- when we consider the types of models available. grams and symbology are called "models" of the At one level, models are merely descriptive. A de- communication process.Yet, many ofthese scriptive model might be used to identify the models bear little surface resemblance to one elements of a particular process, or to indicate another.Before looking at some of the com- areas from which questions may be drawn forfu- munication models, it seems reasonable to explore ture research. Most of the models of the communi- the values in a study of models of the communica- cation process mentioned here are purely description process. tive. 3.25 At a different level, we can talk 3.2 Kinds of Models about an operational model. An operational model attempts to describe the process in such a way that 3.21 Different grow,' ; of scientists use measurement operations and predictions are pos- the word "model" itself in dif ;rent ways. Some- sible. Information theory provides a model which times they substitute it for ,rms like "theory," can be called operational in the sense in which "analogy," 'flow chart," "hypothesis," and "ex- we have used it here. At still a different level, we planation." In some cases, the term has been re- can attempt to develop a functional model. A garded almost as if it wen magic and as if the functional model is not necessarily descriptive, mere labeling of a partic,ilarvisual as a model but attempts to specify certain relationships be- automatically clears up all possible misunder- tween elements of the process so that other and standings about a process. new relationships are generated. There are few 3.22 The "model," as a code, supposedly functional models in communication as we know represents the real process. Thus it is not sub- it today, or for that matter, there are few such stitutable for the process itself. A model, if per- models in the behavioral sciences. 3.26 With this background, the criterion 3.4 Two Non-Visual Models of utility becomes clear. If thedesire of an individual is merely to identify the elementsof a 3.41 Perhaps the best known verbal meaningful to a particular model of communication is also the oldest. Aris- process which are totle, writing in his Rhetorica 300 years before task, a descriptive model is all that is necessary. the beginning of the Christian Centuries, pro- Furthermore, the task to be accomplishedalso vided an explanation of oral communication determines the level of fidelity which maybe which is still worthy of attention. He called the necessary. If the processis difficult to under- study of communication "rhetoric" and spoke of stand, a low fidelity model may induce more three elements within the process : understanding with fewer repetitions than a high Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the fidelity model which is far more complicated. three classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three elements in speech-making speaker, subject, and 3.2. The next section looks primarily at person addressed it is the last one, the hearer, that the relative usefulness of certain communication determines the speech's end and object.1 models in accomplishing two tasks: determining From an analysis of the three elements of speaker, the types of questions which might be answered speech and audience, Aristotle details character- or raised from a particularmodel, and accomplish- istics which lach element might have. His is an ing the job of achieving listener or reader under- audience-cen:,ered exposition which attempts to standing about the process of communication. place the emphasis in communication on persuasion : . . .Since rhetoric exists to affect the giving of decisions...the orator must not only try to make the 3.3 Communication Models argument of his speech demonstrative and worthy of belief; he must also make his own character look 3.31 Communication models come in a right and put his hearers, who are to decide, into the variety of forms written, expressed mathe- right frame of mind.2 matically, or as a non-verbal visualization. They 3.42 If we ask ourselves what the dif- may be oriented to differentproblems. They may ferences are between the model proposed by Aris- be designed to explain transmission of informa- totle and ones constructed in the present century, tion over mechanical systems, explain the social only one major difference seems apparent. Aris- nature of human communication, express the totle did not talk about a channel for communica- neurological function of the brain, or predict tion as do most modern accounts. Yet the Rhe- message form and structure. torica rather carefully examines many of the factors which make for effective oral or written 3.32 Communication models can be communication. In its emphasis on the listener, placed along several kinds of dimensions.In each Aristotle originates a philosophy of communica- case, the dimensionchosen is one which fits a tion carried out in the two models discussed later, particular situation under study. Thus amodel SMCR and Interpreter. psycho- might be constructed to emphasize the 3.43 Aristotle's traditional view pro- logical aspects of communication. Other common vides the core of Harold Lasswell's much quoted models seem to be derived for the purposeof ex- formulation of the main elements of communica- plaining communication in small groups,the re- tion : "Who says what in which channel to whom lationship between the newspaper andthe mass with what effect?"3Lasswell's question is a audience, communication in the polarizedspeaker- model of communication, a model which points to audience situation, or for diagramming the proc- the significant elements of the process as Lasswell ess nature of communication. saw those elements.Although this model has stimulated research in communicationparticu- 3.33 Regardless of the particular em- larly research involving mass media the model phasis shown, at least two things are clear.Models is of limited use in teaching the process of com- are constructedfor particular purposes, i.e., to munication. It tends to focus on pure description serve a criterion ofutility. Second, communication models never include all possibleelements of 1,2Aristotle, Rhetorica. Translated by W. Rhys Roberts, in the real in Basic Works of Aristotle, Richard McKeon (ed.), New the communication process as it exists York: Random House. 1941. world. Models are selective, and elements are 8Harold D. Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of picked for particular models which seem to occur Communication in Society." In Lyman Bryson (ed.), The within the process of communication in ways Communication of Ideas. Institute for Religious and So- which fit the particular situation being examined. cial Studies, 1948, p. 37. 17 of the elements of the process and fails to identify and Weaver visualization.Because Shannon's relationships between elements. It fails to indi- definitions of the elements of the process as he cate the importance of situational variables. And saw them are rather precise, we repeatthe en- it is oriented in a "one-way" fashion,i.e.,it tire definition here. ignores the notion of process. 3.53 By a communication system we 3.44 Words are static. Purely verbal will mean a system of the type indicated sche- models of the communication process, of which matically in Fig. 3.1.It consists of essentially Aristotle and Lasswell provide only two examples five parts : of a group from which many others could be 3.54 1. An information source which chosen, have two great disadvantages. They are produces a message or sequence of messages frequently lengthy, and if not lengthy, of limited to be communicated to the receiving terminal. usefulness. They are seldom able to indicate the The message may be of various types :(a) A dynamism of a communication situation. sequence of letters as in a telegraph orteletype system ; (b) A single function of time f (t) as in radio or telephony ;(c) A function of time 3.5 Some Visualizations and other variables as in black and white tele- 3.51 This section discusses briefly a vision here the message may be thought of number of communication models which have been as a function f (x, y, t)of two space coordinates visualized in several ways. A complete discussion and time, the light intensity at point (x, y) and of any one model is beyond the scope of the chap- time t on a pickup tube plate; (d) Two or more ter. Yet it may help one to gain a background functions of time, say f (t), g(t), h(t) this is in communication to see some of the various ways the case in "three dimensional" sound transmis- people have expressed visually their communica- sion or if the system is intended to service sev- tion interest. The section following discusses two eralindividualchannelsinmultiplex ;(e) models in much greater detail with the emphasis Several functions of several variables in color on use of the models in teaching. television the message consists of three functions f (x, y, t), g(x, y, t), h (x, y, t) defined in a 3.52 In 1949, Claude Shannon, of the three-dimensional continuum we may also Bell Telephone Laboratories, and Warren Weav- think of these three functions as components of er, then with theRockefeller Foundation, made a vector field defined in the region similarly, scholarly hearts beat considerably faster with the several black and white television sources would publicationof their book The Mathematical produce "messages" consisting of a number of Theory of Communication. They attempted to do functions of three variables; (f) Various com- two things : reduce the communication process binations also occur, for example, in television to a set of mathematical formulas, and discuss with an associated audio channel. problems which can be handled with the model. They intended their formulation to apply to all 3.55 2. A transmitter which operates communication, including mechanical communica- on the message in some way to produce asignal tions systems. Fig. 3.1 below shows the Shannon suitable for transmission over the channel. In

INFORMATION SOURCE TRANSMITTER RECEIVER DESTINATION

SIGNAL RECEIVED SIGNAL AMMONIUM& MESSAGE MESSAGE

NOISE SOURCE Fig. 3.1.Schematic diagram of a general communication system: Shannon andWeaver Model.

18 in- telephony this operation consistsmerely of 3.59 Shannon and Weaver were not changing sound pressure into aproportional terested in the psychological aspectsof communi- electrical current. In telegraphy wehave an cation, and thus not really concernedwith problems involving commoncommunication break- encoding operation which produces a sequence "What role of dots, dashes and spaces on thechannel cor- downs. Thus questions of the order : PCM does the attitude of the receiverplay in communi- responding to the message. In a multiplex from their system the different speechfunctions must be cation ?" are not immediately derivable sampled, compressed, quantized andencoded, model. Neither were they particularlyinterested and finally interleaved properly toconstruct in the dynamic aspects of humancommunication television and fre- considered apart from other possiblecommunica- the signal. Vocoder systems, in studying quency modulation areother examples of com- tion systems. Thus, if the purpose plex operations applied to the messageto obtain communication is an attempt to isolate the causes of communication breakdowns incertain kinds of the signal. human communication, the Shannon andWeaver 3.56 3. The channel is merely the model will give only rather generalhelp. From medium used to transmit the signal fromtrans- the Shannon and Weaver book,however, has mitter to receiver. It may be a pairof wires, a come a wealth ofresearch material and other coaxial cable, a band of radiofrequencies, a theoretical formulations. beam of light, etc. During transmission, orat one of the terminals,the signal may be per- 3.5.10 To see how the Shannon and turbed by noise. This is indicatedschematically Weaver model can be adapted for otherand more in Fig. 3.1 by the noise source acting onthe specific purposes, see Jerome Rothstein's book transmitted signal to produce thereceived Communication, Organization and Science. Roth- signal. stein argues that there is al, analogybetween communication and measurement amounting to an 3.57 4. The receiver ordinarily per- "identity in logical structure." Hisvisualization, forms the inverse operation of that doneby the reproduced in Fig. 3.2, adds relatively littleto transmitter, reconstructing the messagefrom the Shannon and Weaver model, yetshows the the signal. relationship he is interested indescribing rather 3.58 5. The destination is the person precisely. He describes his visualizationrather (or thing) for whom the message isintended.4 concisely: "The blocks and upper captions follow Shan- 4Reproduced with permission from pp. 4-6, TheMathe- non's characterization of a communication sys- matical Theory of Communication, Claude E. Shannon, and tem ; the lower captions give analogous terms for Warren Weaver.Urbana: The University of Illinois Press, 1949. a measuring apparatus. The systemof interest cor-

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

INFORMATION FlimSOURCE I TRANSMITTER RECEIVER DESTINATION CHANNEL RECEIVED MESSAGE MESSAGE SIGNAL SIGNAL, MEASURED MEASURE VALUE OF PRO PERTY OF INDICATOR OBSERVER SYSTEM OF INTEREST MEASURING INTEREST APPARATUS NOISESOURCE

ERROR SOURCE

MEASURING PROCEDURE AND APPARATUS Fig. 3.2. The analogy between measurement andcommunication: Rothstein Model.

19 responds to the information source ; the observer, THOUGHT OR REFERENCE to the destination for which the message is intended. The message corresponds to a measure of the property of interest, which is often encoded by the transmitter or measuring apparatus into rc; information-bearing variations of some physical te+ 4tf, 15 43 quantity often quite different from the one of di- AP C2 Ni.' rect interest. This signal, corrupted by noise or 1.1- errors, is decoded by the receiver or indicator and 4 c- presented as a message or measured value at the Cr o output of the system."5 Iir 9 3.5.11 Rothstein is not attempting to describe all of the communication, nor to be of help in solving communication breakdowns, nor to indicate how the model may be used to write a better SYMBOL Stands for REFERENT television show. He is interested only in the ques- (an imputed relation) tion of the relationship of measurement theory to * TRUE communication. We may question the model on grounds regarding the accomplishment of this Fig. 3.3.The Ogden and Richards Model.° task, but we should not question the model on the grounds that it seems to be of no help in the problems of introducing technical change in under- reference we are making and partly by social developed countries of the world. and psychological factors the purpose for 3.5.12 Neither the Shannon and Weaver which we are making the reference, the pro- formulation nor the Rothstein adaptation are of posed effect of our symbols on other persons, distinct help in gaining an understanding of the and our own attitude. When we hear what is characteristics peculiar to human communication. said, the symbols both cause us to perform an Let us turn our attention to human communica- act of reference and to assume an attitude tion, and focus on several models attempting to which will, according to circumstances, be more specify what happens to an individual receiver or or less similar to the act and the attitude of the destination of communication upon receipt of a speaker. this formulation message. The classic model for 3.5.15 Between the Thought and the remains that of Ogden and Richards in their book Referent there is also a relation ; more or less The Meaning of Meaning. Ogden and Richards direct (as when we think about or attend to a are interested in therelationships which hold be- coloured surface we see), or indirect (as when tween symbols or messages, thought, and the we 'think of' or 'refer to' Napoleon) ,in which referents for symbols. They visualize the tri- chain of sign- angular diagram shown in Fig. 3.3, and then turn case there may be a very long model : situations intervening between the act and its to a verbal description to explain their referent : word historian contemporary 3.5.13 This [relationship] may be record eye-witness referent (Napoleon). simply illustrated by a diagram in which the three factors involved whenever any statement 3.5.16 Between the symbol and the is made, or understood, are placed at the cor- referent there is no relevant relation other than ners of the triangle, therelations which hold the indirect one, which consists in its being used between them being represented by the sides. by someone to stand for a referent. Symbol and The point just made can be restated by saying Referent, that is to say, are not connected di- that in this respect the base of the triangle is rectly (and when, for grammatical reasons we of imply such a relation, it will merely be an im- quite different in composition from either puted, as opposed to a real, relation) but only the other sides. indirectly round the two sides of the triangle. 3.5.14 Between a thought and a symbol causal relations hold. When we speak,the 3.5.17 Here again, the visual does not carry the entire model. A verbal description is symbolism we employ is caused partly by the necessary in order to understand fully what 6Reproduced with permission from figure 1, pages 9-10, Communication, Organization, and Science, Jerome Roth- 6Reproduced by permission from pp. 10-11, The Meaning stein. Indian Hills, Colorado: The Falcon's WingPress, of Meaning, C. K. Ogden, and I. A. Richards. New York: 1958. Harcourt Brace and Company, Inc., 1956.

20 3.5.20 Begin with (1). Thisis the in- Ogden and Richards mean.There are other objec- level we have acollection somewhat moretechnical put. At the message tions to this model on of objectively measurablesigns S. These come grounds. Ogden andRichards never attemptedto in any way, and the to your sense organs,where they constitute a specify the term "thought" stimulus for action. Thisstimulus we call s. model may be criticizedfor lack of utility onthat far as s, you are pay- Ogden and Richardsformula- When the process gets as ground. Today, the ing attention. The messagehas been accepted. tions are mainly ofhistorical interest. It may not have beenaccepted as intended ; s mechanism may 3.5.18 In addition, the Ogdenand Rich- may not equalf5J; the sensory ards model stimulateddevelopment of a more have seen or heard itincompletely. But every- sophisticated model whichattempts to explain the thing else that happens as aresult of the mes- same processof language use.Dissatisfied with sage in thatparticular destinationwill now the proposals of Ogdenand Richards and withthe necessarily be the resultof the stimulus ac- model developed byCharles Morris in hisbook cepted by your sense organs. Behavior, Charles E. Os- Signs, Language, and 3.5.21 Now look at number(2). The good developed a modelbased on learning theory. level under considera- message may nothave to go to any other Exactly the same process was in order to bring about a response.If a man tion,i.e., what are therelationships between nose, you maydodge. observable responses waves his fist near your observable stimuli and the If he squeezes your hand, you maysay "ouch !" of individual receivers.Yet the model as it ap- automatic, responses 3.4 is considerably morecompli- These are learned, almost pears in Fig. on the sensoryand motor skill level. cated. Its complexityenables the model to explain more completelywhat happens in thesituation 3.5.22 But the stimulus mayalso being studied. It is, withall the complexity, still bring about other kinds ofactivity within your a purelydescriptive model. It attempts no pre- nervous system.Look at number (3) .The dictions, and does not generate newpropositions. stimulus s may be translatedinto a grammati- dispositional level by The model, as we presentit here, cal response on your 3.5.19 which we mean the level oflearned integrations was developedby Charles Osgood, andis ex- which make it so in his book The Proc- (attitudes, values, sets. etc.) plained by Wilbur Schramm easy for you todispose of the variety ofstimuli ess andEffects of Mass Communication:

rmes. .... SITI REPRESENTATIONAL LEVEL (8) (6)

*Sdm rds- ...... us...... *SA rdmal° slim D1SPOSITIONAL (4) LEVEL

(3) I S 1 SENSORY AND + (2) I MOTOR SKILL I I LEVEL (1 1) I(1) I 1 I * ENCODING R MESSAGE LEVEL inDECODING INTERPRETING Fig. 3.4.The Osgood Representational -Dispositions] Model. 21 that come to you in the course of a day. These ber (6). These stimuli create activity in the cen- are what we call the irtervening variables. tral nervous system (r.) which is the terminus Suppose the stimulus stirs up activity in this of the decoding part of the process. This is equiv- area of intervening variables. Two things may alent to the meaning or significance of the happen. Look at number (4). The response signs m. What happens in number (7), then, may be so well learned that it doesn't even have is what we have been referring to as interpreta- to go to the level of thinking. You hear a line tion. The response r, which we call meaning of a poem, and almost automatically say the becomes in turn a stimulus which sets the en- second line. In that case the activity is through coding process in action, so that (7) is both the numbers (4) and (10). terminus of decoding and the start of encoding. 3.5.23 More often, however, the ac- We learn to associate meanings with desired tivity goes through number (5). Here the responses. And so the encoding process moves original stimulus has been decoded intogram- through (8) or (9).That is, we give certain mar, fed through the intervening variables, and orders which either pass directly to the neuro sent up to the representational level of the cen- muscular system (through 8) or are passed tral nervous system where meaningsare as- through the intervening variables (through 9 signed and ideas considered.Occasionally a and 10).In any case, all this activity of the stimulus comes to that level without going nervous system finally results in a response on through the intervening variablesas innum- the motor skill level (r),which results in ou put

BEAUTIFUL EXTERNAL BLONDE PERCEPTUAL - ale TWO SEATS AHEAD FIELD

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TRAIN WHISTLE

Fig. 3.5.This is the perceptual field of a hearer. It consists of all the stimuli he could possibly attend to. (Number of available stimuli is drastically reduced for convenience.) Reproduced with permission from page 39, The Arts of Persuasion, Wayne C. Minnick, Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1957.

22 model consists ofthe elementsdescribed by (number II). If theoutput is an overt re- Schramm, placed in acontext whichempha- sponse (R.),then we haveanother message, of communication,the collection of signs g2 sizes the social nature the per- which may offer itself as a as a learned nature ofcommunication, or and be acceptedby still another person ceptual nature ofcommunication. stimulus (s) .7 The first model is onedeveloped is probably not 3.5.27 3.5.24 The Osgood model by Wendell Johnsonand published inthe Harvard understandable without averbal description ex- Business Review. Johnson'smodel, togetherwith unfamiliar symbolsand explanation, naay becharac- plaining the relatively turn its accompanying relationships expressedin the model. We can terized as a primarilyphysiologically based model which needslittle verbal descrip- interested inattitudes, now to a of the model. Johnson is not tion, yet whichattempts to explain some social situation,speaker skills, or messageorgan- the Osgood model.This visual- in describing themain same things as for his book ization. He is interested ization, developedby Wayne Minnick elements of communication,and in the waysin The Art of Persuasion,shows visually the com- would appear from aphys- surrounding the which these elements plexity of theperceptual field ical point of view.His model, Fig. 3.6,below, For Osgood,the internalperceptual communication is not one listener. shown by the emphasizes the fact that field as Minnickshows it would be way, but aconstantly changing processin which while the external per- vice versa. internal 5. rm cycles, of the the source becomesthe receiver and ceptual field is seenby Osgood as part Certainly, to show the processnature of communi- message (no.I in Fig. 3.4) .Minnick's model is interrelationships of thephysical Osgood's model is cation, and the easy tounderstand at a glance. and physiologicalelements of oralcommunication, considerably harder.The Minnick modelis limited would be mostuseful. made to show the Johnson model in usefulness inthat no attempt is the John- visually what the endresult is of thecomplexity of 3.5.28 The main objection to listener,i.e.,how the son modelis that it does notattempt to specify stimuliaffecting the receiving competing stimuliaffect the listener'sfinal per- what happenswithin the sending or organism to causethe messages to beencoded or ception. A more specificform- three models decoded in certain ways. 3.5.25 When we look at the ulation andadaptation of theJohnson model is presented by Ogdenand Richards,Osgood, and Minnick certainrelationships andweaknesses are apparent. None ofthe models dealsspecifically with the completecommunication processhaving the elements of source,message,channel and receiver as does theShannon and Weavermodel. It is certainly truethat each of themodels is constructed in such a waythat additions tothe model would provide for a morecomplete descriptionof the communication process,but as we have them, the models are notcomplete. Theirusefulness lies in the fact thateach model wasconstructed to describe a specificaspect of the entirecommuni- cation process. Thevisualizations do not attempt nor KEY : Stage 1, event, or to show the processnature of communication, Fig. 3.6.The Johnson Model. end organs by themselves eventhe portion source ofstimulation, external to the sensory do they illustrate 2, sensory stimulation;Stage 3, pre- considered. For usefulnessin of the speaker; Stage transformation of of the process being verbal neurophysiologicalstate; Stage 4, teaching, eachvisualization would haveto be forms; Stage 5,verbal formula- pre-verbal into symbolic Stage 1', trans- accompanied by a verbalexplanation. tions in "final draft"for overt expression; formulations into (a)air waves and exam- formation of verbal of stimulation for 3.5.26 The next models whith are (b) light waves,which serve as sources be either thespeaker himself or ined all make anattempt to show the process the listener (who may correspond, in the They all attempt to another person); Stages2' through 1" nature of communication. through 1'. Thearrowed loops rep- between two persons, spe- listener, to Stages 2 in , show communication resent the functionalinterrelationships of the stages oralcommunication.Basically,each whole. Reproducedby permission from cifically the process as a Mr. A. Talking to exhibit 1, p. 50, "TheFateful Process of 11-12, The Successful Executives 7Reproduced with permissionfrom pp. Mr. B," by WendellJohnson, in How of Mass Communication,Wilbur published by HarvardBusiness Review, Process and Effects Illinois Press, Handle People, Schramm. Urbana,Illinois: University of Cambridge, Massachusetts,1953. 1954. 23 by Halbert is provided by Donald Bryant andKarl Wallace provided in a visualization created of Public Speaking. Gulley for a course in ContemporaryTheories of in their book Fundamentals Illinois.Essen- Bryant and Wallace emphasize thefact that there Oral Communication taught at between the speaker tially the Gulley model attempts tocombine ele- is a process at work not only elements of the and the listener, but withinboth speaker and ments of the Johnson model with both speaker Osgood model. Thus Fig. 3.7includes all stages of listener. The effect of perception on visualization the and listener is stressed, andstressed rather spe- the Johnson model but adds to the coMmunication mediation concepts introduced byOsgood. Again cifically. The two-way nature of is pointed out with an arrowthat indicates that the model emphasizes the processnature of com- stimulus for munication and attempts to specify thenature of the listener's response serves as a perception of an the speaker. Fig. 3.8 appears tobe almost totally the relationships between the Johnson model object, and the final messageencoded by the different in form from either the or the Gulleymodel, but actually the elements of speaker about that object. the model are the same. Thevisualization is dif- somewhat differ- 3.5.29 The Gulley model is weak inthe ferent and perhaps will serve a same way that theOsgood formulation is weak. ent purpose in a teachingsituation. of the mediating It does not specify the nature 3.5.31 We can make some summary processes occurringwithin the source of receiver. statements about these three modelsemphasizing Gulley model ap- For what it attempts to do, the the nature of oral communication.First, each one pears to link the processnature of communication attempts to show that communicationis a proc- as stressed byJohnson with the Osgood hy- ess. Second, each oneemphasizes that communica- potheses in a rather efficient fashion. tion is more than one-way. Third, noneof the the mes- 3.5.30 A final model of oral communica- models attempts to describe the nature of tion is perhaps the most interesting.This model sage. And last, none of themodels attempts to

Decoding I Interpreting I

1 I Encoding 1 1

Sign

S Stimuli object

Fig. 3.7.The process of speaker addressingaudiences: the Gulley Model.

24 LISTENER SPEAKER (a listening unit) (a communkating unit) ear, ,%"- .....le,

INTERPRETATION INTERPRETATION CO AND AND ! . oWWI, EVALUATION EVALUATION so A ';* 0, 0...... 711.1 o 101 4.- I -÷, t r. u1 Sum Total of Experience Sum Total of Experience including Mo Ovations, including Motivations, Emotions, Attitudes, Feelings Emotions, Attitudes, Feelings

, Ze...... je LISTENER RESPONSE Fig. 3.8.Schematic view of thecommunication process. unit whose output(speech and Speaker: a stimulating of action) during transmission(delivery) is the product describe communicationthrough any channel whatever has stimulatedhim. His sources ofstimulation, other than theface-to-face, two-personsituation. represented by the heavy arrows,are (1) histotal experience prior todelivery (includingknowledge of his listen- Malcolm Mac- delivery. 3.5.32 Bruce Westley and ers) and (2) signs oflistener response during Lean, Jr., haveintroduced a modelapplicable to Idstener: a receiving unitwhose input is speechand situation, wherecommunication action from the speakerand sensations fromthe listening the mass media is also a respondingunit whose people. Fig. 3.9 below environment. The listener (the input) involves more than two output is determined bywhat comes into him shows the model asthey formulate itin four experience. His responses(speech most modified by his total stages. The firststage would correspond and action) may occurduring listening andfollowing closely to the Minnickmodel (Fig. 3.5), and re- listening. individuals select Reproduced by permission(October, 1959), fromFig. 1, ports the processby which Speaking, by Donald C. events from the realworld by directperception. p. 15,Fundamentals of Public analogous to the threemodels Bryant, and Karl R.Wallace. New York:Appleton-Cen- The second stage is tury-Crofts, Inc., 1947. presented by Johnson,Gulley, and Bryantand the process ofcommunication Wallace, showing individual A. The as it flowsthrough a second what the mediatingreactions third stage pointsout that individualscannot the individual, i.e., It does all the availableenvironment of either the source orthe receiver are. have contact with not attempt to sayanything about thenature of and must dependfor information onthe messages various kinds individual C, who selectsitems messages which arepassed along to produced by an the model isextremely useful in which he hasperceived and transmits someof of receivers. But shows what that the relationshipsbetween a largenumber of them to B. Andthe fourth stage culture can be isolatedwith typically happens in a massmedia situation, as individuals within the and their applicable to severalother kinds of the model, theirfunctions described, well as being roles analyzed. Themodel emphasizesthe process communication situations.Here, the events that and introduces the term by A are reported toC who in nature of communication have been sampled B have feedback as an explanationof certain phenomena. turn reports themto B. Neither C nor model in four stages,Westley actually seen theevents but canshare in them By presenting the where the and MacLean easethe teaching burdenand make through A. Thus wehave the situation describe a large number or the newscommen- a ratheruseful model to reporter on a newspaper, events. tator on radio, cangive informationto members of communication of an audience. 3.5.34 Westley and MacLeandeal, as models which we havedis- MacLean model have all the other 3.5.33 The Westley and cussed, with individuals.The previous models are does not attempt tospecify what happenswithin 25 Fig. 3.9.The Westley-MacLean Model.

x' mimmiumm+

...... 0 X3111 001' fBA

The same Xs are selected andabstracted by conununica- Objects of orientation (Xi ...Xoo) in the sensory field directly to him in tor (A) and transmitted as a message(X') to B, who may of the receiver (B) are transmitted or may not have part orall of the Xs in his own sensory abstracted form (X1 . . . Xs) after a process ofselection non-purposively B from among all Xs, such selection beingbased at least in field(Xib). Either purposively or part on the needs and problems of B.Some or all are transmits feedback (faA) to A. transmitted in more than one sense (X3m, forexample).

XI X2"a'4 x' 4 1 sammorg+

1*3 ig * es umOD 4. X4 CSC

The messages C transmits to B (X") representshis selec- co tions from both messages to him fromA's (X') and C's selections and abstractions from Xs inhis own sensory What Xs B receives may be owing to selecteeabstractions field (X3c, X4), which may or may not beXs in A's field. transmitted by a non-purposive encoder (C),acting for B Feedback not only moves from B to A(faA) and from and thus extending B's environment.C's selections are B to C (fac) but also from C to A(fcA). Clearly, in the necessarily based in 7e-art on feedback (fBc) fromB. mass communicationsituation, a large number of Cs receive from .a very large number ofAs and transmit to a vastly larger number of Bs, whosimultaneously receive from other Cs. obviously extendable to groups ofpeople, but Reproduced by permission from pp. 32-35,"A Conceptual Model for Communications Research,"by Bruce H. West- the models do not attempt to indicatethe relation- Journalism Quarterly, ship of individuals within communicationsitua- ley and Malcolm S. MacLean, Jr., tions to various kinds of social groupings.Riley Winter, 1957. and Riley, in an article appearingin Sociology Today, present a model which can be said tohave a sociological basis as anexplanation of the com- 3.5.35 Riley and Riley explain the model munication process. Fig. 3.10 shows thesocial (p. 27) in a short verbal statement : influences at work on any communicator(C) and ". the two interdependent structures of Cand of R and places communication [are shown] as aspects of the samewide society and on any receiver (D), represented by the within a social framework. the same secular trend, which is

26 -

PRIMARY PRIMARY GROUP MESSAGES GROUP

1 PRIMARY MESSAGES PRIMARY GROUP GROUP

LARGER LARGER MESSAGES SOCIAL STRUCTURE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OVER-ALL SOCIAL SYSTEM y Fig. 3.10.The Riley and Riley Model.

oval boundary wnich encompasses them both. The sev- different levels. The model might equally well eral arrows indicate the flow of communication back be used to organize 4 course attempting tostudy and forth among the several members of these incommunication effects in persuasive situations. terdependent structures. Within such an all-embracing system, the mass-communications process is now seen 3.5.38 Note that the Hovland model as a component of the larger social process,both does not attempt to specify the exact relationships affecting it and being in turn affected by it."8 existing between various factors. Nor doesit 3.5.36 This model again does not at- attempt to show the dynamic characterof com- tempt to analyze the character of messages which munication.Essentially, the model says that might occur within communication, nor to discuss communication can be studied with several ap- the nature of channels which might carry those proaches, and that there are relationshipswhich messages. It merely emphasizes that eventhough exist between the approaches. communication may seem to occur between two individuals, effects of the culture and the group 3.5.39 In this section, we have looked at affiliations of both source and receiver will affect three models of the communication process.Our the nature of the communication produced and examination has necessarily been brief. Yetit is the communication received. apparent that no one model describes or evenat- tempts to describe everything that goes into com- 3.5.37 As a final visual model in this munication. Any model is selected for a par- section we turn to a model prepared by Carl Hov- ticular purpose and emphasizes those aspectsof land and his associates for their book Personality the process ol. communication which arebeing and Persuasibility. This is an entirely different studied by the individual formulating the model. kind of model from those we have discussed be- Models may be primarily verbal, i.e.,linguistic fore. In one sense it is not a model, but merely a descriptions such as those of Aristotle and Lass- classification of factors affecting attitude change well, or primarily visual, such as the Bryant and in certain kinds of communication situations. But Wallace model. Or they may combine a visualiza- the category scheme (Fig. 3.11) becomes a model tion with a verbal description, such as is done by when the relationships between the various fac- Shannon and Weaver. tors are indicated as they are by arrows showing the kinds of effects expected from different levels 3.5.40 In the following chapters, we of analysis. The model is used by Hovland and wish to discuss in detail two additional models associates as a rationale for organization of sev- which have been used extensively in communica- eral experimental studies examining effects at tion training. We shall concentrate on the ways in which they may be used in teaching com- sReproduced with permission from figure 4, pp. 576-577, munication theory, analyzing commun ication Sociology Today, (eds.) Robert K. Merton, Leonard Broom, and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr., New York: Basic Books, Inc., breakdowns, and improving communication be- 1959. tween individuals. 27 Observable communication Predispositional factors Internal mediating Observable stimuli processes communication effects r...... sm....7 r..--- 1 Communication situation I Communicationfree I i-4114 (General persuasibility) r "ow am me 1 L_ J Attitude change r4=0 4I "

Contenf Communicationbound characteristics: 7=111M=NNII' Topic content ri=m1111111111=111, of the conclusions Cant entbound: Appeals Topicbound ye- Arguments Appealbound .11.311114 Attention Stylistic features Argumentbound Stylebound \

Communicator characteristics:

Role )1. Communicatorbound111111131114 Affiliations Intentions

Meidia 1 characteristics: Acceptance Direct vs. indirect interaction Sense modality

Situational surroundings: ..I Social setting Extraneous noxious stimuli Extraneous pleasant stimuli L. J L. I Fig. 3.11.Major factors in attitude change produced by means of social communication. The categories and subcategories are not necessarily exhaustive, but are intended to highlight the main types of stimulus variables that play a role in producing changes in verbalizable attitudes. Reproduced by permission from figure 1, page 4, Personality and Persuasibility, Carl I. Hovland, (ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.

28 4.The S-M-C-RModel ofCommunication

prepared by Erwin P.Bettinghaus

institutions are obviouslycomposed of individ- 4.1 Purposes and Use uals, yet the communicationswhich they engage in frequently appear to alistener or a group of 4.11 The S-M-C-R Model,developed by single source. Thus in training programsof listeners as stemming from a David K. Berlo and used we may hearsuch statements as "Thegovernment the National Projectin AgriculturalCommunica- form today," or "The psychological nature of sent me an income tax tions, emphasizes the USDA reported today on thefarm crisis." communication as it affectsboth the source and the receiver in anycommunication situation. Al- 4.22 Once the fact is establishedthat though other modelshave also emphasizedthe communication always involves somesource, we psychological nature ofcommunication, the S-M- can examinethese possible sources ofcommunica- C-R Model has thespecial characteristics of pro- tion to ask questions aboutthe significant factors viding an analysis of messagesand of sensory within sources affecting thecommunication proc- channels in communication?. ess. It iscertainly possible to develop arelatively Essentially, this model (Fig.4.1) long list of factors specificto individual situa- 4.12 several situations. How- attempts to portray the necessaryingredients for tions, or even common to used ever, when webegin applying our list to many human communication.The model has been will to improve understand- sources, we willfind that not all of the items in the teaching situation be significant variablesin all situations. The ing of the communication process,as well as to minimum list of sig- help students or workshopparticipants improve S-M-C-R Model provides a others or to have nificant variables whichshould be applicable to their ability to understand communication situations others understandthemselves. With slightaddi- most of the kinds of tions, the model has beenused to analyze com- which interest us. munication breakdowns. 4.23 For example, we can saythat the communication skills of different sourceswill be important factors indetermining the success of 4.2 The Source communication in any situation.The ability to mind, let us write, to draw, to speak,will differ as the source 4.21 With these uses in situation differs. And per- look at the model portrayedin Fig. 4.1 in some in the communication involves a source of haps more important thanthese encoding skills detail. All communication which again differs with information, the (S) within themodel. The model is the ability to reason, does not specify whatkinds of sources can pro- the source. duce messages, anddepending on the situation, from 4.24 Communication skills are clearly it is obvious thatcommunication stems important to the successof communication; if many kinds of sources.In human communica- encode messages which areunder- tion, the source can be asingle individual, such sources cannot But the standable to receivers,communication may break as a speakertalking to a large audience. down. When two sources aretalking about the source can also be a groupof people, such asthe both sources may be able to en- United States Depart- same situation, American Legion, or the code understandable messagesfor a particular ment of Agriculture, or aninstitution such as the source with the Even though these receiver. In general, however, Michigan State University. more highlydeveloped communicationskills will models (Chapter 5) are communicator than will the 1The S-M-C-R and Interpreter An be a more effective discussed in detail in TheProcess of Communkation: source withless highly developed communication Introduction to Theory and Practice,by David K. Berlo. New York: Henry Holt andCompany, 1960. skills. 29 let A second factor withinthe source 4.27 In teaching, it is important to 4.25 students see that even thoughcomplete analysis producing differential effectsin a communication in any com- situation is the source'sattitudes. Here we can of all the relevant attitudes present of attitudes, each one im- munication situation may beimpossible, the talk about several kinds efficient portant to the total processof communication. source whowishesto become an variously by psy- communicator must attempt such ananalysis. Attitudes have been defined Entering a communication situationwith little chologists.Perhaps the most widelyaccepted is inviting a definition of an attitude isthat it is a "predisposi- knowledge of the relevant attitudes tion to response in anysituation." In communica- communication breakdown. tion, the source hasattitudes toward the receiver to has 4.28 A third factor which seems of communication his audience. The source enter into all communicationsituations is knowl- attitudes toward the subjectabout which he is edge. Here we can talk aboutthe source's communicating. He may haveattitudes toward knowledge of his subject matterand about his the channel (forexample, a prejudice for or knowledge of the audience ; these arethe knowl- against use of visuals) .And the source has at- to when we say This entire complex of at- edges that are generally referred titudes toward himself. that the well-informed source islikely to be more titudes is important to the successof communica- successful than the poorly-informed source.How- tion. ever, it is importantin addition to know some- 4.26 If the source has anunfavorable thing about the situation in whichcommunication attitude toward his receiver, wemight expect that is taking place, as well assomething about the his coMmunication will bedifferent than if he is process of communicationitself. The model we highly favorable toward thereceiver.If the are discussingemphasizes the fact that knowledge source is unsureof himself, again the resulting of all aspects of communicationis necessary. communication may be differentthan if the The 4.29 A final over-all factor which we source isconfident of his own abilities. communication is the source may hold anunfavorable attitude toward must consider in analyzing communication is taking social-cultural context in which the sourceand his the room where the ask ourselves place. He might be somewhatneutral toward the receivers are living. Here we can In each a number ofquestions. What is the role of the subject about which he communicates. society? What groups does he be- case, a considerationof the attitudes of the source source within understand the process long to ? How do those groupsinfluence him as is important if we are to What special aspects of the of communication. a communicator?

#o a t 1

41-w;`, Seeing et7-0"Skiihr

, Hearing es fbmicnitel JPfirm. A 9 Touching 00wledge

A! Smeihng

r so al,Oral oil 44:),,Tasting

Model. Fig. 4.1.Photograph of a flannelboard presentationof one version of the S-M-C-R

30 culture condition the communication which the that the closer the match in communicationskills source might encode? These and similarquestions between the source and receiver, the more effec- affect the total process of communication as we tive will be the communication. have described it. 4.35 Finally, we must realize that the receiver of communication also lives within a social-mitural context. He belongs to certain 4.3 The Receiver groups and does not belong to others.He has a cultural heritage which determines in large part 4.31 Just as there is a source in all com- the ways in which he behaves. He refers to some munication situations, so there is also a receiver groups for guidance in communicationsituations in all such situations. We can make much the and does not refer to others. Communication will same analysis of the receiver as wedo of the break down if there are no common elements be- source. People serve both as sources andreceivers tween the social-cultural context of the source of communication. At one and the same time, an and that of the receiver. individual might be talking to another, i.e., acting as a source for communication, andalso be watch- 4.36 Like the source, the receiver with- ing the facial expressions of the other, i.e., acting in the communication situation may be a single as a receiver of communication.Since this is true, individual. The receiver may be within a group we might expect sources andreceivers to have of individuals, such as the audience at a play. Or much the same characteristics. We can talk about the receiver may also be an institution, such as a the attitudes of the receiver, the communication labor union, a university, or a government. skills, the knowledge, and the social-cultural con- 4.37 In teaching students or workshop text of the receiver in the communication situa- participants about the process of communication, tion in the same ways in which we talked about it seems desirable to deal with both the source and these factors operating within the source of com- receiver of communication before turning to other munication. elements within communication. Our orientation is usually toward ourselves as sources or ourselves 4.32 The attitudes of the receiver will as receivers ofcommunication; we tend to iden- condition the effectiveness of the source quite tify communication solely in terms of the charac- apart from the source himself. If the receiver is teristics of the sources and receivers within the negative toward the source, communication is process. The S-M-C-R Modeldiffers from all much less likely to be effective than if the re- models mentioned in the previous chapter in that ceiver is highly favorable toward the source. It it emphasizes the complete process ofcommunica- is clearly a different communication situation tion, and deals with source and receiver as only when the receiver is against the proposal made by two elements of communication. the source, from when he has already made up his mind that he is in favor of it. In general, we can say that the closer the matchbetween the attitudes of the source and the attitudes of the 4.4 The Message receiver, the more effective the communication. 4.41 The message in communication different view- 4.33 The knowledge of the receiver is may be considered from several obviously important. The receiver placed in a points. The model attempts to break the message communication situation involving a completely element down into meaningful sub-elements for more complete understanding.The teacher may new subject behavesdifferently from one enter- talk about the factors important to the source ing a relatively familiar situation. and receiver in any order. When we talk about 4.34 The communication skills of the the message, however, it probably makes more receiver may drastically affect the success of sense to follow theorder of presentation de- communication. The skills required to be an effec- veloped below. tive receiver are somewhat different from those 4.42 The first thing which we should required to be an effective source. When we con- mention is the term code. All messages involve sider the receiver, we are concerned with the de- some code. We can talk aboutGerman, French, coding skills of reading, listening, and of course Hindi, or English as being different codes. Or thinking. When the reading ability of the receiver we can talk about music, art, orthe dance as in- is limited, the effectiveness of the source at- volving different codes. Or we can talk about tempting to communicate by writing will also be the specialized codes we call jargon within a limited. As a general conclusion, we can suggest language such as English. Thus the physicist has 31 a code peculiar to his field, eventhough the words heard, or seen, or touched, or tasted, or smelled. within this jargon are recognized as English There are at least two other ways in which chan- words. nels have been considered by those interested in a study of communication. We couldtalk about 4.43 Second, we can mention the con- the message passing to the receiver as a pattern of tent of a message. It is certainly true that code sound waves or a pattern of light waves. Or we and content are inextricably linked within the can talk about the disseminatingchannels of tele- communication process. For teaching purposes, vision, radio, newspapers, books, magazines, bul- we separate them for consideration asseparate letins, etc. elements. Content involves the ideas within the message. For a given subject such asatomic 4.52 A factor worth emphasis in teach- energy, there will be many ideas for a sourceto ing communication is the importance of multiple draw from in encoding some message. The source channels. When sources utilize more than one has to select content appropriate to his audience. channel of communication, the chance for com- He must find an arrangement of the material he municative effectiveness is generally increased. selects. And he must test those ideas for useful- For example, we can indicate that research tends ness with a particular receiver. to show that when a speech is supplemented by appropriate visuals, the receivers of the communi- 4.44 Given a code and some content, the cation tend to learn the material better than if the speaker or source within a communication situation has to find an appropriate treatment for the presentation uses only the channel of hearing. ideas which he has selected. This is the primary task of the rewrite man, the editor, the movie director, of the advertiser ; all are treatment spe- 4.6 Final Considerations cialists. Treatment involves selection of a code 4.61 There are two other words on the appropriate to the receiver, the content of the model which we have used, but not defined. We message, and the medium of transmission. Treat- can sum up the model as it appears in Fig. 4.1by ment involves the arrangement of sentences, the saying that communication always involves a difficulty level of written material, and the ap- source who or which encodes a message fortrans- pearance of the final product. fer along some channel to be decoded by a re- 4.45 Within each subfactor of code and ceiver. content and treatment, we need to consider the component elements. The elements of the English 4.62 The S-M-C-R Model is useful for language might be words, or phrases, or units of gaining some initial understanding of the proc- sound. Ideas are the elements of any given con- ess of human communication. However,it should tent. After we know what elements are involved, not be used without the consideration of some pre- we need to consider the structure of the message : cautionary measures designed to prevent mis- the way the elements of the message are arranged understandings. For example, the model does not or ordered. indicate the purposive nature of human communication. In many ways, we can distinguish human 4.46 In teaching, a consideration of the communication from all other communication by message as an integral part ofthe process of indicating that human communication always in- human communication is important to anyone volves purpose on the part of both source and attempting to improve his understanding of the receiver : there is no communication without pur- process as a whole, as well as to anyoneattempt- pose. ing to analyze communication breakdowns, or improve his own communicationability. 4.63 A second caution involves the nature of communication as a process. As the visual model is shown, it may appear to the casual ob- 4.5 The Channel server that communication is a linear process, perhaps even a step-by-step process, always going in 4.51 The other major factor which the one way. Yet we know that communication situa- S-M-C-R Model deals with is the channel in com- tions are seldom one-way. The teacher of communication. There are several ways in which we munication does well to emphasize that communi- can look at channels of communication.The cation does not occur as simply as the visualiza- model shows only one of those ways. It suggests tion presented in Fig. 4.1 would seem to indicate. that one useful way of approaching the study of Communication, like all process, is dynamic, oc- the communication process is to consider channels curs in more than one direction, is ongoing, and is to be the five senses. Thus, the message can be ever changing.

32 5.The Interpreter Model

prepared by Erwin P. Bettinghaus

5.1 Analysis INTERPRETER

I4- 141' 5.11 The Interpreter Model (Fig. 5.1e) 1 1 1 I was developed by David K. Berlo and has been 1 1 1 I ir I 4.,1 used by the National Project in Agricultural DECODER Communications in training programs. The use- ENCODER fulness of the Interpreter Model lies in its attempt to link the learning process with the com- lik N, munication process in human behavior. stimulus response 5.12 In making the same kind of analysis of the Interpreter Model as we have made of the S-M-C-R Model, we can start by saying that IF whenever humans learn or humans communicate, Fig. 5.1b. consequence some stimulus is present (see Fig. 5.1a) . We can define the term "stimulus" in rather broad terms the pattern of electro-chemical energy we call to take in anything which we can perceive through nervous energy. But decoding involves more than one of our five senses. Thus a dog, a speech, a mere translation of stimuli from one form of book, a tree, or a man walking all serve as stimuli energy to another. It involves the association of for our senses. We can also point out that when- an incoming stimulus to patterns of stimulation ever there is a stimulus, there is also some re- received in the past and to other ideas and asso- sponse. By response, we mean simply that the ciations which are possessed by the organism. individual perceiving a stimulus does something, i.e., votes, runs away, talks, thinks, changes an 5.14 Closely linked to decoding is the attitude, etc. Both learning and communication process which we call interpretation. We can involve stimuli and responses. postulate an interpreter mechanism for man which enables him to think, to attach meaning to 5.13 If learning is to take place, the in- sounds and sights, and to understand. Of all the dividual has to both decode the stimulus and in- ways in which man differs from lower animals, terpret the stimulus (see Fig. 5.1b). Human be- perhaps the most important is in his ability to ings have decoding apparatus in the senses of interpret, or think about, the stimuli impinging hearing,touch,taste,smell andsight.For upon him throughout his daily life. The model example, the organism takes a pattern of sound shows a double arrow running from interpreter waves striking the ear drum and translates it into to decoder : this arrow indicates not only that man decodes and passes along information from his decoding mechanism to his interpretative mech- INTERPRETER anism, but also that the interpreter itself tends to determine what is perceived and how it is perceived. What we see and hear is colored by our past experiences, our memories, and our ideas. People do not perceive the world as the "booming, buzzing confusion" of sights and sounds attributed by William James to the infant. What response we see is selected for us, and colored for us by the stimulus interpretative mechanism we all carry in our Fig. 5.1a. heads.

33 5.15 After interpretation has taken any situation with the least amount of effort place, the individual must encode some response. which is required to obtain an expected reward. From the interpreter messages are sent to the Thus the source may find real difficulty in get- encoding mechanisms of the larynx, the fingers, ting people to take some specific action. The rea- and the muscles. The second arrow is present on son may be that individuals perceive the effort the encoding side of the diagram to indicate that required to be greater than the reward expected encoding is not a simple process. Trial encoding from the response desired. The concepts of ex- may take place many times before theindividual pected reward and effort required are integral actually responds to a particular stimulus. As parts of any examination of the learning process we indicated above, encoding mayrepresent only and its relationship to the process of communica- part of the individual's response to a stimulus. Or tion. to put it a different way, the individual may have both overt and covert responses, observable and non-observable responses. 5.3 The Model in Communication Terms 5.2Consequences and Rewards 5.31 The portion of the Interpreter Model we have considered so far involves func- 5.21 After a response is produced, the tions concerned with the receiver rather than the individual has the opportunity to observe the con, source of communication. In Fig. 5.1c, we notice sequence of that response. In human leaniing and that a source has been added to the visual. As we human communication all responses have con- discussed earlier when considering the S-M-C-R sequences for the individual. The consequence of Model, sources and receivers may interchange a response is not the response itself.The response positions, or even be the same individual at the may be "running away from a poisonoussnake same time. Therefore we are justified in attribut- found on a path"; the consequence of that re- ing the same elements of Decoder (De), Inter- sponse may be that the individualdoesn't get bit- preter (In) and Encoder (En) to the source that ten. The response may be to change an attitude we attribute to the receiver of communication. toward some other individual ; the consequence of that response may be to obtain a raise in pay, or a new position. 5.4 Responses 5.22 Introducing the notion of conse- 5.41 What is shown in Fig. 5.1c is a quences means that we mustalso introduce the complete communication situation involving a idea of reward and its relationship to human source producing stimuli which we can call mes- learning and communication. The observed con- sages, and a receiver who decodes those stimuli, sequences resulting from response to acommuni- interprets them, and encodes responses based on cating situation will be termed rewarding or un- the stimuli received. There are, however, some rewarding by the individual. If the consequence terms in Fig. 5.1c which have not been explained. is rewarding, then the individual may be more One way of looking on the terms attention, mean- likely to make the same response when a similar ing, understanding, acceptance, commitment and situation is presented. If the consequence is per- action, is to say that these are possible responses ceived as non-rewarding, the probability is that of the receiver of any message. the individual will make a different response when 5.42 Internal responses which are neces- placed in a similar situation. The concept of re- sary to communication include attention and ward is obviously not linked to monetary or status meaning. The source cannot expect to be success- rewards. Rewards may involve only a feeling of ful in communication if the receiver of the mes- satisfaction with the consequences, of pleasure, sage is not paying attention to the message. One or merely of convictionthat it was better to have response, then, which the source is desirous of done what was done than to have done anything obtaining on the part of the receiver is attention else. to the source and his message. The source can 5.23 Human beings react in many ways also not expect to be successful in communication to similar stimuli. Yet a careful examination re- or learning if the receiver doesn't understand veals several principles which seem to underlie what is said. Understanding is part of the proc- human behavior in many situations. One of these ess of obtaining meaning for messages.It in- notions is the principle of least effort, closely tied volves not only an understanding of the meaning to another concept of expected reward. In gen- of words, but also of sentences and larger ele- eral, we can say that individuals will respond to ments within the message. A second part of the

34 develop ways of estimating the responseswhich INTERPRETER we observe ourreceivers making. In thepublic- attention I 4, speaking situation, for example,the speaker I t_meaning ;; II Understanding learns how to estimate hisaudience's response I acceptance 4, through noticing their facialexpressions, bodily DECODER ENCODER movements, questions, etc. Theseestimates are seldom perfect the source may beentirely misled. 41, For example, the source maydecide that an indi- stimulus response vidual with his eyes closed isn'tpaying attention, message commitment whereas this receiver mightactually have closed action his eyes in order to concentratebetter on the message. Nevertheless,speakers do manage to make predictions about theiraudiences and to source consequence modify their opinions about theaudience or feedback change their messages to the audiencethrough the use of feedback. Fig. 5.1c. 5.52 Indirect feedback presents an entirely different type of problem.In this situation, meaning process is obtaining acceptance.Under- the source does not havedirect contact with his standing is not enough in many cases; wealso receivers. The source may be awriter, who will want our receivers to accept that is, agree with never see his readers.He may be a scientist, whose what we have to say. Obviously,gaining messages will betranslated by an editor into a acceptance is not easy when receivers areinitially bulletin to be read by farmers, orthe editor of opposed to a position. And we might saythat be- that bulletin, who like thescientist, will never see fore he can accept a message, areceiver must first the readers. At the presenttime, we cannot sug- attend to it and gain some meaningfrom it. gest methods of obtainingindirect feedback which Internal responses by a receiver approach in reliability the directmethod of an 5.43 experiencedspeaker observinghisaudience. are frequentlyonly the first steps in producing Nevertheless, here too the sourcemust obtain learning. The source frequentlywants a receiver externally visible way. feedback in order to improve his future messages. to act on a message in some Some suggested solutions includemaking surveys At least two of the responseswhich we might talk instruments on about as being useful in theteaching situations of the audience, using electronic and actions. television sets, and sending outquestionnaires. with which we deal are commitments All of these methods have theirvalues and their Frequently, sources want receiversto publicly satis- Sources adherents, but none provides completely commit themselves to some program. factory answers. None offers a continuingfeed- also want receivers to respondby taking some to the source. action, i.e., they want them to vote,put a new back which is immediately available their own farm, At best, they may provide partialinformation to farm program into operation on assist in the preparation of future messages. or help raise moneyfor some civic project. A receiver takes action only afterinternal responses, in the form of attention andacceptance, have INTERPRETER occurred. attention I tmeaning Ii understanding ;; 5.5 Feedback 4 acceptance .4, DECODER ENCODER 5.51 The learning process, when related to the communication process, alsoinvolves feedback. In our model, feedback isshown by the ar- stimulus response row going from the consequenceto the source message commitment (Fig. 5.1d).Feedback in communication can take action place in several ways, and each wayis accompanied by its own problems.Direct feedback occurs when a sourceis able to observe both the source consetence responses of a receiverand the consequences at- Apagraamfeedback tending those responses. Thistypically occurs in the face-to-face situationwhere a source is talking to a receiver or a group ofreceivers. All of us Fig. 5.1d. 5.53 One other addition to the model in INTERPRETER Fig. 5.1d deserves special attention.This, the attention long diagonal arrow leading from consequence I t, meaning ;; I' understanding to stimulus, represents the feedbackdirect to the tI 4 1 To the extent that + 1 acceptance individual (the interpreter) . DECODEREM:513-1-.41= ENCODER an individual remains awareof his own responses and the consequences of these, he can adjust or correct his subsequent actions. A good exampleof Ae this is the person talking who mispronounces a stimulus response message commitment word, hears himself, and immediately repeats the action word correctly. 5.54 The Interpreter Model, as we have ter visualized it so far, seems to indicate that feed- source consequence back is merely the source's observation of receiver feedback responses. The discussion wehave just made of this arrow indicates that the problem is never as simple as might be indicated by a visual model. Fig. 5.1e.The Interpreter Model. Feedback problems are always with us, and are never easily solved. But ifthe source is to be 5.63 Perhaps most habits are desirable. effective, he must attempt to obtain and interpret We would not want to have to think about tieing feedback from his receivers in order to continue our shoes every morning. But manytimes we are to produce effective messages. faced with the situation where we as sources must attempt to obtain responses requiring an individual to break habits. We have a new system for 5.6 Habit rotating crops. Farmers in our state have been using another system for so long that the use has 5.61 One more factor is important to become habitual. What this model suggests is both learning and communication.In our visual that in order to break the habit arrow, the source model, (Fig. 5.1e) , the jagged arrowbetween the must find ways of making the receivers interpret encoder and the decoder represents thestrength their actions.Only through interpretation can of habit. In time we acquire habits, or responses individuals eliminate old responses in order to made without interpretation.In the morning, prepare for new responses. when we see a pair of shoes onthe floor, or a lathered face in the mirror, we nolonger think 5.64 Anyone who has attempted to about the actions we perform as westroke the break a smoking habit established over years will lather off the face, or stand up fromthe task of quickly realize just how difficult it really is to tieing our shoes. We perform taskssimilar to break a habit. How then can a communicator hope these throughout our daily lives,and no longer to break the habit arrow, to obtaininterpretation ? interpret the stimuli leading to our responses. Many ideas could be suggested. In this chapter, These are habits. we can mention only afew. Existing habits can be used to eliminate undesirable habits.To have 5.62 How are habits formed? One way the farmer change his farmingmethods, an ap- to approach the question is in termsof reward and peal to habits of thrift might be used. Existing consequences. Whenthe child is first faced with desirable habits might be strengthened, with a the shoe-tieing situation, theparents praise the consequent weakening ofundesirablehabits. child every time the task isaccomplished cor- Changes not immediately related to the habit rectly. After a number of times, thechild's par- under attack might be suggested, as a way of pre- grounds that paring a receiver for the eventual breaking of a ents may stop physical praise on the by the child now knows how to performthe task. But habit. Suggestions of ways to reduce effort by this time, the child hasreward mechanisms changing habits may help, since receivers are untied probably motivated toward reduction of the effort built into its own system. Now, having an required for any task. New rewards mightbe shoe is uncomfortable, and the child stillcontinues suggested, to an extent that a receiver would per- to tie his shoes. After a periodof time, the ceive increased reward through changeof habits. physical motions required to accomplish thetask become mechanical. The child no longer has to 5.65 None of these methods will work think about the various steps necessary to co/1%. for all cases, and combinations ofseveral may tinue tieing shoes correctly. often have to be used. Yet, we cancertainly say

36 that one of the most difficult and important tasks communication and learning, we canperhaps in communication is that of getting receivers to observe that communication sources arealways unlearn old habits, so that new patterns of inter- interested in : pretation may be set up. OBTAINING OLD RESPONSES TO NEW 5.66 In the past few pages, we have ex- STIMULI amined the Interpreter Model. What we have said represents only one way of looking at this model. or The model is rich in ideas and content. Yet it is OBTAINING NEW RESPONSES TO OLD still only one visualization of the communication process : one which attempts to linkcommunica- STIMULI tion and learning. The model shows that there is little difference between these two processes. As a When either of these objectives is obtained, learn- concluding point, and as one other way of linking ing has also taken place.

37 6.Communication Effects

prepared by J. Stacy Adams

6.1 Introduction often on only one of these. Throughout we shall emphasize experimentalasopposedtofield 6.11 When we consider the field of com- studies, our rationale for this being that through munication within the context of social science, experimental studies, we obtain a better under- we may divide the field into two main areas : in- standing of the operation of the variables than we terpersonal and mass communication. We might, would in field studies.This is not to say, of in addition, consider intrapersonal communica- course, that field studies are of no value ; quite to tion, that is, man to himself, and machine com- the contrary, many of the experimental studies munication, either machine to man or man to that we shall report, or the hypotheses which they machine. The latter two divisions, however, are set out to test, were based on the findings from more in the province of the human engineer. field studies or field observations. 6.12 The two divisions of communication, interpersonal and mass, have not, on the 6.2 Source whole, been unified, although Katz and Lazars- feld, for example, have attempted to effect some 6.21 Considering its importance, the kind of rapprochement. The existing theories of source has received relatively little research at- communication apply only to certain limited as- tention. Such studies as have been done, however, pects of communication, or to special communica- are provocative and extremely important in tion situations. understanding the process of communication. Early studies dealt with the well-known prestige 6.13 In the absence of one or more or prestige-suggestion phenomenon. unifying theories of communication, it is useful to talk about communication in terms of one of the 6422 Asch and his associates did a con- models available. The model that seems the most siderable amount of research on this phenomenon. useful here is based on that of Shannon and Wea- Their general findings, and those of their pred- ver (3.52-3.59) .Its six parts include a source, ecessors, were that when a communication was an encoding device, a channel, a message, a de- attributed to a prestigeful source, there were coding device, and a receiver. opinion or attitude changes in the direction of the prestigeful source's position, in contrast to the 6.14 In discussing interpersonal and case where the communication was attributed to a mass communication processes, we shall make use non-prestigeful source. However, Asch and Lewis of six headings corresponding to the six compo- showed that it was not prestige that was the crit- nents of this model. Since we cannot be complete ical variable. Rather, they pointed out that when in reporting empirical findings, we have selected a message incompatible with the recipient's some representative studies in which the findings opinion is attributed to a source, the message con- are comparatively unambiguous.Although a tent is itself reinterpreted so that there is con- given study may be discussed under one of the six gruity between the message and its source. Thus, headings, it is both possible and likely that the if a New Deal Democrat was given a message of same findings could have been discussed under fascist tinge to read, and this message was at- one or more other headings. tributed to Franklin D. Ruosevcit, the person was likely to reinterpret the message content so that 6.15 Research dealing with communica- it was congruous with the subject's image of FDR. tion processes necessarily touches upon several aspects of the communication process or several 6.23 This finding is of considerable in- of the steps in the model. Emphasis, however, is terestforitssignificance to communication

38 theory, and also in that it anticipates the theo- Osgood, of course, is able to make much finer pre- retical developments of Osgood's theory of con- dictions than this illustration would lead one to gruity and of Festinger's theory of cognitive dis- think. He is able, for example, to predict the sonance, both of which postulatethat subjects amount of change that would take place in either will tend to establish some sort of equilibrium be- concept or source, from knowing the particular tween their perceptions or cognitions. In the valence of source and concept, and from knowl- illustration we gave, the problem for the receiver edge of the sign of the assertion linking them. would be to establish equilibrium between the He theorizes that the more polar a message content or the cognition ofthe message's 6.27 content, and his cognitions about FDR. concept or source is, compared to the valence of What we have said, of course, applies only when the other element, source or concept, the more change will occur in the attitude towards the less- an incompatible message isattributed to a source, example, if Adlai and we see that it is not so much the positive pres- er valent of the two. Thus, for tige of the source that "causes" the receiver to Stevenson had been reported to say, "I like Joe change his opinion, but rather that the receiver McCarthy," and if we assume that the valence changes his perception of the message so that it attached to Stevenson is plus three and that to Joe is consonant with the perception or cognition he McCarthy minus two, we would find that there has of the source. In the case of compatible mes- would be more change in the attitude towards Mc- although this factor Carthy than towards Stevenson, because Steven- sages, prestige does operate, son has a more polar or more extremevalue asso- is more commonly referred to as the credibility of ciated with him.Thus, there would be more the source. favorable change towards McCarthy than there 6.24 Osgood's congruity theory and his would be unfavorable change towards Stevenson. work with the semantic differential is closely related to the findings of Asch and his students, 6.28 Other studies relating to the source reported above. Osgood is much more specific. or communicator havebeen done by the group of under the directorship of Carl Hovland atYale. He considers the effects of linking a source Hovland and positive or negative valence (ability or inability In a carefully designed experiment to combine) to a concept of positive ornegative Weiss showed that when source credibility was valence by a positive or negative assertion. Con- varied, opinion change was directly related to the sidering, then, the valence of source, concept and credibility of the source. Thus, when communica- assertion, where concept for present purposes tions on the development of atomicsubmarines were attributed, onthe one hand, to Oppenheimer, may be taken as the message orcommunication, found Osgood is able to make quite accurate predictions and on the other hand, to Pravda, it was that 36 per cent net opinion change occurredwhen about changes either in the attitude of the -..-ecip- to Oppen- ient toward the source or in the concept, or both. the communication was attributed Theoretically, his position is, as was implied by heimer, and zero net opinion change when it was Asch and Lewis, that there is a tendency for the attributed to Pravda. recipient to move towards congruity, to establish 6.29 A further study by Kelman and equilibrium between his perception or cognition Hovland dealt with communications on thetopic about the source and concept. of leniency in the treatment of juveniledelin- 6.25 We might illustrate this : For ex- quency.The communications were attributed ample, if a highly valued source is linked by a either to a judge, a man on the streethaving es- positive assertion to a highly negative concept, sentially neutral credibility, and to a shady form- there will be a tendency for the individual's rat- er delinquent. Thecommunications attributed to ings or judgments of both the concept and source each of these were identical in advocatingleniency to change somewhat. To take a specificexample : toward juvenile delinquents. Significantlyhigher If Eisenhower, a highly-valued source, let us as- leniency scores were found in response to the com- sume, stated that hebasically approved (a posi- munication attributed to the judge. Furthermore, tive assertion) of the action of Soviet Russia in these scores were significantly related tothe Hungary, we would find that Dr- nhower would perceived trustworthiness and expertness of the decrease in positive valence and that the Soviet sources. The judge wasperceived as extremely action in Hungary would slightly increase in val- trustworthy and expert in the matter of juvenile ence; or to put itanother way, the Soviet action delinquency, whereas the shady character who would become less negative. was formerly a delinquent wasperceived as not 6.26 This, of course, is a somewhat only being untrustworthy and not expert, but al- gross example toillustrate what would occur and so as being very definitely biased. 39 6.2.10 A third study by the Yale group, ample, is different from eating an apple. Both that by Hovland and Mandell, found similar re- Mowrer and Osgood get around this problem by sults with respect to the perceived fairness of a postulating a component of the response, in this communication, but, on the other hand, did not case to the "real" apple.It is by means of this find significant differences in the effect of a com- partial or component response that conditioning munication attributed to different sources.In verbal conditioning becomes possible. B. F. this case the communications were taped talks on Skinner has also addressed himself to the ques- the subject of the devaluation of the currency. tion of language learning, and has made substan- Again, the talks were identical.One was at- tial contributions through his functional analyses tributed to an importer who presumably would be of verbal behavior. His concepts of the reciprocal biased on the subject, and to an economist, pre- character of reinforcement in language learning sumably a trustworthy, expert, non-suspicious and of the "verbal community" are particularly person. It was found that the talk attributed to useful. the importer did not produce significantly less attitude change than the talk attributed to the 6.33 Recent interesting contributions to economist. However, the importer was perceived the psychology of encoding have bcen made by and judged to be less fair than the economist. Jerome Bruner, Roger Brown, and their asso- Thus, though on the whole we find that attitude ciates. The realm of behavior to which they have and opinion change is directly related to the cred- addressed themselves has been referred to as ibility of the source, this particular study sug- "categorizing behavior."Brown, perhaps, has gests that this is not invariably the case. been most explicit about categorizing behavior as it applies to communication. Cognitively speak- 6.2.11 A different kind of study is that ing, objects and events are categorized that is, by Merton, reporting his analysis of Kate Smith's they are placed into categories. A category is a war bond drive on the radio during the war. It class; membership in the class is determined by was established that Kate Smith was directly re- whether or not the objects and events have par- sponsible for the sale of many war bonds, and this ticular attributes, or combinations of attributes ability was attributed by Merton to the extreme in common. An attribute, in turn, may have dif- sincerity which Miss Smith imparted to her audi- ferent degrees of criteriality. An attribute with ence. Furthermore, because of the hardship of high criteriality can be more easily categorized the long radio broadcast, the audience preceived than one with low criteriality. For example, smell that she was making a considerable personal sac- has a fairly high criteriality when placing objects rifice. This sacrifice, perhaps, was perceived as into the category "onion" ; shape, on the other being equivalent, to some extent, with the sacri- hand, has much lower criteriality, since many fice being made by members of our armed forces, other vegetables have shapes similar to that of and Merton suggests that this put pressure on onions. members of the audience to perform a similar sacrifice. The situation was, so to speak, as if the 6.34 It is evident that in communica- sacrifice triangle had to be closed (see closure, tion it becomes extremely important to know 7.9.11). something about categories, their defining attributes, and the criteriality of the attributes. For the purpose of transmitting a message to a 6.3 Encoding particular receiver, it is important when encoding 6.31 The second step in the model is the message that the attributes used in categoriz- that of encoding. Problems of encoding have not ing events or objects have high criteriality. traditionally been associated with interpersonal 6.35 It is necessary, however, that the and mass communication. Several psychologists attributes used also have more than merely a high have studied problems of language learning, objective criteriality.It is necessary that they which, fundamentally, are problems of encoding. have a high criteriality for the receiver. The fact Mowrer and Osgood have both developed rather that, objectively, an event or object can be cate- similar theories of language learning, making gorized by the use of attributes of high objective use basically of a conditioning paradigm. They criteriality does not imply that a person classify- have been careful, however, not to make the ing or categorizing the object or event would as- simple, but rather serious, mistake made earlier sign the same criteriality to the attribute. For by psychologists such as Watson, who were pri- example, a person whose smell was particularly marily interested in classical conditioning. insensitive would not give to the smell of an onion 6.32 They have quite rightly pointed a high criteriality. For this person, shape, tex- out that saying "I am eating an apple," for ex- ture, weight may be more highly critcrial. This is

40 into when we With or without realizing it,all sources use the type of problem that we run effective- conversewith someone who speaksanother redundancy to increase communication language or a ness. Teachers,for example, use repetitionof a tongue, whether it be a foreign reviews of technical language. lesson over time, reviews of exercises, lectures, and examinations. 6.36 Information theory, from which Psychology, in particular, has con- our six-part model isadapted, has been especially 6.39 It has ad- tributed much to other aspectsof encoding. concerned with problems of encoding. Psychologists have paidspecialattentionto dressed itself particularly to problemsof devising Information theorists have at- production processes, which are, infact, encoding optimal codes. processes. Thus, forexample, the study of speech tempted to devise .izot only economicalcommunica- in consider- tion systems, but also efficientcommun'cation production, which has been studied systems and codes. One of the thingswhiL, they able detail,is in fact the study of encoding interest is processes.Linguists and anthropologists have have pointed out that is of particular devoted much attention to the studyof linguistic that when encoding a message, it seems necessary encoding, phonemic and morphemicencoding, for to incorporate in it a certainamount of redun- devoted life- approximately 50 example. Some anthropologists have dancy. English, for example, is times to the study of kinship,which in some as- to 70 per cent redundant. It is notthat words or of the society phrases are repeated, but rather that the same pects is the study of how members idea or relationship is expressed in morethan one are coded. way. The structureof language is such that if 6.3.10 Some psychologists have been es- we had perfecttransmitting media and perfect pecially interested in the dimensionalization, or receivers we would need to transmit muchless the coding, of auditory and visualinputs. In some than we now do. sense, the study of sensorypsychology, particularly as regards audition and vision,is concerned 6.37 If (to choose an examplebased in with this. When J. J. Gibson speaksof psycho- part on formal letterrelationships in writing) we physical correspondence, when he speaksof tex- were to ask a personto play a guessing game of ture and other gradients, he is reallyspeaking the following type, it wouldbe found that his about the encoding of visual inputs. Hiselaborate performance would be far better than onemight study of textural density gradientsis, in fact, a expect him to do by chance.The game is as fol- study of a particular aspect of thecoding of the lows : One asks the person to guessat a sentence visual world. which the speaker has in mind.The person is to guess successivelyat each letter, beginning with 6.3.11 In another area of sensory psy- the first letter of the firstword in the sentence. chology, Geldard at the Universityof Virginia has On the initial letter he will notdo much better than in recent years been interestedin the encoding of chance. Given the first letter,however, he will do vibratory stimuli. The problem towhich he ad- rather better than chance on thesecond, and much dressed himself was that offinding a sensory much better on the third, and, if itis more than modality that could be used in additionto the ones word, he will guess the fourth or which we most ordinarily use, visionand audition. a three-letter In some situations both ofthese modalities are fifth almost without error. As the game pro- for example, under gresses, he is now able notonly to guess letters at least temporarily impaired, whole words. some conditions ofhigh speed flight. Having dis- with increasing accuracy, but covered that man had a vibratorymodality which 6.38 This clearly illustrates the built-in would be put to use when eithervision or audition redundancy of language, for were it notredun- or both wereimpaired, his partial solution to the dant, the performance of the personwould not be problem was that of a belt of sevenvibrators worn A well- around the thorax or abdomen.These vibrators much better than chance expectancy. durations, in known example of redundancy in writtenEnglish would be made to vibrate for certain follows certain combinations, and incertain orders. By is that of the u which almost invariably intensive study he was able toarrive, at least the q, except in the case of afew foreign words for vibratory Once we know tentatively, at some optimal coding like the British protectorate Qatar. inputs. that q has occurred, one knowswith almost 100 per cent certainty that uwill follow. A structural 6.3.12 Though this may strike one as a example that applies to both written andspoken rather peculiar communication system,it is never- English is the indication of plurals byboth verb theless a communication system, andproblems of agreement and addition of "s" :in "boys are" encoding are obviously extremelyimportant. obvious here both the "s" and the "are" mean plurality. Their importance is perhaps more 41 than in the case of other modalities, but only be- From theoretical considerations, Eleanor Mac- cause it is a rather new modality. In the case of coby was interested in the vicarious satisfaction the other modalities, we probably never really are which children get through fantasy, in this case forced to consider the importance of encoding in via television. Her provocative finding was that our daily commerce with the environment. in upper-middle-class homes children who were frustrated in home life watched TV most. In the upper-lower class there was no relation between 6.4 Channel TV viewing and frustration in the home. She explained this difference in the upper-middle and 6.41 A good deal of research has been upper-lower class by the fact that in the upper- done with respect to the channelsl of communica- lower class television viewing is a dominant tion. We shall divide this research grossly into activity, whereas in the upper-middle class it is two parts. We shall first consider the research not. Hence, in absence of frustration the child is dealing with the channels per se, and then go on to drawn away from television in the upper-middle consider the research having to do with the pat- class. In the upper-lower class, on the other hand, terning of channels. Until recently, field research where television is a dominant home activity, has taken precedence over experimental research children view television whether or not they are as regards the channels of communication. Early frustrated. experimental studies dealt, for example, with the relative effectiveness of oral versus printed com- 6.45 A study in a somewhat different munications. The work of Wilke and of Knower, vein was conducted by William Belson in greater for example, is in the experimental tradition. London. He was specifically interested in the Generally, it was found that face to face com- effects of television on certain cultural functions, munication was more effective than indirect com- and more generally, upon other behaviors. Con- munication. trary to the popular belief, television does not necessarily decrease all other leisure-time be- 6.42 More recently, an experimental ap- haviors; for example, it was found that associated proach has been made to the effectiveness of tele- with television was increased attendance at cer- vision and television kinescopes. The research tain cultural functions, like museum-going. The here has been primarily action oriented ; that is, general finding, however, is that other leisure the researchers have attempted to solve some activities are generally curtailed when television rather practical problems, the main one being that is acquired. This decrease is at first rather sharp, of finding economical and efficient means of but there is partial recuperation after a period of teaching. The armed forces have done, and spon- approximately one year. However, other leisure sored, much research on these lines. Their find- activities do not return to their pre-television ings as well as those of others have been that level until after four to six years. Of all other television and kinescopes are just about as effec- leisure activities, movie-going was most affected tive as face to face lectures and class refmi work. by television, and recuperation from the effects of 6.43 Other, ind e e d most; comparative television ownership were slowest. Despite the studies of channels of communication have been effects of television on other activities, it must be of the field variety. Perhaps the best known of noted that the losses incurred by other activities these is that of Katz and Lazarsfeld. In The are apparently only temporary. Similar findings People's Choice, they reported on the relative have been reported from a series of studies con- importance of different mass media as these ducted in New Brunswick, New Jersey. influenced voting. They found in this instance 6.46 By the patterning of channels of that radio was judged as "most important" by greater percentages of subjects than were news- communication, we refer to the links that exist papers. between points in a communication network. Sev- eral studies have focused upon the problems of 6.44 In recent years television has, of patterning, and the relative efficiency of com- course, been the focus of a great deal of research. munication using different patterns. Some of We shall cite here two studies of particular in- these studies have been experimental ; others have terest. The first is an imaginative, sophisticated been field or observational studies. A study by field study of the effects of television on children. Heise and Miller made use of three-person communication networks, in which the connections lEd. note: Adams uses a somewhat less specific interpretation of "channel" then that develcped in the S-M-C-R between the subjects were experimentally varied. model. Also, "encoding" and "decoding" differ from the Three of the patterns used by these authors are definitions supplied in discussion of the Interpreter Model. illustrated in Fig. 6.1.

42 introduced B is to A and to A only. When noise was B into the communication channelsbetween the individuals, the differences foundbetween the patterns were accentuated in the caseof the first two AA 40,C i A4----.0 of noise in the A. problems. However, introduction Network 1 Network 2 Network 3 channel made no difference on thesolution of the anagrams. Fig. 6.1.Communication networks used by Heiseand A. Miller. "Prob- Miller. (Adapted from G. A. Heise and G. 6.4.10 The studies of Bavelas andLea- lem solving by small groups usingvarious communication vitt have shown the effects ofpatterns of com- nets." J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1951,46, 327-335.) munication in five-man groups.We may cite some of the results ofLeavitt as typical. Four of shown in Fig. 6.2. 6.47 In the first pattern ornetwork, the patterns used by him are thatis,has a each individual is connected 6.4.11 In the first pattern, thecircle, channel of communication with the immedi- bilaterally intercon- adjacent all adjacent individuals are ately adjacent person, and furthermore, nected.In the chain individuals areintercon- pairs may talk back and forth to oneanother. In nected as in the circle exceptthat two have no the second pattern individualsA and B and indirect communication channelbetween them. In dividuals A and C have bilateralcommunication, the Y, or fork as it has alsobeen called, one indi- while B and C cannot communicatedirectly with vidual has direct communicationchannels with one another. Inthe third pattern, the communica- three others ; the otherindividuals have a com- tion exists between adjacentpairs, but the flow munication channel with only oneother person in of communication is only in onedirection. Thus A the group. In the wheel,finally, one central in- can communicatedirectly with B, but B not with dividual has communicationchannels with all four A; B can communicate directlywith C, but C not other members ; these fourother members, how- with B, niu'lo on. ever, have nodirect connections betweenthem. in 6.48 Heise and Miller had subjects 6.4.12 The problem whichthe individ- each of these communicationpatterns solve three uals had to solve wasto find, as rapidly as pos- types of problems. Oneproblem involved re- sible, the one symbol whichall five members had assembling lists of words. Thesecond problem in common. Each memberhad five out of a pos- entailed the construction ofsentences.Finally, sible set of six.The individuals wereseated the third problemdemanded solution of ana- around a table, separatedby partitions inwhich grams. Thefindings were that in the problemof there were slots thatpermitted the exchangeof reassembling lists of wordsNetwork 1 was most notes. The arrangementof the slots were ma- efficient. Network 2 wasmoderately efficient, nipulated so as to give thechannel patterns shown and Network 3 was leastefficient. In the sen- in Fig. 6.2. tence construction problem,Network 2 was most efficient, Network 1 next, andNetwork 3 least 6.4.13 In terms of errors,the circle had efficient. In the anagram problemthe three pat- the most, the chainand the wheel had approx- terns were equally efficientin solving the prob- imately the same numberof errors, and the Y lem. The different relativeefficiencies of the had the least numberof errors. Despite the rela- nets in different problemsituations is of some tive inefficiency of thecircle, the members ofthis interest. communication network weremost satisfied and those in the wheel leastsatisfied. When dissatis- 6.49 In comparing the resultsin the faction was broken downby the relative cen- problem of reassembling lists ofwords with that trality and peripheralityof the individuals in the in the sentence constructionproblem, we see that, whereas Network 2 was onlymoderately efficient in the reassembly of words,it was most efficient in sentence construction.Heise and Miller explain this difference on thebasis of the fact that the sentence construction problem was agood deal Wheel more complex, andthat in the case of such a com- Circle Chain Y plex problem, having a leader is moreimportant than in the other problem. Byleadership here, of Fig.6.2.Communication network used byLeavitt. course, they refer toindividual A in pattern two (Adapted from Leavitt, H.J. "Some effects of certain patterns, is in a cen- communication patterns upon groupperformance."J. who, compared to the other 38-50.) tral position. Flow ofinformation from B and C Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 43 various nets, it was found that the most periph- people in rural communities, Adams and Horvitz eralindividuals, as indicatedin Fig.6.2 by also found that the n-step flow hypothesis was crosses, were least satisfied. By contrast, the probably sounder than the two-step flow hy- most central individuals, those shown in solid pothesis. In this unpublished study it was clear color in the figure, were most satisfied. The dis- that farmers' adoption of fertilizer usage, as well satisfaction or satisfacticn corresponded closely as the adoption of other recommended farm prac- to the perceived leadership patterns. When, at the tices, were not subject so much to a direct in- end of the experiment, the subjects were asked fluence by the mass media nor to a two-step in- whether they perceived that theirparticular fluence from media to other farmers, but, rather, group had a leader, very definite leadership pat- were subject to a fairly long chain of influences. terns were reported by the subjects in the wheel, Thus, for example, a farmer who had adopted Y, and chain. In the circle, subjects did not per- crop irrigation procedures was not influenced ceive a leadership pattern emvrging.In some directly by something he had read or heard in the sense, all individuals were equally central in the mass media, but was influenced by a neighboring circle. farmer. This neighboring farmer was, in turn, not influenced by the media, but by both agri- 6.4.14 A quite different type of study than the ones previously reported is that done by cultural agents and a farm machinery dealer, and Katz and Lazarsfeld and subsequently by Mensel it was discovered that both of these had to a cer- and Katz. These workers were interested in the thin extent been influenced by some of the media. question of the influence of mass media upon the In some cases it was possible to trace back six or individual. In earlier studies they had found that seven steps in the influence process. the mass media, newspapers and radio particularly, seemed to have little direct effect upon voting behavior. However, there was substantial 6.5 The Message evidence that interpersonal influence was con- 6.51 In recent years an impressive siderable. They hypothesized, therefore, that in- amount of research has been conducted on the formation or communication from the media message or communication itself. Much of this flowed through one person to another. research has been done by the Yale group. Two M.15 More specifically, they hypothe- aspects of the research on the message are par- sized that information from the media flowed ticularly important: that concerned with the through an opinion leader, who was exposed to nature of the appeals made in the communication the media, on to another person or persons. They and that dealing with the problem of the order referred to this as the "two-step flow hypothesis." of presentation of the arguments within the com- In their book, Katz and Lazarsfeld partially sub- munication. stantiated this hypothesis when they showed that 6.52 In an early study Hartmann de- persons who were particularly likely to be exposed termined the effects of emotional versus rational to the mass media were also particularly likely to appeals.The study was specifically concerned be asked advice. They did not, however, demon- with the effects of propagandistic political leaf- strate the necessary condition for support of the lets in city wards. In some wards emotional leaf- hypothesis, namely, that a particular piece of in- lets were passed out, in other wards leaflets with formation flowed from the media to the opinion essentially rational arguments were used, and in leader to the person. All they were able to demon- control wards none were passed out. The leaflets, strate was that, on the one hand, opinion leaders whether emotional or rational in appeal, were in were more exposed to the media than non-opinion each case designed to increase the Socialist party leaders, and, on the other hand, that information vote. The three groupings of wards were fairly fromopinionleadersflowedtonon-opinion well matched so that observed differences in the leaders. number of people voting for the Socialist party 6.4.16 Some researchers have ques- could be compared with some confidence. Hart- tioned the two-step flow hypothesis and thought mann's results showed that the emotional appeal it more likely that the flow was an n-step flow. was approximately 50 percent more effective in In a study of the use of new drugs by doctors in getting out the Socialist party vote. Other studies the community, Mensel and Katz presented evi- on the relative effectiveness of emotional versus dence that the n-step flow hypothesis was prob- rational appeals have, however, found no differ- ably more tenable. ence. 6.4.17 In an unpublished study entail- 6.53 A number of ingenious studies on ing the intensive interviewing of farmers and the effectiveness of fear appeals have been con-

44 ducted by Carl Hovland and hisassociates. The acquired by the experimental subjects instrong better known of these is the study ofJanis and or minimal fear appealcommunications. How- Feshback in which strong, moderate, andminimal ever, although there was equalrecall, in terms of and fear-appealversionsof a communication on number of items recalled, in the minimal dental hygiene were prepared. Thecommunica- strong fear groups, the nature of the items re- tions differed fundamentally in the numberand called in the two groups differed sharply.When type of fear-arousing appeals whichthey con- the items recalled were classified as to causes of tained. In the strong fear-appealcGmmunication, the threat (e.g., the effects of food betweenthe for example, the harmful, painfuleffects of im- teeth and the formation of acids in the mouth) proper dental hygiene werestressed, whereas in and the unfavorable consequences of the threat the minimal appeal version of thecommunication, (going to the dentist, pains from decaying teeth, these were not alluded to. The resultsclearly inflamed gums, and so on) , it was found that the showed that of the three versions of thecommuni- causes of the threat werebetter recalled in the cation the minimal appeal version was mosteffec- minimal fear appeal group. Conversely, unfavor- tive in leading to both acceptance of thecommuni- able consequences of the threat were better re- cation and resistance to a subsequent counter- called in the strong fear-appeal group. communication. 6.57 These findings are partly conso- hypothesis 6.54 In their theoretical discussion of nant with the defensive-avoidance their findings, the authors adopt whatthey call mentioned earlier, for it is clear that in the case explanation of the re- of the strong fear-appeal group there wasselec- a "defensive avoidance" decay, sults.They hypothesized that when fearis tive forgetting of the causes of tooth aroused in the recipient of a communication,and whereas the fears appealed to in the communica- this fear is not adequately relievedby reassur- tion were relatively well recalled. We maythus ances in the communication,the recipient will be tentatively conclude that strong fear appeals have led to ignore the importance of thethreat. Fur- undesirable effects in that the individual, being thermore, the recipient of suchcommunications unable to recall the causes of the threat, will be will tend to avoid exposure to anystimuli which less prepared to meet it. the fear-arousing communi- were associated with 6.58 The question of the relative effec- cation. Presumably, in the particular studydone tiveness of different orders of presentation has by Janis and Feshback, anythinghaving to do also received attention. Early research was con- with dental hygiene (e.g., toothbrushes,tooth- centrated on problems of the relative effective- paste, teeth, mouth, etc.) had, becauseof their ness of recency versus primacy.In general, it was association with the fear-arousing communica- held that primacy was superior. This finding was tion, some anxiety-provoking attributes.Hence reported by Lund in 1925. In repeating the Lund the recipients of the communication wouldhave experiment, Hovland and Mandell found primacy tended to avoid these. in one and recency in two of their experimental 6.55 The evidence in support of this ex- groups.In further replications of the experi- planation of the results comes from the answers ments recency effects were dominant. Playing which subjects gave to questionsasked of them variations on a theme, Hovland, Campbell, and following their exposure to acounter-communica- Brock studied the effect of a subject's making a tion. Among the subjects whodisagreed with the public commitment after exposure to a commu- counter-communication, those who hadreceived nication. They found that if, after exposure to the .minimal fear-appeal werelikely to mention one side of an issue, thesubjects made a public the original dental hygienecommunication as an commitment of their personal opinion, the effec- authorithtive source and to mention itsarguments tiveness of subsequent exposure to the other side in supporting their disagreementwith the coun- of the issue was considerably reduced. In this ter-communication. These references weremuch case, then, primacy is dominant,but apparently less evident among those subjectswho received only when commitment to one's position follows the counter-communication and whohad pre- exposure to the initial communication. fear-ap- viously received the moderate or strong 6.59 In further studies of the effects of peal arousal, thus suggesting that thesesubjects primacy, Luchins conducted an experiment in were avoiding recallof the content of the original which a person was described both asintrovertive fear-arousing communication. and extrovertive. Some subjectsreceived the 6.56 A subsequent study by Janis communication in the order introvertive-extro- and Milholland showed that there were nodif- vertive, others in the order extrovertive-introver- ferences in the mean amount ofinformation tive. Control subjects received descriptionsof the 45 person either as introvertive or as extrovertive. vance for a study of encoding processes, it is clear Luchins found that when contradictory informa- that it is equally relevant when we are concerned tion of this type was presented in a single com- with decoding. The study of categorizing behavior munication, the information coming first had the facilitates answers to such questions as: What advantage: Thus, when the person described in particular attributes will the recipients of a com- the communication was first described as intro- munication attend to and use in categorizing the vertive, then as extrovertive, the introvertive events transmitted ? If, in transmitting informa- dimension predominated. This finding is some- tion about a particular event, we have made use of what reminiscent of Asch's warm-cold experi- certain criterial attributes, will the subject make ment. use of these to the same extent and in the same manner as the communicator ? To some extent 6.5.10 In an ingenious study of primacy this problem is one of determining whether at- effects based upon Hullian learning theory, Mc- tributes have the same criteriality for both com- Guire found that placing desirable communica- municator and recipient. If the criteriality of the tions first and following them by 1, less desirable two are quite disparate, what kind of "communi- communication produces more opinion change cation" will we have ? How much redundancy than the reverse order. McGuire assumed that for must be introduced into a message in order to in- opinion change to take place, it was necessary sure that the recipient will perform the same that the subject make the preliminary responses categorizing judgment as the communicator ? of attending to the message, understanding its contents, and accepting the conclusions advocated 6.63 Information theory is similarly in it. He then goes on to assume that a communi- concerned with problems of redundancy, but more cation which is essentially in agreement with the generally it is more concerned with the question subject's opinion will reward or reinforce the at- of how much information can be decoded under tention responses, the comprehension of the mes- given conditions. These conditions would specify sage, and the acceptance of the conclusions of the the amount of noise in the channel and the amount communication. Conversely,if the message is of information initially put in, including the re- essentially at variance with the opinion of the sub- dundancy built into the message. By giving us ject, the responses of attending, comprehending, means of computing hlw much information has and accepting the content of the communication been transmitted to a recipient, information the- will be punished. ory permits us to make inferences about the decoding processes of the recipient, assuming of 6.5.11 He deduces from this that if a series of messages are presented to the subject, course that the inputs are known, that the signal- and that some of these are in accord with the sub- to-noise ratio is known, and that relevant other ject's opinion while others are not, more opinion conditions are known. change will be produced in the case where those in 6.64 In an intriguing analysis of a large accord with the opinion of the subject are pre- number ofstudies,primarily psycho-physical sented first than if in the reverse order. This studies, Miller has shown that the amount of results from the fact that the subject will be re- information that an individual human is able to warded for attending, accepting, comprehending handle is limited, and that the maximum is ap- the message and will tend to do so on subsequent parently seven "bits" (an information unit de- communications.If, on the other hand, the re- veloped and defined by Shannon). This appears verse orderispresented, thesubject, being to hold for a large number of sensory modalities, punishedforattending,comprehending,and vision, audition, olfaction, and so on. He has also accepting the message, will develop avoidance shown, however, that if the units of information tendencies upon exposure to subsequent messages. are changed, so that the individual is able to group events in a meaningful fashion, the amount of information that can be handled by the individual 6.6 Decoding is somewhat larger. To illustrate, the individual 6.61 Decoding problems are largely the can handle more information if he can treat the obverse of the coding problems referred to earlier. word "chair" as one entity than if he were re- Categorizing behavior, information theory, lan- sponding discretely to the elements of the word, guage learning, perception of speech, audition, that is, the letters CHAI R. Miller has referred visual perception, vision, are all relevant to the to this as "chunking" and has related it to the re- decoding problem. search literature on the span of apprehension. 6.62 Although on the face of it the 6.65 As in the case of encoding, studies study of categorizing behavior has special rele- of language learning give us leverage into decod-

46 research" of the mass ing processes. It helps us understandwhat the has been the "audience learner is responding to, what stimulusdimen- communicator. We shall cite here somerelevant responding to, research findings, selecting forillustration studies sions of the communication he is of the more im- and what situational variables of thecommunica- that show the operation of some tion he is responding to, as he learns a newlan- portant variables relating to thereceiver. guage, or, for that matter,his own language. The 6.72 Intellectual ability is an important whole literature on discrimination learningand variable. In general, it has beendefined in re- verbal reinforcement is partic-larly relevanthere, search practice as the educationof the respondent. as are studies ofbilingualism. The study of cate- Although this is probably not themost satisfac- gorizing behavior and of language learning are tory operational definition,and perhaps not as close to one another, as Roger Brown hasmade satisfactory as a general intelligencetest score, apparent. it is nevertheless probably quiteadequate, general correlated. Opin- 6.66 Finally, we may note that studies intelligence and education being of audition, the perception of speech and ofvision, ion change is correlated withintellectual ability, decoding. as Hovland,Lumsdaine, and Sheffield have re- and visual perception are relevant to increasing What limits are imposed upon "communication" ported. They found that there was an What effect of a communication withincreasing educa- by the auditory apparatus of the recipient ? this is an im- are the effects of variousmasking tones on com- tion of the audience. However, and munication ? What are tolerable signal-to-noise portant point, there was alsocorrelated with ratios in a communication system ? Answers to intellectual ability greater resistance tochange these questions and others have been studied of opinion, if the communication wasdetectably parametrically by Miller and his associates, as biased. well as by other researchers. Answers to problems 6.73. In some instances, when the com- of decoding visual communications havebeen pro- munication was perceived as biased,there was a vided by a large number of researchers. "boomerang" effect ;individuals were made to change their opinion in adirection opposite to 6.67 On the whole, though, as is true communication. An addi- for most of the research that isrelevant to encod- that advocated by the ing and decoding, the research has notbeen con- tional finding by this groupof researchers was that opinion items which werepositively corre- ducted with a strict orientation tocommunication. positively, that Atneave, for example, has theorized on howmuch lated with education were changed information isprovided by the contours and is, in the direction of thecommunication, whereas items which correlated negatively werechanged angles of a figure. Others have beenconcerned opposite to that with how much information can beprovided in negatively, that is, in a direction matrices of given dimensions, or in how muchof a advocated by the communication. visual stimulus can be deleted withoutimpeding 6.74 Let us assume for the sake of illus- recognition of the stimulus. The latterstudies are tration that favorable opinionstowards anti- to some extent parallel to those inaudition where segregation are associated withhigher education, a signal-to-noiseratio is manipulated or where and let us assume further thatfavorable attitudes portions of a sound message aredeleted. toward high tariffs are negativelyassociated with circumstances, the 6.68 In a more classical psycho-physical high education. Under these setting, workers such as Gibson havedeveloped communication advocating anti-segregationwould theories and conducted research on the decoding be more likely to effect attitudechange among of visual stimulus patterns.If, for example, a persons of highereducation in a mixed audience, in while a communication advocatinghigh tariffs stimulus with a textured surface is presented the first case, such a fashion that the density gradientof the would have an opposite effect. In texture increases toward the top of thefigure, individuals of better education wouldbe moved in the sub- the direction of the communication,whereas in what kind of decoding and response will moved in a direc- ject make? Will this be perceived as afloor reced- the second case, they would be ing from the individual or as a ceilingreceding or tion opposite to that of thecommunication. as a wall tilted at aparticular angle ? 6.75 The effectiveness of apersuasive communication is also primarilyaffected by the initial position of therecipient, relative to that of 6.7 The Receiver the communication.Theoretically, two different The view adopted 6.71 The receiver in communication has effects have been hypothesized. of the by Hovland et a/ is thatwith small discrepancies received more research attention than any recipient and the posi- other factors in our model. Much of thisresearch between the position of the 47 tion of the communication, there will be more at- request a pamphlet, were significantly more likely titude change than withlargediscrepancies to do so if the pamphlet was important and rele- between the two. The hypothesis is an extension vant to them. Finally, the research indicated that of Helson's adaptation level theory. When the if a communication was sent out to individuals un- discrepancy is small, assimilationis expected ; solicited, those to whom it was more important when the discrepancy is large, a contrast effect and relevant were most likely to attend to it. is expected. Some of the research results of the These findings are consonant with those of Hovland group support this hypothesis. Schachter in an experimental study of deviation, rejection, and communication. Schachter showed 6.76 The second position is that with that group members were more likely to address increasing discrepancy there will be increasing communications to deviate or delinquent members, attitude change; this position, held by Festinger, if the activities of the group at the time were derives from his thee ,-y of cognitive dissonance. relevant to the group's goals (in this case, of Empirical evidence also supports this hypothesis. course, the relevance is to the communicators In general, more studies have found that with in- rather than to the recipients). creasing discrepancy there is more change, than the opposite. 6.7.10 Importance and relevance have also been treated theoretically by Festinger. He 6.77 The two positions, however, can be has hypothesized that as importance and rele- reconciled with Festinger's theory of cognitive vance increase, the magnitude of dissonance pro- dissonance: when there is a discrepancy between duced in any dissonance-producing situation will the position of the recipient and that of the com- increase. From the point of view of communica- munication, dissonance will result for the recip- tion research this means that for a given amount ient, and there will be pressures to reduce the of discrepancy between the position advocated by dissonance. Two means of reducing the disso- a communication and the position of a recipient, nance are available to the recipient. One is to there will be increasing pressures to change as change his opinion in the direction of the com- importance and relevance increases. The studies munication and, hence, to reduce the discrepancy. by Maccoby, Maccoby, Romney, and Adams sup- Another is to reject the communication, or to port this conclusion. generally discredit it.If the credibility of the communicator is high, the former means is more 6.7.11 Group membership variables likely. If, on the other hand, the credibility of the affect reception of a communication. Kelley and communication or communicator is low, the more Volkart showed that there wasa high negative likely dissonance-reducing response is to discredit correlationbetween the evaluationthat Boy the communication. Scouts made of their troops, and attitude change. In this study a communication derogating certain 6.78 In situations where the communi- practices and beliefs of Boy Scoutswas addressed cator is of moderate or low credibility and the to the troop members. Those Boy Scouts who had communication is addressed to a large group of the highest evaluation of their troopwere least individuals, it is quite possible that the two effects likelyto be affected by the communication, will more or less cancel each other out, so that whereas those who held their troop in lower there is no relationship between amount of dis- esteem were most susceptible to change. The crepancy and amount of opinion or attitude magnitude of the negative correlation between change. This results from the fact that with in- evaluation of the troop and changewas .71. In creasing discrepancy, there is increasing attitude another study Kelley showed that the momentary change with some individuals, whereas for others salience, or heightened awareness, efgroup mem- thereisincreased rejection.Attitude change bership affected response toa communication. studies by Adams, Maccoby, Maccoby, and Rom- Specifically, he found that group-anchoredat- ney appear to support this latter finding. titudes, in this case attitudes about Catholicism, are much more resistant to counter-pressures if 6.79 The same researchers have shown that the importance or relevance of a communica- group membership is salient than if not. Salience in this case was experimentally manipulatedby tion to the recipient will affect his response to the prior discussion. communication in a number of ways. For receivers to whom the communication was important 6.7.12 Studies by Kelley and by Thibaut the research showed a longer lasting attitude or on the relationship between social status and com- opinion change than for those to whom it was less munication, and a study by Back, et al,on rumor important and less relevant.It further showed transmission show the effects of status differen- that individuals, when given the opportunity to tials on communication. The study by Kelley is 48 perhaps the most comprehensive inthis respect. tions relevant to the decision will be afunction of He experimaitally created two-levelhierarchies the magnitude of dissonanceproduced by the in which the participants engaged inproblem decision. Theoretically, it is expectedthat the solving tests, during which they could anddid greater the dissonance, the more selectivesub- communicate between the hierarchical levels as sequent exposure to communications willbe, and well as within a given level. Controlsubjects were the more exposure there will be. Thisfollows from run in the sameproblem-solving situation but the fact that dissonance may beeffectively were not differentiated onthe status dimension. reduced by acquiring information consonantwith They found that under these conditions there was the chosen alternative. more communicationbetween subgroups in the An experimental study by Ehr- there 6.7.16 control condition than in the condition where lich, Guttmann, Schonbach, and Mills testedthese were status differentials.In the latter condition derivations from dissonance theory. Theirstudy he found that subjects in the low status group basically involved interviewing purchasers of new were much less likely todirect hostility upward automobiles about their reading of automobile toward the higher status group than membersof advertisements immediately following their deci- the higher status group were to directhostility sion to buy the new car. The findings showedthat downward. new car owners were morelikely to notice adver- than 6.7.13 Interestingly, he also found that tisements about the car they had bought lower status members were especiallylikely to about other cars. Furthermore, they were more communicate upwards in a hierarchy. He theor- likely to notice advertisements about their own ized that they did this as a substitute meansof car than were individuals whohad not bought a upward mobility. Another interestingfinding, in new car.In addition, among those who had this case regarding the content ofcommunication, noticed advertisements, the new car owners were is that tht: more unpleasant a positionin a hier- far more likely to read the advertisementsthan archy (in this ease, lower status) the strongerthe were the individuals whohad not purchased a new likelihood for the individual to communicatetask- car. irrelevant material. Kelley explained such com- 6.7.17 Finally, we may mention per- munication as serving the function ofescaping sonality characteristics of the recipient asim- from an unpleasant situation. portant variables in the communication process. specific context 6.7.14 His findings are in accord with Interest in these variables in the the earlier ones of Thibaut, which showedthat as of persuasive communication isrelatively recent. discrimination in favor of higher status groups The work done to date is neverthelessimpressive, increased, the amount of communicationad- and recently a volume by theYale group has been dressed by low status groups to high status devoted to the subject. Janis andCohen have groups increased. Associatedwith this was a de- studied the relationship betweenself-esteem and crease in aggressive orhostile communication. influence-ability. The study by Janisclearly The study by Back, et a/, on rumortransmission shows that low self-esteem isassociated with in- also lends support. These researchersobserved fluenceability. A further study byJanis shows strong tendencies to communicate upwardin an that anxiety neurosis and the presenceof obses- organizational hierarchy. There were alsoindi- sional symptoms is, on the otherhand, associated cations in their study that informationtransmis- with resistance to persuasion. sions of persons higher in the hierarchy was 6.7.18 In somewhat broaderexplora- restrained. tions in the relationship ofpersonality characteristics to persuasibility, Janisand Field have found 6.7.15 Important recent theoretical con- (which are re- tributions by Festinger throw furtherlight on the that feelings of social inadequacy important lated to self-esteem), socialinhibitions, richness recipient of a communication. The positively variable to be considered here isthe post-decision of fantasy and argumentativeness are and significantly correlatedwith persuasibility. state of the individual.Festinger theorizes that is nearly sig- whenever a decision is madewhich entails choice In addition, hyper-aggressiveness among alternative coursesof action, dissonance nificantly related to persuasibility(p.08). In will be produced in the individual.The amount of every case, however,the correlations coefficients dissonance produced by thedecision will be a are extremelysmall, the highest being .27, and they function of the relative attractivenessof the alter- are significantonly in the ease of male subjects. alternative selected, Among female subjects, not oneof the nine per- natives not selected to the significantly and of the importance ofthe decision. In turn, the sonality characteristics studied were individual's subsequent exposure tocommunica- related to persuasibility. Thenine personality 49 characteristics studied were feelings of social in- 6.8 Summary adequacy, social inhibitions, test anxiety, richness of fantasy, argumentativeness, hyper-aggressive- 6.81 We have selected a six-part model ness, suspiciousness, obsessive-compulsive symp- of the communication process and have used this toms, and neurotic anxiety symptoms. model in organizing our discussion of communications research. Insofar as possible we have cited 6.7.19 A person's need for cognition is representative experimental, rather than field, a further variable associated withcommunication studies adid have further tried to select the more processes. Need for cognition is a constructde- important studies bearing on each of the six veloped by Cohen, who also developed a measure factors in the model. Much relevant research of it. It refers to a need by the individual to struc- has, of course, been omitted. ture and make meaningful relevant situations. Adams hypothesized that if a need for cognition 6.82 Beginning with the immediate does in fact exist, it should be found that informa- post-World-War-II years, communication research has grown rapidly. The growth, however, has not tion seeking should be positively correlated with been an uncontrolled one. The research is pro- need for cognition, but only when the source of gressively becoming systematically relatedto information had previously effectively reduced thebry, though, as yet, there is no single theory the need. Testing this hypothesis with a group of that subsumes allaspects of communication. mothers, he found, as predicted, that mothers Furthermore, the research conducted has become with high need for cognition were especially likely programmatic: an excellent example or this is the to actively seek information on child care from work of the Yale group under the leadership of physicians and pediatricians, but that there was Carl Hovland. More and more work from different no relationship between need forcognition and subareas of psychology and other disciplines is inforniation seeking when the information was being interrelated and integrated. An example of sought from psychological and school counselors. the attempt to integrate is found in the first half The prediction was based on tile assumptions that of the volume by Katz and Lazarsfeld entitled doctors and pediatricians would have, in the past, Personal Influence. As a result of all this, the dis- reduced their patients' need for cognition, where- tinction between interpersonal and mass com- as psychological and schoolcounselors had not. munication is to some extent disappearing.

50 7.Perception andVisual Communication

prepared by I. A. Taylor

7.22 One of the earliest theoriesof per- 7.1 Introduction ception dates back to the EpicureanGreek philos- The purpose of this sectionis to ophers. They believed thatobjects emit some- 7.11 which allows us explore and develop the perceptualbases of visual thing of themselves to our eyes, communication. Examination of thecommunica- to see them. This theory, of course,developed largely limited to before we understood the nature ofoptics. After tion process in general has been understand the verbal forms of symbolization.The apparent Galileo and Newton helped us to is quite clearly nature of light reflection and the useof the lens neglect of nonverbal visual forms generally believed that not due to their unimportance,for even a cursory to produce an image, it was will reveal the the object, rather than emittingsomething of examination of contemporary life much as in overwhelming importance of visualsymbols in our itself, reflected light to our eyes, very daily life not least of which arein the various arts a camera. The imagein our eye, or specifically, probably due to the on our retina, wassupposed to be an exact copy and sciences. The neglect is provided abun- complexity of these symbols,particularly their of the object. Experiments soon the discrete, dant evidence that the eye does notalways give a continuous nature in distinction to it in many elementary nature of words andnumbers. true copy of the object, but changes ways. For example,optical illusions demonstrate 7.12 In examining the nature ofvisual that our eyes do not record actualmeasurements. principles of communication, many concepts and therefore various perceptual theories will beformulated and 7.23 A third view or theory framework. The prob- developed.It proposes that a perceptionis an expanded into a systematic and the object lem of this investigation, therefore,is to apply interaction between the perceiver contributing toward a perceived. An example will makethis clear. We these basic principles, thus composed of all the nonverbal syntax. know today that sunlight, colors of the rainbow, looks greento us when it falls on grass, because the grassabsorbs all of the light wave corre- 7.2 Visual Perception light waves except green. The sponding to green is not "green"until certain cells 7.21 One of the most importantaspects in the retina of the eye interactin some way with of visual communication isperception. Perception the light wave to produce theexperience of green. is often defined as awarenessof objects in the Neither the light reflectedfrom the grass nor the environment. Although thisdefinition is mislead- particular sensory cell in the eyesensitive to that ing, in that it says too much andtoo little about light wave, is green. Theinteraction between the perception, it indicates only thatperception has two produces a perceptionof green. been considered as one of themost central problems in psychology. It would bedifficult to de- 7.24 A fourth and more recentview scribe the whole of life if we wereunable to be goes beyondthe idea of interaction and insists aware of objectsin the world throughsight, that every perception is atransaction that the sound, scent, taste, touch, theexperiences of hot, various objects that areperceived exist only in cold, pain, equilibrium, and musculartone, to men- terms of the situation ofperceiving them. There tion the most importantsensations.It will be are two majorprinciples of this approach as noted also, that more than five senses weremen- formulated by Ittelson: tioned. It was Aristotle whofirst suggested that 1. That all parts of thesituation enter into it there are five senses. Today, dueto experimenta- dozen or more as active participants. tion, we know that man possesses a 2. That they owe their veryexistence as ev- senses the exact number is stillunknown. 51 g countered in the situation to this fact of active participation and do not appear as already existing entities merely interacting with each other without affecting their own identity. 7.25 This development from the Epi- curean to the transaction approachinvolves an interesting shift of direction in perception.The shift is -from the object emitting somethingof itself to the eye, to the eye's "externalizing" the perception. ..

7.3 The Visual Field 7.31 The visual field can be defined for our purposes as all thatwhich is perceived by the eyes at a given moment,See Fig. 7.1 for a simplified drawing of the eye. The major aspectsof the field are the edges bounding the field, theperin. eter, the space within the perimeter, andthe shapes, colors and objects within the space.Each Fig. 7.2. The overlapping fields of the eyes. eye, in a sense, has adifferent field. When the two eyes fixate on an object, thefields overlap, ence. The sensations seem to relatein such a way but do not coincide, as seen in Fig. 7.2. as to give the various parts theirmeanings only in terms of the sunset experience. The reactions we have toward particularsensations depend upon 7.4 Visual Sensations the context. Bright oranges, reds and yellows 7.41 When we look at a sunset, we do will do for a sunset but not for wallpaper. not see a certain number of colors, lines or shapes. 7.42 It is misleading, therefore, to dis- In an important sense, we see a sunset. We are cuss specific sensationsindependent of a total conscious of sensation elements, but these are perception. As every good designer of visual vague and secondary to thetotal visual experi- symbols knows, almost any design element can be used to produce a wide variety of reactions,depending on its relation to the design. If the relation between sensations is retained, however, it can be transposed into anothersituation without Vitreous humor loss of essential meaning. That is why we can still recognize a song whether it is played by any particular instrument or sung by voice, because even though the specific elements or sensations are changed, the relations remain. 7.43 An understanding of the compo- Cornea nents in the visual field, however, willbe useful Aqueous humor Optic nerve for manipulation when producing a visual design Pupil or symbol forcommunication. A line, one of the simplest elements of design, divides space. It can Iris be used to produce the perception of a contour or a boundary.Actually a line involves relationships Retina within itself and to its surroundings.Internal relations are indicated by the straightness or curvature of the line, produced by therelationship of various parts of the line. The linerelative to its surroundings produces the perceptionof line direction. Manipulation of line can produce var- Fig. 7.1.The eye and its parts. ious effects.

52 744 A vertical !tne seems to most ob- 7.47 Various shapes have become asso- servers to be associated withtension and gen- ciated with everyday ideas for physical, physi- erally produces more excitement than a horizontal ological, psychological or social reasons. A circle, line, which is more associated with standing erect which has the unique property of having equal and reclining. A diagonal line for similar reasons radii, is frequently accepted as the shape of a may produce discomfort to anobserver because of community or the shape of a group in conference its lack of balance. largely because the elements distributed on the circumference are in an ideal position for inter- 7.45 The positioning of shapes with reaction with each other or central elements. Shape frard to a vertical can produce interesting effects. metaphors have gravitated into verbal language. If a bending man is shown above the diagonal, he Such concepts as "square," "deep," "angular," is merely seen as bending oversay, to pick "expensive," etc., have become meaningful ex- something up. The reason for tha bending seems pressions in describing people. There is also in to have an external cause. If he is placed beneath ouL culture a high degree of reliability inassociat- the diagonal, the perception is changed. Now he ing various shapes (as well as other field parts) is bent as if by the weight of the world (or space) with emotions. above him (Fig. 7.3). 7.48 The psychology of color has been intensively studied by physicists and psychologists. The experience of color is related on the one hand to sensory cells (calledcones) in the retina of the eye, and to light-wave variations, on the other. 7.49 Color, which Newton showed to be an ingredient of light from the sun, thecomposite of all colors, can be separated in the form of the familiar rainbow or spectrum, by passing light through a prism (Fig. 7.5). Fig. 7.3.The effects of positioning above and below the diagonal. V1643 Ole 7.46 Simple sitapes are another important part of the visual field. We tend to think of Gyee0 shapes as regular or irregular, symmetrical or Yellow asymmetrical. Although shapes can be constructed Orange from lines, it is not generally true that we see the Red lines when we see a given shape. For example, Fig. 7.5.Light breakingintoits component colors the triangle has a unique meaning of its own. passing through a spectrum. Even the change of position of a shape produces an entirely new experience, one that may even have a different name, as when a square is rotated 7.4.10 The wave lengths are longer to- into a diamond (Fig. 7.4). ward the red end and shorter in the direction of the violet. Beyond these two points, which range from 1/31,250 to 1/62,131 of an inch in length, the impingements of waves are not perceived as light. Many insects perceive ultraviolet as a color because they possess sensory cells to respond to it as a color experience.Theoretically, all these other waves which come to us indirectly known as radio, radar, x-rays, cosmic and other types of rays could be perceived as color ifhumans possessed special sensory cells to interpret them as r such. rig. 7.4.Changing the "meaning" of a shape by rotat- 7.4.11 In visual communication itis ing it. not possible to utilize all of the colors that are 53 perceived. The intensity of sunlight,for example, is 500,000 times the intensityof full moonlight, but white ,ilaper is only 60 timeslighter than black paper. Thislimitation, however, is not as important as it may seem, for the eye canadjust in many ways to increase orreduce the intensity of the light.

7.5 Visual Modulations 7.51 The eye or both eyes in conjunc- Near tion are capable of severalimportant types of movement. These movements,which occur without too much attention, areessential in perceiving. By referring to the figureof the human eye (Fig. 7.1) it is Dossible to describethe-more im- Fig. 7.7.Adjustment of the eye to distance. portant movements. Probably thesimplest visual movement is the accommodationof the eye to retina, according to Budenbrock, aresomewhat variations of light intensity, as shownin Fig. 7.6. similar in this respect to the variousASA speeds of various films. Bright fight Weak fight 7.54 Another important eye movement is adjustment of the lens toobjects at various distances, as shown in Fig. 7.7.This unique quality of the eye allows us tofixate, or focus, upon objects withdistances ranging from within several inches to infinitedistance.If we were to continue our analogy tothe camera, this would correspond to the focusing ofthe lens. Although only a relatively small areaof the visual field (about 25 inches at a distance of8 to 10 inches) is clearly in focus at anygiven moment, we see Fig. 7.6.Accommodation of the eye to light. clearly a large portion of thevisual field over a period of time because of therapid jerky eye This adjustment, to a large extent,resembles the movement, another important meansof modulat- diaphragm adjustment in a camera. Underbright ing the eye. sunlight the lens opening is made smaller to re- 7.55 When we consider both eyes,the duce the amount of light entering the camera. convergence of the eye on anobject is noteworthy Additional light 's necessary when there is less (Fig. 7.8). For centuries, thistype of eye move- light available, and the lens opening is corre- spondingly opened to enable the proper amount of light to enter. 7.52 Similarly, the pupillary adjustment of the eye constricts in excessive lightand opens when the light is dim.Actually, pupillary adjustment to light comes about by contractionof the iris, for which purpose there are sixocular muscles. This pupillary change explains why a white piece of paper appears to be aboutthe same brightness under sunlight or moonlight, even though the former is 500,000 times brighterthan full moonlight. This is known as brightness constancy. 7.53 Actually, the r etina (containing the visual sensory cells) adjusts to light to a larger extent than the lens. The changesin the Fig. 7.8.Convergence of the eye on anobject.

54 ment was ignored. Leonardo da Vinci was per- hue, 200 gradations of value orbrightness, and haps the first to seriously explorebinocular 20 gradations of chroma or saturation.Exten- vision, or the effects of having two eyes.He sive as this may sound, it is a very narrowband noticed that when an object was severalinches of the known wave lengths. away from his eyes, aparadox occurred : another object placed behind the first was visibleunder certain conditions. 7.7 Perceptual Organization 7.56 A few centuries later, Wheatstone 7.71 Most of us take for granted the was the first torealize the implications of the process of perceiving.It is one of the easiest parallax.The implication that each eye sees human processes to ignore since it is more com- a different image,which may be considerably pelling to give attention to the objectsof percep- different at close distances and negligiblydif- tion. We attend to what we see, notto the ferent for distances beyond several feet,led process of seeingitself. Also, because the nature Wheatstone to contruct the first stereoscope, an of perception isso highly personal thatis, instrument which has again gained popularity composed of experienc.3s that areavailable only in recent years. to the perceiverlittle, comparatively, in the way of concreteknowledge is known of it. This, 7.57 The fact that each eye receives a despite the fact that it is easily the moststudied different image to a large extent answersthe subject in the field of psychology. question raised by da Vinci as towhy a painting cannot completely capture thedynamic quality 7.72 Some of the major philosophical of depth involved in directvision.Assuming battles have been fought overbasic questions as that an artist can duplicate the qualitiesof light to the process of perceiving anobject. Although and texture, if he were to paint twopictures of we need not beoverly concerned with the phil- an object, eachcorresponding to a position seen osophic issues here, the implicationsof some of by each eye, and present this in a suitablestereo- these are extremely pertinent to ourdiscussion. scope, we probablywould be unable to detect the In everyday life, we frequently as- and 7.73 difference between the merged paintings sume that ourperceptual apparatus gives us an direct vision. accurate account of the externalworld as it really exists independent of our sensoryequipment and 7.6 Visual Discrimination nervous systems.If there are any deviationsin perception, we consider them"illusions," "color- 7.61 There are two important kinds of aberration. perceptual discriminations. The first, which does blindness," and other forms of not directly concern us, has to do withthe detec- 7.74 It was John Locke, a seventeenth tion of upper or maximal and lower orminimal century philosopher concerned withthe function- stimuli. For example, the human ear can respond ing of the mind, who formulatedthe idea that to vibrations ranging from approximately12 to objects possess primary andsecondary qualities. 20,000 per second. We perceive these assound. The primary ones such assize belong to the The eye can respond to waves with wavelengths object and such secondary qualities ascolor to ranging from about 1/31,000 to 1/62,000 waves the perceiver. per inch. Above andbelow these limits, the waves another are not detected aslight, but may be interpreted 7.75 It was not long before philosopher, Berkeley, questionedwhether an ob- as other phenomena, such asradio waves, heat, characteristics at all, since gamma rays, etc. ject had any primary its size and other bodycharacteristics come to 7.62 The second kind of discrimination us throughperception and always arerelative in of importance to visual communication,is the meaning to other perceptions. detection of noticeable differences betweenstim- Actually, 7.76 Hume completed this lineof logic uli within this range of perception. mind must be per- there is no direct one-to-one correspondencebe- by reasoning that even the tween a perceived difference andthe actual ceived if we are to be aware ofit, difference between the two. One generalprinciple 7.77 Therefore, all that we know ofthe relevant here is that in estimating the sizeof world about us is perceptual innature. Another an object the sizeof the error increases with way of sayingthis is that all our lofty principles, the size of the object. concepts, and theories about theexternal world perceiving than 7.63 In general, the normal eye can re- tell us more about the nature of spond to more than 150 gradations ofcolor, or about the world. 55 into the 7.78 This type of solipeism, a term in- Italy, therefore, since it is assimilated dicating that we are encased in our own nervous unfamiliar shape of the MediterraneanSea. knowing system and have no direct way of 7.84 No matfer how familiar we maybe anything about external reality, was strongly with a particular shape, we may notperceive repelling to many subsequent and present-day it if it is imbedded in a larger designin which investigators. its bordering lines are lost toanother shape. 7.79 Gestalt psychology, developed in Some good examples (adapted fromGottschaldt) the early part of this century, had as oneof its are shown in Fig. 7.10. principal arguments that there are certain basic 7.85 Returning to our perception of a principles of form organization inherent in the map, after larger areas areidentified, smaller, physical organization of the world. In the dis- internal relations begin to emerge rivers, roads, cussion that follows it will be largely these prin- lakes, cities, etc. At first, various sections may ciples of form which will clarify the role played be recognized without any clear recognitionof by forms, the relationship between forms, and their relationships.Finally, the various parts the bases for producing meaning throughvisual become coherently related. A road is seento symbols. connect three large cities, two ofwhich have ports on the same river, etc. Development of 7.8 7.86 This is much like the situation of Perception entering a factory for the first time. Atfirst, When we look at a visual symbol, everything is inarticulate. Soon wa distinguish 7.81 various sounds, machines, and areas from others. or group of visualsymbols (for example, a map), has we can observe ageneral process for all persons, Finally, after a necessary period of time provided the map has not been seen before. For elapsed, the various parts form into a meaningful a moment we may not evenrecognize what class whole. of visual is before us. When we do recognizeit 7.87 The psychologist Gardner Murphy as a map we stillperceive only vague shapes, has identified and described the basicstages of colors,lines, and words.Slowly the various perception as follows: elements begin to relate to each other. 7.88 The diffusion phase. This is the 7.82 At first we may recognize that cer- initial phase of perception, both in thedevelop- thin areas represent land and others water ment of perception in children or in theinitial this, relatively quickly, if the representations are perception of a complex configuration for the done in a familiar manner; much slowerif first time. The field is inarticulate andundif- strangely new colors are used to designateland ferentiated. Because the perception of depthin and water , very slowly if the mannerof repre- space requires a great deal ofarticulation, the sentation is reversed. Many people have a great visual field during the diffusion phaseis flat deal of difficulty in identifying what isbeing and unextended. This would indicatethat the represented in the map in Fig. 7.9. diffusion phase in perception is "primitive"in nature. Because of its lack of differentiation, its appearance may be nebulous or soupy, asdur- ing a fog, and may invoke feelings ofinstability. 7.89 Contemporary abstract art affords 11111.1.- many examples of visualsymbols conceived in an atmosphere of diffuseperception. Apprecia- tion of art of this nature thereforeprobably depends upon one's attitude and tolerance toward ambiguity. Fig. 7.9.What famous Sea? 7.8.10 The differentiation phase. Dur- ing this second phase, either in theperceptual viewing 7.83 We may have difficulty in recog- development in children or in the initial nizing Italy (Fig. 7.9), for example, protruding of an object, elements begin tosegregate and into the Mediterranean Sea. That is because we can be identifiedby the perceiver. The relation- have learned to associate map lines asbelonging ships between these elements still remainunclear. to land and the land areas as generallydarker The phase is highly analytic andinductive in the than water areas. We do not see the line defining sense that the vieweris striving to relate the parts

- parts, as we find sofrequently in thedrawings of children. This, of course,is not to beconfused with the purposefuldistortion found in thework of highly skilleddesigners and artists. 7.8.12 The integration phase.The final phase of perceptualdevelopment or inobservation occurs when thevarious articulated elements are composed into a coherentpattern. This may occur rapidly as an experience ininsight or more slowly through trial-and-errorassemblage. Integration has several importantidentifiable characteristics which make for its highdegree of communica- p tion. It is efficient inthe sense that there isthe proper amountof material to produceunder- standing. It is simple in thatthere is a minimum Finally, it is reliable inthat NMI of or no adornment. 11ft,NI it evokes similar responses amongmany people NM in the same culture. 7.8.13 One should not,however, confuse 44, integrated visualcommunication withdrafts- manship or artisticability.This would be as misleading as confusingverbal languagewith oratory or poetry.One can use verballanguage articulately and coherentlywithout being an artist. We distinguishin verbal languagebetween poetry and prose.Unfortunately, we do nothave the same distinctionin non-verbal visual communication. A highlyintegrated visual communication, where artistryand craftsmanship are unimportant and wherecommunication is high, is found in Schramm'svisualization of thecommunication process, or inthe representationof the growth of a city, inFig. 7.11.

Decoder Destination Source Encoder Signal

City growth 4Airer NV Fig. 7.10.Find the figure on the leftin the figure on the right,

into a coherent organization.It would seem that visual communicationexecuted during thisphase would be disjointed andincoherent.

7.8.11 Unskilled craf tsm en,for ex- forms of visual ample, may draft ahuman figure composedonly Fig. 7.11.Highly articulate nonverbal of proportionateand perhaps misplacedbody communication. 57

do' 7.8.14 Each of these phases of percep- type of grouping is r ;lock of birds, a committee, tion can provide a different framework for visual or a visual scene. The group is one by summation. communication, depending on one's purpose. An In the second kind of grouping, the elements lose important point is that in presenting visual com- their identity in forming a whole.Geometric munications, one should carefully consider the figures are good examples of this type of group- amount of time necessary to allow the "reader" ing. A circle, for example, is not seen as a group to comprehend what he sees, to evaluate through of arcs. The mixture of red and blue-green light the phases of perception.Fig. 7.12 shows an producing yellow light, and of course, of all colors hypothetical development of perception. forming white light, according to Newton's famous experiment, are further examples. 7.95 a. Weak groups. The following three principles involve the most important ways of forming visual units out of discrete elements: 7.96 (1)Proximity. The simplest way of relating two or more elements is to have them 1 close together, either in space or time.The

...... s."..."'"' c==ii proximity of elements, as seen in Fig. 7.13, is Diffusion Differentiation Integration Fig. 7.12.Stages in the development of perception.

7.9 Structure of Visual Perception 7.91 What happens during this perceptual process? How is each phase achieved and how is the transition between phases accomplished?In answering these questionsitis Fig. 7.13.Proximity of elements. necessary to focus on the structural characteristics of visual communication. responsible for the spontaneous formation of 7.92 Structure refers to the distribu- groups. In everyday experience we tend to asso- tion of materials in space and through time. ciate certain objects or persons, such as the mem- Various visual communication media are essen- bers of a family, as seen in Fig. 7.13. tially spatial in that all parts are presented simultaneously for inspection, as for example, a photograph. The communication becomes temporal when the spatial elements evolve through time, as in a television program. 7.93 The outline belowisconcerned with the basic principles involved in perception. The first group is concerned with those principles that describe and explain the process of grouping objects or elements into perceived units. A second group is concerned with the segregation of units from each other.Finally, those principles con- Fig. 7.14.1Similarity of elements.n cerned with relating all of the visual elements coherently into a single pattern are described. 7.94 1.Principles of visual grouping. 7.97 (2)Similarity. Of almost equal Visual elements may combine in one of two dif- simplicity is this principle, which is responsible ferent ways. In the first, the elements form a for the grouping of objects which need not be close unit, although each of these elements still main- together.The grouping of course is produced thins its separate identity. An example of this by common features of the various elements.

58 having the ele- This is the fundamental principleunderlying our generally mean by organization racial and ments fall into relationshipto each other interms classification of various religious, the essential meaningof economic groups. An interiordesigner may unite of a general categoryis by repeating colors good continuity. Manyotherwise diverse elements the elements of an interior become related when they arebrought into con- or shapes invarious parts of the room.A combination of proximity andsimilarity can be ex- tinuity (see Fig. 7.17) . tremely effective in groupingin a visual, as shown in Fig. 7.15.

ra e^...... Th \ [ Fig. 7.17.Good continuity.

(2)Closure. Probably oneof Grouping by both proximity andsimilarity. 7.9.11 Fig. 7.15. the most dynamic propertiesof perceived shapes is the tendency towardclosure or completions 7.98 (3) Common movement.In gen- Bobitt, for example, flashedincomplete triangles eral, objects which movein a similar way are tosubjects through aninstrument called a related to each other, aswhen several birds from tachistoscope, which allowsrapid exposure of a flock veer awaytogether from the main group. material. At a certain speedand a certain degree of incompleteness of thetriangle, the triangle was actually perceived as complete.The brain, in perceiving, provided the partwhich would permit a closure. 7.9.12 An unclosed configurationtends to produce tension inthe viewer and a longer memory for thefigure. In perceiving an open form, there is a tendencyfor it to change toward a morefamiliar closed one. Whensuddenly all of the elements of aproblem integrate, we experience insight, which isessentially a closure process (see Fig.7.18). Fig. 7.16. Common movement ofelements.

7.99 b. Strong units. Visualsituations where the elements losetheir identity in com- bining to form a whole,which then has unique properties of its own, provide adifferent kind of visual statement. Geometricdesigns to a large extent possess this property.Frequently in visual communication individual elements arelost in the total configurations by one or moreof the Fig. 7.18.Closure. following principles of stronggrouping. 7.9.13 2. Principles ofseparating. 7.9.11 (1)Good continuity. Elements by being perceived These principles to a largeextent are concurrent which form a good contour with grouping, since forming aunit implies sep- in continuity form a unit.A good example is Separation of units the evening skyline of NewYork. Also, because aration from other material. lines are perceived occurs in threeimportant ways: first, through of continuity, two crossing discrimination of visual elementsdistributed on as two crossinglines, rather than fourlines. Frequently in visual communication,what we a plane, asin a mosaic. 59 b. Figure-ground. Rubins was 7.9.14 Second, through distribution of 7.9.19 material away from or toward the viewer,the one of the first toemphasize the fact that in per- problem of depth perception, an effect produced by ception there is a strong tendencyto divide the visual cues. The perception of depth may be pro- visual field into two distinct areas : afocal area duced by the actual extension of material asin a which is clearly articulated asthe figure and display, or the cues may be simulated toproduce usually lies closest to the observer,and the rest apparent depth, as in a photograph. of the field, which forms into arelatively vague ground for the figure. Rubins'demonstration 7.9.15 Third, separation of units may be most of us, and accomplished through a distribution through time. figures have become familiar to Sometimes, however, even striking changes in a variation of oneis shown in Fig. 7.20. shape over a period of time do not produce a new unit. Watching a flower cpen in slow-motion photography reveals that there is a great deal of change in shape, although the unit, the flower, retains a recognizable form. 7.9.16 In other instances, the unit over a period of time maybe changed without changing its essential shape. This is theproblem of imbedded figures which was previouslyillus- trated with the map of the MediterraneanSea. It is the first of two types ofseparations involving space rather than time which wewill discuss here. 7.9.17 a. Contrast.Probably the most fundamental technique for producing areliable segregation of material is through thejuxtaposi- tion of opposing elements. Most of us arefamil- Fig. 7.20.Reversible image. iar with the fact that black next towhite makes whiter. the black seem blacker and the white seem Generally, if possible, complex The same effect can be produced byplacing com- 7.9.20 plementary colors next to each other.Generally two-dimensional designs are resolvedinto simpler when differences between two elements are per- three-dimensional ones.If at any moment the ceived, the differences appear to be greaterthan visual field is actually perceived asflat and two- they are measurably. dimensional even the most familiar sceneswould become unrecognizably incoherent.T:his is simply 7.9.18 In all forms of communication we illustrated by the Necker Cube(Fig. 7.21), which tend to make use of contrast. We tend tospeak can be most readilycomprehended as a three- of "true or false" and "weak orstrong." The dimimsional cube and is almostimpossible to see best way to produce the appearanceof smallness of an element is to place it in theneighborhood as a flat,two-dimensional design. of larger ones. (See Fig. 7.19.)

Cube. Fig. 7.19.Contrast: shape, brightness, and size. Fig. 7.21. The reversible Necker

60 7.9.21 c. Depth cues. There are a number of cues in the environment which we have learned to interpret as indications of depth. Whenever extension in space is perceived, one or more of the following principles is at work : 7.9.22 Overlap.This principle, sometimes called interposition or superposition, refers to the fact that objects which cover other objects are seen as closer. The technique of producing depth by overlap comes late in the development of drawing by children. In early art work and in many primitive societies there is a tendency to attempt to reveal all elements. The rather simple technique of overlap is probably the simplest and most frequent cue in sensing depth (Fig. 7.22). Fig. 7.24.Linear perspective.

7.9.25 Aerial perspective. The effect of a receding gradient is familiar to anyone who has viewed the changing texture in the color of sand at a distance. In general, close objects are highly textured and brighter in color and far objects are smoother and less chromatic, tending toward neutral gray, as suggested in Fig. 7.25. Fig. 7.22.Overlap.

7.9.23 Size perspective. In general, of two unknown objects of unequal size at the same distance, the larger one appears closer. Many of us have experienced the illusion ofunderesti- mating the distance of a mountain. In Fig. 7.23, it is difficult to determine which of the circles is at the same distance as the head because distance is difficult to determine if the object is ambiguous and its size unknown.

Fig. 7.25.Aerial perspective.

7.9.26 Light and shade. Depth and direction of an element can be frequently deter- Fig. 7.23.Size perspective. mined by the areas of light and shadow. It is largely because we are so accustomed to having 7.9.24 Linear perspective. Whenever a light source from above, from the sun or ceil- we look down a railway track, weexperience ing lamps, that we interpret an element as pro- depth largely owing to the convergence of the truding if it has a shadow in the lower area and tracks to a point on the horizon. At any given receding if the shadow is in the upper area, as moment the visual field contains many slanting seen in Fig. 7.26. lines which resolve into meaningful perspective. The mere slanting of lines, however, is not usually 7.9.27 Filled space. In general, a dis- sufficienc to produce the experience of depth tance which is filled by elements appears longer (see Fig. 7.24). than empty distani.e. The distance to the horizon, 61 Fig. 7.28.Parallax of movement.

shows the changes,however, that occur inhead movement. principle of 7.9.29 Moving objects. The moving objects in generalis that fastermoving objects seem to becloser. If all other cues are eliminated, a strikingillusion can be produced. A silhouette of afast-moving object passingbe- hind a silhouette of aslower one will tend to appear closer. fix- 7.9(30 Fixation. Objects which are 0 0 of time appear tobe closer ated for any length than the other objects;therefore it followsthat the elements of apicture or design thatgain attention may appearlarger than intended. close 7.9.31 Distortion. Frequently at distances, familiar objectsbecome distorted 0 0 through foreshortening.This effect is familiar of per- Fig. 7.26.Light and shade. to most of us inultra-close-up portraits sons, where ahand or nose may appeardispropor- tionately large. Estimationof depth with this cue for example, appearsgreater than thedistance is good only withinrelatively short distances. to the vault inthe sky, largelybecause of the However, it can be used as adramatic statement, and the horizon. numerouselements between us as in Fig.7.29. Fig. 7.27 illustratesthis point. 7.9.32 3. Perceptualintegration. One can visualizeat this point howperception develops from, diffusionto differentiation,from the above principles.From the initial"oceanic" perception of an object,various elements begin to stand outsegregatefrom the others and spontaneously form units interms of groupingprin- ciples. Almost at thetime of articulation,dif- Fig. 7.27.Filled and empty space(The distance between ferentiationoccurs, largelyaccording to the the terminal boats isequal). relevant principles.The question now ishow the transition is accomplishedfrom the differentia- integration phase. 7.9.28 Parallax of movement.Changes tion phase to the in the relationshipsbetween objects whenthe principles are excellent cue of depth. 7.9.33 The following two head is moved affords an to a large extent"master" principles of percep- In general, the furtherthe object, the moreit unifica- familiar tion in that they areconcerned with the appears to movewith us. We are all of the entire visualfield. The with the way the moon appearsto follow us as tion and coherency and Parallax is not pos- problem is: how areperceived similarities we travelin a car or train. differences resolved intointegrated perceptions? sible to demonstratein a single picture. Fig.7.28

62 figure-ground dichotomy is fundamental to all perception. The simplest form is a figure of un- differentiated quality set upon a ground. 7.9.38 Articulation. Forms vary from simple to complex in the degree of articulation or differentiation that they possess. 7.9.39 Good and poor forms. A good form is well articulated and as such tends to im- press itself upon the observer, to persistand to recur. A circle is a good form. 7.9.40 Strong and weak forms. A strong form coheres and resists disintegration by analysis into parts or by fusion with another form. 7.9.41 Open and closed forms. An opcn form tends to change toward a certain good form. When a form has assumed stable equilibrium, it has achieved closure. Thus a nearly circular series of dots may achieve closure by being perceived as a circle. 7.9.42 Dynamic basis of form. A form is a dynamic system or is based upon a dynamic system. Since the dynamic principles operate within the organism, a strong form is that which depends more upon the dynamic properties of Fig. 7.29.Distortion. the organism than upon the properties of the stimulus. 7.9.34 a. Principle of "goodfigure." 7.9.43 Persistence of form. A form One of the major formulations of a group of once perceived tends to persist,and to recur when psychologists working in the area of perception the stimulus situation recurs. The recurrence of concerning the nature and organization of forms part of a previously perceived form tends to re- is that of "good figure" which in simple terms instate the whole. states that as far as the conditions permit, every perception tends to be as complete, symmetrical, 7.9,44 Constancy of form. A form balanced, or as "good" as possible. A form is tends to preserve its proper shape, size, and color. something over and above the elements which 7.9.45 Symmetry of form. A form tends combine to produce it. toward symmetry, balance and proportion.Many 7.9.35 The implications of Gestalt psy- of the geometrical 'illusions' illustratethis prin- chology are concerned with this problem, and the ciple. formulated principles are highly pertinent to analogic or continuous coding because of the gen- 7.9.46 Integration of similars and ad- eral emphasis on the whole over and beyond the jacents. Units similar in size, shape and color elements comprising it. The term Gestalt is prac- tend to combine to make better articulated forms. tically synonymous with the term form. The fol- Near units also combine more readily than far. lowing fourteen basic characteristics of a good 7.9.47 Meaningfulness of forms. A form are quoted from Boring's analysis. Because form tends to be meaningful and to have objec- of the pervasive nature of good figure, manyof tivity. The more m eaningf u 1 the form, the the preceding principles will be involved. stronger it is, the more easily it is perceived, and 7.9.36 Naturalness of form. A field the longer it tends to persist. tends to become organized and to take on form. 7.9.48 Fusion of forms. Two forms can Groups tend to form structures, and disconnected fuse, giving rise to a new form ; or, in combina- units to become connected. tion, the stronger one may persist, eliminating the 7.9.37 Figure and ground. A form weaker. Simple, poorly-articulated forms fuse tends to be a figure set upon a ground, and the more easily than the complex,good forms. A more meaningful form tends to predominate over a less meaningful one. 7.9.49 Transposition of form. A form exists independently of its constituent elements and may thus be transposed without change to other elements. Distance of the physical Size of the physical object object from the lens 7.9.50 b. Principle of perceptual constancy. This principle is sufficiently important to Size of the retinal object Distance of the retinal require further elaboration. Essentially, this object from the lens principle states that differences in size, movement, color, etc., between complements tend to be AB Cn perceptually reduced. The tendency is to recognize an object as being the same regardless of ab cn the angle we see it from, its distance from us, and its general surroundings. Fig. 7.34The size of the image on the retina. 7.9.51 To a large extent the world of personal perception would be confusing, to say stimulus. A number of these illusions can be the least, if objects in it did not remain reliable profitably explored. and predictable under all sorts of conditions. Imagine the wild dance that must occur on the 7.9.56 An early discovery made by retina of an outfielder as he runs catching quick Oppel was that the distance between two terminal glimpses of a fly ball. Yet, what he sees is the dots containing a series of dots appears greater ball coming in on a well-ordered course. than if there were no intermediate dots (see Fig. 7.27). 7.9.52 We still see paper as being white under a strong moon as we do under sunlight, 7.9.57 Another illusion introduced by even though the paper by moonlight is 500,000 Helmholtz and known as Helmholtz's squares times darker. Actually, if we could set up an showed that rows of horizontal lines produce the experiment where we can see under sunlight the effect of being tall and thin while columns of sheet of paper, but with the same brightness it vertical lines are perceived as short and wide, even has under moonlight, we would describe it as very though both series of lines are contained within dark gray tending toward black. the area of identical squares (Fig. 7.31). 7.9.53 Similarly, with size, as a person Wundt, in a relatively simple de- approaches or walks away from us, although the 7.9.58 53a perceptual tendency retinal image shows a corresponding increase or sign, showed that there decrease, we tend to see the person as almost the same sizethat is, his size, asin the case of the brightness of the paper, remains fairly constant. 7.9.54 This can be demonstrated in terms of a simple experiment and with thehelp of simple geometry.If we place an object of known size at various distances from a subject,it is possible to compute the size of the object on the retina at each distance, as shown in Fig. 7.30. 7.9.55 4.Optical illusions. The study of optical illusions provides extremely important clues about perception. The fact that we cannot directly perceive space but must infer it from cues suggests that all spaceperception is illusionary. However, illusions areordinarily restricted to a class of perceptions that contain estimates and evaluations which do not correspond with either measurement or critical observation of the Fig. 7.31.Helmholtz's squares.

64 Fig. 7.34.The Miiller-Lyer illusion. Fig. 7.32.Wundt's vertical and horizontal. to overestimate the vertical over the horizontal, than the other. If the wings of the lines are re- as shown in Fig. 7.32. versed rapidly in the position shown above, an illusion of motion is seen. 7.9.59 The Poggendorff Figure, as it has come to be called, is in an interesting "excep- 7.9.62 Another interesting type of illu- tion" to the principle of good continuity. sion is provided by the reversible figure and ground (Fig. 7.20) where one can see either two 7.9.6C Probably one of the most dra- profiles or a vase, depending upon which area is matic illusions is that of Hering's or Wundt's, in seen as figure and which as ground ;similarly, which perfectly straight lines are perceived as the Necker Cube (Fig. 7.21) also has reversible curves, as shown in Fig. 7.33. perspective. 7.9.63 In recent years there has been a great deal of concern with illusions of space, size and distance, which show the extremely unique and personal nature of a perceptual transaction. A good example is provided by a view of the dis- IP(.01/- torted room of Ames, shown in Fig. 7.35.Al- though the room appears normal, the sizes of the heads are inconsistent. The two appear to be equally distant and the size of windows the same, but actually, as indicated in the plain view of the room below, the room is distorted so as to produce the illusion. 7.9.64 5. The perception of movement. Movement is seen when the displacement of an object can be perceived by the eye for example, a moving car, or when the relationshipbetween two objects changes, as in the hands of a clock. Both types of motion can be either real or apparent. The two frequently interact. 7.9.65 Movies are based upon apparent motion. The succession of stills at a particular rate produces the effect of actual movement. If two light bulbs are lit in succession at a certain Fig. 7.33.Hering's (top and bottom) and Wundt's rate, the appearance is not of two blinking lights, figures. but a smooth movement from one to the other. All sorts of unusual movement affects can be produced with several lights. The source of the mov- 7.9.61 The most popular illusion, how- ing light, for example, seems to start with the ever, is the Mfiller-Lyer illusion. One of the two brightest light even if the brightest light is not equal lines in Fig. 7.34 appears strikingly smaller the first to light. -

7.11Variability of Perception 7.11.1 One striking characteristic in examining the perceptions of a group of individuals is the degree of variation in terms of their perceptual judgments and estimates. By way of a general principle, the more ambiguous the configuration, the more variable the responses. This is substantially the basis of projective techniques, such as the familiar inkblot test (Fig. 7.36), which utilizes ambiguous patterns to elicit different perceptions. Usually, the interpretation of ambiguous stimuli can be used to determine the needs of the observer. A mare familiar example of projection with ambiguous material is the seeing of objects in cloud formations.

7.11.2 Several interesting psychological experiments will clarify this point. In a study by Sherif, subjects were shown a pinpoint of light in a darkened room. Even though the light re- mained sthtionary under these conditions, an illusion of movement was seen. By asking subjects to estimate the distance traversed by the point of light, a great deal of variability was obtained. Some subjects barely saw any move- Fig. 7.35.The Ames' distorted room (from Bartley, S. H., Principles of Perception. Harper and Brothers, ment, while others estimated movement of many 1958). feet.

7.9.66 Everyone is familiar with the 7.12 Motivation and Set illusion of the moon sailing through the sky. This is due to a basic principle of relative movement, 7.12.1 In a subsequent part of the ex- which holds that object, even if stationary, ap- periment by Sherif, mentioned above, subjects pears to move when there is a gradual displacement of position relative to the larger environment containing the object. That is why the moon, rather than the clouds perceived as part of the surroundings, seems to move, and also, why we sometimes feel that we are moving in a train when actually the adjacent train, which appears stationary, moves. In this last instance, we are the object and the actual moving train is the surrounding environment.

7.10 Functional Characteristics 7.10.1 Thus far we have been discussing the structural qualities of perception.In this section, the concern will be with the purposes and functions which perception serves. To a large extent, any of the structural variations of perception can be understood in terms of the functional needs of the observer. There are several important areas that require consideration: Fig. 7.36. An inkblot (what does it look like?).

66 were allowed to view each others' estimations of the distance travelled by the point of light. As might be expected, there was a strong tendency for those who had large estimates to reduce their estimates in subsequent observations and for those with smaller estimates to increase them. Sherif interpreted this as the effect of the group on the individual, or the motive of conformity. 7.12.2 The effects of this motivation were also shown in an experiment by Asch. Rather than using illusionary movement, comparative estimation of line size was used. Subjects 4 were asked to judge which of two lines was larger. In every instance, this would have been an easy matter, except for the introduction of a new a motivating force. One subject at a time was placed in a group that had (unknown to him) been instructed to report after every two or three 5 6 evaluations that the objectively larger line was smaller. a 7.12.3 Before the "naive" subject was allowed to answer, the other subjects indicated their judgments. As many as one third of the 7 8 experimental, or "naive" subjects conformed to the group evaluation thatis,they estimated a a clearly larger line to be smaller. Many of us are familiar with the inconsistent reports made by eyewitnesses at the scene of an accident, owing to different motives and set. 9 10 7.12.4 Another interesting experiment Fig. 7.37.A pictorial rumor. was performed by Bruner and Goodman. Chil- dren were asked to estimate the sizes of various small sign saying, "Elect McGinnis for Alder- coins, by manually adjusting a diaphragm until man." In one of the final descriptions of the pic- it seemed to be the same size as the presented coin. ture, the scene was described as a political rally, In general, there was a tendency for overestima- with individuals screaming for the election of tion to increase with the value of the coin. Also, certain individuals to office. Another type of poorer children tended to overestimate the size of modification is levelling, or the elimination of the coins more frequently than did the richer major and minor elements, as in the above, for children, for apparent reasons. example, where the subway was lost in the relay- 7.12.5 Set operates to a large extent in ing of the rumor. Finally, assimilation, or the in- our everyday life in shaping our perceptions. Hunt- troduction of altogether new and personal ele- ers often interpret a vague movement in the bush ments into the description, may take place. Fig. as being a deer, and may shoot a cow. 7.37 shows a pictorial rumor relay. 7.12.6 An interesting investigation of rumor was made by Allport and Postman: a pic- 7.13 Meaning and Learning ture of an emotionally charged scene, such as a white man brandishing a straight razor at a 7.13.1 The meaning obtained from a Negro, was shown to a subject, who was then told visual communication is largely due to previous to describe the picture to a second subject, and experience. A symbol written in Chinese is in- the second subject to repeat it to a third subject, comprehensible to a person unfamiliar with that etc. The final subject usually relates a descrip- language. Many individuals have not learned how tion of the scene which is highly modified, in to perceive significance from abstract geometric three significant ways: First, many of the ele- forms. These individuals, if asked to reproduce ments became shaxpenecl. For example, in one such forms, will alter them to concrete, familiar experiment, a scene set in a subway includes a objects, as shown in Fig. 7.38.

67 the whole, the difficulties of devising a logical code seem almost insurmountable. 7.13.5 There are several important varieties of analogic codification, which bear different types and degrees of relationships. The most realistic in terms of visual perception are icon,s, which include photographs and other realistic representations. When the relation between A symbols and object is intellectual in nature, such as a blueprint, map, plan drawing, or a graph,the B symbol is schematic. Emotional representation, I one of the least investigated forms of nonverbal communication, is found in the color and design abstractions of many contemporary artists. Walt Disney, for example, uses this type of representation in the visualization of Bach's Toccata and Fugue in "Fantasia."

7.14 Personal Functions 7.14.1 There are in general three basic Interpretations of simple geometric forms. principles concerning personal appeal of visual Fig. 7.38. perception. Of the many hundreds of principles of aesthetics formulated by philosophers, artists, 7.13.2 Meaning is substantially based and designers, these tend to fall into three clus- on organization and relationships.In verbal ters, and each cluster bears a strong relationship language, the syntax, or the relationship between to a personality need: words and the structure of the sentence, largely determines the degree of effective communication. 7.14.2 1. Equilibrium. Most of the With visual communication, there is no standard- ideas concerning attractive perception fall into ized set of rules comparable to verbal syntax. To this category, sometimes called homeostasis, or a large extent, the general principles ofstructural balance. This refers to the degree of proportion- organization in a visual perception provides a ate distribution of material, and stability, either step in the direction of a non-verbal syntax. static or in movement. The balance may be syzn- metrical or asymmetrical, provided there is per- 7.13.3 The problems involved in codify- ceived equilibrium of over-all distribution. This ing nonverbal communication are far greater appeal is significantly related to the need of the than for verbal communication. Ruesch and Kees personality for equilibrium (as well as that of the have pointed out an important distinction between body).Some of the design principles which seem these two forms of communication. The authors to be involved in this personal function are bal- called verbal language, including mathematics, ance, proportion, symmetry, apposition, and re- digital coding, because the elements which com- pose. pose the communications are complete;also, they bear no direct relationship to the objects being 7.14.3 2. Development. The second symbolized. For example, the letters C-A-T are group of visual ideas seems to cluster around the discrete elements and bear no resemblance to the personal need for development, variation, and familiar animal. growth. In an effective visual presentation the treatment of the principal theme is successfully 7.13.4 In nonverbal forms of communi- developed. This is accomplished through various cation,includingpictures,gestures, and the dance, analogic coding is involved. The term "an- means, usually involving simplification of treat- alogic" implies that there is a resemblance be- ment, a good distribution of major and minor tween the symbol and the object symbolized, and elements, and a rhythmical patterning. Some of that the symbol is continuous that is, com- thedesignprinciplesinvolvedhereinclude posed of uninterrupted elements. Because of its rhythm, dominance, repetition, variety sequence, highly spatial nature, and the fact that the ele-, contrast, scale, gradation, emphasis, subordina- ments are so highly influenced by the nature of tion, transition, climax, conflict, expansion, re-

68 currence, accent, theme and variation, concen- tration and continuity.

7.14.4 3. Adjustment. The third group Vitamin D of aesthetic principles seems to relate to the Calcium notion of integration, adjustment, and harmony. The various elements are blended into a pleasing Vitamin A whole. Noteworthy principles here are harmony, Protein unity, order, fitness, form, cohesion,relation, congruity, consistency, inclusion, finality, simplicity, restraint, and impartiality. Fig. 7.40.Characterization. Fig. 7.41.Evaluation.

requires a solution.In Fig. 7.40, milk is both 7.15 The Uses of Visual identified and shown with its ingredients. Communication 7.15.4 3. Evaluation. When the pur- 7.15.1 A visual perception intended for pose is to evoke various degrees offavorable or visual communication can be treated in one or unfavorable feelings about an object, the com- more of five fundamental ways.These purposes munication will contain evaluative symbols. The to a large extent have to do with the communi- object will be cloaked accordingly with angelic or cator's intent, for each can communicate the same satanic garb. The evaluational elements of a content or ideas, but in different form, and usually visual communication are usually handled through with different consequences. color, shape, general appearance, angle of view, or demonstration of consequences.The delight 7.15.2 1.Identification. The most fa- obtained from consuming a glass of milk is illus- miliar technique of presentation is to show thekey trated in Fig. 7.41. identifying marks of a particular product. These marks may include the object's container, the 7.15.5 4. Prescription. Another intent symbols that represent it, like trademarks,its may be to prescribe orsuggest a course of action, place of origin, or time of development, theobject itself, or the various forms it assumes.Fre- quently the identification of an object seems to suggest that it is reliable. Among the many ways of producing an atmosphere of confidencefor a product are to give it a brand name, imprint the name of the placewhere produced, or imprint the date produced. Fig. 7.39 shows milkwith several of its identifying marks. 7.15.3 2. Characterization. At times, a visual presentation is shown in terms ofits ingredients or characteristics by means of a closeup showingsmall details and the fine texture or through an analytic breakdown. The character- Fig. 7.42.Prescription. ization may be either with or without object identification.The latter may arouse interest sometimes simply portrayed by an arrow. Pre- because the incomplete or partially shown object scriptive symbols attempt to modify behavior, attitudes, or the perception of an object. During World War II, most of us can recall large posters of Uncle Sam pointing his finger at the hypothetical observer, with the caption, "I want you." A simple prescriptive technique is used in Fig. 7.42. 7.15.6 5. Relating. Whenever it is desirable to go beyond the object itself for pur- o objects so as to poses of comparing it with other Fig. 7.39.Identification. provide a relative frame of reference, some tech- 69 pertinent background material for understanding the nature of visual communication, which in turn involves an understanding of both the structural High Nil and the function properties of perceptual development.

Med. 7.16.2 Structuring of visual material occurs when sensations are grouped in terms of proximity, similarity, common movement, com-

Low mon destiny, and closure, and separated by means ofcontrast,figure-ground,anddepthcues. Finally, the principles of good figure and con-

i stancy suggest a means by which the entire visual configuration is integrated into a single coherent Onion Milk Liver whole. Fig. 7.43.Relation. 7.16.3 Thus, in viewing an object, there isthe transition from theinitialconfusing niques permitting relating are used. These may "oceanic" or diffusion phase to the analytical or include graphs, charts, figures, tables, or simply differentiation phase, and finally to the intern- presenting an object with other objects. Fig. 7.43, ally integrated stage of development. Relevant for example, shows the relationship between milk functional characteristics generally include an and other food products in terms of (nutritional or understanding of the variability or individual dif- caloric) values. ferences found in perception, the role of motivation and set, and meaningand specifically, the knowledge of the unique personal bases under- 7.16 Smnmary lying the attractiveness of a visual, which include the perception of equilibrium or balance, develop- 7.16.1 Visual perception provides a firm foundation for understanding the nature of ment and adjustment or integration. visual communication. A knowledge about the This, then, provides the foundation upon which visual field including th3 characteristics of visual abilities to perform various necessary tasks and sensations, modulation, and discriminationsis successful visual communications are based.

70 sae.

8.Some OtherTheories ofPerception

prepared by MartinKrampen

tern are activated.Whereas the perceptionof the : Range of PresentTheories unity of a figureagainst its background seemsto 8.1 of chapter, one depend on an innatemechanism, the perception 8.11 In the preceding the identity of thisfigure must be gradually ac- theory of perceptionhas been developedin some "learned." This "learning"takes chapter, these principlesand con- quired, that is, detail. In a later place when theindividual explores thefigure by cepts will beapplied to specificand concrete sit- separate fixations ofits parts. other theories ofperception. means of many uations. There are One fixation isconnected to the otherby eye The basis of thetheory may beformal, that is, of identity is thus an built-in physiological or neuro- movement. The perception concerned with the unconscious additivereconstruction of the figure physiological equipmentof perception, orfunc- concerned with themotivational by many rapid fixations. tional, that is, With each fixation, agroup of factors in perception. 8.22 percept corre- presents an abbre- nerve cellsis excited. A simple 8.12 This chapter sponds to a simple cellassembly. The cells ofsuch 11 other theoriesto provide a time their viated version of perceptual the- an assemblyfacilitate each other: over condensed panoramaof present mutual contactbecomes closer andcloser ; they ories. The theoriesincluded are: "grow together" byrepeated "usage." More com- 1. Cell-assemblytheory plex percepts correspondto compounds ofinter- 2. Sensory-tonicperception theory facilitated cell assemblies.According to this con- 3. "Set" theory cept, the perceptionof a triangle wouldconsist of 4. Cybernetictheory the following phases : theory 5. Adaptation-level 8.23 The fixation ofangle A brings 6. Probabilistictheory This assemblyincorporates theory about cell assembly a. 7. Transactional motor neurons which causethe eye to shift from 8. Motivationtheory The shift results inassembly theory angle A to B (or C). for 9. Hypothesis b (or c). Theshifting from angle toangle is called 10. Topologicaltheory There need not be any regu- theories and perception. a phase sequence. 11. Learning larity in phase sequences.Typical sequences may for each of these in- 8.13 Some literature be a-c-b-a-a-c-a-a-b-c-a,etc. Phase sequences for furtherinvestigation, or volving over time moreand more new cellsand theories is included facilitation, build up a the reader maywish to refer tothe summaries of exhibiting more and more these and othertheories by Allport,Bartley, and compound system, calledassembly "t." "t" is an cell assemblies corre- Bakan.1 interfacilitated group of sponding to the perceptionof the triangle as a whole. Finally theperception of identityhas been 8.2 Cell-AssemblyTheory acquired. t does notreplace the assemblies, a,b, object a large and c. It intervenesin a phase sentence, e.g.,in 8.21 When we perceive an a-c-t-a-b-t-a-t-c, etc. This number of nervecells in the central nervoussys- the following manner: means thatperception of the wholealternates con- and the Con- iFloyd H. Allport,Theories of Perception stantly with perceptionof the parts. John Wiley & Sons,Inc., New York, cept of Structure. Perception, Harp- By means of thislogical system 1955. S. HowardBartley, Principles of 8.24 1958. Paul Bakan,"Current perceptual concepts canbe convincingly exer andBrothers, New York, Day many Theoretical Approaches toPerception." In: Present plained, e.g., "closure,"in the case of atriangle Psychology, A. A. Roback,ed., PhilosophicalLibrary, New which is presented openat angle C,corresponds York, 1955. 71

fs to an activation of t facilitated by aand b. Learn,- of the subject is tilted over to one side,the ver- ing can be explained as a lasting change offacili- tical adjustment of the rod will bedisplaced in tation among specific cell assemblies.Learning the direction opposite to the tilt.Displacement in- builds up slowly. The environmentcontrols the creases as the tilt of the bodyposition increases. activity of the nerve cells in thebrain and re- 8.33 These experiments show that the establishes in trial after trial the same group of entire organismic state influences perception. If cell assemblies. Finally this results inready-made the stimuli do not disturb the organismicstate, cell patterns which are connected by motoractiv- the perceived object is in balance with thegiven ity (as we saw in the case of phase sequences). sensory-tonic equilibrium of the body.If the 8.25 Attention may be viewed as a stimuli do interfere with the organismic state,the facilitation of some perceptual mechanism in gen- organism is activated to re-establish the equilib- eral by some central compound. Ifthis facilita- rium between body and object. tion occurs before the corresponding stimulus pat- 8.34 One way of accomplishing this is tern is present, we may talk aboutexpectancy. to "change the position of the object."If the Pleasure can be interpreted as "easy" develop- neuro-muscular tonus on one side increases (by ment of cell assemblies, emotion as aconflict of extraneous stimulation), counteractive tension is phase sequences, etc. generated on the opposite side. The "horizon" (For additional information, see : D. 0. Hebb, rotates towards the latter side. The perceptual The Organization of Behavior. Wiley &Sons, displacement is supposed to be equal to the sum New York, 1949) . of all stimulus vectors concurring in the situation, e.g., if the amount of vectors on oneside (plus) outweighs the same amount of vectors on the 8.3 Sensory-Tonic Theory other side (minus), the result is minimum displacement in perception. 8.31 Many perception theorists would agree today that thepurely "sensory" approach 8.35 The principle postulated here as to perception is insufficient.Changes in body pos- the basis of perception is that of "minimal dis- ture, visceral and somatic muscularactivity con- turbance." Accordingly, the perceiving organism tribute as well as sensory processes to the per- does not only "adjust" the position of the perceptual end product. When a muscularreaction ceived object, if additionally stimulated, but has takes place proprioceptive impulses,originating a general tendency to conservesymmetry and from receptors in the muscles, are firedalong dif- balance in the perceptual field. The sensory-tonic ferent pathways to the sensoryassociation areas theory is an attempt to explain the features of in the cortex. There they interact withimpulses perception according to this principle. originating in exteroceptors (eye, ear, skin,etc.), (For additional information, see : H. Werner stemming from an external stimulus ; thisinter- and S. Wapner, "Toward a General Theory of action may be understood as a gestalt-likewhole: Perception." Psychological Review, 59, pp. 325- a percept is"sensory" and "tonic" as-a-whole. 338, 1952.) The sensory and tonic componentsof perception are "dynamicallyequivalent"; one can be functionally substituted for the other. Thefollowing 8.4 "Set" Theory experiment may illustrate this theory further : 8.41 Even more than the sensory-tonic 8.32 The subject is asked to adjust a theory, "set" theory of perception emphasizes the rod pivoted at its center into a verticalposition. influence of the entire muscular background state A control experiment is performed first inwhich on perception. "Set" in thisphysiological sense is the slight deviations of the rod fromthe geo- not to be confused with the mathematical concept metrical vertical (a result of the subject's own of set. "Being set" for a stimulus or for an entire perception of the vertical) are recorded. Then reaction precedes actual perception. Each overt the experiment is repeated with anextraneous behavior may be seen as backed up by a set for it. stimulus applied unilaterally. A tone may be fed Perception, as one form of behavior, is the in- into one ear or an electrical stimulus appliedto tegration of many kinds of incoming stimulation one side of the neck.The additional stimulation (from eyes, ear, skin, etc.) embedded in other increases unilaterally the muscular tension of the overt behavioral processes. subject. This tension produces an additional "error" in the perception of the vertical, shifting it 8.42 A "set" has sensory and motor toward the side opposite to the one with increased components.It is in fact a constantly ongoing muscular tension. Similarly, if the whole position process of neural and muscular eventsinside the

72 _

organism before and during its overt reaction. As minology of "cybernetics," words like "informa- such a process, set is not distinct from perception tion," "transformation," "scanning," etc., have but a sub-threshold level of it. The lack of exter- been applied successfully in explaining neuro- nal stimulus support makes the set a less inclusive physiological data concerning perception. neuro-muscular pattern than the full percept. The 8.52 One of the principal questions in entire organism is, however, ready to react or to perception is how a form is perceived invariably as perceive. that particular form although it changes con- 8.43 Besides the preparatory set of stantly its position in space and its projection pat- tonic nature, phasic contraction of muscles (that tern on the retina. It has been found that the is, more intensive neuro-muscular patternswith reflexes of the eye such as focusing of the lenses, overt manifestation) may also constitute partof convergence of the two eyes, and control oflight the perceptual aggregate. Both thetonic and volume by the iris contribute largely to this phe- phasic levels of set operate in a closed circular nomenon. They bring and keep theobject of atten- manner: proprioceptive messagesfrom the mus- tion, through their complicated interplay and their cles are sent to the central nervous system ;feed- feedback connections with the central "computer," back and reinforcement are relayed back to the in a standard position on the retina such that the muscles. This cyclical process gives the set its stiinulation pattern varies within the smallest aspect of continuity. The set does notonly pre- range possible. also sustains the con- pare a perceptual event but 8.53 Every reflex moves some input tinuity of perceptual activity. data through subsequent positions, intensities or 8.44 The passage from a set to the at- other variables into a final position. This final tainment of a percept can be described in three value of the variable is called for by the constitu- phases: tion of the organism itself. The combined reflex 1. Energy necessary for the final perceptual mechanism of the eye cancels thus the casual and aggregate is built up by constant cyclical too specific aspects of the retinal image and se- reinforcement. lects from many possible positions a final one. 2. Missing energy is supplied by externalstim- This process has been defined as "reduction to the ulation. canonical position." 3. The sudden energy incret,se due toexternal 8.54 Electrical stimulation in specific stimulation brings about the above-thres- areas of the human cortexhave proved to elicit hold phase of perception. in the subject the experience of natural forms, such as a tree or a house, free from size or position 8.45 If a set becomes fixed over time it These "universal" images may be triggered indifferent situations by stimuli in the visual field. which through some past percept had been related "stored" in cortex areas with the function of to it. On the other hand, since sets aremerely visual memory seem to be the result of an averag- sub-threlhold states of full perceptual events, ing process over many particular images pro- inhibits jected in a one-to-one fashion from the retina into each set is specific to its percept. One set the visual area of the brain. The retinalimage, the operation of the other if both areantagonis- particular, although already brought intoits tic. "canonical position," is repeated as a pattern of 8.46 The set theory of perception ex- excited nerve cells in the cortex and then com- plains thus physiologically the selectivity of per- pared with "average images." This relation is ception, with regard to objects, the speed and said to be the result of a cortical scanning process. readiness of perception, and within certainlimits the content and vividness of the percept. 8.55 In television, through scanning by (For additional information, see G. L. Free- means of a rapidlytravelling electronic beam, man, "The Problem ofSet." American Journal of movement in space is picked up point-after-point Psychology 52, 16-30, 1939 ; and The Energeticsof and transformed into a sequence ofsignals. The Human Behavior.CornellUniversity Press, same process is reversed atthe receiving end. As Ithaca, New York, 1948.) the camera samples sets of transformations going on in the scene,it transmits them in sequential form which is then unfolded again on the receiv- 8.5 Cybernetic Theory ing screen. 8.51 The analogy between "electronic 8.56 Some kind of a similar process brains" and human brains has proved tolead to seems to go on in perception.The transformations fruitful results in perception theory. In theter- of the outer world are projectedeven though 73 not completely parallelinto the visual cortex and of a given dimension. This averaging process may sampled by scanning. After an averaging process occur below the threshold of consciousnessand is (perhaps some kind of random projection into an- of physiological as well as of psychological nature. other cortex area) an "extract" of the original Given a typical experiment, three different classes transformations is reconstructed. Thus images of stimuli are said to be pooled together in the of objects and motions in the outer world are re- subject's report: (1) Stimuli of the series which is ceived and "understood." A particular brain wave, presented in the experiment ;(2)background the alpha-rhythm, has been said to constitute an stimuli, above or below the presented series ; (3) equivalent of the scanning beam in television. residual stimulus effects brought into the experimental situation. 8.57 The alpha-rhythm has a frequency of one-tenth of a second. This time interval is very 8.64 These different types of stimuli act important in perception since it seems to repre- according to their frequency, proximity, and other sent the smallest quantum of time experience we characteristics. If we assign correct weights to can have. The flow in time of events would be each of these stimuli, we can compute an average accordingly perceived in such "chunks" of psy- for a given individual in a given experimental chological time. From this concept important con- setting. Knowing this average (adaptation level) sequences for visual communication can be de- we may predict his judgment of stimuli of a cer- veloped. Proper "chunking" in the coding of tain class. Thus the concepts of pooling, average, visual messages may be seen as a basic condition and adaptation level allow for a quantitative of successful communication. theory of perception and for a definition of per- (For additional information, see W. Pitts, and ceptual processes in terms of mathematical opera- W. S. McCulloch, "How We Know Universals : tion. The Perception of Auditory and Visual Forms." Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 9,127-147, 8.65 The presence of an adaptation level in color vision has been shown: A stimulus ap- 1947; Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics, Wiley and pears achromatic depending on the average Sons, New York, 1948.) amount of reflected color illumination and background brightness. Below this "neutral" level the 8.6AdaptationLevel Theory illuminated object can reverse its hue (as compared to the hue above the neutral level). 8.61 The scientist can never measure perception directly. He has to rely on the reports 8.66 An adaptation level also seems to of the experimental subject. The subject's report be present in social perception. The influence of of magnitudes depends on his experience with social stimulation exerted on the perception of an magnitudes in general. Each individual acquires individual depends on the size of the group. There his own subjective frame of reference according seems to be a tendency towards an average ac- to which magnitudes are judged. The organism cepted level of behavior for members of a social establishes this frame of reference by bringing group and within the frame of the group's activi- some kind of an order into the arrayof quantita- ties. tive experiences. (For additional information, see : H. Helson, "Adaptation-level as Frame of Reference for Pre- 8.62 Some region within this array as- diction of Psychophysical Data." American Jour- sumes the function of a standard withreference to nal of Psychology LX-1-29 ; and "Adaptation-level which the other stimuli are judged as smaller or as a Basis for a Quantitative Theory of Frames of larger, heavier or lighter, etc.This reference Reference." Psychol. Rev. 55, 297-313.) region is called the adaptation level. The whole structure of the perceived field is determined by the adaptation level of the subject. The adapta- 8.7 Probabilistic Theory tion level is in constant change since it is "a function of all the stimuli acting upon the organism 8.71 The attainment of reliable percep- at any given moment as well as in the past" tion of the world is an important prerequisite for (Helson). Stimuli of a magnitude close to the the organism's successful adjustment to its sur- adaptation level are judged as "neutral" or "in- roundings. One stabilizing factor in perception is different" by the subject. As stimuli occur above "constancy." Perceptual constancy seems to be a or below the adaptation level they are judged as compromise between the always constant physical of positive or negative magnitude. features of the object and its always changing fea- 8.63 The adaptation level is some kind tures in the retinal image, given by always chang- of an average of the experience with magnitudes ing conditions. The result of this compromise is

74 the perception of an "intermediate object." On the environment. Perception, purpose and action are basis of all available data the organism tries to functionally related in the organism's dealing extrapolate the object as reliably as possible, with its surrounding. in order to meet the necessities of biological adap- Cues from the 8.82 Many ideas of transactional func- tation to the physical world. tionalism have been developed by using non-veridi- object (brightness, color, etc.) and processes with- cal perceptual experience in order to shed light in the organism (convergence, accommodation of on the normal veridical process ofperception. the eye, etc.) make for the relative validity of One of the most efficient methods to elicit non- the percept. veridical perception is foreshortening, which has 8.72 Of course, the perception of the been used in many of the Ames demonstrations object can never be completely sure ; it has only (chair,distorted room, trapezoidal window). a probabilistic achievement. If many cues are Some non-veridical perceptions rest upon the fact available the organism averages their respective that the same pattern of retinal stimulation may probabilities in order to assure the most accurate occur for different objects. Differentstimulus experience of the object. All the cues are, so to configurations can be arranged which all will speak, ranked in terms of their reliability, and the produce the same projection on the retina. How weighted result is the perception of the object's does the subject decide whether the percept is dimensions. veridical with respect to one of the possible stimulus configurations? 8.73 In this perceptual operation the organism relies more on distal cues than on the 8.83 On the basis of its past experience proximal(retinal)image. The retinal image, the subject makes assumptions as to the most however, provides necessary information for the probable origin of the stimulus pattern. The situ- constancy judgmentIts contribution for the at- ation which in the past has been more often re- tainment of size-constancy can be estimated in lated with a given retinal stimulation, is assumed ratios as compared to the contribution of the to apply also in the present occasion. Assumptions, cues. Sometimes the retinal imageis more reli- whether they be true or false, constitute the basis able than object cues ; on the basis of experience of every percept. As the assumptions were de- the organism develops distrust for certain cues. rived by actively dealing with the environment in Thus a system of more or less general "implicit the past, they provide through the percept which hypotheses" about the value of cues and the ret- they bring about, a basis for more action :thus inal image dominates perception. Their varying perceptions serve as prognostic devices for ac- degrees of subjective certainty bring about the tions. If non-veridical perception results in wrong final compromise of the percept. prediction for action and the experience of obstacles in the environment, new assumptions are 8.74 Since this theory of probabilistic formed and adjustive actions occur. Different functionalism in perception is basically object- individuals make different assumptions on the oriented, its methodology is object- and environ- basis of different past experience. ment-oriented. The organism is considered as a whole; neurophysiological questions are not con- 8.84 Behind all action there is a purpose. Perception attributes tothe environment sidered the proper object of psychological study. the characteristics which in the past have fur- As the organism operates on a probabilistic basis, thered best our purpose. Thus a world of func- statistics are considered to be an appropriate tional certainty is established and maintained as form for making statements about behavior. long as we can act purposefully in it. Purposeful (For additional data, see: E. Brunswik, "Or- behavior is directed to obtain subjective values ganismic Achievement and Environmental Prob- from the physical and social environment by ability." Psychol. Rev. 50, 255-272, 1943 ; and means of perception and action.The attention of "The Conceptual Framework of Psychology." Int. the student of perception is focused on this Encycl. Unif. Sci. Vol. I, Part 2, University of transaction going on between organism and en- Chicago Press, 1950.) vironment. (For additional information, see: F. P. Kil- patrick, ed., Human Behavior from the Trans- 8.8 Transactional Theory actional Point of View. Institute for Associated Research, Princeton, 1952 ; and W. H. Ittelson 8.81 Perception is not only a passive and H. Cantril, "Perception : A Transactional Ap- weighting of probabilities attached to object cues proach." Psychological Monographs, Doubleday but a dynamic transaction between organism and and Co., Garden City, New York, 1954.) 75 _

They are also often misperceived and may 8.9 Motivation Theory provoke emotional reactions before they are 8.91 The process of perception is deter- recognized. mined by structural and behavioral factors. As (For additional information, see : J. S. Bruner, structural determinants one defines the stimulus, and L. Postman, "Perception, Cognition, and Be- the effects of stimulation on the receptors, the havior," in Perception and Personality: A Sym- nerve cells, the sensory areas of the cortex, etc. posium. Bruner, J. S., and D. Krech, eds., Duke Most of them represent "wired-in" equipment of University Press, Durham, 1955.G. Murphy the individual for perception. Theories of per- and F. Hochberg, "Perceptual Development: ception based on these factors have been defined Some Tentative Hypotheses." Psychol. Review, as "formal." The behavioral determinants, on 58, 332-349, 1951.) the other hand, are said to be expressions of "higher-level" processes. They include "motiva- tiona2" agents such as: needs, drives, values (the- 8.10 Hypothesis Theory oretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, religious, etc.) tensions, interests, expectancies, de- 8.10.1 The fundamental idea of hypoth- fenses, emotions, attitudes, past experience, etc. esis theory is that perception and other cognitive Such factors may arise only temporarily or form processes work on the basis of hypotheses which a stable condition, which is called "personality." are confirmed or disproved by experience. The Whatever these words denote, they are said to organism adjusts to the environment by finding constitute a central "directive state." tentative hypotheses confirmed or by rejection of "false" hypotheses. If some percept, image, or 8.92 Theories of perception taking di- memory is attained which fits the expectations of rective state into account are called "functional." the hypothesis, the latter is said to be confirmed. "Formal" theories are criticized because they neg- If the data from the environment do not fit the lect these behavioral determinants.Structural expectations of the hypothesis, the perception of factors operate only as built-in limits of the nerv- the circumstances remains a hazy one. In this case ous system.They determine how far behavioral the organism tries another hypothesis. factors can influence perception. Whereas structural factors tend to produce veridical perception, 8.10.2 There is always a prior hypoth- motivational agents would have "distorting" ef- esis underlying perception, to which new infor- fects. In order to obtain these effects in an experi- mation is added. If the prior hypothesis has received much support by cognitive or motivational ment, "marginal conditions" are introduced in factors, a greater number of trials and errors will order to create some disadvantage for the func- be required to induce the organism to give it up. tioning of structural factors. 8.10.3 The concept of hypothesis is 8.93 Experimentation has shown some equivalent to the concept of set. Sets as hypoth- evidence for the following hypotheses : eses, are established by previous perception and 1. Needs, like hunger or thirst, influence per- may be almost at the threshold level when the new ception. stimulus is present. Sets also select and organize 2.If the perception of an object is coupled with the sensory information from the environment. reward or punishment, these factors de- Cues from the environment are used to confirm termine what is perceived, the magnitude of or reject hypotheses or to establish new hypoth- the perceived object and the speed of recog- eses. Sets, as hypotheses, are said to depend on nition. both central motivational and cognitive processes and the environment. 3. The value which an individual attaches to an object influences perceivedmagnitude 8.10.4 Confirmation or rejection of hy- (e.g., the same coin appears of different pothesis takes place according to the following size to a rich and a poor subject). Laws of covariation: 4. The personality of the individual influences 1. Strong hypotheses are more likely to arise his perception.Drive, autism, phantasy, than weak hypotheses because they require etc., are said to be personality characteris- less supporting stimulus information to be tics which determine the perception of confirmed. The inverse holds true for weak objects in key with those characteristics. hypotheses. 5. Words which have a threatening or disturb- 2. Strong hypotheses require a large amount ing connotation for an individual require a of contradictory stimulus information to be longer recognition time than neutral words. invalidated.The inverse holds true for individual and goal. Thisconnection need not weak hypotheses.Contradictory stimulus especially if the direct information is covariantwith hypothesis necessarily be the shortest, way isblocked by obstacles.The "locomotion" strength. alters the psychologicalfield such that allits of The strength of ahypothesis de- forces come into equilibriumin the point region 8.10.5 to the principles ofleast pends on how often ithas been confirmedin the the individual according past. The more oftenthis was the case, theless action and minimum of energy. stimulus information is necessaryto confirm it (For additional information, see :Kurt Lewin, Psychology, McGraw- later.Also, an isolatedhypothesis has more Principles of Topological strength than one that concursin the same per- Hill Book Co., NewYork, 1936.) ceptual situation withothers. In the competition of several hypothesesthe strongest one thatfits the information isconfirmed. 8.12 Learning Theories Some theories of perceptionhold 8.10.6 If a hypothesis has a strong mo- 8.12.1 tivational support it needsless positive stimulus that past experience, andhence "learning," play information to be confirmed,and vice versa, more an importantpart in perception.On the other information to be infirmed. hand, learning theorieshave claimed that percep- contradictory stimulus learning Thus reward andpunishment may strengthen a tion theory is asubordinate part of unpleasant emotions may theory. The two majorlearning theories involved hypothesis. Pleasant or Behavior lead to readier confirmation.Hypotheses instru- in this claim areHull's "Systematic mentally related to personalvalues are stronger Theory" and Tolman's"Sign-Learning Theory." instrumentality. than hypotheses without 8.12.2 1. The "SystematicBehavior This theory is based onthe If a hypothesis hascognitive sup- Theory of Learning." 8.10.7 of hy- experience with graduallystrengthened connec- port (that means, ispart of a larger system patterns and pertinent re- potheses related by a commonprinciple) it needs tions between stimulus be con- actions. Learning is said tobe an increase in "habit less pertinentstimulus information to a particular firmed and it will be moreunlikely to undergo strength," where habit strength means S-R linkage. Thisstrengthening is a consequenceof changes over time. trial is repeated information, see: L. Postman, "reinforcement." It occurs if some (For additional many timesand if the repetitionis accompanied Chap. 10 in: SocialPsychology at the Crossroads, drive. Learning is and by the reduction of need or J. H. Rohrer andM. Sherif, eds., Harper produced by providingthis reduction every time a Bros., New York, 1951.Allport, op. cit., pp. 375- "correct" response is given,by "rewarding" it 436.) systematically. Thus learningis an acquisition of a strong S-R patternthrough reinforced repetition. 8.11 Topological Theory 8.12.3 2. Sign - Learning -Theory. Ac- 8.11.1 According to the topologicalthe- cording to this theory,the organism acquires perception, each individualis surrounded knowledge in the form ofperceived and remem- ory of Pathways by a "phenomenologicalfield." This field consists bered means-to-an-endrelationships. experience about theworld in or tools toreach certain goals arerecalled. Cer- of the individual's environment are recognized general, the objects andhis own self. The forces tain objects in the field exert their pressure as signswhich stand for expectedgoal objects of this psychological There are three types ofrela- individual. He experienceshimself as mov- ("significates") . on the tionships which are recognized: ing ("locomoting")under their influence towards positive goals or awayfrom negative goals. The 1) Expected connectionsof primary goal ob- region of the psychologicalfield in which the jects to drive satisfaction. individual experiences himself asacting is called 2) An expected relationshipof some object in primary goal object. "life space." the environment to the 3) Sequential relationships amongevents in the 8.11.2 The life space containsbarriers environment arousing "fieldexpectancies" which block the direct accessto the goal. Certain (future objects and relations amongfuture maneuvers become necessaryto go around the objects). obstacles. By this maneuverthe life space is ("situations") .The life 8.12.4 Expecta- is here equivalent divided into sub-regions nay beconfirmed (or space is thusmade up by pathways whichconnect with a "hypothesis" whi 77 %Wmoslow

"learned") through successful achievement of the ception per se, but with the mechanics of S-R goal. What is learned in one situation may be connections. Given this framework, one can be "transferred" to other situations, in which the interested in perception only in terms of analyz- circumstances need not necessarily be identical. ing certain perceptual habits established through Motivational determinants (not reinforcement) reinforcement by means of rewarded perceptual are the forces behind learning. "Drives" produce performance. Perception may thus be conceived tensions and tensions lead to "demands." The as an (internal) response to an (external) stim- organism aims at direct drive reduction (primary ulus. demands) or at instrumental for driv3 reduction (secondary demands). 8.12.7 Some features of perception can well be interpreted in the terminology of Hull's 8.12.5 3. Learning Theories and Per- learning theory. Thus, "Attention," one of the in- , ception. Tolman's theory of sign-learning is related trinsic characteristics of perception, may be said to Gestalt theory and topological theory. The to constitute the "reaction potential" of the in- notion of behavioral and perceptual expectancy ternal response (perception). (hypothesis)is similar to the concept of perceptual set. Thus perception of "signs" in the (For additional information, see :E. R. Hil- "field" can be said to be a necessary aspect of gard, Theories of Learning, Appleton-Century- learning; learning is dependent upon perception. Crofts, New York, 1948; and R. L. Solomon and L. Postman, "Frequency of Usage as a Determin- 8.12.6. Hull's systematic behavior the- ant of Recognition Thresholds for Words." Jour. ory, on the other hand, is not concerned with per- Exp. Psychol. 43, 195-270, 1952.) 9. A Basisfor Decisions in Planning Communications

prepared by A. A.Luntsdaine

define your answers to thegeneral questions 9.1 Communication Goals and stated above. It also meanshow well you can Problems stateand answerthe map y specific questions that will arise when youraise these general 9.11 Here, let us review some ofthe questions in any specific situation one in which things you may need toconsider as a basis for you are going to tryto make an effective commu- decisions you face in planningand designing an nication. effective communication.There are decisions about the communicationgoals what you are 9.18 The specific things you getinto in trying to do ; about thequestions of when, why, answering these four general questionswill over- and what you may want todo to accomplish your lap, and answers to one setof questions will purpose ; andsomething about how you may go depend partly on how you'veanswered the others. about doing the job. We will assumethat you Nevertheless, it will be helpful toconsider each know the who: the audience you aretrying to of the general kinds of questions oneat a time. reach. 9.12 Four General Questions mustbe answered about communicationgoals. We will 9.2 Background for Planning decisions, and some consider four general kinds of 9.21 First, a few general points. There of the things you may needto take account of is nothing in the four questionsthat says anything in making them. specifically about VISUAL methodsof communi- 9.13 1. What is the need tobe met by cation, as such. This is notaccidental, because the communication you aregoing to make? these questions are the ones thatneed to be asked first about any form ofcommunication visual, 9.14 2. What are the types of commu- to reach? verbal, or other. They start,for the most part, nication goals you are going to try from the standpoint of whatyou're trying to ac- These might be to teach specificskills or infor- to do it. Most might be to persuade complish, not of how you're going mation, for example, or they often, the question of whatkind of visual com- your audience toaccept a new belief or adopt a munication tools you're going toemploy should new plan of action. not even be raised until youhave determined 9.15 3. What are the obstacles tobe what you're after. The ends haveto be considered overcome in reaching yourgoal ? These arise both first, then the meansincluding the visual from the nature of your audienceand your pur- means, if any.Otherwise, you're putting the cart pose, and fromlimitations of time, money and before the horse. other factors. 9.22 Planning a communication is some- 9.16 4. What are the specific outcomes thing like taking a trip. Youhave to decide, you need to attainin order to reach the general first, whether the trip is necessarywhat pur- goal you have set out to achieve?Here we have to pose it will serve(see question 1, above). Then get more specific about justwhat is to be com- you want to decidewhere you're going, before municated to whom, in whatsituation and by you're ready to consider theroutes you might what means. take, or what kind of vehicle youshould use, to get out by con- 9.17 How effective a communication there. The communicator who starts achieve will probably depend to a sidering the visual or other vehiclesof communi- you will finally decides what goals large extent on how well you answerthese ques- cation he might use before he tions. In part, this means both howclearly you he wants to reach is like the personwho worries 79 about what kind of a car he's going to drive before you don't, of course, youjust have to plunge in he has decided whether he needs to make a trip and do the best you can. Whenthat unexpected or where he is going. He mayhave fun driving, question is asked to which you have toreply on but he's not as likely to accomplish his purpose the spur of the moment, no one inhis right mind as if he'd asked the firstquestions first. When he would start out by spending mucfr timeasking, does, he may find that he didn't want to take a car "Now just what is the need to be met?What goals base. at all maybe he should have walked, or taken ..."? If he did, he'd never get to first a plane. 9.28 Just the same, though, the ques- for this 9.23 The specifics about what kind of tions can be useful in two ways, even communication vehicle you may want to use, after off-the-cuff situation. For one thing, you can you've decided just what you want to use it for, keep the questions in mind as you startto talk, will be dealt with later and in more detail. But and may want to switch your tack if, forexample, here we are concerned with defining what we may you decide that theproblem is really not what want to do as communicators, and notin any it first seemed to be on the surface. A man may detail at leastwith just how we are going to ask for information when what he reallywants do it. So the things we will discuss will not be con- is reassurance, for instance ; or your purposein cerned primarily with visual means of communi- giving him information may really be topursuade cating, or with specific means. Rather, we will him to adopt some action. In this case, youneed be concerned with the emls which such means can to cut the suit to fit the cloth : that is,select and be used to help achieve. interpret the information you give, notjust to answer the question as asked,but to meet the need 9.24 Once we have the ends we seek behind the question. clearly in mind and know the obstacles which we have to cope with in meeting them, the battle is 9.29 For a second thing, practicein half won. Until we do this or if we start out looking at and analyzing acommunication situa- worrying about the means before we have defined tion in some detail from the pointof view of our four questions, in those cases when youDO have the ends fully, explicitly, and in some detail in react- we are often licked before we have started.We time for advance planning, will help you may produce an interesting communication, but ing quickly and appropriately laterwhen you're faced with the off-the-cuff requirement.You'll not a useful one. We may enjoy the rideat before, in terms least for a whilebut unless we're luckier than have analyzed similar situations we deserve, we won't get where we need to go. of the kind of need to be met, thetype of person to whom you need to communicate,and so forth. 9.25 One final word before we consider So you'll have a better basis forbeing able to the four questions. Sometimes you may have react promptly and not "goofing,"because of that days, weeks, even months to plan a communica- prior practice. When time is short, youtake a tion. When this is so, detailed attention to the short cut, in other words but you're less likely four questions will not only be worthwhile in to trip up on the short cut if you'vesurveyed that terms of the payoff, but will usually be quite prac- kind of terrain in advance. tical, especially if you start planning early. 9.2.10 So, recognizing the need for 9.26 But sometimes things aren't like shortcuts in many situations, we are goingto try that at all. The communication may be one you to spell out detailed steps you cantake with couldn't anticipate and plan for an answer to a profit when time does permitwith two aimsin farmer's unanticipated question in a meeting or mind. First, to help you make betterconsidered "across the fence," for example. Then you have decisions in situations that allow for advanceplan- to answer "off the cuff," and maybe you won't ning; and second, to help provide a basisfor have time to even ask yourself the four questions, quick decisions on what to say (or show), andhow much, less try to figure out the answers for your- to do it, when you have to act on the spurof the self, before you have to start communicating! moment. 9.27 Two or three things are worth 9.2.11 Now, to turn to the first ques- noting about this kind of "impromptu" or off-the- tion deciding what is the need to be met. It cuff communication situation in relation to our sounds quite simple enough and sometimes it four questions. In the first place, you can only is. But often things are not quite what they seem do what you can do. The ideas for planning, sug- at first glance. In fact, probably morecommunica- gested by the four questions, will be helpful and tions fail by having a fuzzy or inaccuratenotion can keep you from making manymistakes when of what needs they are supposed to help meet you have time to think them outin advance. When than fail because they are poorly carried out.

80 you goalong, other times youhave to build it up 9.3 Defining the Problem: before you can start in on yourmain communica- What is the Need tobe Met? tion job. For instance, you maybuild interest as you go alongif your audience isalready physically build it Leforehandif you 9.31 1. The originof the problem. present; you need to all arise fromthe want to get them to comeout to a meeting, or Communication needs don't hear (and/ same origin. Theneed may, in fact,stem from into your office, totalk with you or to what your boss has told nuto do, from some or see) what youwant to communicateto them. by yourself, orfrom When you tell someoneface-to-face about a new idea you have dreamed up can giveimmediate some newpolicy or program that yournational, insect control measure, you state, or local governingagencies have initiated. attention to his reactionand you can adapt your On the other hand, it mayarise from a question message to meethis needs. However,if you must farmer or a homemaker gather an audiencefirst before you candeliver you've been asked by a have the or othercitizen, or from anynumber of other your messageabout the new control, you task of deliveringanother messagewhich im- sources. importance of the secondmajor mes- identify two presses the 9.32 It will be useful to sage uponpossible receivers. Ifthe need for the main kinds of origins,because some of theprob- communication arises from anindividual, you can lems these two pose forthe communicator are almost immediately answerhis question. If you different. The first mainkind of origin is the initiate the message, you mayhave to build an need for communicationcreated by you or your interest to obtain anaudience. boss, or some external agency.An example would be when you must reportthe discovery of a new 9.36 3. The realcommunication need insect control measure,when your boss wantsto may not beapparent at first.Another important explain a new policy tothe public, or whenthe factor will enter into ourdiscussion later but government wishes to advisefarmers on how they also ought to beconsidered here inrelation to might qualify for a support program. determining the need to bemet by a communica- aspects of this important origin is the tion. There are several 9.33 The second kind of point. need arising, so tospeak, from the audienceitself. They have a question or aneed for information 9.37 When the need orinterest arises that they are awareof and want help on.For in- from your client oraudience, he (or they) maynot stance, a group offarmers may wish help on have identified thenature of their needclearly to forming a cooperativeto sell their produce ; an begin with. They mayknow they wouldlike to individual farmer or home owner may want get some information,but may not knowquite to know how to seedhis lawn ; a homemaker may what informationthey are seeking.They may be want help on buying a newappliance. groping around, tryingto find out how toask the question that will expresswhat they want.You 2. Differencesthat depend on the certainly will 9.34 An im- may have tohelp them, and you kind of source withwhich you are dealing. want to be alert tomake sure that theirneed is portant differencebetween these two kindsof to be. Thissometimes takes this: In the second case,the really what it seems situations is simply skill and a certainamount of informal"talking audience already isinterested, and alreadywants be sure. But if youdon't Here around" before you can the information, orhelp you can give them. make pretty sure ofthe real nature ofthe need, your problem,though it may notnecessarily be communication from then on maybe what they need. most of your an easy one,is just to give them merely spinning yourwheels. But in the first case, youhave an additional job their need to to do before you arelikely to be able to meet 9.38 4. Sometimes you may need: That is, youhave to make them awareof play the main goaldown. Even when youhave the need, or arousetheir interest in what you originated the needfor the communication your- have to communicate.Of course, there are many self, or otherwisefeel clear aboutthe objectives ways of doingthis, but unless yourecognize the it needs to reach, you mayfind it better not to need to arouse interestin the first place,and do make a frontalattack. This isparticularly true something to accomplishthis effectively, your when your objectiveis to persuade ormotivate an communication is likely tobe unsuccessful, no audience, be it a group ora singleindividual. matter how good itis in other ways. Often, too direct anapproach may arouseresist- less direct begin- materials ance andantagonism, where a 9.35 Sometimes good visual in a position tomake your sometimes other devices arebetter ning may later put you may help, point. As AlexanderPope judiciouslyobserved, sometimes you may beable to build up interest as 81 communications may when you seek to persuade,"Men must be taught foundation on which later as if you taughtthem notand things un- build in order to meet theultimate need. known, proposed as thingsforgot."1 You've run 9.43 Two kinds of goals. We maythink across supervisorsoccasionally, perhaps, who sel- of several kinds of goals tobe reached by a com- dom will accept an idea of yoursunless somehow munication teaching skills, giving information, you've given them the notionthat they thought creating interest, changingattitudes, influencing of the idea first. It's trickyto accomplish some- people's behavior or beliefs, etc.At the outset, times, because the initiallyperceived need may however, we can divide theseinto two general not be in fact the real one ...sort of like the two classes : families from the same townback home who met Specific teaching of after touring Europe and theMiddle East. As 9.44 Class I. had been and other skills and essential informationthat someone they discussed places they wants to learn, and which hehas to put to families from home in Europe,the man of the first ?" active, specific use. In otherwords, training family asked :"Did you see the Dardenelles reasonable second husband, "Why, people to do a job that requires a "See them?" answered the degree of mastery of eitherknowledge or skill. we had dinnerwith them." 9.45 Class II.More general "edu- cating" of persons in terms ofinfluencing their Determining the GoalsYou attitudes, stimulating theirinterest; or satisfy- 9.4 ing their interests or curiosity,getting them to Want to Reach want to do something,persuading them to take that will much like a specificaction or to adopt beliefs 9.41 In a way this may sound lead them to a given kind ofaction later on. the first question determining the needs to be differ met. In a way it is,but this question does 9.46 The various kinds ofgoals are from the first one in twoimportant ways. First, grouped this way, into thesetwo general classes, we get morespecific here: we want todetermine because of differences inthe kinds of communica- just what to communicatein order to meet the tions that are needed toachieve them. One dif- needs we have identified.Second, the goals for ference is seen by consideringtwo functions of any givencommunication are not only more spe- giving information topeople. If the purpose is cific than the needs thatgenerate them; they may to teach them specificinformation they can re- also be more limited. member and use (Class I),detailed and complete probably repetition The general need may be,for ex- presentation is needed, and 9.42 and rehearsal of it, to insureit will be master-4 ample, better knowledgeof how to operate a But the same information farm effectively; but thespecific goal of a par- and retained in detail. be just one step for- might be given just tosatisfy people's curiosity or ticular communication may build interest (Class II) .In this case, it may not ward toward meetingthis goal. A specific goal master and rememberthe could be to teach a smallgrain farmer how to ad- be important that they avoid wasting a large per- information in much detail ;all we may need is just his combine to that they be made awareof the general area, to be centage of his harvest.This would include a communicators) know what series of even more specificcommunications to assured that we (the show the farmer how tomake adjustments on his we're talking about. machine, how to travel at aspeed most efficient, 9.47 The two classes differ,then, in and how to care for hisgrain by avoiding spoilage hew much mastery is needed.They may also dif- after harvesting. Thegeneral need might then be fer in how much learning orchange is feasible. made more apparent,that by harvesting effi- With reasonable skill andpatience we may teach ciently he makes more money;that by keeping his skills, nomenclature, formulas, oruseful facts, grain clean, he can avoidrestrictions or penalties so they willbe fully learned. Often,unless we can set forth by governmentpclicy on unclean grain. produce reasonable mastery, wehave failed com- Perhaps the goal for a givencommunication might pletely. A little knowledge mayindeed be a be only to get people tounderstand some of the dangerous thing when importantactions depend reasons behind apolicy. Rome was not built in a on reallyknowing ; a man who can halfdrive a day; our immediate goal maybe just laying a tractor may be worse offthan a man who can't do it at all. 1 Note that this does notnecessarily apply in fact the opposite may apply whenthe communication is the 948 But with goals of Class II, even a "teaching" of factual information orskills that the audi- slight change in the desireddirection may be help- ence wants tolearn. Here it is usually best tobe as be all it is reason- explicit as possible about what you aregoing to teach. ful and a slight change may

82 tied to someform Sometimes a training principles that are ordinarily able to expect to produce. of connected discourse,where "substancelearn- program, for example,cannot hope to teachall of responsesrather given subject-matter ing" or interchangeability the knowledge involved in a essential. if we are complete enoughin our than fixed terms are area. However, be in- coverage and can opendoors to greater interest 9.4.14 On the other hand, we may or develop acuriosity and need forfurther terested in teachingdirectly some kindof final knowledge, people often will seekadditional in- performance. This may,fourth, be a complex or formation. Sometimes people willdecide to search generalized skill as a notableexample, the use for knowledge by returningto formal classroom of concepts and principlesin such intellectual study. tasks as "trouble shooting,"diagnosing malfunc- tions in a piece of equipment, orother forms of 9.49 So our approach, and thedegree of completeness with which weshould expect to pro- problem solving. ceed toward the goals, candiffer greatly for the 9.4.15 Or, fifth, we maybe concerned two classes. with a specific, unitaryskill for a fairlyrestricted kind of act, such as the"sensory-motor" skills of 9.4.10 The next section considers some typewriting, driving a car, orthe use of hand tools. further aspecjs of the "ClassI" situation where someone wants tolearn something and we setout 9.4.16 In these five kindsof learning, to teach it ratherthoroughly. Then, in the sec- outcomes are discussedbriefly in relation to some tion after that, we willsimilarly analyze the of the characteristicsof communicationsthat "Class II" situation where all that is necessary, seem most importantfor attaining eachclass of or possible, is tomake some progress (as much as outcome. possible, to be sure) towardthe kinds of changes People to Identify in attitudes or knowledgethat we want to in- 9.4.17 1. Teaching Things (or "pairedassociates"). The teachingof fluence. identifications, and devicesused to assist inthis teaching, can, of course,be done eitherindi- Class I Goals vidually or in groups.Where practical,individual teaching can be greatlysuperior because of the 9.4.11 THE OBJECTIVES OFTEACH- fact that differentstudents learn atdifferent ING: When we start todesign any procedure or rates and requiredifferent kinds of help ;firm device that is to be used toteach people, we should mastery of identifications(so that "what goes deal first with two questions:What is the final with what") is thoroughlyenough learned to be human performance that wewant to attain? What remembered later when itis needed, unfortu- are the specifickinds of things thatneed to be nately, most oftenrequires repetition and re- learned to make thisperformance possible? For hearsal or practice sometimes quite a lot ofit. present purposes, we willdistinguish five main This is not easy to providein a group communica- kinds of teaching objectives. tion situation and your visualmaterials may other First, we may be concernedpri- often take the form ofmanuals, booklets or 9.4.12 materials that can bestudied intensively by the marily with the pervasivebut seemingly simple supervised drill is not prac- forms of specific verballearning that are easily learner if individual associates," or identical. Despite its obviousinefficiency, the group describable in terms of "paired method is frequently em- tifying such things as namesand faces, tools and lecture demonstration and prices, etc., etc. ployed for teachingidentifications (or, at least, their names, commodities for presenting themand hoping they willbe 9.4.12 Second, we may beinterested in learned). the learning of essentiallysequential patterns, Fixed Procedures in memorizing a 9.4.18 2. Following either verbal or non-verbal, as (information and responseelements) :Teaching prose passage, aprocedural list, or someseries symbolic or verbal of procedures mayinvolve two distinguishable of acts for which we want a elements. The first is a"stimulus input" element sequence to serve as amediating device. The fact or source ofprocedural instructions.The second that chemical fertilizerlabels indicate percent- set of "manipulanda" ages of nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium in is a response element or designated by nu- with which theprocedures can be practiced.Let that ordereven though the latter first. merals, as 10-12-10, is anexample of sequential us consider patterns. 9.4.19 Response elements. Foreffective have practice of proceduresthe student needs to have 9.4.13 Third, we may, for example, to make appropriate responses to deal with acquisitionof usable concepts and an opportunity 83 For many 9.4.24 Information elements. to the step-by-step 3equenceof instructions that stages of training,visual regardlessof whether kinds of tasks at early outline the procedure, demonstrations accompaniedby oral directions or these are given by amanual, an instructor(e.g., indispensable as aguide This explanation is virtually yourself,) or somespecial kinds of devices. of procedures bythe trainee. be provided by theequipment he is to initial following the may often with This aspect of theinstruction is, of course, learning to operate, thetools and materials in "communicating"skills how to build, cook, orother- first thing we think of which he is to learn or knowledge,but it has beengiven second place wise operate.Sometimes, however, ifthis would communi- otherwise unfeasible, you may in this discussionbecause the directioos be too expensive or cated are so oftenineffective unless piovision is want to providesubstitutes. made for direct practicein carrying outthese Parts of many procedures onex- directions promptly andaccurately. 9.4.20 only a pensive equipment canbe carried out with 3. Learningof Concepts and replica or mock-upof the equipment.Even a 9.4.25 principles are statedin replica may sometimesbe Principles. Since most simple photographic verbal form, "knowledge"of a principle maybe satisfactory whenthe responses arestraight- of being able to state or units. revealed either in terms forward and alreadylearned as individual forms and contexts, orbeing of the procedure maybe re-state it in various In this case the steps able to apply it to avariety of situations. complied with, for muchof the practice,simply by the oper- such surrogate responses as"pretending" to move 9.4.26 "The understanding" of a lever aboutthe right amount, ordoing a make- ation of a complexoperation or situation may re- believe flip of atoggle switch from upto down, quire concepts thatrelate a large numberof ob- or bysimulating the setting of adial and indicat- servable indications to alarge number of causes ing orally to whatposition it would beturned. that operate in onesituation. Since it may be represent all these com- Cheaper devices maybe better in difficult or impossible to 9.4.21 plex interrelationshipsthrough study and ex- teaching identificationsand proceduresin the objects or com- perience of the actualsituations, it often seems same way.Learning to identify desirable to teach a studentto represent andiden- ponents generallydoes not requirethe actual in drawings often will tify the componentaspects and relationships equipment; photographs or simplified (schematic orsymbolic) form. Often, obviously showsubstantially the samevisual dis- unsystematic fashion andthe Cost is brought outhere, this is done in quite play, and are cheaper. student must inefficiently"dig out" many of the for both identificationand proceduraltraining has himself each time he effects. Not only may use pertinent relationships for both direct and indirect needs them. of adequate surrogatesreduce total cost oftrain. ing ; the fact that manycopies of low-cost sub- 9.4.27 Elucidation of concepts andprin- stitutes (picture orinexpensive "face" mockup) ciples as applied to aparticular situation or a can be procured meansthat each student canhave piece of equipment isperhaps most frequently one, onwhich he can study orpractice identi- accomplished by acombination of lecture (or fications and sequencesfor as much time as "lecture-demonstration") andunsupervised in- needed for him to masterwhat he should learn. dividual study frommanuals or instructionbooks. equipment, or Visual aids in eithersituation may need to break 9.4.22 With expensive down the total instructioninto simpler aspects, other difficult to arrange"real-life" substitutions, confusion. Sub- student is limited ; the one at atime, in order to avoid the time availability per goals of communication arethen soughtone at a student then doesnot get enough workto master the task. Theimportance of thisconsideration time. is hard to overestimate. 9.4.28 4. Decision-MakingSkills. Even when a person hasmastered basic prerequisite The portions of aprocedure re- concerning a problem or 9.4.23 situations often com- knowledge and concepts quiring real equipment or system, teaching isoften required that willgive prise only a smallproportion of the stepsin a total involved simple "surface" mock-up may him actual practicein making decisions procedure. Thus a in choosing alternative coursesof action. For be satisfactory forpracticing nearly all ofthe complexity, skill in real equipmentbeing used situations of any degree of procedural steps, with making such decisionsfor diagnosis or trouble- only when required.This means that thenumber ability to formulate effi- real equipment, orrealistic shooting requires the of items of expensive cient strategies of action.This may call for ex- situations, required forpractice can be reducedby practice before satisfac- number of students at tensive opportunity for using a single piece for a isattained. For example, only the points whereit is primarily required. tory effectiveness

84 "troubleshooting" even extremely simple equip- above as distinct fromsituations where real ment such as an automobile ignition system, or a teaching is needed. It may be noted that anim- farm lighting circuit, may pose quite a formidable portant question in identifyingcommunication problem to the novice. goals that are to meet needs originated by the client is to determine when the need is for the 9.4.29 When such skills are the com- one and when for the other. munication goals, and individual practice in the real situation is not possible, simulated practice 9.4.33 We turn now to other main kinds with suitable visual aids films, charts, etc. of communication goals when the communicator's may often be helpful. Hereagain, though, the job seems better described as an attempt toin- be put may fluence rather than to teach. We will distinguish purpose to which such aids are to to greatly affect the kind of visual materialthat is several main types of goals that you may need needed. A chart or other visual aid designed to distinguish within this general class. As has been help teach procedures or nomenclature may be repeatedly stressed,identifying clearly which nearly useless for this kind of task. In any case, kind of thing you're trying to do (or need to do) having clearly in mind the specific kind of out- is not only the first step but often the mainstep come sought (in this case,developing diagnostic toward arriving at the basic decisions as to how to or problem-solvingactivities) will do much to meet the goals. structure both the visual and verbal components 9.4.34 1.Getting Attention of Your of the communication effectively. Audience: When individuals or a group comesto 5. Training of ManualSkills. you and have themselvesclearly identified the 9.4.30 needs your communication has to meet,this is, of Many of the simple and readily learnedmotor problem. But when skills required in carrying out procedures in oper- course, usually not much of a despite you have originated the needfor communication, ation or adjustment of equipment require, always the their ease, considerable exactness andprecision. getting the interest of your audience is Since much of the "feedback" in theperformance first and sometimes the hardest step. of these skills is often based on"feel," learning 9.4.35 Visual materials designed to get them is often best done through practicewith the someone to look, listen, attendshould be designed real equipment so as to providefeedback in terms for this one purpose. They need nGt necessarilybe of resistance pressure, felt locationand textures informative they need only arouse interest, and of surfaces, etc. Sometimes, however,isolated be such as to carry that interest overinto the equipment components (e.g., just a sparecarbu- specific actions of coming to hear and to see a etor, or piece of electric cable not the whole demonstration, film, or talk ; of getting a man to engine or appliance) can be used forthis pur- want to hear or see what you have tooffer; and pose with considerablegain in efficiency. the like. 9.4.31 For certain skilled acts, which 9.4.36 Notice this goal is never an end are performed inlocations that are difficult of in itselfit is only a means to anend. It may call access or imposesimilar difficulties, practice may for ingenuity, imagination andwork, but these be needed on the operationalequipment as in- no matter how successfulin getting the desired at- stalled operationally, and so mountedthat the tentionare useless unless there issomething to learner must practice coping withdifficult ma- follow them up. The latter maybe either some- neuvers or accomplishadjustments by feel on a thing that achieves one of thespecific kinds of component that is not visible. It is clearhere that teaching goals discussed above, orit may be a "visual" communication may not fillthe bill. visual/verbal communication designed toproduce When this is so, of course, the thing todo is to some one of thekinds of changes discussed below. use what willfill the bill. Once again, it's an accurate analysis of the ends what needs to be 9.4.37 2. Changing People's Attitudes. communicated or learned that should deter- Attitudes are of great importanceprimarily be- mine what means visual or other are used. cause they canstrengthen or weaken the likelihood that some desired action will betaken. The action desired may be voting,attempting, plant- ing a given crop schedule, donating money, sup- Class II Goals porting a particular person's policies, or anyof an actions. 9.4.32 COMMUNICATION FOR IN- almost infinite variety of other desired FLUENCING SOMEONE. Thecommunication of In building favorable attitudes as astep toward information where the purpose ismerely to sat- desired action, an important question is :How isfy or build interest or curiosityhas been noted soon? and How specific? is the action tobe taken. 85 9.4.42 As the campaign progresses,re- 9.4.38 a. Imediat e predispositions. document at each closely akin to that of ferring back to such a planning Here the problem is quite new step of the way mayhelp to keep the indi- building up interest, exceptthat instead of having ends in them- and get attention, the vidual small steps from becoming only to overcome apathy selves and to insure thatthey contribute tothe communicator may have to tryto eliminate some find our- initial negative bias on thepart of his audience. long range goal. Otherwise, we may selves in the position manyuniversities have had: The means for doingthis will always depend campaign, relying bias to be overcome. they planned an appropriation largely on the nature of the individual conferenceswith This bias may be, forexample, the attitude that to great extent upon his stuff, that he is legislators, news articles,profusely illustrated the speaker doesn't know publications telling the story ofthe university and impractical and not hi touchwith the audience's appropriations are made, real problems, that he isconceited, that his topic its needs. Then, when the audience is all too frequently the fundsnot only are less than does not bear on the problems in previous years but carrywith them criticisms really interested in. for spending so much money on"public relations." There is no sure or uniformrule 9.4.39 9.4.43 3. SpecificBehavior Changes for how to overcome suchinitial undesirable at- (immediate commitment).The importance of im- titudes. The most definitething that can be said mediate commitment to a courseof action is well is that the way to overcomethem will most often recognized by revivalistsand "sign on the dotted become clearer if oneknows his audience in line" salesmen in business.The point to be made the sense of knowing(not just guessing) what here is that if one builds up afavorable predis- their initial biases really are.Sometimes this is position but then fails toprovide opportunityand all too apparent, but quiteoften it is not apparent encouragement forimmediately translating it at all. In the latter case,considerable preliminary into action, his audience may"cool off" or become exploration by informal interviewsto sound out distracted by other matters,and the potential the audience's feelings andprejudices (either by effect of a highly persuasivecommunication can the communicator himself orby someone who is thereby be largely or entirelywasted. helping him) may be of crucialimportanee, 9.4.44 4. Sustained BehaviorChanges. specific changes in at- The other general kind of imme- Perhaps even more than 9.4.40 titudes and behavior for themoment, people in diate predisposition that is ofimportance can bet- most concerned of situations where educational work with adults are ter be considered in terms with achieving changes inattitudes and skills that some immediate actionis desired (see below). will last for long periods oftime. The philosophy for later of "helping people to helpthemselves" contains 9.4.41 b. Developing attitudes result of a learn- payoff. Often it isn't theimmediate effect that the implied objectives that as a building of a foundation ing experience people willbecome more self-re- counts, but rather the liant, will be able to developcriteria for making of attitudes or convictions onwhich later action develop initiative grad- their own decisions, and will can be based.Sometimes this must be done for seeking out information ontheir own. ually over a long period oftime, and attempts to go too farall at once may beself-defeating. A 9.4.45 Once the teacher hasdetermined case in pointwould be attempts tointegrate in his own mind whatsustained behavior changes first, the immediate he desires on the partof the people, his next step schools at Little Rock. At prerequisites for this. In so do- effect was opposition, evenviolence. Two years is to analyze the without serious ing, he will most likelyfind that the problem is later, the schools were integrated persuasion. While it may be disagreement. Again, leavingaside the difficult greater than one of necessary to getpeople interested, they willnot and crucial question of spec'lie techniques of per- unless they have the "here the import- continue to perform an act suasion, we want to empf size skills to do so, have theinformation necessary, ance of clearlyformulatirtg the nature of the at- rewarding in some tangible need to be built and find the doing titudes and predispositions that way. up. In a long-term campaign of gaining acceptance for a proposedchange it is easy to get side- 9.4.46 Consequently, instructionalplans tracked and lose sight of the eventualgoal. For for sustained behaviorchanges need to include a plan of campaign is wide range of activities andproblems, from those this reason, a written-out through the mechan- often important.This plan can spell out the meant to provide motivation then list sub- ics of followup. Frequently,it will be necessary eventhal goal to be attained and can of behavior goals or cumulative partial changes. to brief learners on the consequences

86 changes and how these can be interpreted and a complete teaching situation, but areonly ad- used. For instance, unless the farmer has been juncts to teaching. For this reason, it is often told that the anticipated yield increases from the difficult to control the effects they will have. use of new fertilizer also depend upon normal 9.57 Moreover, even in terms of stimu- rainfall, his initial use of the fertilizer in a dry lus properties, most visual materials, excluding year quite likely will be his last. At the same sound films, represent only an incomplete frag- time, the credibility of the person or organization ment of the total communication stimulus pattern. who recommended he use it will tumble. Planned In thinking about their contribution, one must followup helps avoid such difficulties, or lessens consider them in conjunction with other elements their impact when the consequences of the change of communication, particularly the instructor's are not what was expected. commentary, and the ways he uses them. Only the latter provide the factors of progression and pacing which make them anything other than a 9.5 Obstacles to Reaching Goals static, isolated, and often irrelevant fragment of the total situation. 9.51 Communication strategy requires careful analysis of the obstacles to the goals. 9.58 Visual materials for lectures are While the obstacles might be organized or cate- sometimes c'assified into these three categories: gorized in a variety of ways, we review them Models or "hlock-ups" using actual equipment or briefly here in terms of personal, situational, and model components, interconnected to function content aspects. more or less as they do in anoperational installa- tion ; transparencies and similar devices such as 9.52 1. Personal Obstacles. These are slides, using optical projection of transparent found in both the source of the communication photographic representations; wall charts, using and the receiver, and include such major items as photographs, drawings of system components, the knowledge each possesses, their attitudes, diagrams of their meter connections and func- their communication skills, and the social-cult- tions, etc.Certain characteristics more or less ural context in which each is located. These items specific to these devices are worth considering: are discussed at length in the section on the "S-M-C-R" model. (Chapter 4.) 9.59 Mock-ups or Models (3-dimensional aids). One advantage claimed for such de- 9.53 2. Situation and Resource Ob- vices is that they can show such things as actual stacles. Every person who plans communication system function. Often this characteristic is not or educational efforts will recognize the limita- employed in actual classroom instruction, or not tions of budget, time, and place. Rarely do we for more than a few seconds per hour. In some have all the money, or time, or physical facilities instances the noise produced by operating the to do what we think would be most satisfactory. equipment prevents the instructor from showing Consequently, we must do the best we can with much of anything except that the system does, what we have, bearing in mind the size of our sure enough, "work"a conclusion that the audience, the competition for their time and at- student might reasonably be asked to take on tention from others, and the adequacy of the in- faith.In addition, the cost of such devices is structional materials available to us. great. Accordingly, it is difficult to recommend 9.54 Assuming that the communicator the large sums that such devices often require, with any experience at all can wrestle fairly well particularly in view of the fact that the functions with most of the situation and resource obstacles, of visual display for which they are in fact pri- we will concentrate on some basicconsiderations marily used can often be served as well or better relating to selection and use of instructional ma- by much less expensive forms of classroom train- terials. ing aids. 9.5.10 The exception to this rather 9.55 Too often, we fail to recognize the strong indictment of such devices lies, of course, fragmentary nature of the stimulus provided by in those cases where students can usefully per- various training devices. We need to distinguish form actual practice work with them. Such de- between visual aids and such media as sound vices are frequently used as visual aids for films because of the incompleteness of the stim- lecture presentations in non-operating conditions, ulus situation represented by most materials. though with intact elements of operational equip- 9.56 Visual materials for group in- ment functionally interconnected. In other words, struction make no explicit provision for student the teacher sets up the machine but never turns response and feedback. Thus, they never provide it on. The advantage of such a three-dimensional

87 charts an replica can be seriously questioned, ascompared poor roomventilation give the wall to realistic depiction by meansof photographic advantage. charts or transparencies.Its most appropriate 9.5.15 3. Content Obstacles.Nature of use is inconnection with procedural training. the material to be communicated,the skill to be affects ma- Transparencies (projected aids). learned, or the concept to be grasped 9.5.11 terially the job of the communicator.Much of These are used with a standard,general-purpose been implied in transparency projector. This projects aseries of what is involved here already has the previous discussions ofpersonal and situa- transparencies providing much the samekind of content obstacles, Considerable tional obstacles. To identify the display as the animated panel. the communicator needs toraise a good many flexibility and variation of depictionin such these: transparencies can be obtained by using multiple questions, among which might be overlays or differential illumination of compon- How new will this informationbe for my ents or pathways. As compared withmock-ups or audience? Have they ever heardabout this models, the transparencies are also far lighterand before? What do they already knowabout it? more convenient to use, aswell as much cheaper How complex is this process,this skill, this and faster to produce. In view of the manyad- concept? Is it similar tosomething people vantages of transparencies, the cost andtime re- are already doing?How does it differ? quired to design and construct mock-upsand How much will people need toknow to make models seems difficult to support oneconomic the changes that I want? Howlittle need grounds especially in instances where the kind they be told? Is there a dangerin giving of display produced by differentialillumination them more information than is reallyneeded? actually serves a useful training function. What does what I propose meanto people in their own operations: A changein materials 9.5.12 Wall charts (2-dimensional aids). an One of the disadvantages .of a"total" display is and equipment? A change intechnique that so much material is presentthat a student improved practice? An innovation,involving may be distractedfrom focusing his attention changes in materials, equipment,techniques, most effectively on a particularaspect. A study and resources? A change inenterprise? by Aukes and Simon (1957), forexample, showed How well do I really understandthis myself ? that somewhat better learning wasobtained in Can I really discriminate intelligentlyuntil I a lecturedemonstration with an "add-a-part"dis- know more about this? play in which various subassemblies wereadded to the display as they becamerelevant to the accompanying exposition presented bythe instruc- 9.6 Define Specific Outcomes tor. Such a display, also,shares with projected transparencies the further advantage thatdif- 9.61 Steps in the communicationplan- ferent forms of depiction can be used as appro- ning process, if carried out asimplied here, either priate. begin with or conclude by thecommunicator's defining for himself the specificoutcomes he 9.5.13 For example, a series of charts seeks for his audience : What does he want can be used totrace physical as well as functional them to do? How does he expectthem to be dif- interconnections and teach locations.On the other ferent? What kind of behavioralsteps, in se- hand, a close-up such as a cut-aw,tydrawing can quence, does heanticipate? What, in a sense, will be used when it is desired tofocil athntion on be 'the initial and terminaloutcomes? details of appearance orconstruction. Often this observed by more than 9.62 Communication, when planned detail could not readily be its starting point one or two personsat a time in a class viewing from this point of view, takes as model of actual equipment. where the people are .now in termsof knowledge, a mock-up or attitudes, interest, abilities, andthe like.The 9.5.14 It can be argued that the flexible communicator selects his messagecontent, his use of lectureaids in the form of transparencies communication code, his treatmentand trans- or wall chartshas an advantage over otherforms mitting channels accordingly.He stakes out in of displays, and should be givenserious attention advance certain sub-goals orcheckpoints so that in competition with other moreexpensive and he has some evidence he issucceeding or failing cumbersome teaching aids. Because of theirmuch and some indication of why either maybe happen- greater flexibility and ofter superiorconvenience ing. All of the communicator'sactions are taken and durability, transparencies are oftenprefer- in a framework of analysis andevaluation ; the able to wall charts, except where suchfactors as visual aspects of the situation areonly a part.

88 9.63 Any attempt to consider visual aids learning to identify individual components or alone as elements in an instructional or other com- objects, realistic depictions, through display of munication situation reminds one of the com- actual objects, or realistic drawings or photo- ments made by the late H. L. Mencken concern- graphs, are often indispensable. However, simpli- ing painting, which he irreverently characterized fied representation, using symbols and lines, has as the "one-legged art" and contrasted indi- been demonstrated by Swanson, Lumsdaine and vidously with other arts (such as music) in terms Aukes (1956) to be superior in explaining func- of its lack of any pacing and progression. "The tional interconnections of a system. Apparently, trouble with painting," said Mencken, "is that it the simplified representation of components per- lacks movement....The best a painter can mits focus of attention on the interconnections hope to accomplish is to fix...the momentary by eliminating distracting cues present when the aspect of something....The work that he pro- components are realistically portrayed. duces is comparable to a single chord in music, without preparation or resolution." 9.8 Active Student Response 9.64 Because of their static character and the fragmentary nature of the instructional 9.81 Some of the disadvantages of lec- stimulus they provide, it is obvious that the ef- ture-demonstration instructioncan bepartly fectiveness of graphic aids or mock-ups in the offset, with demonstrable gains in effectiveness, classroom or lecture hall will depend largely on if provision is made for active student response other factors especially the instructor's presen- during the class instruction. The latter should be tation. For this reason, the amount of variance designed to serve much the same functions of in total effectiveness that the devices may account quizzing, rehearsal, check!.iz and correction as for is hard to predict, or to assess.This can in the case of teaching machinez through the usually be done only for the total communication advantages of individual student pacing is neces- including visuals not just for the visuals sarily lacking (Lumsdaine, 1958). alone. 9.82 Such student participation exer- 9.65 Further, the graphic aid may, in cises are well worth consulting by those who wish fact, account for relatively little variance when to improve the effectiveness of visual aids in used in the classroom. A widely-citedexperiment classroom instruction.The available evidence by R. A. Swanson showed no differencein the suggests that such methods can contribute ap- effectiveness of several types of classroom train- preciably to student motivation in a classroom sit- ing aids (including both 2-dimensional aids and uation, relieving boredom and inattention, but mock-ups).Of primary interest here is the fur- that their primary contribution is the direct ther fact that a later comparison with acontrol effects of the practice that is provided on the group, which receivedonly the more or less stand- learning of specific material. ardized accompanying lecture without any visual aid,s at all, failed to show any measurable contribution for any of the visual aids used. That is, 9.9 Preliminary Tryout all gains in information measured, with the tests employed, were attributable to the oral component 9.91 Often a tryout of a preliminary of the instruction. However, this experiment may form of a training device may pay large dividends in improving subsequent devices. Doing this will show in part that it is difficult to devise tests often result in clarification of many errors, mis- that assess the contribution made by visual mate- conceptions, or failures of comprehension which rials. It is clear both on grounds of common sense would otherwise go unnoticed but which, once de- and of subsequent evidence that we cannot reason- tected by such a technique, can be readily recti- ably suppose that nothing at all was really con- fied by modifying the device or the presentation. tributed from the visual aids used in this experiment, as was made clear by a later experiment 9.92 Trying out a preliminary version reported by Swanson, Lumsdaine and Aukes. of a device with sample groups of even a few students will often result in great improvement of thefinalproduct.Tryout of a preliminary 9.7Simplification and Realism "breadboard" mock-up is, of course, standard procedure for detecting deficiencies and improving 9.71 One important factor in the design design to obtain better equipment functioning. of displays is the kind of depiction employed to Unquestionably, it would be beneficial to extend represent components and interconnections. For this rationale to the development of almost all

89 and may have in order to improvethe ing supervisors and administrators, training devices also relatively little to do withthe effectiveness of a output of such devices asmeasured in terms of the amount of learningresulting from their use. device for training. Doing so will generallyshow that the payoff is 9.93 In any case, theimportance of spe- in the sequenceof ideas, associations, response cial gimmicks anddisplay features designed pre- opportunities, andsimilar factors and not, sumably to enhancemotivation can easilybe primarily, in the slicknessof the device in terms exaggerated. Indeed, sometimeswhen an attempt up" of fancy displays,realism as such, artisticrender- to provide these takesthe form of "fancying Slickness may possibly the device, distractions mayresult which can ing, or chrome trimming. attention to the es- have some effect onacceptability to students and interfere with the student's (though this has sential learning task, andthus can have an ad- their consequent motivation learning rather than abeneficial never beenclearly demonstrated). Morelikely, its verse effect on major effect may simply bein impressing train- one.

90 10.Research in Audio-VisualCommunication

prepared by John Oliver Cook

a favorable attitudetoward publications of the 10.1 Communication Department of Agriculture, though we may not be of 10.11 One thing that all communica- interested in his retaining any particular piece tions have in common is learning. Learningis knowledge about these publications, except per- the modification of behavior as the resultof some haps where to obtain them. In still other cases, prior experience. It excludes only those modifica- as when we are explaining howto use a particular tions that are due to such things as aging, fatigue, piece of equipment, we may want the audience and physiological adaptation. Learning isin- to retain detailed information.Retention is not volved whether we are expounding thebenefits a problem that can bereadily separated from of contour plowing, explaining the second lawof learning; in general those things that promote thermodynamics or yelling at someone to get them better learning also improve retention. The core out of the path of an oncoming car.Regardless of the problem is still learning. of what might be the remote aim of these or any other communications, if the communications do not modify subsequent behavior, then the com- 10.2 Essentials of Learning munications will fail to achieve all of their pur- 10.21 Fundamental issues in the area of poses both immediate and remote. learning are still a matter of dispute among 10.12 Since the modification of be- psychologists. Some called "Contiguity Theor- havior is so central to the process of communica- ists" assert that what we learn are connections tion, we can approach communication as a between particular stimuli and separate move- problem in learning. Just as the purposes for ments. Motivation and reward areheld to be which we wish learning to occur may be many and irrelevant to the learning process. Another group various, so the particular thing we wish tobe of psychologists, called "CognitiveTheorists," learned may vary. To pick examples from the maintain that what we learn are cognitions, that extremes of the learning continuum, we may want is, relationships among stimuli. We can learn someone to learn to recitethe multiplication table, these cognitions without the benefit of either or to have what wefeel is a sensible attitude to- motivation or reward ; however, we will not act ward science or his fellow man. Learningis in- on the basis of ourcognitions unless we are both volved in both of these cases, and in all the cases motivated and rewarded. in between. 10.22 A third point of view, and the one 10.13 Learning is not confined to the that will be adopted here, has atleast as many acquisition of facts. It also includes the formation adherents as either of the other twoand perhaps of attitudes, beliefs and otherimplicit responses more. It is called"reinforcement theory." Ac- that mediate overt behavior. In some casesthe four essentials of communicator is interested in immediate action, cording to this view, there are and not in retention. When someone is indanger learning, namely, drive, cue, response and reward. and we yell, "Look out !", we are interestedin If any one or more of these isabsent, learning evoking an immediate avoidance response,but will not occur. Neal E. Miller (1957)describes we are notinterested in whether at some future these four fundamental factorsof teaching- date the person can reproduce the stimulus situa- learning as follows : tion or his response to it. In other cases we may the student must want but "Drive (motivation) be interested in the retention of an attitude something. not in the retention of any specific bit ofinformation. We may, for example, want a farmer tohave Cue (stimulus) he must noticesomething. 91 live dialogue version even ex- Response (participation) he must do some- were shown the pressed somewhat greater interestin the subject thing. matter of the film than thoseshown the narra- Reward (reinforcement) he must get some- tion version. However, the amountlearned from thing he wants." the narration version wasgreater than the amount learned from the livedialogue version. Except for some special problems ofvisual perception, most of the availableinformation on audio- 10.34 These experimental findings sug- visual learning can be organizedaround these gest several conclusions : (a)interest in a film is four factors. not the same as interest inthe subject matter of that film, (b) the amountof interest in a film does not predict the amountthat will be learned 10.3 Drive from it, and (c) as a rule,technical slickness does not increase the amountlearned from a film. 10.31 Of these four important factors, 10.35 Extrinsic Motivation. Experi- we know lessabout the role of drive in audio- motivators as praise, visual communication than about anyof the other ments using such extrinsic of this reproof, and announcingthat a test will be given three. Everyone concedes the importance of the audio-visualdemonstra- variable, but no one seems to knowmuch about at the conclusion tion have yielded somewhatcontradictory results. how to manipulate it to theadvantage of the 1953) testing the effect learning process. On most of the issuesin this An experiment (Kimble, findings to date are de- of praise and reproofof students' performances area the experimental on a testcovering the preliminaryphases of an cidedly ambiguous. They suggestrather strongly praise and reproof of some import- instructional topic found that that the motivational variable is had no significant effect onsubsequent test per- ance inaudio-visual demonstrations, but they before the adminis- indicate with equal convincingness that we are formance on material learned tration of praise and reproof.On material learned still in the dark about how to use it. after the administrationof praise and reproof effects. The re- 10.32 The Interest and "Liking"Factor. there were, however, significant One issue that seems tobe fairly well settled is proved group scoredhighest, the praised group that whether one likes anaudio-visual demonstra- next and theno-incentive-comment group lowest. interested in it for its own tion, or whether one is 10.36 Another experiment(Levine) sake, is not related to the amount onelearns from manipulated the strength ofmotivation of dif- it. One experimenter(Vandermeer, 1950) studied ferent groups of Air Forcebasic trainees by the effect of two versionsof a film on personal giving them differentinstructions. The high mo- hygiene upon subsequent personalhygiene be- tivation group was told thatlearning the mate- havior such as washing one's handsafter going to rial in the film would beof great importance to the toilet, purchasing atoothbrush, etc. One was them. For the low motivation groupthis instruc- a straight lecturefilm and the other was what has tion was omitted. Of the35 test questions that been described as "a jazzed-upversion with folk were asked atthe conclusion of thefilm, 10 of music in elaborate Hollywoodstyle." Both ver- these questions werepracticed by the audience sions apparently produced somechange in per- during the showing of thereview portions of the sonal hygiene behavior, andboth versions were film and 15 questions werenot practiced. The about equally effective.Increasing the interest results of the experimentshowed that under the in the film as such did not seemto put its message low motivation conditionsignificant gains were across moreeffectively. achieved on both the practicedand non-practiced significant gains Another experimenter (Twyford, items. Under high motivation, 10.33 practiced items. 1951) found a negativecorrelation between how were found only on mftch students liked afilm and how much they 10.37 Some writers (Miller, 1957 ;Hov- actually learned from it. The morethey liked it land, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield,1949) hold that the less they learned fromit, and vice versa. An- announcing that a test will begiven improves the other experiment (May &Lumsdaine, 1958) used amount learned from anaudio-visual demonstra- two versions of a film whichpresented a scientific tion. However, the experimentalfindings on this explanation of the seasons of the year.One ver- point are by no means clear-cut.Two experiments sion of the film had a livedialogue, while the (Michael, 1951 ; Michael &Maccoby, 1954) have other version had narration.Fifth grade school failed to find that a pre-demonstrationannounce- students tended to prefer the livedialogue version ment of a test makes anysignificant difference the demonstration. more than thenarration version, and those who in amount learned from 10.38 Motivational Effects Upon Subse- with a sound film strip demonstration of safety quent Behavior. While we know something about measures. The motivating film strip presumably the effect of audio-visual demonstrations upon the produced some anxiety in the audience, thus in- amount learned from the demonstration we know creasing the drive. This might be expected to in- relatively little about its motivational effects up- crease the amount learned from thedemonstra- on subsequent behavior. It has been found (May tion of safety measures. However, it failed to do & Lumsdaine, 1958) that showing a film version so.It produced no discernable effect on either of a novel does not induce pupils to withdraw the learning or performance on the examination that novel from the library. However, showing inter- followed the safety demonstration. esting filmed episodes from a novel did increase the number of pupils who withdrew the book from 10.3.12 Another experiment (Feshback the library. But when they were tested over the & Janis, 1951) concerned itself with the anxiety content of the book (Stevenson's Kidnapped) people have about dental health. Here, in connec- only the boysnot the girlsachieved test tion with a film on proper care of the teeth, three scores reliably indicating that they had actually groups of experimental subjects were shown a read some of the book. However, some of the girls film which featured close-up shots of decaying may have read the book, but not found it as inter- teeth and diseased gums. Three versions of the esting and memorable as the boys did. horror film were produced: one designed to evoke a high degree of anxiety, one a medium degree of 10.39 Another piece of evidence comes anxiety and one a very mild degree. from the previously-cited experiment by Vander- meer (1950) who found that an audio-visual 10.3.13 Ordinarily, one would expect demonstration did have some subsequent effect on that the higher the drive, the greater the amount personal hygiene behavior.In summary, the of learning, but the greatest amount of learning scanty experimental results do suggest that audio- that was achieved here was achieved by the visual demonstrations may have some fairly long- medium anxiety group. Apparently the low anx- lasting motivational effects, but we know too little iety group did not have enough drive. The about motivation in this area to enable us to use medium anxiety group had more drive, and they it with consistent effectiveness. learned something that reduced their anxiety, namely, how to take care of their teeth and thus 10.3.10 Building Motivation into Audio- prevent the awful consequences that they had Visual Demonstrations. Attempts to increase the just seen pictured. The high anxiety group had a effectiveness of audio-visual demonstrations, great amount of drive, and they also learned, but usually training films, by "personalizing" the they learned something that would reduce their message or by splicing in a motivational sequence anxiety even faster : they learned not to pay at- have usually failed. A group of experimenters tention and not to think about their teeth at all. (Beck, Van Horn, & Gerbner, 1954) presented to While this did not do their teeth any good, it did two large groups of high school students two ver- reduce their anxiety. sions of a10-minute teaching filmentitled Heredity. Version A stressed the significance of 10.3.14 This finding illustrates an im- the subject for the understanding of human af- portant point. A strong drive is an uncomfort- fairs and made personal references to the viewer able thing, and anything that reduces that drive as "you." Version B was quiteimpersonal. The is rewarding. People tend to do whatever will re- amount learned from the two versions was not duce that drive most quickly. The behavior that significantly different. will reduce the drive most promptly is not always the behavior the communicator wants the aud- 10.3.11 Another experiment (Peterman ience to learn. To generalize we can say that the & Bouscaren, 1954) on 3,968 basic airmen failed threat of punishment for ignoring a warning is to show that a "motivational" introductory se- an unreliable motivator, sinceit may produce quence significantly increased the amount learned sufficient fear to cause forgetting, not only of the from a film on Reading Meter Scales. In another threat of punishment, but of the warning itself. study (Kendler, Kendler, Desiderato, & Cook, 1953) an attempt was made to increase the amount learned from an audio-visual demonstra- 10.4 Cue tion of safety measures that one could take to reduce the likelihood of injury in automobile acci- 10.41 Introductory Sequences.At- dents. As a motivator, a full color film strip with tempts to improve learning by manipulating sound accompaniment picturing the gory results stimulus conditions have generally met with more of automobile accidents was shown in connection success than those that try toachieve the same 93 end by influencing the motivational variable. In- distributor. Prior familiarization with the parts asmuch as it seems so reasonable tk. expect that and prior familiarization with the parts and their introducing an audience to the subject matter of names were both found to be reliablysuperior to audio-visual demonstration should increase the no familiarization with respect to (a)the number amount that they learn from the demonstration, of errors in selecting the parts, (b) the number it is rather surprising to find that experiments on of errors in assembling the distributor, (c) the introductory sequences in audio-visual demonstra- length of time required for selection, and (d) the tions have met with mixed success and failure. time required for the actual assembly. Interest- Studies of methods of film utilization reported by ingly enough, with regard to the selection time, Hovland, Lumsdaine and Sheffield (1949), by prior familiarization with the parts proved to be Wittich and Fowlkes (1946) and by the Austral- significantly better than prior familiarization ian Office of Education (1950) indicate that an with the parts and their names. This latter find- introduction increases the amount learned from ing corroborates the earlier results of Jaspen films. (1948), who found that requiring the audience to learn technical nomenclature of the parts did not 10.42 However a study by Lathrop improve performance on an assembly task. (1949) got conflicting results, using three films with and without an introduction. For two of the 10.46 These two findings with regard films the version with an introduction proved to be to nomenclature suggest that people have indi- slightly superior ; however, for the third film, the vidual ways of symbolizing objects to themselves. version without an introduction yielded higher They make implicit perceptual responses to the learning scores. In a similar study by Norford objects they may even apply names to them (1949) using three other films, small differences that are at variance with the correct technical were found in favor of the versions whichin- nomenclature, but which are quite effective in cluded the summaries. Only one of these differ- guiding their selection of parts. Perhaps requir- ences was statistically significant. The previously ing them to learn correct technical names inter- mentioned massive experiment by Peterman and feres with these implicit symbolization responses. Bouscaren(1954)using a "motivational"sequence, a "familar example" sequence and an 10.47 In spite of the contradictory re- "essential steps" sequence to a film on Reading sults that experiments have turned up, the find- Meter Scales showed that any one or any combina- ings suggest that at least one tentative conclusion tion of these three introductory sequences failed about introductory sequences may reasonably be to increase significantly the amount learned from drawn, and that is that introductions are more the film. likely to be helpful if they are specific to the learning task, that is, if they familiarize the 10.43 An experiment by Weiss and Fine audience with some aspect of the task to be (1955) points a way toward the effective use of learned; if they preview the material and thus introductions to audio-visual d em ons tr a tions. provide the audience with an additional practice They showed a sound film strip on the structure trial; or if they provide an opportunity to learn and functions of the UN to two groups of high important cues that will later guide performance school students.One group was given prior during the learning of the task. This cue-learning familiarization training on the key terms in the is likely to be effective if it does not interfere film strip, and this group learned reliably more with some reliable, previously learned cues. from it than the group that was not given prior familiarization training. 10.48 Relevant Cues (Cues That Di- rect). Since we are operating under the assump- 10.44 An experiment by Wulff, Shef- tion that learning consists in the attachment of field and Kraeling (1954) used a film on the selec- responses to stimuli, the importanceof relevant tion and assembly of parts into an automobile dis- cues can hardly beoverestimated. In most every- tributor. They found that prior familiarization day learning situations, and certainly in audio- training, either on film or employing the actual visual demonstrations, stimuli are not lacking. parts, reduced the number of errors in the selec- On the contrary, there are a great many stimuli, tion of parts. In assembling the parts once they but not all of them are relevant; that is, not all of were selected, the filmfamiliarization group made them furnish reliable cues to guide the learning of fewer errors than the actual parts familiarization the task. An audience confronted for the first group, even though the latter grouphad handled time with the picture of a milling machine is over- the parts during the familiarization training. whelmed by the variety of knobs, handles, wheels 10.45 In another experiment, Wulff and buttons that it sees, but not all of these parts (1954) again used the assembly of an automobile have to be attended to in learning to operate the

94 the machine. An effective audio-visual demonstration point of view of the person who is performing of this machine is one that will call attention to task. In another study, Roshal (1949)found that in teaching knot tying a zerodegree camera the relevant parts and let the others fade into angle. the background. angle was superior to a 180 degree camera It seems reasonable to interpretthis finding as 10.49 Evidence of this is found in an indicating that placing the camera in such a way experiment by Kimble and Wulff (1953). Using a as to provide theaudience with much the same sound film on the use of the slide rule, theyfound cues that they will usein performing the task that a version of the film that incorporated cues themselves is better than placing the camerain to guide the audience in making correct responses the position of an audience watching ademon- produced superior learning. This superiority held strator perform the task. when men were later tested on new examples not 10.4.14 Interestingly enough, a "no previously practiced and was found to hold both which for more intelligent and less intelligent segments hands" version of the knot-tying film in the rope appeared to tie itself into aknot proved of the population tested. to be superior to a film inwhich a pair of hands 10.4.10 There is experimental evidence tied the knot. One interpretationof this finding for the effectiveness of particularaudio-visual is that the hands are irrelevant cues.The learner devices for calling attention to important cues. needs to know how the ends of the ropeshould Lumsdaine and Sulzer (1951), using a film on twist and turn, but he does not needto be taught how to read a micrometer, found thatanimation how to move his hands in order toachieve this devices such as pop-in labels, moving arrows, etc., result, because his previous experiencewill have produced a marked increase in the amountlearned taught him that.Picturing the hands simply from the film. Cartoons which emphasized cer- obscures the essential cues. tain features of depicted objects have alsobeen 10.4.15 As another method of focusing found to be effective means of calling attention to attention upon relevant cues inlearning from relevant cues. films, slow motion has been very littleinvesti- 10.4.11 Ryan and Hochberg (1954) gated, especially with perceptualmotor tasks. found that, in a test of ability to duplicate the However, an experiment by McGuire(1953c) position of objects (a piston, a switch and a human found that in a simple perceptual motortask slow hand) in briefly exposed illustrations, cartoons motion had a slight tendency towardproducing yielded the best results, followed by photographs, better learning. It may be that slowingdown the shaded drawings and line drawings, in that order. action allowed more time for theaudience to learn This finding is consistent with the results of the important cues. experiments in teaching aircraft identification 10.4.16 Additional Stimuli. The general during World War II (Gibson, 1947) . It was found trend of the experimental findingswould lead one here that distorting distinctive features of planes to believe that extraneous stimuli,unless they helped people to learn to identify the planes even focus attention on relevant cues, are notlikely without the distortion. to be effective. An experimentby Weiss (1954) 10.4.12 In making filmed audio-visual is a case in point. In the hopes ofmaking the dif- demonstrations, we can take advantage of thefact ferent steps in a process more easilydistinguish- that since the audience views the scenesthrough able by using a distinctive extraneous cueto the eye of the camera, the audience goeswherever accompany each step,Weiss used five continuous the camera goes. This gives us, ineffect, a mov- pure tones to accompanythe five steps in the able audience. We can have 200 peoplesimul- construction of a regular pentagon, butthis treat- taneously peering over the shoulderof a man ment failed to produce significantdifferences in who is taking a watch apart. Thismobility of the the ability to construct the figure.It made no camera enables us to provide anaudience with difference whether the tones werepresent or cues that it could notobtain if it were sitting in a absent during training and/or duringthe test. classroom watching a demonstrator perform a 10.4.17 Along the same line an experi- task. Such mobility is especially usefulin teach- ment by Neu (1950) found thatinserting atten- ing manual tasks. tion-gaining devices (not attention-directingde- In a film 10.4.13 Gibson (1947) found that using vices) did not improve performance. a zero degree cameraangle was effective in teach- on machine shopmeasuring instruments, such ing gunnery to aviation cadets. This cameraangle relevant attention-gaining devices asslow, em- essentially an over-the-shoulder shot per- phatic reading of the commentary,supplying mits the audience to view the scenefrom the machine shop effects where appropriate, etc.did 95 not help, while the use of such irrelevant atten- Vandermeer (1948; 1949), in twoexperiments tion-gaining devices as extreme close-ups, spot- using a black and white and a color versionof each lighting, stop motion, pointing finger, zooms and of five films on a population ofninth and tenth other unusual camera angles actually detracted grade science students, found thatalthowth the from the effectiveness of the audio-visual demon- students had a slight tendency to preferthe color stration. films over the black and white, theirpreference did not reliably predict the amountthat they 10.4.18 Providing background material learned from the films. On immediaterecall tests, that is not 2ea1ly relevant to the learning of the there were no significant differencesinthe task at hand has similarly been found to be in- amount learned from each of thetwo versions, effective.In a film demonstrating how to as- though the scores for the color films wereslightly semble the breechblock of a 40 mm anti-aircraft higher in 4 out of 5 cases. In tests givensix weeks gun, Jaspen (1950) found thatexplaining how later, in 3 out of 5 films the color film group re- the breechblock works did not help students learn tained significantly more than theblack and how to assemble it. white film group. Even such devices as subtitles 10.4.19 10.4.22 An interesting finding in the have been found to be ineffective in at least one those points in film second experiment was that for experiment (Miller & Levine, 1952) . Using a which color was an essential cue that is in the on Ohm's Law,Miller and Levine found no dif- case of diagramsin which color was used to ference in performance among groups trained emphasize certain parts the mean scores were with (a) no subtitles, (b) major subtitles only, higher for the color group than forthe black and and (c) complete subtitles. A replication of the white group. May and Lumsdaine(1958) report a experiment(Miller,Levine, & Sternberger, study in which the fifth gradeschool pupils 1952a) using the same film again found no sig- learned about as much from acrude black and nificant difference between complete subtitles they did findings run white film based on the story board as and no subtitles. These experimental -n.-om the finished film in color. Allthese findings counter to the generally accepted theoretical ex- 1.1ake it amply clear that it isimpossible to say pectation that if subtitles help to organize the that color, in and of itself and regardlessof any- material, they should therefore make it easier to thing else, facilitates learning fromaudio-visual learn. demonstrations. 10.4.20 One would also expect on theoretical grounds that the use of color in filmed 10.4.23 Narration has generally been audio-visual demonstration should be effective in found effective as an accompaniment of another- those cases in which color provides an essential wise purely visual demonstration, probably be- cue in the learningtask, but while this may, in cause the narration directsthe eye movements of the audience. An early study by McCluskyand fact, be true, the experimental results in the gen- grades eral use of color are quite confused. Long (1946), McClusky (1924) found that with pupils in in comparing the effect of color films and black five through eight an oral commentaryincreased and white films upon the learning of pupilsin the effectiveness of sound motion pictures,slides grades five, six, eleven and twelve, found that on and photographs. Einbecker (1933) foundthat retention tests after 41/2 months the color films oral accompaniment was superior to aregular proved to be reliably superior for grades eleven silent film on high school physics. In the pre- and twelve. On immediate recall tests colorfilms viously cited experiment by Jaspen (1950) he var- were reliably superiorin grades six and twelve. ied the verbalization level, that is thenumber of For the eleventh grade group the black andwhite words per minute of film, and found amedium film was unreliably superior on immediate testing, level (in the case of his particular film, about 100 but color was superior on delayedtesting. This words per minute) to be best. In the previously conflicting result is typical of crude experiments cited study by McGuire (1953c) he found,in in which a full color version of a film is compared teaching a simple perceptual motor skill, that film with a black and white version, and no cognizance plus narration produced reliably better results is taken of the role that color plays in the learn- than the film alone. ing task or of the other variables in the situation that may interact with the color variable. 10.4.24 Another finding of the huge Jaspen experiment (1948) disclosedthat pointing 10.4.21 In a much earlier study, Mc- high out potential errors facilitates learningfrom audio- Lean (1930) found that on free-recall tests, finding school seniors recalled colored geographyprints visual demonstrations.However, this in a ratio of 5 to 3 over black and whiteprints. should perhaps be interpreted withcaution. On

96 the basis of what is known about learning in gen- sounds that we hear by implicitly duplicating those eral it seems reasonable to suppose that if we are sounds and then seeing whether or not they feel quite certain that an audience will make a par- different. If this finding can be applied generally, ticular error, then it would be worthwhile to point it means that we talk to ourselves a great deal this error out and clearly label it as such, in order more than we think we do. Though it is specula- to enable the audience to discriminate it from the tive to say so, we may, in fact, implicitly symbolize correct response. But if the audience is not likely in some way visual perceptions as well as auditory to make the error, then calling it to their attention ones. When we are watching something we may may lead to their learning it. be making implicit responses that serve as symbolic representations of what we see. This spec- ulation, if true, would explain the remarkable 10.5 Response effectiveness, as we shall see later, of implicit practice. 10.51 Role of Practice in Audio-Visual Learning. In 1946, Mark May (1946, p. 1-12) ex- 10.55 Overt Practice During Audio- pressed the viewpoint that is adopted here with Visual Demonstrations. The effectiveness of hav- regard to the practice variable in audio-visual ing the audience call out the answers to questions learning. He contended that unless the audience duringaudio-visualdemonstrationshas been makes some response that is relevant to the learn- shown by a number of experiments (Kendler, Cook, ing task, no learning will occur. Practice that goes & Kendler, 1953 ; Kendler, Kendler, & Cook, 1954 ; on during audio-visual demonstrations may be McGuire, 1954 ; Kanner & Sulzer, 1955 ; Hovland, overt oral practice, overt written practice or some Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).In one experi- other kind of overt motor response. That is, the ment, however, having the subjects call out the learner may actually be saying something aloud answers to open-ended statments failed to produce during the demonstration, or writing something an increase in the amount learned (Miller & Klier, or perhaps even practicing what the audio-visual 1953a).Another experiment by Miller and Klier demonstration is demonstrating. (1954), this time using written practice, found that interpolating tests between repeated show- 10.52 However, under ordinary circum- ings of a training film did not increase the amount stances the response that the audience makes is learned from the film.However, the great much more likely to be an implicit response. The majority of experiments utilizing overt written learner may be talking to himself or making some practice have found it to be effective (Michael, other kind of implicit response, as a person fre- 1951 ; Michael & Maccoby, 1954 ;Kimble, 1954 ; quently does when he is listening to someone give Yale Motion Picture Research Project, 1947 ; Gib- him directions about how to get to a certain place. son, 1947 ; Brenner, Walter, & Kurtz, 1949). The listener may nod his head, repeat the directions to himself, or perhaps make imperceptible 10.56 The experimental findings on the pointing movements with his hands or feet. Ac- use of actual practice of the learning task during cording to May, something like this must go on in audio-visual demonstrations are fewer in number order for an audio-visual demonstration to pro- and not quite so clear-cut. Roshal (1949) required duce learning. the members of the audience to tie knots in rope during the showing of a film on knot tying. But 10.53 The picture of audio-visual learn- this actual practice did not significantly increase ing that emerges both from theoretical considera- the amount of learning from the film.Roshal tions and from the experimental results is not a attributes the failure of active rehearsal to im- picture of passive entertainment, but rather a prove learning to the fact that the film did not picture of a very active, though usually concealed, allow enough time for the audience to practice process. Kleitman (1945) found evidence that when effectively. people watch ordinary movies, there is a good deal of physiological activity going on which mani- 10.57 An experiment by Jaspen (1950) fests itself in an increase in muscle tension and a lends some plausibility to Roshal's explanation of consequent rise in body temperature. his findings. Jaspen used several versions of a film on the assembly of the breechblock of a 40 10.54 Evidence of the importance of im- mm antiaircraft gun. He found that if the action plicit responses comes from a very different of the film proceeded at a slow enough rate to source. Liberman (1954) was interestedin find- permit tb,... members of the audience both to as- ing out how people can tell two similar speech semble the breechblock and to follow the action sounds apart. He concluded on the basis of his on the screen without too much loss of attention to experiments that we discriminate between similar either activity, then actual practice of the learning

97 task was effective. However, if the rate of de- ing "identification" between viewer and instruc- velopment was too fast,actual practice was tor protagonist and to induce implicit anticipa- slightly, and insignificantly, worse than none at tory responses by inserting slight pauses before all. the demonstration of each step in the learning task failed to improve learning. 10.58 Implicit Practice. Perhaps the earliest study on audience participation, or actual 10.5.12 Effect of Practice. The effect practice during an audio-visual demonstration, of practice during audio-visual demonstrations was a study by Hall (1936). The practice in Hall's does not seem to be a motivational effect. Active experhnent was implicit practice. He simply pro- practice on some points of an audio-visual demon- jected questions on the screen during the showing stration does not improve performance on other of a silent film to junior high school science stu- points. Four experiments (Miller & Klier, 1953a ; dents, and he found that this procedure facilitated Kanner & Sulzer, 1955 ; Michael, 1951 ; Michael & learning.Experiments by Miller andKlier Maccoby, 1954) have all demonstrated that the (1953a),Michael (1951), Kendler, Kendler and effect of actual practice is specific to the items Cook (1954) and by Kanner and Sulzer (1955) practiced, and does not carry over to non-prac- all found that implicit practice while watching an ticed items. According to Hovland, Lumsdaine audio-visual demonstration facilitates learning. and Sheffield (1949) overt practice is especially The latter three studies show that it produces effective for difficult items and for less intelli- just about as good results as overt practice. gent learners. 10.59 The previously mentioned study 10.5.13 Role of Feedback in Practice. by McGuire (1954) yielded a rather interesting Supplying the student with knowledge of results result. In this experiment the task was to learn about his performance has been a cardinal prin- the names of nine mechanical parts. Forty-eight ciple of educational theory for a long time. This experimental subjects were equally divided among tenet receives some support from the findings the six groups of a two by three experimental of experiments on audio-visual learning. In the design in which speed of instruction was varied previously mentioned studies by Michael (1951) two ways (fast and slow) and practice was varied and Michael and Maccoby (1954) the experi- three ways (overt, implicit and none). The sub- menters used a film on defense against atomic jects in the four practice groups were given six radiation. They found that requiring the learners instructional trials in which each part together to write the answers to questions inserted into with its name was shown on the screen for four the film was effective, but only if they fed back seconds during the slow condition, and for two the correct answers to the students right after seconds during the fast condition. Six practice they answered the questions. trials, in which only the mechanical part was shown, were alternated with the instructional 10.5.14 In teaching aircraft identifica- trials. The two no-practice groups received only tion, Gibson (1947) found that written practice the instructional trials. with feedback and correction produced signifi- 10.5.10 For the practice groups, overt cantly better results than the practice alone. In practice consisted in writing the names of the interpreting these exper:ments, it is difficult to parts ; implicit practiee merely in thinking them. know whether to attribute the beneficial results Speed of instruction was varied only during the to feedback as such, or to the fact that when we instructional trial ; 'not during the practice trials. feed back the correct answer to the student, we McGuire found that at the slow rate of instruc- are, in effect, giving him one more implicit prac- tion, overt and implicit practice groups did about tice trial. equally well, but at the fast rate, the implicit 10.5.15 Response Guidance. Another group did significantly better.The overt prac- technique that has demonstrated its effectiveness tice group was superior to the no-practice group inaudio-visualinstructionisresponse guid- at the slow rate, but inferior at the fast rate, ance. Rather than letting the learner make mis- while the implicit practice group was superior to takes, especially in learning difficult material, it the no-practice group at both slow and fast rates. might be beneficial to guide his practice in such a 10.5.11 While instructions to practice way as to reduce the number of errors. One way implicitly do, as a rule, produce superior learning, in which this can be done is by instructing the attempts to induce implicit practice by more students prior to the demonstration to pay atten- subtle means have not always succeeded. In an tion to particular things in the demonstration. An experiment done at Boston University (1954a) experiment performedatBostonUniversity an attempt to induce implicit practice by promot- (1954) which used a film on several kinds of map

98 projections found that instructing students to demonstration is usually so familiar with the ma- learn facts significantly increased their scores on terial that it may be difficult for him to believe factual items. Instructing them to learn general that people cannot learn it in one trial. principles resulted in slightly and insignificantly 10.5.19 An experiment by Sulzer and higher scores on "principle" items. Less intelli- Lumsdaine (1952) employing a training film on gent students learned more from the instructions how to read a micrometer gave different numbers to learn facts, and more intelligent students of examples (up to ten) to different groups of gained more from instructions to learn general experimentalsubjects.They found that the principles. amount learned from the training film increased 10.5.16 Another response guidance tech- as a function of the number of examplesused, nique h that of providing the student with cues though the rate of improvement decreased with during actual practice that will reduce the possi- each additional example.Rather surprisingly, bility of his making mistakes. In an experiment they also found that the more intelligent learners by Kimble and Wulff (1953) in which they used benefited more from additional examples than the a sound film teaching the useof the slide rule, less intelligent ones did. which permitted the students to write down the 10.5.20 Brenner, Walter and Kurtz answers to particular slide rulesettings during (1949) experimenting with two films, (a) The the showing of the film, they found that a version Care and Use of Hand Tools Wrenches, and of the film which incorporated cues to guide the (b) Snakes, found that two showings of the films performance of the learner yielded superior re- were better than one. A study by Kendler, Cook sults to a version that did not incorporate these and Kendler (1953) varied the number of repeti- guidance cues. This superiority held for both the tions of the review section of a training film on more intelligent and the less intelligent segments conventional map signs. They found that one of the populationtested. and was especially repetition of the review section was better than marked for the more difficult material. none, two repetitions were better than one, and 10.5.17 Still another way to guide prac- three repetitions were better than two. In fact, ticeduring audio-visual demonstrationsis the learning curve was still rising at the end of prompting. In a small preliminary experiment three repetitions, though the rate at which it was by Cook, Kendler and Kendler (1952)it was rising had somewhat diminished. They also found found that oral prompting during practice in that requiring the audience to practice calling out naming conventional map signs gave slight, and the answers aloud during the showing of the re- statistically insignificant, indications that prac- view improved performance on the test by a fairly tice with prompting was superior to practice constant amount at every level of repetition. without it. The superiority of prompting seemed 10.5.21 The question of whether varied to be greatest when the mate:. ial was difficult. repetition is superior to identical repetition was Three subsequent experiments (Cook & Kendler, investigated in a study by Kanner and McClure 1955; Cook, 1958 ; Cook & Spitzer, 1959) using (1954).Using the same film on micrometer the task of learning a visual code have demon- reading that was used in the Sulzer and Lums- strated that showing the learner the correct daine study, they compared seeing the same four answer before he makes his practice response examples twice with seeing eight examples all prcduces better results than feeding the correct different in their effects on the ability of the answer back to him after he makes his practice learners to solve new problems. They performed response. These experiments have shown, in other the same experiment twice. The first experiment words, that response guidance by means of failed to find any statistically reliable difference prompting produces better results than unguided between the varied and the identical treatments practice with feedback. for mathematically naive subjects tested immediately after training, but it found a small, but re- 10.5.18 Amount of Practice. Granted liable, difference in favor of the varied repetition that practice on the part of the audience is es- treatment for somewhat more mathematically sential to effective audio-visual communication, sophisticated subjects tested a week after train- the practical question arises: How much practice ing. In the second experiment, however, no statis- is enough? Since, in most cases, the practice is tically reliable differences of any kind were implicit, the question becomes one concerning the number of reviews. The concensus of the findings found. is that audiences can usually profit from a greater 10.5.22 A similarly negative finding number of repetitions than they are generally was reportedin an experiment by McGuire given. The person who creates an audio-visual (1953a). In this experiment the length of the

99 film presentation designed to teach a motorskill whether it is better to space the reviews by re- (a pursuit rotor task) was varied.One group of viewing each point right after it has beendemon- college students saw a long film which contained strated. four repetitions of each instructional point.The 10.5.25 Of seven experiments on this second group saw a shorter version which pre- topic, five of them showed that itmade no dif- sented two repetitions of each point, and a third ference whether the reviews were massed or (control) group saw no film at all. Later testsof spaced. McGuire (1953) used a film onhow to learning yielded a significantly higher score for acquire skill in the use of a pursuit rotor.The the film groups than for the control group, but experimental subjects in the spacedcondition no significantdifference was found between the were shown the firsthalf of the film (two repe- scores of thefour-repetition group and the two- titions) and then they performed in a five-minute repetition group. test session. They were then shown thelast half of the film and given a five-minute restperiod 10.5.23 An experiment by Kimble and before the second five-minute test session. The Wulff (1954) addressed itself to the task of deter- subjects in the massed condition were shownthe mining the relative effectiveness ofdifferent full film (four repetitions of the set of instruc- proportions of demonstration and practice in tional points) and then they performed in the two audio-visual learning.In this experiment, five five-minute test sessions with a ten-minute rest groups of Air Forcetrainees were given the fol- between sessions. Both groups of subjects per- lowing five different ratios ofinstructional ex- formed about equally well. amples (answer given in the instruction) to practice exercises (answer requested of thetrainee) 10.5.26 An experiment by Miller and in reading slide rule scales : 20 to 0, 16 to 4,12 to Levine (1952) employed a film onOhm's Law. 8, 8 to 12, and 4 to 16. The results suggestedthat The experiment compared a massedreview pro- the optimal percentage of practiceexercises is in cedure with a spaced review procedure andfound the neighborhood of 50 to 75 percent. A more massed review to be significantly superior.How- detailed breakdown of the results in terms of the ever, a replication ofthis experiment, by Miller, individual trainee's responses during the practice Levine and Sternberger (1952a) using the same exercises indicated that this form ofaudience film failed to find any differencebetween the participation is not a single or unitary variable massed and the spaced procedures.Acting on the inevitably causing increases in learning of andby assumption that the failure to achievesignificant itself. Rather, it seems to be a condition under differences in this experiment wasattributable to which such other variables, as elicitation of cor- the intrinsically boring nature ofthe film, the rect responses, exposure of the learner torelevant same team ofexperimenters (Miller, Levine & cues, and perhapsincreases in interest and atten- Sternberger, 1952)replicated the experiment, tiveness may operate to increase learning. this time using a color film calledPattern for Survival, a film on atomic attack. Thistime they 10.5.24 Distribution of Reviews. Nu- found the massed review condition to besignifi- merous learningexperiments have well docu- cantly superior to the spaced condition, and the mented the contention that inlearning anything spaced review to be significantly superiorto no that involves the establishmentof new connec- review at ail. tions between stimuli and responsesspaced prac- 10.5.27 However, another replication of tice is superior to massedpractice. We get better the experiment by Miller andKlier (1953a) found results if we practice a while andthen stop a no significantdifferences between massed and while, practice a while and then stop awhile, than spaced review on either the immediaterecall test we do if wepractice continously for a long given right after training or on the retention test period). This being the case, a numberof experi- given three weeks later. A furtherinvestigation ments have addressed themselvesto the task of by Miller and Klier (1953) disclosed nosignifi- finding out whether it is betterto mass the re- cant differences between massedand spaced reviews by postponing all reviewinguntil the com- view when these techniques werecombined with pletion of the audio-visualdemonstration or implicit practice. Similar results wereobtained in an experiment by Ash (1949). Using two film 1 This contention is not true inthe special case of prob- series each consisting of four 15-minute silent lem solving or puzzle learning. Solving aproblem or work- black and white films, Ash found that showing ing a puzzle is largely a matter ofextinguishing the wrong all four films in a single, one hour session was as responses rather than acquiringthe correct one, and since effective, as far as retention one or two weeks massed practice is known to producefaster extinction later is concerned, as showing the films in two 30- than spaced practice, massed practiceleads to faster problem solving than spaced practice does. minute sessions or in four 15-minute sessions.

100 secondary rewards. The 10.5.28 Faison, Rose and Podell (1955a) are secondary drives and inserted 30-second rest pauses every fiveminutes extreme difficulty of manipulating thesevari- in a 20-minute film on basicelectricity. They ables is reflected in the fact that thereis prac- found that the rest pauses increasesaudience tically no experimental data on the topic of the attentiveness as measured by a specializedinfra- role of reward in audio-visual learning.There is red film technique which theydescribe elsewhere some excellent theorizingby Miller (1957) and (Faison, Rose, & Podell, 1955) . The use of rest some sketches of possibleexperiments have been pauses also produced arather slight, but statis- published by Kendler, Kendler, and Cook (1951) tically significant, increase in the amountlearned but there is very little in the way ofexperimental from the film. Both high and lowintelligence findings. and the groups benefited from the rest pauses, 10.64 On an a priori basis, one could improvement was not confined to material cov- distinguish three possible types of rewards,(a) ered in the period immediately following the rest intrinsic, (b) extrinsic, and (c) vicarious.An pause. Though such atechnique as this bears in the little relation to the issue of massed versus spaced intrinsic reward would be one that inheres practice, it is apparently an effective technique response itself.If performing the to-be-learned for waking the audience up periodically so that act is itself reinforcing, if theactivity itself re- they can pay attention to the demonstration. duces some drive, then the reward maybe said to be intrinsic. An extrinsic rewardis one that is not part of the act itself, but may,for example, 10.6 Reward be one of the consequences of the act.Such is the case when a studentlearns something in order 10.61 Nature of Reward in Learning. to hear his teacher's praise. Anexperiment util- Probably most psychological theorists believe that izing this form of reinforcement wasperformed reward (reinforcement) is essential to learning, by Kimble (1953). The power ofthis type of or at least toperformance. If true, this means reward is indicated by Miller's statementthat that in order to do, or perhaps even to learn, what "films depend upon learned rewardsreinforced we are taught, we must berewarded for it, and if in real life" (1957) .If what one learns to do as our performance is notclosely followed by some a result of an audio-visualdemonstration is not form of reinforcement we will be eventually cease reinforced in real life, then the performanceof to perform ; that is, the response will become ex- tinguished. But rewards are relative to drives. the act will extinguish. What would be a reward to one person, or one 10.65 A vicarious reward is one admin- organism, with one drive might not be a reward istered not to the learner, butto someone with at all to another organism with a different drive. whom the learner identifieshimself. For ex- Dry food is a reinforcement to a hungry rat, ample, if a student identifieshimself with the but it is no reward at all to a rat that is thirsty hero of the training film,and if the hero is re- but not hungry. An important principle of rewarded in the film for learningwhat he (and inforcement is that the longer the reward is de- the student) were supposedto learn, then this layed, the less effective it will be. For maximum might operate as a vicariousreward for the effectiveness the reinforcement should occur im- learner. This area has been verylittle investi- mediately after the performance of the to-be- gated, but an exploratorystudy by McGuire learned response. As N. E. Miller (1957) points possibilities. out, "when the reward is delayed it is necessary (1953b) suggests some interesting to have some stimulus trace, symbolic response, 10.66 McGuire employed a film that or token-reward to bridge the gap bybeing imme- contained "reward" sequences, thatis, sequences diately associated with both the correct response involving a demonstrationofthebeneficial and the eventual reward." effects of particular instructional points.He an- 10.62 Just as a distinction is made be- alyzed the data to find out whetherthe nearness tween such primary (physiological)drives as of an item to a "reward" sequencein the film had hunger, sex, thirst, and sleep, and such second- a significant effect onthe learning of that item, ary (learned) drives asloyalty, cupidity, and and he found that it did. Theeffect approxi- fear, so a corresponding distinction is made be- mated a double gradient forward andbackward tween primary and secondary rewards. from the "reward" sequence. Apparentlythe either 10.63 Role of Reward in Audio-Visual closer an item was to the reward sequence, Learning. In dealing with people in most teaching- before it or after it, the better it waslearned. learning situations, what we have to work with This experiment has never been replicated, nor 101 to the best of this writer's knowledge, has any- suggested that there might be a differencein the one else ever performed acomparable experi- amount of linear distortion in photographsviewed ment in the area of audio-visual learning.Hence, at different viewing distances. for the present at least, the efficacy ofvicarious 10.73 Evidence favoring this sugges- reward in audio-visual demonstrations must re- tion was disclosed in an experiment bySmith main in doubt. and Gruber (1954) and another by Smith(1958). that the 10.67 Knowledge of resultsis some- These two experiments demonstrated times spoken of as though it were a reward.It farther away a photograph is from the eye, the has been found to be effective, of course,but greater the apparent distance betweenthe ob- whether or not its effectiveness is a result ofits server and any point in thephotograph, and also reinforcing properties is still an open question. the greater the distance between two pointswith- If a learner practices during anaudio-visual in the photograph. An experiment bySmith, demonstration, and if he is then shown the cor- Smith and Hubbard (1953) was aimed at find- rect response, this showing may act as areward ing out what variables influenced the judgment if he has already performed the response cor- of distances in drawings as compared to photo- rectly. However, it also operates as anadditional graphs. Their findings indicate that the judg- implicit practice trial, and its effectiveness may ment of distances in drawings is largely afunc- be due to this rather than to anyreinforcing tion of linear perspective and is not much in- properties. fluenced by the amount of detail in the drawing or the degree of shadingemployed. 10.74 Further evidence of the adequacy 10.7 Visual Factors of two-dimensional pictures inrepresenting a three-dimensional world comes from anexperi- 10.71 Itis known from the experiment by Smith and Smith (1954).They found mental findings reported in the section onCue that experimental subjects could tossballs at that a fancy audio-visual treatment of asubject targets with rather surprising accuracywhile matter contributes little or nothing to itseffec- not looking at the scene containingthe targets, tiveness. Mercer (1952) found that the useof but merely at a picture of the scene.The situa- such optical effects as fades, dissolves andwipes tion was arranged so that the subjects werenot in a film did not aid factual learning.Somewhat aware that they werelooking at a photograph. more surprisingly,Cogswell (1952) found that in teaching a perceptual motor task, in this case 10.75 Representation of Motion. Since the assembly of the breechblock of a 40mmanti- pictures are essentiallystatic, an interesting aircraft gun, a stereoscopic film yielded no bet- question arises as to whether they canportray ter results than a conventional version.This events, which are things thathappen. It is the finding bears out the conclusion of Gibson contention of Smith (1952a)that they can. (1950), that the flat motion picture screen or the Smith points out that "A singlephotograph fre- two dimensions of a picture or a stillphotograph quently contains sufficientinformation to war- can yield a surprisinglyadequate visual percep- rant the inference that anobject has changed in tion of a three-dimensional world. Gibson's con- some way." Suchchanges as displacement in clusion finds support in several experiments on position are very easy to portray in asingle still the perception of distance in photographsand the picture. This might be illustrated by apicture representation of motion by still pictures.These of a skier whose ski tracks on thefresh snow in- are two areas inwhich still pictures might be dicate that he has moved. do sur- thought to be quite inadequate, but they 10.76 With regard to the portrayal of prisingly well. action, Smith acknowledges thatstill pictures he maintains 10.72 Perception of Distance in Photo- cannot actually present motion, but graphs. In a theoretical paper, Gibson(1953) sug- that the picture may furnishenough cues to make gested that there might be anoptimal distance it clear by inference that theobject was moving from the eye at which a photographshould be when the picture was taken. It isalso possible viewed. At this distance hesuggested that the to indicate whether the action was a success or photograph would appear most likethe real ob- a failure, as inthe case of whether a second base- by Smith (1952) man caught abaseball or not.If the picture ject. However, an experiment fairly failed to find any evidence infavor of this view- shows the ball in the air, one can guess Audiences were unable with any con- accurately whether or not hewill make the point. of sistency to say at which distancethe photograph catch.Smith concluded that the perception looked most like the object itrepresented. Smith motion is not essential forcommunication about

102 events. An inference from this conclusionis that convey facts, (c) to explainsomething, and (d) film strips, still pictures and drawings can fre- to teach a perceptual motor skill.It now remains quently be substituted for motion pictures with- to analyze these goals, or tasks, interms of the out any loss of effectiveness. kinds of tasks that psychological researchershave studied. We have, in other words, to coordinate 10.77 Some experimental confirmation these communication tasks in somemeaningful of Smith's views is found in a study by Smith fashion with the categories that the psychologist and Resnick (1953). They did several small ex- uses in studying behavior,particularly learning periments in which simple line drawings of hu- behavior, since all of these four communication man figures were shown tountrained subjects problems are included in the psychology of learn- who were assigned the task of differentiating ing. the static drawings from those depicting motion, and classifying the latter according to the amount 10.83 Motivating People. The role of of speed involved. They found that in general the the motivation variable, as far as weknow it, in subjects were able to distinguish the static draw- audio-visual learning, and the effectof audio- ings from the in-motion drawings, and they were visual demonstrations, chiefly films, inmotivat- also able to differentiate between different ing subsequent behavior have beendiscussed in amounts of speed, though the accuracy with the section on Drive. At this point,it might be which they were able to do these tasks was rela- worthwhile to make a distinction between, onthe tively low. A reasonable conclusion from this one hand, teachingsomebody something that he is study and the others mentioned in this section is eager to learn, and, on theother hand, getting that simple pictures give quite adequate impres- him to do something that he knowshow to do sions of distance and are surprisingly effective but is not doing. even in the 4piction of motion. 10.84 Motivational tasks can be further analyzed into two types :Motivating someone to do something, and motivating someonenot to 10.8 A Psychological Analysis do something. In the case of the formertype, of Visual Communication Tasks if the person can be induced to perform the response once, then if he isadequately rewarded, 10.81 Goals of Visual Communication. this should strengthen the tendency to repeatthe In planning any sort of visual communication, a response.Hence, in this case, reward would good starting point is to decide what you are seem to be a key variable. trying to do. The goals of the communication process can be specified,and even classified in a 10.85 But the case of teaching someone number of ways. No one of these methods of cate- not to do something is a horseof a different gorization has any more intrinsic validity than color. This is one of the chiefproblems in teach- any other. However, sincepsychological research ing safety precautions, since so manyof them are deals with categories of behavioral events such prohibitions. For example, it isdifficult to train as learning in general, or evenparticular kinds workmen not to leave tools lyingaround where of learning, it seems reasonable to classify the they can get caught up by themachinery, dam- goals of the communication process in a way that age it and perhaps injureseveral people.It is will enable us to make use of the research find- not feasible to use an extinctionprocedure in this ings. We need a research classification scheme case. Theoretically wecould permit him to make because in planning a particular piece of visual the mistake, in the hope that the consequences communication, we have to identify the kind of would prevent his repeating it. But anawful lot learning that is involved so that we can know of machinery would be wrecked inthe process. which psychological principles are applicable to A better way to handle the problemis to change the particular problem with which we are deal- it. Instead of teaching him not to dosomething, ing. While remaining consistent with the usual teach him to do something. Insteadof teaching research categories(e.g., serial learning, per- him not to leave his tools lying around, wecould ceptual learning, etc.), our classification scheme provide him with a fitted case, and teachhim to should at the same time be usable by those who get the tools back into the case at thecompletion are interested primarily in visualcommunication, of every job. Teaching him to do thisis a much and not in psychological research. easier problem than the one it replaced. 10.82 In accordance with these criteria, 10.86 Conveying Facts. Apart from any we can, in a common sensefashion, classify the purpose we mayhave in communicating facts, goals of visual communication under thefollow- the facts themselves may beeither related to ing four headings : (a) to motivate people, (b) to each other or unrelated, forexample, a list of 103 names or book titles.Tasks of this kind are called serial learning tasks. Though the names can be presentedin any order, they have to be Amount presented in some order, and the extent to which of the names are noted, learned, or rememberedde- Retention pends in part upon the order in which they are presented. Since organized material is easier to learn and retain than unorganized material, it would be desirable for us to impose some sort I 2 3 4 5 6 7 of structure upon the facts, to order them in Position of Item in List some way, even though we arenot interested in having the audience remember the facts in that Fig. 10.2.The von Restorff phenomenon in a retention particular order. Almost any sort of ordering curve. will help, even if it is no more than arranging the names in alphabetical sequence. Organizing the material therefore is the first important 10.89 The principle of the von Restorff principle to be observed in communicating facts. phenomenon is well illustrated in advertising displays. If a magazine has page after page of full 10.87 A second important principle is page ads, each of whichtakes up an entire page, that of the bowed serial position curve. When an ad that occupies only asmall portion of an material is presented in the form of a list, it has otherwise blank page will receive a dispropor- been found repeatedly that items at the begin- tionate amount of attention. Similarly, a black ning and at the end of the list are learned more and white ad in a series of full color adswill be quickly and retained longer than items in the outstanding. This would also be true of a full middle of the list. Retention is poorest for items color ad in a series of black and white ones. just past the middle of the list, but as you proceed from this point toward the end of the list, 10.8.10 Turning now to related facts, or toward the beginning, the amountof retention perhaps the simplest way in which facts canbe for each successive item improves. The curve is related is in pairs, as for example, when we say pictured in Fig. 10.1. that Mr. Beach's phone number is 2-5138 and Mr. Digge's phone number is 4-9775.What we 10.88 We can combat the tendency of are trying to do in a caselike this is to set up an the curve to sag in the middle through the useof associative connection between the two members another principle called the von Restorffphe- of each pair, between Mr. Beach andhis phone nomenon. According to the vonRestorff phenom- number and Mr. Digge and his phonenumber. enon, an item is easierto learn and to retain if Learning of this kind is called paired-associate it is isolated from the other items throughbeing learning, and it comprises a surprisinglylarge distinctive in some way or other. If we had a list portion of everyday communication. of seven names, and we printed the fourth name in red, or in a different style of type, itwould 10.8.11 Paired-associate learning is in- probably be retained about as well as the first volved when we tell someone thatthe drug store and the last items. In fact, it would even improve sells insect repellant, but thehardware store the retention of the items on eitherside of it, sells weed killer, or if we are telling someone and we would get two smaller bowedserial posi- what kind of fertilizers are appropriateto cer- tion curves, as in Fig. 10.2. thin crops. In each case we want toestablish an associative connection between the twomembers of the first pair and anotherconnection between the two members of the secondpair, and so on. In studies of conditioned responsesit has been Amount shown that a delay of even two orthree seconds of between the stimulus and the responseincreases Retention the difficulty of getting the responseattached to the stimulus. Hence, perhaps, the leastefficient way of getting the desiredconnections formed is to increase the delay byseparating the mem- if we said 6 7 bers of each pair, as we would be doing I 2 3 4 5 "the drug store doesn't sell weedkiller, it sells Position of Item in List insect repellant." This would greatlyincrease the Fig.10.1.Retention curve. difficulty of the learning task.

104 the phone Perhaps even moreimportant C is 3 and so on.If I point out that 10.8.12 numbers of Mr. Beach andMr. Digge are the than this finding is theprinciple of non-interfer- their names, no one of the single items ofinforma- numerical equivalents of ence. What is true would have any difficultyin remembering them. tion in the case of unrelatedfacts is also true of first place, it is advan- Needless to say, correspondencesof this kind pairs of items. In the rarely occur by chance,but in many cases, one tageous to organize thepairs in some sequence. that will matter which sequence is can frequentlyfind some little device In the second place, no connection. used, the pairs at thebeginning and at the end at least help to form the of the list will be retainedbetter than those in 10.8.15 Explaining Something. Atyp- the middle, and, in thethird place, if one of the ical example of thecommunication of related pairs is isolated from theother by being dis- facts occurs when weexplain something to some- tinctive in some way oranother, this pair will be body.In a theoretical,scientific explanation easier to learn. But, inaddition to these prin- what we do is to deducethe fact we areasked ciples, there are some othersthat are peculiar to explain from some moregeneral statement. to paired-associatelearning. Thus the relationshiphere is a logical one.For explain why grass is green is example, we can 10.8.13 The principle of contiguity from the generalstate- in- by deducing that fact particularlyimportantincommunicating ment that all thingsthat contain chlorophyll(and formation of this kind.The principle of con- violet or some otherdye) items are to be asso- do not contain gentian tiguity means that if two are green, andthat grass containschlorophyll. ciated, they should bepresented to the audience close together in space andtime. Nothing should 10.8.16 A more usual sortof explana- occur betweenthe two members of thepair that tion, however, is one inwhich the relationship would interfere with theformation of the con- between the facts isempirical. An instanceof nection between them.In everyday situations this is an explanationof a process or an ex- this principle is generallyneglected.For explanation of h.)w a pieceof equipmentworks. ample, the usual procedurein teaching vocabu- Explanations of this kind arelargely combina- lary to very young childrenis to show them a tions of the two previouslydiscussed kinds of picture and ask them whatit is.If they fail to learning, namely seriallearning and paired-asso- answer, or to answercorrectly, then we tell them ciate learning. Hence, allthe previouslydiscussed that this is a sailboat, orwhatever the picture principles apply here. happens to be. 10.8.17 To illustrate, suppose wewere engine In using this procedure, we are explaining to someonehow a tractor 10.8.13a. understand our explanation allowing a great deal oftime to elapse between works. In order to and he would have to learnthe meanings of a num- the presentation of thepicture of the sailboat lines, con- the occurrence of theword "sailboat."Here, ber of terms such asfuel tanks, fuel make a big necting rods, cylinderhead, etc. In otherwords, even a delayof a few seconds can considerable amountof difference.Moreover, during thedelay period, he would have to do a the paired-associate learning.Moreover, he would the child may make a wrongresponse, and other this wrong responsewill interfere have to learn a sequenceof events, or in occurrence of do some seriallearning with the establishment ofthe connection between words, he would have to efficient as well. Hewould have to learnthat the gasoline the word and thepicture. The most line to procedure is to present thepicture and the word goe§ from the fueltank through the fuel together again and again.Then if we want to the carburetor and so on. has learned the connec- know whether the child 10.8.18 In most explanationsof this tion, we can test him, butit is important not to kind, we can generallyrely on a greatamount of confuse the training andthe testing. previous learning. He mayhave mastered all or of the Another important principlein most of thepaired-associate component 10.8.14 task, and so all we haveleft to teach himis the presenting paired material isthe use of previously situations like this we can mnemonic devices in order serial component. In formed connections as effectively use symbolicdiagrams rather thanthe to mediate the connectionbetween the two mem- In fact, example, the names and actual equipment or evenpictures of it. bers of the pair. For in some cases a symbolicdiagram may even be phone numbers previouslymentioned are diffi- of ex- make the task very superior, since it cutsdown the number cult to remember, but we can stimuli that areirrelevant to the previously formedconnection traneous stimuli easy by using the particular task oflearning how themachine that we all have betweenthe sequence of num- performed by the bers and the letters of the alphabet.A is 1, B is 2, operates.In one experiment 105 United States Air Force it was found that an this type lend themselves very readily to teach- elaborate display using actual jet engine parts ing by audio-visual means to large groups of mounted on a board and costing in the neighbor- people. hood of $80,000 was no more effective than a 10.8.21 Another type of perceptual-mo- symbolic diagram that could be produced for less tor learning is one that might be described by than five dollars. saying that the person knows what should be 10.8.19 Teaching a Perceptual - Motor done, but does not know how to do it: Learning Skill. As everybody knows, in training someone a correct follow-through in driving agolf ball, to perform a perceptual-motor skill the key con- or learning to play an arpeggio on aviolin are cept is practice, but it is perhaps worthwhile to cases in point. In these skills itwould be an point out that not all perceptual motor skills are understatement to say that the cues are not read- alike. A distinction, though perhaps not a very ily symbolizable. Skills of this type may be con- clear one, can be made between two types of per- sidered to consist of a series of component re- ceptual-motor learning problem. One is the case sponses. The cue for each component response of the person who has mastered all the com- is produced by the response that precedes it. The ponents of a skill, but does not know which of difficulty of learning a skill of this type is en- the things that he has mastered are components, hanced by the fact that if any component response and furthermore does not know in which order is incorrectly performed it will furnish false cues to assemble these components. for the succeeding response. 10.8.20 For example, take the problem 10.8.22 What is required to learn a skill of learning to pick out a one-fingered melody of this type is actual overt practice withknowl- on a toy piano withnumbered keys. This is a edge of results, plus whatever aid can begiven perceptual-motor skill, but it can be learned by by a coach or someone else who acts as acritic of most adults in our culture without any overt prac- the performance. What help a coach cangive, tice whatever, since we do not need to learn how though necessary, will usually be quitelittle, be- to strike the keys. What we do need to learn is cause the coach cannotprovide the student with which keys should be struck and in which order. proper cues for theperformance. Only the stu- To be sure, in learning this we need to practice, dent can do that. Since the student must prac- but we do not n2ed overt practice with an actual tice overtly, and since the cues for correct prac- toy piano, since the problem resolves itself into tice must be provided by the studenthimself, the serial learning task of memorizing a sequence and cannot be either verbalized or presented to of numbers. What we do need practice in is in him in pictures, teaching a skill of this type is implicitly saying the numbers to ourselves in by far the most difficult task that audio-visual their proper sequence. Perceptual-motor tasks of methods are called upon to perform.

106 11.Perception andDesign

prepared by I. A, Taylor

tion intended to influencebehavior lacking in 11.1 Introduction visual "aid." Actually, nonverbalforms of visuals effective than verbal communi- understanding are so much more 11,11 Applicationis cation that perhaps we shouldspeak of "verbal drawn out to its fullest implications.This section is concerned with drawing out manyof the aids." implications of the section on perceptualorganiza- 11.15 Fourth, there is the basicfallacy tion (Chapter 7) and showing theirapplication that symbols themselves possessmeaning. The to visual communication design. meaning is not in thesymbol but in us. The evoke a meaning de- vis- perceived symbol can only 11.12 Certain faulty notions about pending on our previousexperiences withit, ual communication should beexamined. In the general situation in continuous symbols used similar symbols and the first place, analogic or which it is presented. AsKepes stated it, "Visual in visual communication are notcodified. Many experience of pure sen- realize that it is a experience is more than of us for that reason do not sory qualities.Visual sensations areinterwoven communication system. This showsitself to be Each visual configura- individuals "ignore" with memory overlays. particularly true whenever tion contains a manifest text,evokes associations each other's nonverbalbehavior, reacting ex- emotional and conscious plicitly to words in the course of alogical dis- of things, events; creates cussion. Actually, nonverbalcommunication can responses." be most reliable and efficientin many instances. It operates best, however,in conjunction with Process verbal communication in variousaudio-visual 11.2 The Visualization techniques. 11.21 The visualization processshould In the second place, wefrequently be understood as a mental processrather than a 11.13 to visual com- assume that visualcommunication lies exclusively set of techniques; and forms are within the realm of theartist and craftsman. munication what words are toverbal communi- This is an unfortunateassumption. To believe cation. The ability to visualizeis highly creative, this would be to depriveourselves of an extremely involving research, selecting,constructing and valuable form of interpersonalcommunication. problem solving. Examinationof the stages of With a little practice withvarious visual mate- the creative process itself istherefore in order. rials, skill comes rapidly.This is particularly Wallas first formulated thesestages in 1925. figures, charts, plan true of simple graphics, e.g., Several drawings, and visual displaysof ready-prepared 11.22 The Creative Process. material needing only suitabledisplay. A dis- phases frequently overlap.The first phase, prep- play does not have to be awork of art ;if it aration, involves the initialand crucial process of were, it might obscurethe message. It should be becoming exposed to asmuch of the relevant simple, pleasing, and communicative. material pertaining to theproblem as possible. As a process of exposure,the "openness" of one's 11.14 Third, we do not always appre- mind to a variety of approaches,ideas, principles, ciate the potentialities of visualsfor stimulating etc., is essential so as toobtain much "raw ma- interest and learning. When werealize the de- Although the phase predominantly visual materials terial" from which to create. gree of influence appears to be passive,since it is characterized have on the publicTV, movies,magazines, etc. observation, and listen- in contrast to purely verbalmaterial, it is sur- by a great deal of reading, prising to find so much teaching orcommunica- ing, it is quite active. 107 11.23 Few people are really trained to into tangible form for public inspection is neces- listen. More likely a person is thinking of his sary. This also ushers in new fears since in gen- next action or statement while someone is pre- eral the public operates somewhat like a mowing senting material. Too frequently the over- machine that does not allow new grass to grow analytical mind operates to bar new knowledge too high. from passing the threshold of perception with such questions as, "What good is this knowledge?" 11.28 The final task is that of elabora- or, "How can I use this?" tion or execution of a project embodying the new idea. In the course of execution, there is a great 11.24 Some of the most creative in- deal more interaction between idea and material dividuals relate to new ideas with a great deal consideration, the final product being a resultant, of openness, receptivity, and acceptivity.The or rather compromise, between the two.The en- temptation to close prematurely is almost an tire process is illustrated in Fig. 11.1. irresistable drive for most persons striving for intellectual security. The fact is that unless an individual can allow himself to accept a great deal of information without pounding it into precon- ceived notions, he will be likely to employ strong stereotypesa socially accepted disease, characterized by a "hardening of the categories"and less likely to have a large assortment of informa- iij tion that can form into something significantly 111 new.

11010 11.25 The second phase has been called incubation. Assuming that the individual with a Exposure Interaction Illumination Execution creative mind has filled his mind with unassimi- Open mind Agitation Closure Critical analysis lated thoughts, these then begin to mill around Fig. 11.1.Highlights of the creative process. and interact. This is frequently described as a tense, detached periodsometimes painful because it is essentially a condition of mental in- 11.29 General Development of the Plan. digestion. There may be experienced a great deal What has the creative process to do with visual- of excitement as if something is getting ready to izing? At their best, the creative process and vis- hatch. ualizing are psychologically practically synonymous. In visualizingwhether it be adisplay, 11.26 The third stage is the illumina- bulletin board, or flannel boardthe creative tion onea moment (or period) of insight, under- process proceeds by answering thequestion in standing the eureka! ah hah! experience. Sud- approximately the following order. denly all the various parts come together in a 11.2.10 1. Determining the message. moment of closure. Frequently the illumination To suggest that one needs to determine exactly is reported to occur when least expectedwhile what one is attempting to communicate before riding a bus, calling long-distance, dreaming, etc. preparing a visual presentation can be mislead- To a large extent, unconscious forces seem to be ing. Usually one finds that the best answer to operating. Of course, the moment of "inspira- the question, "What is the message?" comes dur- tion" which frequently accompanies it is not the ing or after the presentation. Walt Disney is untainted moment of glory as most movies would reputed to have once said that he never tries to have us believe. It is one of doubt, self-criticism, figure out what he is trying to say in a produc- moodiness, and fear. This last, largely because it tion. This he leaves to the authorities to tell him is a new idea and there is fear of social rejection later. At any rate, it would also be misleading to or criticism. suggest that one should not attempt to crystallize the message beforehand. Probably the best guide 11.27 We are,of course,describing is to remember that there are three "layers" to a great creative moments, but in varying degrees communication: the content or statement itself, these characteristics are present even h. the sim- the underlying unstated assumptions upon which ple process of producing a routine interpersonal the content is dependent for communication, and communication. Probably the most troublesome the purposes of the message. In attempting to accompaniment of illumination is the knowledge clarify the essence of a message the following that now the major task of putting the insight checklist can be helpful.

108 Content is best for messages where seeing isessential, 11.2.11 schematic representation, where exact relations 1.Is the message a description,interpretation, or requiring thought and problem solving are de- explanation ? picted, as in a blueprint; and abstraction, with 2. How many elements are involvedand how are irregular undefined shapes,particularly with they all interrelated? colors, so as to produce motivation, movement, 3. How novel is the idea ? Howprovocative ? and attention. Thus, one should clarifywhether the translation of idea should be essentiallyin Assumptions perceptual(seeing),cognitive(thinking),or 11.2.12 affective (feeling) terms.Fig. 11.2 illustrates 1. Are the underlying assumptionstoo complex the transposition of the idea of a person in these to assume? Should they be partof the con- three ways. tent? nature? 11.2.17 4. Grouping and general rela- 2. Are they of a conventional or radical tionships. A visualized plan is called alayout. Several rough layouts, omitting details,should of 11.2.13 Purposes course be attempted andtested until simplifica- 1.Is the goal to reach with understanding or per- tion of idea and presentation isachieved. There suade without revealing actual purpose? are three majorconsiderations in this process: threaten- 2.Is the aim to produce rewarding or 11.2.18 Consistency. The various ele- ing course of action by the observer? ments should be compatible with regardto size, 3. How consistent is the purpose withthe mes- color and shape. Each element shouldlend itself sage? to the simple theme and should berelevant. Other- wise, it can only obscure the message.The type 11.2.14 2. Determination of theele- of lettering should be considered fromthe point ments involved in thecommunication. After de- of view of the message arid otherelements. As fining the message in terms of its content, pur- much as possible, the verbal andnon-verbal ele- poses, and assumptions,it is possible to identify ments should be integrated rather thanseparately the number and nature of theelements. A de- conceived and executed. cision has to be made as to whichelements should be verbal and which nonverbal,depending essen- 11.2.19 Emphasis. For clarity there tially on the degree of abstractness or concrete- should rarely be more than threemagnitudes of ness of the element. elements and most frequently two. The major elements should be clearly distinguishablefrom 11.2.15 3. Translation of ideas into the minor and sub-minor elements.Without visual symbols. The problem of producing com- thought to emphasis, visuals can be flat,"busy," municating symbols that reliably evokethe in- and boring. tended meanings is essentially aproblem known as transposition.Usually, it is a good idea to 11.2.20 Arrangement. The most inter- assume that anything canbe visualized.The esting design is an informal orasymmetrical bal- meaning of any idea is a matter of itsinner re- ance with acertain degree of casualness. The lationships, largely communicated bythe percep- skill is quickly acHeved with alittle practice. The tual structural principles outlinedin a previous effectiveness of many visuals isdecreased by section. One has to be aware ofall major inter- overlooking the importance of letter arrangement. nal relations.For example, if I want to say, The simple rule here is to keeplettering simple "drink milk," I am simply establishing arela- tionship between two elements wherethe direction of movement between one andthe other can be easily visualized. 11.2.16 In concrete messages the visual symbols should be as pictorial orphotographic as possible.In abstract communications theproblem is far greater. Frequentlythe use of complex structural symbols arerequired :abstract shapes in moody paintings,complex formulas in mathematics, etc. There is muchindication that Icon Schematic Abstraction of three major forms of visualsymbol, the icon, such as photographic orrealistic representation, Fig. 11.2.Transpositions of the human figure. 109 and clear. Simplicity is obtained by eliminating or arbitrary, or for momentary purposes. When fancy ornamentation, and clarity, by using one a large group of diverse objects are shown in of a wide variety of letter aids. These devices, proximity, the grouping is generally interpreted requiring little skill for their use, include letter- as one of mere expediency. Whenever the content ing pens, raised cut letters, precut letters, rub- is to produce the feeling that there is a strong ber stamps, stencils, lettering guides and mechan- relationship between elements, proximity alone ical lettering instruments. is inadequate. However, when the relationship between two elements is generally not recognized or accepted, a first step in the direction of com- 11.3 General Perceptual municating an association is simply to place them Principles of Design Applied in proximity. 11.35 Similarity. Distant objects with 11.31 There are structural and func- common features create a more subtle form of tional considerations in producing a design. The producing an association. Although the associa- structural ones are related to the construction of tion may appear more basic it still has an arbi- the visual presentation and the relationship be- trary appearance. Conformity is the major social tween its elements. The functional ones involve process producing a great deal of similarity in the attention-getting and mood-influencing prop- everyday life. If two elements in a visual cannot erties produced. be brought tegether, or best be separated in terms 11.32 Structural Techniques. The basic of the message, the association can be achieved structural organization as previously discussed by giving them common properties. involves the putting together, gathering and 11.36 Common movement. A more dy- grouping of elements, then the dispersion, sep- namic approach in introducing a bond is to have aration and spreading of the element groups, and two or more elements move together. Movement finally, the integration of the grouped and sep- generally causes more involvement and interest. arated components into a coherent design. Un- The grouping in a visual composed of elements der what conditions and for what purpose should moving interdependently, as do the cars of a ferris the various organizational techniques be used? wheel or changing lights, will almost invariably attract attention. And if the elements are dif- 11.33 1. Techniques for grouping. ferent, the observer usually attempts to figure out Whenever the content of the message is to produce how they relate. an association between one or more elements or groups of elements (see Fig. 11.3), one of several 11.37 Good continuity. One of the best of the following grouping techniques must be ways to organize highly disparate elements is to employed : distribute them along the contour of a familiar geometric figure circle, square, star, etc. The 11.34 Proximity. Although elements way iron filings organize on a sheet of paper placed together form a bond, the relationship is when a magnet is placed underneath demonstrates relatively weak, frequently considered accidental a good occurrence of continuity of discrete elements. Essentially, the planets in the solar system Are arranged in terms of the forces operating on them producing good continuity. 11.38 Closure. Grouping by closure is similar to completing a jigsaw puzzle that is, supplying the last of a series of discrete units to produce a meaningful whole. Closure provides a Similarity Common movement more complete and complex association than does Proximity good continuity. When a figure is closed, the parts are as fully lost to the meaning of the whole as are the lines, shapes and colors of a sunset. Closure is the result of continuous trial and simplification of an idea. It is arrived at when all the parts are necessary to the whole, no necessary parts are absent, and the general whole can Good continuity be successfully transposed with a visual.For example, one of the most important closures in the Fig. 11.3.Techniques of grouping. world of science is Einstein's reduction of the

110 complexities involved in relating matter to energy arranged so that it falls into an easily recognized and transposing this into the simple and nowal- three-dimensional form. For example, material most familiar formula, E = mc2. distributed only on the contour of a reversible figure such as the Necker Cube would be more 11.39 2. Techniques for separating. compact and easily perceived than if it were At the same time elements are grouped (seeFig. placed irregularly in a shape that did notlend 11.4), segregation is occurring in terms of the itself to three dimensions. following : 11.3.13 Depth cues. Most of the depth 11.3.10 Filled spacing. The most ob- cues have been known for centuries.As described vious and simplest device for separating twoele- in the section on perceptual organization, they mentsistoplacedistancebetweenthem. include overlap, the various perspectives, use of However, unless the space between them is filled lightandshade,movement,anddistortion. with heterogeneous material, the distant elements, Several are usually used in conjunction. particularly if they are similar, will be grouped despite the spacing. 11.3.14 3. Techniques for integrating. Having grouped and separated the variousele- 11.3.11 Contrast. Any time a funda- is in- ments, all should be integrated into asingle, co- mental difference between two elements presentations tended, each should be visually presentedwith herentvisual.Effective visual but result from careful step-by-step planning.They opposite features that are not only different, start with a series of trial and errorlayouts, enhance the actual difference. The usual con- over-all trasts are in color, brightness, shape,direction, roughly sketched. The two important position, size, texture, action, or surrounding.In considerations are to keep it simple and clear. surrounds Probably the best approach is to proceed "from color or brightness contrast, where one above downward," which is to say, from thetotal the other, the germinal beginnings ofdepth per- element will idea to the specific parts. Essentially, all of the ception are apparent. The contained preceding principles of grouping and separating appear to be closer tothe observer than the sur- figure are relevant in producing a"good figure," or one rounding. This is largely because the total that seems natural, fully articulated, persistsin tends to be seen as figure and ground. memory, preserves its shapesand colors, and com- 11.3.12 Figure-ground. Figure and municates through proper transposition of idea ground perspective provides more interest to a to visual. visual ; it may actually give the messagethe sem- blance of more depth. Since perceptiontends to- 11e3.15 Functional Considerations. ward simplification, complex material canbe What functional effects do various elementshave on the observer,particularly in terms of attention and mood?

11.3.16 1. General techniques. 11.3.17 Attention-getting devices. It is necessary to embody in visualcommunication a means of gaining theattention of the intended ccL recipient of the message. In a sense,anything Contrast that is sudden, different, capsulating, or provocative draws the eyes of the observer. 11.3.18 Verbal captioning and labelling. One of the fifst places the eyes will restis on any explanatory verbal areas of a visual presentation. We expect to obtain the "sense and essence"of the messsage from thecaption. Disappointment re- Figure Ground sults if the caption or label fails to produce the gist. Captions should be brief, and if possible, in telegraphic form. It is generally best to useonly a few sizes andshapes for caption background elements and a limited number ofletter styles and sizes. The caption in terms of the layoutshould Depth cues bear a definite relationship to the total presenta- Fig. 11.4.Techniques of separating. tion. 111 11.3.19 Eye attractors. The mechanism of attraction of content is more variable than the of vision contains several "feedback" controls preceding devices and therefore less predictable, which produce attention in the presence of certain and most of the meanings evoked by symbols are elements which have their origins deep in the learned.The symbols provide meaning simul- evolutionary background of humans when sudden taneously at three different levels: movement, animal colors, and other cues might 11.3.28 Personal. The most difficult mean sudden death. The following is a partial meanings to predict are those that are peculiar to list of visual elements that "catch the eye." an individual. These are built up through life ex- 11.3.20 Color. The use of color is per- perie=es. One individual may be more sensitive haps the simplest and surest means of attracting to scientific material, another to artistic, etc. attention. The attraction level of the color is 11.3.29 Social. The group and com- related to vision physiology. Red, for example, munity that one is related to frequently has its will attract more attention than blue if the sat- own level of sophistication, preferences and ta- uration and intensity of the two hues are equal. boos. One can be sure that certain themes will 11.3.21 Brightness. Although c e r t a in be of interest to a wide variety of societies : colors attract more than others, it is not the coloi achievement stories,adventure, mystery, and but the brightness that is really effective. Atten- human relations, particularly those with sexual tion generally is increased by the intensity of connotations. light and color. A certain brilliance of purple, for 11.3.30 Cultural. The broadest frame- example, can gain more attraction than a duller work of content interest is of cultural matters. red. This essentially includes the broad issues of lan- 11.3.22 Movement. If the eye detects guage style, format, and frankness of expression. displacement of an object from one position to It is enlightening for example, to compare the another, or if increasing distance between two New York Times with the London Times. objects is perceived, attention is almost invariably 11.3.31 Techniques for influencing produced. Apparent motion can be in certain in- mood. There is little reliable knowledge on the stances even more effective because of the illu- influencing of mood or mood induction with sionary quality. visual elements. In general, the problem is one of 11.3.23 Size. Anything large relative to transposing the structure of moods into the visual its surrounding, or in general, will get attention. structure. This requires an analysis of mood in Size, therefore, depends to a large extent on the terms of structure and relating this to the avail- context and general frame of reference. A six- able visual elements. A simple illustration is the inch spider will capture more attention than a use of concentric spiralling inward used fre- six-foot shark. Blow-ups are frequently used to quently on television to produce a mood of prob- ing into inky mystery.Another one, easy to gain attention. visualize, is the expansive structure of elation. 11.3.24 White space. A surrou 'Wing of Mood induction will be discussed in terms of line, white space will bring attention to any object object, and content. being surrounded. 11.3.32 Mood expressed by symbolic 11.3.25 Shape. Certain shapes and lines. All of us at one time or another have ob- forms gain more attention than others. In gen- served our own or someone else's "doodles." In eral, asymmetrical, irregular shapes that also these scribbles, it may have been noted, we pro- have the feature of simplicity are more eye-catch- ject our feelings, and they tend to "look the way ing than duller, symmetrical and complicated the emotion feels." Try a simple experiment with ones. yourself. Experience an emotion or mood. Scrib- ble spontaneously on a sheet of paper. Try this 11.3.26 Mystery. Presenting the visual with several moods. You will find that although communication as an unfolding solution can be some are similar, they tend to be related to the an effective attention technique. A well-known kind of mood one is expressing pleasant or car manufacturer, for example, attempted to pro- unpleasant, serene or agitated. duce interest in a new model by displaying it covered. 11.3.33 In an exploratory experiment of this kind, subjects drew lines to indicate "love" 11.3.27 Content attractors. The mean- and "hate," and they revealed some highly con- ings evoked by the content symbols produce at- sistent representations.Disregarding such im- traction. Two important notes are that the level portant elements as size and quality of line, the

112 doodles fell into a systematic pattern, as shown in Fig. 11.5. Love was generally drawn as a wavy line and hate as a jagged one. 11.3.34 Mood expressed by symbolic objects. Such experimental exploration into the nature of mood transposition suggests the possibility of constructing objects communicating moods by their combined color, shape, surface, material, and other object characteristics. The aim is to dis- cover what variety of visual element is associated with what mood for a particular population. This latter consideration is important to note; continuous visual symbols, as is the case with any type of symbol, are always meaningful only in terms of a given cultural group. 11.3.35 The writer has had ten objects constructed in terms of observed associations between visual elements and mood, which seem to 4 hold true in our culture. These objects are shown ,. r in Fig. 11.6. From 70 to 75 percent of the subjects could detect the mood projected into the object by correctly matching object with mood. Even a without color, matching was 62 percent accurate. The implication is that with the compilation of such data it becomes possible to construct visuals with pretlitz,ble mood inductionqualitiesin- stalled. 11.3.36 Mood expressed by content. The most reliable technique for evoking mood is Fig. 11.6. through concrete inclusion of mood-laden mate- Expression of feeling in objects. rial, pictorial in nature. Everyone is familiar with the fact that a sad face evokes similarex- revealing how basic empathic feelingsare in pression in observers through a process knownas humans. empathy, a putting of oneself into another. In 11.3.37 2,Achieving Visual Communi- such instances, it is possible to identify oneself cation Purposes. There are a variety of tech- with, for example, the hero in a movie. Fig. 11.7 niques for achieving the five generalpurposes of shows a highly integrated early cave painting of a bison with striking dynamic mood properties,

LOVE :r \ 80%

1410/0 n 90/0 3 0/0 ri 60/0 2 04rp on, 0/0 t\i\J 2 0/0 2 c10 r\fp 4 % 1 04 r \ frk) 1 0/0 2 0/0 e \f \ f \ fl 00/0 0 0/0 rf\fA) 9 0/0 0/0 38 % 61 % Straight line voriont + 19%Curved line variant 0 470/ Fig. 11.7.Charging bison from a painting perhaps Curved line " 20%Straight line / 150/c 20,000 years old from the caves of Altamira (from L. Hog- ben. From Cave Painting to COMIC Strip. Chanticleer Fig. 11.5.Expression of feeling in line. Press, New York, 1949).

113 eval- 11.3.40 Evaluation. Objects are usual- communication: identifying, characterizing, negative-positive and uating, prescribing, and relating. ly evaluated in terms of means-ends relations (see Fig.11.10). 11.3.38 Identification. An object can be identified in three different ways:The object itself can be shown, its familiarenvironment can be shown, or a substitute symbol canbe used, such as a trademark.See Fig. 11.8.

Means End

Object

Negative Positive Environment Fig. 11.10.Evaluation techniques.

11.3.41 Prescription. Visual requests are frequentlymade by showing the results of obeying the prescription in comparisonto before a before-afterpresentation, or by visually out- lining instructions, or simply bypresenting mandatory signs, such as "Keep Out."(See Fig. Substitute 11.11). Fig. 11.8.Identification techniques.

11.3.39 Characterization.When features of the object are tobe characterized the usual techniques includeshowing a closeup, a plan drawing, or a quality (seeFig. 11.9).

Blueprint Directions Plan

Light as a feather Mandatory Quality

Wool Close-up Before After Prescription techniques. Fig. 11.9.Characterization techniques. Fig. 11.11.

114 5. The economic use of standardsizes of var- 11.3.42 Relation. There are a varietyof graphic techniques for relatingobjects to others. ious materials. Fig. 11.12 shows some commonsolutions to graph 6. The probable lightingconditions. problems. 7. The general visual acuityof the prospective audience.

Cebmars itePtctograph 11.43 The size of the elements, par- Multiple Divided Divided Line graph bars bars circle ticularly small ones such as lower caselettering, Simple frequently presents a problem inestimating size. comparisons if The most direct means would beto try a few viewing dis- A whole sizes and evaluate from the expected and its parts 11 tance and lighting.This can be exceedingly tedious and wasteful if a greatnumber of esti- Multiple ! mates must be made, forexample, such as the comparisons placement of n.any elements in anexhibit or along Loss and gain II N i ci if 1 a road. comparisons lU "4' 11.44 A simple instrument, which can Frequency I AI be called a "visibility meter," canbe constructed and used in such instances.It is based on the Fig. 11.12. Solutions to commongraph problems (from visual angle idea and formula ofFig. 7.30, in- Bower, T. E., "Graphicsin Communication,"Journal of of the retinal Training Directors, June,1959.) volving the estimation of the size the American Society of image. The visibility meter isillustrated in Fig. 11.13, along with the geometriccharacteristics 11.4Adequacy andVisibility i nvolved. of Sensory Design 11.45 For example, if the desirable size for the letters of a sign "Exit" isto be determined 11.41 Assuming that all of themajor from a particular position, thefollowing pro- problems involved invisualizing and applying cedure is followed : principles are achieved, structural and functional 1.Print in small letters the word, "Exit" on atrans- a finalproblem remains : Howadequate is the de- parent plastic square (A),approximately 2" x 2". sign ?Frequently, excellentlyproduced visuals 2. Place the plastic square in theholder (B) and head fail because someoneoverlooked elementary de- on the chin rest (C) ofthe stationary platform (D). tails, such as the propersize of elements, their 3.Slide the holder containing the "sign" to or away positioning, or impropercaptioning. The ade- from you (E) while positioning the holderthrough quacy is largelyeffected by first, thenumber, the sight (F) to theplacewhere the sign is to be. size, positioning,brightness and color contrast of the constituentelements, and second, bythe major overall characteristics the speed of recognition, the degree ofcomprehension, its general efficiency, visibility,degree of fatigue produced, and its attractiveness. 11.42 Size of Elements. Afterdeter- mining the number ofelements that will be included in the visual fromthe layout, the question of size is important.There are two important classes of Azes: the over-allfield, and the included elements. The size of theover-all field in most instances should be estimatedfirst. This depends on suchconsiderations as : A 1. The probable distanceof most viewers. 2. The average lengthof time of perception, since, in general, the shorterthe viewing time the larger the visualshould be. 3. The degree ofportability needed of the visual. Visibility meter. 4. The material that willbe used. Fig. 11.13.5. 115 wrote down 4. When the sign seems tobe at about the right size, to ten words) to subjects, who then the position of the sign alongthe graduated plat- the words they saw. This typeof experiment, form (G) will indicate how far thesign is from the using a tachistoscope (an instrumentfor flashing viewer's eye. material rapidly) simulates the actuallife condi- 5.If the size of the letters on theplastic square and the tion of glimpsing for fractions of asecond various distance of the eye to the sign and tothe position communications seen along roads or inthe daily on the area wherethe wall will be are known, it is possible to compute the approximatesize that the newspaper. The resultsindicated graphically in size should be by the followingsimple proportion: Fig. 11.14 that the number of correctlyidentified Size of element required forvisibility

Size of element in Visibility meter 3 I I Distance of eye to element in Meter Distance to proposed place ofelement _ or, according to thegeometric analysis in Figure 16, 2 simply AB=_Nc NC ab - Of course, AB, or the size ofthe element desired 1 - for visibility or other purposes,is what must be solved for. As an exampie, if I used a1-inch letter height and it appeared at adesirable height on a wall 12 feet (or 144 inches) awaywhen the letters were I 12 inches away, the size of theletters should be ap- 0 I 1 I proximately 12 inches: 7 8 9 10 --x" =144" WOrds Shown 1" 12" Fig. 1114.The number of words seen in term3 of the number of words flashed at one-tenth second. x 144" 12" words depend on, among other things, the num- 11.46 Number of Elements. Asimple ber of words shown. In general, the more words rule pertaining to numberof elements is to keep shown, the fewer absolute words correctly seen. them to a bare minimum. Of course,too few ele- Under the conditions of this experiment, subjects ments may defeat thecommunication's intent. were able to see one-half morewords when seven For every communicationproblem there is an were shown than when ten wereshown at the optimal range of elements.Unnecessary addi- same exposure. since atten- tional elements dilute the message, Positioning of Elements. There tion is spread thinner bythe additional elements. 11.48 In determining the numberof elements the fol- has grown a large body of scientific information considered : identifying the areas most frequently looked at. lowing should be carefully This is vital information to newspaper advertise- 1. The complexity of the message.Generally. ment, for obvious reasons. the more complex, the morecomponents are necessary todepict relationships, although 11.49 The most elaborate technique for this is not always true. identifying these areas is with the use of eye- 2. The degree of solutionof the problem being movement photography, where the saccadic move- communicated.In general, the more re- ments of the eye over printed material can be solved, the less elements areneeded. permanently recorded on film for further study. It is rarely necessary when preparing simple 3. The level ofunderstanding of the audience, and knowledge. visuals to become this involved. There are, how- their general background ever, simple principles that should be noted : 4. The level ofunderstanding that is desired by the communication. 1. The eye most frequently tends to look at the upper center of presented material. 5. The availability ofmaterial. time that will be spent in 2. Informal off-centering of elementsthat 6. The amount of is, asymmetrical balancing, is more interviewing. esting than dead centering. 3. Major elements, such as captioning, should 11.47 In a recent study, thewriter flashed sentences of variouslengths (from seven be clearly segregated from minor elements. 4. Minor elements, in general, should be so is a greater preference for hues ofeither high arranged as to lead the eye either to or away value difference or low value difference,rather from major elements. than medium value difference. Coolcolors are 5. Major and minor elements should be inter- generally preferred for backgrounds and warm neither should seem colors for foregrounds.Several investigations dependent that is, have shown the following hierarchy ofcolor complete if alone. preference, from most to least preferred :red, 6. The various elements derived from the lay- blue, violet-blue, violet, green-blue, green,violet- out should be arranged in various positions red, blue-violet, red-violet, green-yellow, orange, until an interesting pattern is produced. orange-red, yellow-orange, yellow, orange-yellow, found that 11.4.10 The simplest instrument to de- and least, yellow-green. It was also termine the effect position has on visibility is the preference is affected first by hue, secondby tachistoscope. It is possible to build a simple one value or darkness, or lightness, and last.by as illustrated in Fig. 11.15.By releasing the saturation. 11.4.13 These findings, however, can frequently be misleading, because they are outof context. The preferred colors forice cream or sunset obviously depend on thesituation. Some studies have been more specific.Yellow and orange, for example, arepreferred for publicity on building materials,yellow and green for bev- erage advertisements,and amber tooth brush handles for those in the upper economicbrackets (red for the lower economic brackets). 11.4.14 Research in color association has shown that the reactions are notrandom. In such studies, light colors are almostinvariably described as breathlike and pale, darkcolors as gloomy ; red-orange and yellow are neverassoci- ated with cold and blue never with warm;cheer- fulness is hardly ever associatedwith gray, white, Fig. 11.15. Home made tachistoscope or flash meter. or black. Manyof these associations are of course artificiallydevelopedinsociety.Purplefor royalty is a Western idea. Manycolors have con- switch (a) the movable section, hinged at (b), for example, may containing a hole (g) about 1 inch in diameter flicting meanings white, passes over the stationarysection, containing a mean either death orlife. similar hole (f) and for a fraction of a second, 11.4.14 There have been many attempts material positioned at (c) can be tachistoscopi- to codify color meanings inindustry. Noteworthy cally viewed. Rubber bands or springs (d) and is the Safety Color Code devisedby the American the distances from where they are bolted (e) de- Standards Association: red for fire,danger, and termine the speed of the shutter opening. The stop; orange for dangerous areas;yellow or green shutter blade has to be reset after each use. for caution ; green for safety; purplefor radiation ; and black and white for traffic.Color can 11.4.11 Brightness and Color Contrast. also affect the experience of temperature.There The most effective means for separating elements is usually a marked decrease in requests forheat and producing attention is through the means of in cold climates when warm colors areadded to brightness and color contrast. Color is one of the walls and decorations. most important elements in any successful display ; it plays an important role in evoking mood. 11.4.15 Specific Graphic Characteris- A group of meat markets recently painted their tics. There are five major variables forconsidera- walls blue-green and used green sawdust in order tion in terms of graphic adequacy. Eachof these to increase the redness and brightness of their will be discussed with methods forevaluation of meats. adequacy, particularly typographic adequacy. 11.4.12 Something about the psycholog- 11.4.16 1. Speed. How fast is the ma- ical characteristics and effect of color may be terial perceived or recognized is an initial but useful in this context. Research shows that there far from the most important consideration. With 117 typographic material such as newspaper print, 300 estimates of speed or rate of reading can be com- puted, usually in words per minute (wpm) .Al- though the rate of reading varies widely, the average person reads between 200and 225 wpm. If time is a consideration, verbal materialof an 290 average degree of difficultyand even under ideal conditions should be presented to a group at about 100 to 150 wpm. Nonverbal, or continuous material, is somewhat more difficult. The simplest 280 approach would be to obtain estimates of the length of time indivic uals require to "read" the -c70 visual.In general, simple, regular geometric cc forms are perceived more quickly than irregular 270 ones. 11.4.17 2. Comprehension. More important than speed is the amount ofmaterial understood. Methods for estimating comprehen- 260 sion range from simple, informal checkquestions, to standardized reading tests. It is alwaysdesir- able to obtain an estimate of the percent compre- 250 hension that can be expected from a given pass- First Second Third Fourth age or other visualpresentation. Quarter of PossoQe 11.4.18 3. Efficiency. The product of reading speed produced by speed and comprehension yields probablythe Fig. 11.16.Decrease in most reliable estimate of visualadequacy. If, for fatigue. example, a passage is read at about 200 wpmand a standard testof the reading indicates that 50 of estimating this, suggested byLuckiesh, is to percent of the passage wascomprehended, the count the eye blinks per minute,since the fre- reader then has an efficiency rate of 100 wpm. quency of eyeblinking is related to fatigue. With nonverbal material, an estimate of the num- 5. Preference. A final consid- unit of time 11.4.20 ber of elements perceived per given eration is the aesthetic qualitiesof the graphic. would indicate the efficiency of the visual. Aesthetic factors are important fortwo import- qualities attract at- 11.4.19. 4. Fatigue. Different visual ant reasons. First, aesthetic materials produce varying degrees offatigue. tention and the material is retainedlonger. Sec- Reading speed, for example, decreases with con- ond, and most important, byincorporating, for tinuous reading. Fig. 11.16 indicates theactual example, informal balance, gooddevelopment or decrease in speed in the reading of a passage. rhythm, and harmony, the material is morequick- The passage was divided into quartersand an ly perceived, more easilycomprehended and, estimate of speed was obtained for eachquarter. therefore, generally more efficientand less fa- Reading deceases rapidly at the beginningand tiguing. Because of the personal natureof prefer- levels off to a fairly constant pace. Fatigue can ence and the widevariety of taste, it is difficult also be estimated for nonverbal material.Every- to obtain measures ofprefereme. When such one recalls having seen amovie or television pro- measures are obtained,they are usually through duction that greatly tired the eyes. Onemethod some system of rating orranking.

118 1

12.Selection and Useof Visual Media

prepared by Robert C. Snider

into words without a loss ofmeaning: "Because 12.1 The Language of Vision objects of art are expressive,they are a language. Rather they are many languages.For each art 12.11 Words are not enough. Despite medium is especially in visual communication, allof us has its own medium and that our interest fitted for one kind of communication.Each med- must approach this subjectunder the same ser- be uttered as well ious handicap, for ours is analmost completely ium says something that cannot products of this or as completelyin any other tongue. The needs word-oriented society, and we are of daily life have givensuperior practical im- society.Obviously, the most frequentlyused portance to one mode ofcommunication, that of channel of communication in oursociety is verbal, speech. This fact hasunfortunately given rise either spoken or written. Theimplication here is to a popular impressionthat the meanings ex- not that we 'slave giventoo much emphasis to pressed in architecture, sculpture,painting and verbal communication. Rather,it would seem, we music can be translated intowords with little if have not given adequate attentionto the various any loss. In fact,each art speaks an idiom that modes of visual communication. conveys what cannotbe said in another language and remain the same." 12.12 Earlier in this book, it was stated that, from a psychological pointof view, the crea- 12.14 A most helpful way ofgiving tive process and the processof visualizing are thoughtful consideration to visualcommunica- practically synonymous. Thisimplication that tions media will be for eachof us to test fre- words are inadequate forimaginative, creative quently Dewey's positionthat each art medium thought, is made even moresuccinctly by Louis is a unique language capableof making state- thinking is better ments that it would beimpossible to articulate as H. Sullivan who said, "Real medium. Our test- done without words than withthem, and creative effectively through any other , words. When the ing of this concept, of course, can rangefrom thinking must be done without for a given pur- mind is actively and vitally atwork, for its own actually using a variety of media creative uses, it has no time forword-building: pose with severalaudiences to simply a hasty time to select mental appraisal based on pastexperience with words are too clumsy : you have no essential thing and group them. Hence you mustthink in terms various media. In either case, the of images, of pictures, of statesof feeling, of is our willingness to trysomething new, to experi- well-organized, well- ment, to be constantly alert to waysof improving rhythm. The well-trained, technique. The imaginative disciplined mind works withremarkable rapidity our communication teacher and without and with luminous intensity ;it will body forth teacher is the interesting combinations, in mass, so complex, sofar-reach- interest there can be little reallearning. down in years. ing that you could not write them 12.15 Although Dewey speaks of "art," Writing is but the slow, snail-likecreeping of we must keep inmind that when the above quota- words, climbing, laboriously, over alittle struction is considered in the fullcontext of his work, ture that resembles the thought :meanwhile the Dewey's interpretation of the termart, as used mind has gone on and on, hereand yonder and above, is certainly broadenough to include the back and out and back again." visual media to which we haveaddressed our- that for every 12.13 In his discussion of what is said selves.It must be remembered and form, John visual statement created today as awork of art, and how it is said, substance created simply to convey Dewey lends support to the assumptionthat visual many thousands are media are unique in that they cannotbe translated visual information. 119 12.16 There is, indeed, a real danger 12.2 Photography that the novice will confusethe field of aesthetics Because of its several usesin and fine art with the morepractical, utilitarian 12.21 many obviouslyunique communicationmedia, it functions of visual communication.Aesthetics photography as a has traditionally beenconsidered one of the philo- will be convenient to consider with theoretical ex- kind of language ; alanguage that is communi- sophic disciplines concerned of quite separate media, ploration of questions that arise when menreflect cated through a number e.g., snapshots, newspapers,posters, slides, and on the beautyof nature and the products offine photography as a arts. The primary interest ofthe artist, of course, motion pictures. The use of means ofcommunicationhasonlyrecently isincreating objectsof beauty without a and it has yet to thorough and systematic concernfor the com- reached significant proportions munication effects of his product. develop its full potential. in The communication specialist, on 12.22 Discussing consequential forces 12.17 contemporary society, Moholy-Nagy says :"It is the other hand, is primarilyconcerned with mean- 'mechanical' thing as ing and concerned with formonly as it can con- unprecedented that such a working crea- photography regarded so contemptuouslyin tribute to that meaning. Anyone the creative senseshould have acquired in tively with visual media is aptto find himself the power to become aesthetic considerations barely a century of evolution torn between theoretical, one of theprimary visual forces in ourlife. of art on the one hand, and themuch more em- his vision on his pirical considerations of the scienceof communi- Formerly the painter impressed cation on the other. Perhapsthis question can age ; today it is thephotographer." ourselves first and best be resolved if we consider 12.23 Whiting has describ edphotog- foremost as communication specialistswith an raphy as a means of communicationthat enables interest in art forms only as they canclarify our man to show instantlythe appearance of all things message. more accurately thanvision itself. A newly in- vented language, photographyis capable of trans- 12.18 Historically, visual forms of com- mitting information simultaneouslytoScots, munication have played a little-noted butessential Russians, Egyptians, Kansans,Filipinos.This role in the development of ourpresent-day civil- form of fact-transmission, orexpression, despite ization. In a series of eight lectures atthe Lowell its realism and all-encompassing sweepof detail, Institute of Boston in 1950, Ivinsdeveloped this can also be usedselectively to draw comparisons significant point."Although every history of and to register social protest.Photography is now European civilization makes much of theinven- being used so widely that muchof the information in the mid-fifteenth century of waysto print tion in the mind of virtually anycivilized person words from movable types, it is customaryin is picture information. those histories to ignore the slightlyearlier discovery of ways to printpictures and diagrams 12.24 Selectivity is indigenous to any unlike the use of photographsin communication. Firstof all, ...the printing of pictures, however, picture must by this very printing of words from movable types,brought a anyone who "takes" a it made act exercise a great dealof selectivity in terms of completely new thing into existence length, light and possible for the first time pictorialstatements of time and space, angle and focal exactly repeated during the shadow. Most photographers"shoot protection," a kind that could be of whatever effective life of the printing surface.This exact that is they make several exposures incal- they happen to be photographing,and thus they repetition of pictorial statements has had selectivity culable effects upon knowledge andthought, upon are able toexercise another degree of science and technology, of every kind. Itis hardly in deciding what negativesthey will print and too much to say that since theinvention of writing what negatives they willdiscard. invention than there has been no more important 12.25 After the photographer passes that of the exactly repeatablepictorial statement." his selection of prints on tohis client, be he editor, will in turn 12.19 The inv en ti on of photography, producer, or county agent, this person scarcely more than a century ago, with thesub- have to make choices from thepictures he re- reproducing all ceives, sometimes from manyphotographers. His sequent flood of techniques for of his purposes, his kinds of visual materials has greatlyincreased not choices will be made in terms visual messages understanding of his audience,his ability to judge only the quantity but the types of his budget. and the purposes to which they havebeen put. pictures in this context, and

120 12.26 Final selection is always made by 12.2.11 The better a photographer un- the viewer who, when confronted with the picture, derstands his subject, the better his pictures will must decide how much attention he will give it. be of that subject. This simple but often overlooked Professionals who work regularly with photo- fact is important to keep in mind not only when graphs make every effort to obtain many pictures we take pictures, but when we engage aphotog- from which their selections can be made. rapher to do a job for us. W. Eugene Smith, well- known Life photographer, goes to great lengths 12.27 Magazines such as Life and Look to know his subjects well before his photographic often work with a "shooting ratio" of 1,000 to 1. activities. "Shooting ratio" refers to the ratio between the number of photographs taken for a particular 12.2.12 In preparation for doing his story and the number of photographs eventually "Nurse Midwife" story (Life, December 3, 1951) , printed. A higher ratio will result in a more Smith took a two-week midwife training course effective photo communication provided two im- before he made a single picture. He became portant conditions are met :(1) The number of steeped in his subject and accompanied a nurse photographs available for our selection or "edit- midwife on all her calls in the backwoods around ing" must provide us with a variety of treatments Pineville, South Carolina, until he became a famil- and points of view of the subject being pictured. iar figure in the countryside. When Smith went (2) It is essential that the final selection of photo- to Spain to do his now famous "Spanish Village" graphs be made with a clear understanding of our picture essay (Life, April 9, 1951) , he did not communication objective and our audience. unpack his cameras for weeks. "Instead, he read 12.28 Obviously, this kind of an activ- many books on Spain's culture and politics and ity requires a skill that perhaps can best be appre- drove nearly 7,000 miles around the Spanish ciated after we have had some experience in countryside until he had soaked up the moods and selecting the three or four most effective pictures atmosphere of Spain and her people." for a given purpose from an assortment of sev- 12.2.13 Cameras. "You push the but- eral thousand prints (or even several hundred) ton, we do the rest." This 1888 camera slogan of the same activity. Whether we are taking pic- was never more true than it is today when cam- tures, using pictures, or both, our success will eras of every size, price, and description are avail- depend in large measure on our ability to judge able for making black-and-white, color, and even photographs for a well-defined objective. On the three-dimension pictures in the form of prints, other hand, if we are unable to define this objec- slides, or motion pictures. Cameras and camera tive, we should seriously question the decision to equipment have kept pace with the automatic use a photograph, for we all too often find photo- gear shift and the automatic washing machine. graphs being used as part of a communication for Today your approach to the mechanics of photog- no apparent reason whatsoever uncommunica- raphy, like your approach to the mechanics of the tive, indifferent images. automobile, can be as simple or as complex as you 12.29 The Photographer. Nearly every- want it to be. one in visual communications will find himself using a camera at some time or other. The ques- 12.2.14 Much detailed information about tion of how proficient the visual specialist should cameras is available in great quantity from be with a camera will depend on many things in- camera shops, manufacturers, and many books, cluding his own inclination to work with a booklets, and magazines dealing with many phases camera. of photography. So much material is available, in fact, that it is apt to be confusing to the novice. 12.2.10 The statement has been made It will be well to remember that simply buying that "the photographer who is only a photog- the most expensive camera you can is not always rapher isn't a photographer." Stated in other the best plan. If you lack experience you may find words, this refers to the importance of a photog- it too complex for your purposes. The novice will rapher's understanding the subject-matter he is to most likely do his best work with a less compli- photograph. It almost goes without saying that cated, inexpensive camera. our understanding of a subject will be reflected in the photographs we make of that particular 12.2.15 Once you have a camera you subject. Some photographers have specialized in will be tempted by the photographic pitfall of a subject and have become quite successful not gadgets. You will at once be confronted by a simply because of their skill as photographers, but bewildering array of tripods, flash guns, reflect- because of their photographic skill plus their ors, lens shades, filters, cable releases, range knowledge of and interest in the subject. finders, extra lenses, and exposure meters to

121 mention only a few. Don't be confused. Remem- is worth ten thousand words is simply arational- ber, your first job is to learn to use your camera ization of the illiteracy of millions ofChinese." is. Get which will make good pictures just as it 12.32 This matter is discussed byWil- attachments only when you have learned to under- son Hicks : "There arethose who believe there is stand their function and how they can help youdo a bright future forextended statement in still a better job. photography without the aid of words. Fromthe photojournalistic standpoint, this view isnot 12.2.16 Exposure meters, incidentally, narrational or are important, butthey are as difficult to use sound. The wordless picture story, properly as many cameras. Beginners canand do expository, is, and will be, the exception.The get good exposure results by followingthe in- point is not whether photographs canget along by without words, but whether, with words,they can structions packed with every roll of film or The photo- using inexpensive cardboad exposure guidesavail- perform their own function better. . . . able at all camera shops and many drug stores. graph does not always tell how anemotion was caused, what its effect will be later. Of a manof 12.2.17 As the how of camera operation forty, unless he has been a subjectof detailed becomes second nature, you will be able to con- photobiography through the years, the camera centrate on the much more importantproblem of cannot say what he was like whenhe was ten what to photograph. Keep in mind that the cam- years old, or what he hadfor breakfast this morn- era is only an extensionof your vision. It will ing, or what train he will take tomorrow.So it capture anpinsthnt of time at yourbidding. Cam- becomes the duty of words to providethe facts of eras, likeAtypewritersand paint brushes, are before and after ...the camera can go just so significant only in terms of what is createdwith far. Words go the rest of theway." them. The difference between snapshots and It is of some interest to note the really effective photographs will oftenbe deter- 12.33 world relative importance of words andpictures in mined by your ability to see pictures in the verbal-visual presentations such asillustrated around you.It matters little what kind of a displays, camera is used to "take"these pictures. Finding lectures, captioned filmstrips, illustrated or even sound motionpictures (although the lat- them is the important thing. ter are unique in many respects) .In commenting 12.2.18 As you take pictures keep in on their relativeimportance Hicks tells us that mind how you will use them later. Whatpictures "pictures and words together perform a more will best tell the story you want to tell?Study effective function than either canperform alone. published photographs to stimulate your thinking There can, however, be an inequality intheir com- about how and what you will photograph.Have municative values, the value of each mediumbeing a plan for thepictures you want to make. You the clarity, coherence and forcewith which, in may not be able to followthis plan, but thinking its own way, it says something about agiven sub- about it will increase your ability to "see"pictures ject. In some instances the picture canhave a that will be of value to you in the future.Take value in excess of the accompanyingwords ; in enough pictures. Be in a position to showonly other instances the opposite can be true.The ideal a selection of yourpictures. No writer publishes is reached when the values areequal and in bal- every word he writesand no photographer ex- ance, for then the singleexpressive statement has hibits every picture. maximum impact." 12.34 Even when words and pictures are combined so as toreach their "maximum im- 12.3 Words and Pictures pact" as described above, according tostudents 12.31 Although we usually consider vis- of this phenomenon, they have still not accom- ual communication as a separate,somewhat plished all of the communicative potentialof this meaning, form of communication.According to Hicks unique, nonverbal mode of evoking its an examination ofcurrent practice in the visual "the very foundation of the form rests on media of communication will quickly revealthe extraordinary ability to induce a phenomenon important fact that these so-called visualmedia wherein the total of the complex that is, picture seldom operate completely without somekind of and words together becomes greater than the verbal accompaniment. According to Elizabeth sum of its parts.This phenomenon is caused by McCausland, "A conception needs to be developed the addition of an X factor to thejoint impression to distinguish between the contentwhich lan- made on the reader's mind by the mediumsacting guage conveys and thecontent which pictures in concert, the X factor being thereader's own convey. The Chinese aphorismthat one picture contribution to the communicativechemistry.

122 caption-writer. By andlarge, his emotional that desired by the Appealed to through eye and ear, captions which suggestmeanings incongruent or intellectualreaction doubly stimulated ;the picture will be rejected, supplies material from memoryand with the content of the reader and interpretation willbe primarily a responseto imagination to round out and enrichwhat is being This is by no meansalways conveyed to him." the picture alone. true, however." 12.35 Captions have been referredto as pictures. Newhall feels 12.39 Early investigators ofwhat we verbal fingers pointing at of subjects that most people need verbalcrutches to see with, now callcaptions noted the tendency number of people for pictures as an aid toreproduction although she feels that the to label or name that whom really great photographsspeak a language of those materials.Luchins demonstrated beyond words issteadily increasing.Newhall labels applied to relativelyambiguous designs will further points up the significanceof the caption aid recognition of theoutline of objects concealed examined the drawings when she says, "...the most explicit photo- in the design. Subjects graph may not reveal to themost omniscient eye for characteristicscompatible with thelabel precise place and day applied.That characteristic,for some subjects, of editor or historian the which it was made. Therefore theassociation of words became the only aspectof the design to and photographs has grownto a medium with they attended. Carmichaeland others found that think, and, in the the label applied to anambiguous design_in many immense influence on what we that design. newphotograph-writing, the mostsignificant cases determinedthe reproduction of development so far is thecaption." Farmsworth and Beaumontdemonstrated that aesthetic evaluation oflittle-known paintings was 12.36 In considering the viewer'sabil- significantly affected by astatement of the com- ity to identify the contentof a visual field what McGranahan psychologists tell us that mercial value of thepaintings. is in the picture states that, "The effectof language onperception naming the objects in a pictureis an early essen- the objec- perception in children. appears to be tomake those features of tial to the development of tive world that arerepresented by linguistic Indeed, many adults feel theyhave exhausted the articulation, to cause meaning in a pictorial statementif they can forms stand out in greater assign words to its content. Weoften remember similarities to be seenin things similarly repre- telling someone sented and in generalto influence perceptionin the caption when we think we are points about a picture we have seenin a magazine or the direction of thespeech forms." Vernon filmstrip. Identification of contentis, of course, out that although wehave no actualexperimental much more than this, andit need not be limited evidence of the factthat we tend toperceive to verbal identification.It can, and often is, most readily thatwhich we can namemost easily, identification with our personalcategories of past there are a numberof studies that suggestthis experience it may be an emotional,cultural, may be so. identification that will often defy or aesthetic discussion verbal description. 12.3.10 In her provocative of the caption,Newhall describes thefollowing 12.37 A considerable amountof re- title, caption, and text,in research has been published onthe influence of differences between words on the meaningsconveyed by pictures. lation to pictures: Kerrick found that captions can modifythe judg- Title: (Photographic usage,inthe United ments of readers regardingthe pictures they States) Anidentification, stating ofwhom or accompany, and may evenchange interpretations. what, where andwhen a photograph was This investigation provides evidencethat a cap- made. A title is static.It has no significance tion will tend to cause a significantgeneral mod- apart from itsphotograph. ification of judgment regardingthe picture it Caption: Briefly statedinformation, usually accompanies. Also, that it is possiblefor a cap- occupying no morethan four short lines, tion to cause a complete change ininterpretation, which accompanies aphotograph, adds to so that, forexample, a picture which is usually ourunderstanding of the image,and often in- judged a "happy" picture, will bejudged a "sad" fluences what we thinkof it. A caption is one. dynamic ;it develops titleinformation into why and how along aline of action. It makes 12.38 Kerrick's findings further indi- the influence of a use of theconnotations of words toreinforce cate that, for the most part, the connotations of thephotograph. It loses caption can be anticipated by thewriter of the when divorced from its caption. "In some instances,however, the caption half its significance may cause aninterpretation directly opposite to photograph. 123 Text: Main literary statement accompanying a and fantastic forms thosrtrepid explorers, the series of photographs, usually presenting in- surrealists, domesticate the rest of us. formation about the theme and its back- "Recent domesticateL_old photographic ex- ground not contained in photographs and amples can be found in the late flood of 'zoo' [and captions. Text, no matter how closely related `captionl books, wherein snatches of ordinary to photographs, is a complete and independ- conversation transform photographs of animals ent statement of words. [and more recently works of fine aril into acute burlesques of human behavior, and in Philip Hals- 12.3.11 At a later point, Newhall iden- man's wildly successful Frenchman, where be- tifies four main forms of the caption, which she tween the printed questions and the photographs calls: The Enigmatic Caption, The Caption as of one man's facial expression surprising answers Miniature Essay, The Narrative Caption, and The come to mind. The AdditiveCaption already has Additive Caption. Her discussion of these cap- performed what seemed the impossible : giving a tion-types follows: means of applying the light touchof wit and the "The Enigmatic Caption [is] a catchphrase penetration of humor to a medium as essentially torn from the text and placed under a single tragic as what it reflects and which records the photograph. The sequence of interest runs like unconscious pathos of an attempt to be funny as this: the eye is caught by the photograph, then it records the humor in deep tragedy. by the caption, and then the irritated owner of the "The first two forms, the Enigmatic Caption eye finds himself, hook, line, and sinker, com- and the Caption as Essay, are more literary than pelled to turn back to the attached article and read visual in their aims and techniques. The Nar- it.This type is found in full classic purity in rative and Additive Captions, however, involve a Time. host of problems in the new language of photo- "Then there is the Caption as Miniature Essay. writing." This again usually accompanies a single photo- 12.3.12 Words accompanying a picture graph and comprises with it a complete and inde- may have a considerableinfluence on the meaning pendent unit. Life's 'Picture of the Week' and people will get from that picture. In a like man- 'What's in a Photograph?' series offer examples, ner, pictures used together andviewed in a par- and any glance at any Illustrated London News ticular sequence may be given certain meaning will provide dozens more. (It is probably the most beyond their individual content simply because ancient form of caption ;it has survived since of their location in the sequence of pictures and the monumental bas-reliefs of Babylon and wall- because of the pictures closely related to them paintings of Egypt.) physically. Hicks refers to this phenomenon as "The Narrative Caption is, of course, over- "The third effect" and explains that when cer- whelmingly the common contemporary form and is tain pictures are placed side by side, something familiar to everybody through magazine journal- happens: their individual effects are combined ism.It directs attention into the photograph, and enhanced, and a third effect is educed in the usually beginning with a colorful phrase in bold- reader's mind. face type, then narrating what goes on in the photograph, and ending with the commentary. Projected Visuals In a photo-story, it acts as a bridge between text 12.4 and photograph. 12.41 Projected visuals motion pic- "The Additive Caption appears to be the newest tures, slides, filmstrips and other forms have form, risen into prominence to answer a new much appeal and are among the most effective of need. It does not state or narrate some aspect of the visual teaching aids. It is well to remember the photograph ;it leaps over facts and adds a that they each have important limitations as well new dimension. It combines its own connotations as advantages. with those of the photograph to produce a news, 12.42 All of the visual materials that image in the mind of the spectator sometimes require a projector have some qualities in com- an image totally unexpected and unforeseen, which mon that are inherent in the fact thatthey are exists in neither words nor photographs but only projected.First of all, projected materials re- in their juxtaposition. A fine example occurs in quire a strong source of light in a relatively La Revolution Surrealiste; the photograph shows darkened room, and consequently they attract three men bending to look down an open manhole and hold attention. Psychologists tell us that it and the caption reads : The Other Room. Indeed, is an almost uncontrollable human characteristic the Additive Caption may be one of the many rare to look at a spot of light in a darkened room. The

124 projected image, therefore, temporarily unifies ence and with satisfactoryviewing conditions. the attention of the audience, and there is much This is not always a simple problem, for it often evidence that the group will work together better entails insurmountable difficulties. following the projection due to the fact that they have been experiencing the same thing and have 12.48 Slides Versus Filmstrips. The more or less similar perceptionsof that exper- idea of comparing two such similar media of kj- ience. Another reason for the attention demanded communication may at first seem like splitting rf hairs, but actually it is a good way of considering by projected images is the greatly enlarged image the unique advantages of each device. First of that confronts the audience. all, there are a number of obvious advantages of 12.43 Another advantage of the pro- individual slides over filmstrips : jected image is its ability to show great detail. 1. The sequence or order in which the pictures This is due to the simple fact that material in the are to be shown can easily be changed or projector is enlarged over 50 or 100 diameters on the screen. Thus a picture on a 2 x 2 slide that is edited. actually one inch wide may be enlarged on a five- 2.Satisfactory individual slides are somewhat foot screen as much as 60 diameters and propor- easier to make than are filmstrips of a tionately more on larger screens. similar quality. 3. When slides are properly mounted in glass 12.44 It must be remembered that even their surfaces will last almost indefinitely though a slide is magnified 60 times on the screen, without scratches or other damage. this does not mean details are 60 times as clear. It is a common experience to find that approach- 12.49 There are, of course, a number of ing a screen closely in order to see a detail better advantages that are unique to filmstrips and not does not help much. As we get nearer the screen characteristic of slides: the detail, as it gets larger to our vision, also gets Obviously, the frames in a filmstrip are in fuzzier and more indistinct. It looks out of focus 1. and we are apt to blame the projector or the a fixed order and cannot be changed, acci- operator. Actually we have exceeded the com- dentally or otherwise. bined resolving power of the projector and mate- 2. Picture per picture, filmstrips generally cost rial together. We will find that we can see the only a small fraction of what its individual detail better by not getting too close to the screen. pictures would cost if they were purchased as individual slides. 12.45 In the first place, slides, film- 3.Filmstrips require much less storage space strips, and films are very small in area and the and postage, and they are generally non- amount of detail possible in them is limited by the breakable. physical structure of the image in the film. In the 4. A much wider range of commercially pre- second place, when we get too close to the image pared subjects are available as filmstrips on the screen we become conscious of the surface rather than as slides. of the screen and this destroys our perception of the depth of the picture. Depth perception is pos- 12.4.10 Of course, with the present state sible only if we are not conscious of the screen of the art, both slides and filmstrips can be surface. synchronized with a sound recording on a disc 12.46 Just as details help us perceive or tape in such a way that an inaudiblesignal on depth in a picture, so the perception of depth the recording will automatically advance the pic- helps us perceive details. This is why it is better tures.Such automatic, sound-actuated devices not to get too close to the screen. The Society of when properly prepared can often convey almost Motion Picture and Television Engineers recom- the same sense of pacing and movement that up mends that no one sit closer to the screen than until now has been unique to the motion picture. twice its width. It is interesting to note that all Many times, in fact, over 60 per cent of an audi- viewers seem to obey the SMPTE rule auto- ence will believe it has just seen a motion picture matically in choosing their viewing distance from when what it has actually seen has been a superior the television screen. sound filmstrip or sound slide show. 12.47 Disadvantages to the projected 12.4.11 The ease with which a tape re- image are largely concerned with the mechanical cording can be made to accompany such a visual and administrative details necessary to having the presentation is often a temptation that can se- appropriate visual material on the screen at the riously detract from one of the great advantages appropriate time with, of course, the proper audi- of a slide or film presentation. And this major

125 advantage :s the fact that these devices can be been photographed over a period of hours, days, so easily adapted to agiven audience for a specific or even weeks. Much has beenlearned, for ex- purpose at a certain timewhen they are used with ample, about plant growth and development "live" speakers who can "communicate" with through the use of the time lapse motion picture their audience, answer questions as they arise technique. during the presentation, and in general gear their 12.4.15 Animation, an other important words and pictures to the needs and the expecta- and unique contribution of the motion picture to tions of a given audience. When a spoken com- visual communication, is the technique whereby mentary is recorded for such a presentation, much cartoons and other hand-drawn pictures can be of this sparkle of individualism is destroyed by made to move on the motion picture screen. Al- the resulting "canned" inflexibly-mechanized though we most frequently think of animated car- message a message that cannotbe adjusted toons, the animation technique is an immensely to meet changes in audiencereaction to it. important device in many instructional films for 12.4.12 One of the major deterrents to it can be used to present simplified versions of the effective use of slides and filmstrips with complicated motion that in some cases could not groups is the fact that groapleaders sometimes be seen otherwise by the human eye. The flow of approach these devices as if they were self-con- electrons, the flow of blood, the action of the tained learning capsules that need only be flashed heart, and the action of the internal combustion before a group of people to achieve their maximum engine are examples of complex actions that can effect. Filmstrips and slides, much more so than be drawn simply and pr es en t e deffectively well-made sound motion pictures, demand a great through the use of animated motion pictures. Of deal of active participation from the instructor course, this technique has other importantad- if they are to be really effective. In fact, these vantages in presenting complex social, political, visual devices demand that the instructor play and economic relationships in greatly simplified an active role in reacting tothem, and in so doing ways. they often bring out the best in an instructor. 12.4.16 A well-made motion picture can The ability of an instructor to actively relate be a work of art and a most powerful means of himself and his verbal presentation to the visual providing a common denominator of experience, content of projected visuals is closely related to changing and creating attitudes, teaching skills, his knowledge of the visual material. It is, there- and knowledge, and promoting understanding. fore, unwise to use any kind of visual material with a group until you have become fully aware 12.4.17 "Selecting" motion pictures, of its content and its teaching potential. Despite filmstrips, slides, and other commercially pro- this self-evident truth, we often find an instructor duced audio-visual instructional materials is a using material he has not had an opportunity continuing activity that can perhaps best be to study himself before class! viewed as three important steps in the teaching process. 12.4.13 Motion Pictures. The motion picture is a most unique medium of visual com- 12.4.18 First of all, once the teaching munication with a language of its own and special objectives have been clearly established it is nec- techniques that cannot be duplicated in any other essary to identify materials that can be used to medium. (Television may be considered an ex- accomplish theseobjectives most effectively. ception to this ; however, it in turn may be con- Keeping informed of existing motion pictures sidered simply as an electronic extension of the plus new releases is in itself a considerable job. motion picture.) Certainly the most obvious and There are, for example, several hundred pro- unique contribution of the motion picture is its ducers of non-theatrical "instructional" films in abili;:y to reproduce motion as it appears in real this country, and such motion pictures are cur- life. It also has the capability to slow down mo- rently being released at the astonishing rate of tion to almost any degree so that activities occur- several dozen each week. The same is true for ring with a speed too great for the human eye to filmstrips, recordings, and many other "newer see may be observed in"slow motion" on the media of instruction." motion picture screen. 12.4.19 A number of standard reference 12.4.14 An other unique characteristic works listing and describing such materials are of the motion picture is its ability to speed up available. In addition, many producers publish Sp. action.This technique, known as time lapse helpful catalogs, and educational periodicals often 7, photography, makes it possible to present in a contain specialized listings and reviews a such few seconds on the screen action that may have materials. The Department of Audio-Visual In-

126 Association, applied by an instructor "substantiallyincrease struction of the National Education film." In sum- made up of nearly 5,000 audio-visualspecialists, the instructional effectiveness of a publishes much helpful material in thisfield. marizing most of the available research onthis subject, they point out that anyoneusing a film 12.4.20 Secondly, after potentially use- with a group should observe theprinciples of ful audio-visual materials have beenidentified good instruction. From theavailable research but not previewed, it will be necessaryto procure these authors infer that the effective useof films them for further consideration andpossible class is not so much a matter of applying a"formula" use. When materials are tobe purchased, this is of instructional method to filmutilization, as it a relatively simple matter.However, it is often is a matter of applying the principles ofgood in- necessary to obtain motionpictures on some kind struction to methods of film use. Thereis no "one of a rental basis, and this procedureoften pre- best way" to use a film any morethan there is sents the problem of locating areasonably local one best way to workwith a group of adults in source from which aparticular film can be rented helping them improve their understandingof a at the appropriate time. It isimportant, there- new wheat program.In fact, other studies have fore, to be familiar with film rental sourcesin pointed out that adopting a rigid outlinefor using your locality. ADirectory of 3,660 16mm Film films and following it unvaryingly maydecrease Libraries1 will be a useful resource for this pur- the usefulness of films in somelearning situa- pose. Film rentallibraries often publish descriptions. tive catalogs. 12.53 Motion pictures will do little for 12.4.21 The third and most important the weak instructor. In fact they are moreapt step in the selection of suchmaterial is the de- to magnify his weaknesses than toimprove his cision to use a particular material withstudents instruction. Hoban and van Ormer point outthat and how it will be used. Ideally thisdecision can "the influence of a good instructor is anim- only be made after the teacher has had an oppor- portant one in a learning situation.A class which tunity to preview all of the existingmaterial on has a good instructor frequently hasbetter morale a given subject andto select that which seems to and is more alert and attentive than aclass whose be best suited to the teaching objectivesat hand. instructor is mediocre or poor. Sometimesthis A considerable body of literatureexists on the influence carries over into learningsituations evaluation of audio-visual materials and onthe where the instructor is relativelyinactive or is all-important question of how to use such ma- not present at all. terial most effectively with students. 12.54 "Even in cases where teachers use the sameinstructional materials, there is a 12.5 Effective Use of Films variation in the quality of teaching.These differences reflect the teacher's conceptof the learn- 12.51 Sixty years ago Thomas Edison understanding of the expressed his idea that the motionpicture pro- ing process and his (or her) jector might well replace the need forteachers pupils and ability to work withthem. Routine and other instructional leaders. As moreand more instructional techniques probably moreoften research is done on the mosteffective ways of characterize the mediocre teacherthan the ex- using films to teach, it is becoming apparentthat cellent teacher." just the opposite is true and thatthe teacher is one of the mostimportant variables in determin- 12.55 Film Instructional Techniques. ing how much a class will learnfrom a film. In "Instructional motion pictureshave been pro- other words, utilization (how, why,where, when, duced and used as if the traditionalinstructional and by whom a particular motionpicture is used techniques either did not apply tothe motion pic- and how it is related to the totallearning con- ture as an instructional medium or werenothing text) is certainly one of the mostsignificant fac- more than theeccentricities of 'old maid' teach- tors in determining how muchwill be learned ers. Butthese techniques do apply, and thefol- from a given film. lowing is a list of the instructionaltechniques, which, if properly used,significantly increase 12.52 In their comprehensive summary learning from films: of 32-years of film research,Hoban and van "1. Orienting an audience onwhat it is going Ormer point out that instructionaltechniques to see or summarizing whatit has seen. test on lA Directory of 3,660 16nvm Film Libraries. U. S. Office "2. Announcing that a check-up or of Education, 1959; 236 p., $1.00. learning will be given after the film. 127 "The instructor is a leaderof the group under 4 ,3.Repeating the importantpoints (with var- plans, arranges, and iation) within the film.Showing the film instruction. As a leader, he managesinstructional situations, materials,and more than once. creates a favorable (or procedures in a way that "4. Conductingaudience - participation atmosphere for learning andstimulates the per- practice) exercises during orafter a film formance of the group. Instructors varyin t:heir showing. ability to create this atmosphere. 5.Informing the learner ofhow much he has "One of the most significantfindings of film learned. Giving testresults or correct research is that the amountof learning from an answers as soon aspossible, or during the instructional film dependsnot only on the film film if the practice isconducted during the and on the audience, butalso on the morale and film. motivation that result fromthe leadership qual- study this motiva- there is a cumulative ities of the instructor. In one Research indicates that tion and morale appearedto carry over to film effect when several ofthe above listed procedures actually not procedures learning when the instructor was are combined.The two instructional present during two orthree separate showings that have been repeatedlyshown to have a critical learning from a film are : of the films. effect on the amount of "There is general agreement onthe fact that (1) repetition, and (2)participation or practice behavior, either during a film films do not and cannotsubstitute completely for of the relevant the good instructor,especially in the exercise of showing or following it.Discussion after a film well-trained in- the film material are both leadership functions, and that a and taking a test on structor is one of the essentialelements of effec- forms of practice orparticipation." tive film instruction.There is no evidence, ac- Instructional Leadership. The cording to Hoban and others,that the instruc- 12.56 used with films are leadership qualities of theinstructor affect the tional methods or procedures class will learn from the any differentfrom the instructional methodsused efficiency with which his materials." film or filmstrip. with other instructional

128 13.General Principles of Evaluation

prepared by Nathan Maccoby

13.1 Purposes of Evaluation and see whether it seems to be paying attention or whether it's wandering off and going to sleep. 13.11 Previous discussions have pointed At the most formal level, one can apply a complex out the specific outcomes sought in a visual com- experimental design in which before and after munication program. What are we trying to ac- measures are taken, measures that have been complish? What skills, attitudes, and behavior carefully standardized in advance and in which changes do we expect to be present after our train- statistical techniques can be applied to the an- ing program is over ? alyses of the results to determine the extent to which changes are real. 13.12 The general purpose of evaluation is to determine to what extent these objec- 13.23 This treatment of evaluation at- tives have actually been achieved. In other words, tempts to give some rather general principles how successful have we been in bringing about of how evaluation takes place, to give some sim- the changes that we sought in setting up and ple techniques and measures, This will take us carrying through our communication program? into some discussion, of a veiy elementary sort, of sampling methods, of testing methods, of ques- 13.13 There are direct and immediate effects on live audiencesthe people who are ac- tionnaire construction and data analysis. But we tually present during a visual communication will keep it simple. We will also discuss ways training course. However, in addition to achiev- of getting evaluation as one goes along, namely, ing effects on these, presumably we are inter- the built-in methods. And then, finally, we will ested in achieving or effecting changes in the examine some way of getting feedback from an ultimate consumerin the farmer, the home- audience, what May and Lumsdaine in their ex- maker, whoever might be the person who is ac- cellent book entitled Learning from Films, have tually using specific agricultural communications. called "road-testing." We want changes in the sense of doing something differently than he did before, or having a general way of looking at things that's different 13.3 Sampling than what he did before, or knowing something 13.31 The reason for talking just a little that he didn't know before. bit about sampling is that sampling can save much time and effort. When one samples, he 13.2 measures only some people, not all the people Methods of Evaluation involved, or some of the items, rather than all of 13.21 There are some formal and in- the items involved, no matter what the unit being formal ways of going about this process of eval- measured. Thus, instead of having to evaluate all uation.Basically, the evaluation is a measureof the contents of every program on every per- ment process. That is, the way in which evalua- son, the application ofsainling ideas and prin- tion takes place includes some form of measure- ciples allows us to limit such measures only to a ment or a series of measurements. These en- fraction of the people or material. able the measurer to tell just what effects his 13.22 The simplest notion about mp- programs have had. These range from very crude ling would be this : for example, say you're trying and informal tools to relatively precise formal to find out whether the canned cherries coming ones. off the assembly line in a packing plant are okay 13.22 For example, at the simplest level or not. It is not necessary to open every single of evaluation, one simply can observe an audience can and test the cherries. In fact, someone might

129 point out that every time we do open a can we Instead, our term "universe" simply stands for have ruined it. It wouid be rather silly if we had 100 percent of whatever we're talking about. So to open up very single can. We can, however, if we're talking about the population of the United take every nth can, say every 50th or every 100th States of America, the universe becomes all peo- or every 200th, or whatever is required. This ple living within the 50 United States at a given would tell us whether or not the cans of cherries time. Or the universe may be limited to all people are being sealed properly and arriving at the who are 21 years of age or over ; it could be lim- point of packing into cartons in good shape. ited to all those within the city limits of Chicago. 12.33 Now, one of the first questions 13.39 We have to define the universe that always arises it, "How many should I take before we can sample from it. Failure to do so in order to be sure?" Whether we take one out generally is a common error among people when of 50 or one out of 200 or one out of 1000, de- they first try to do a little evaluation. And, un- pends substantially on how many bad ones we're less you can define precisely the universe that likely to find. you're talking about, you can't say very much about how to draw the sample. 13.34 If practically none of them is bad, we don't need to take very many. But ifbad ones 13.3.10 So the very first thing you've appear fairly often, or if there's a widevariety in got to do is to clarify for yourself the exact uni- the end product, we must sample a fair number verse of things you want to sample. Isit peo- if we want to talk about the proportion ofll ple ?is it all people who take your course ? Is of them that are of a certain kind. it all people who should take your course? Is it information of a given sort or attitudes of a given 13.35 It also depends, obviously, on how sort? What is it? Once you've so defined your sure we want to bewhat the consequenceswill universe, it's not too hard to pick a way of Samp- be if a bad one gets out. If we want to be awfully sure of this, we must sample at ahigh rate. If ling. we're willing to tolerate certain amounts of spoil- 13.3.11 Another problem in sampling age, then we can sample at a muchlower rate. lies in the care made to be sure that the sample Another question that arises in sampling is, represents the universe. Any number of ways "Well, now, how dependable is my sample ; how exist by which to draw a sample so as to maxi- accurate is it? Suppose I've only taken a sample mize its representativeness. of one out of every 500 cans and I want to talk about 10,000 cans. How accurately can I do it, 13.3.12 One of the principal criteria is how dependably can I talk about 10,000 cans to see that each member of the universe shall when I've only taken one out of every 500, or have the same chance of falling into the sample 20 cans, to go by?" as Llny other member of thatuniverse. In other words, if you are drawing a sample of adults 13.36 We can answer this one in terms of the city of Chicago, then any given man or of what would have happened if we'd taken all woman 21 years or over residing within thecity 10,000. We can't give a precise answer, but we limits of Chicago should have exactly the same can come within asufficiently close margin so chance of falling into the sample as any other that for most practical purposes, we are satisfied that we know what we're doing, that the individual in the city of Chicago above the age margin of error we're dealing with is reason- of 21, no more, no less. There is one technical ably dependable. Just how dependable is some- modification of this that we needn't worry too thing we can discuss as well. much about. Provided that the chances are known, they don't have to be exactly equal, and 13.37 One of the first considerations there are some times when this becomes im- that one must take in sampling is the necessity portant, such as when we draw a sample from of getting a sample that truly stands for, that which we want to find out some characteristics truly represents the universe from which the sam- of a relatively rare kind of person. ple is being drawn. For example, suppose in taking a sz-liple of 13.38 By universe, I don't necessarily the adults in Chicago, we were especially inter- mean people: we can have universesof any- ested in the very old people. We wanted to know thingapples, suits, grass seeds, poultry, or of something about them and what they were doing. ideas, test questions, tapes, or what have you. If we just let them represent themselves in their Universes in this sense are not necessarily the proper proportion, we would only get very few universe of all the planets and stars and so on. of them because our sample isn't a very large

130 one. But we wantespecially to talk about the 13.4 Avoiding Bias aged so we might end up by deciding to give the very old people twice asmuch of a chance or 13.41 It is not hard to draw a biased more of coming into oursample as everybody sample, so one needs to avoid manypitfalls in else. sample drawing that lead to biases.One simple way to avoid them is to use arandom method of 13.3.13 There's nothing wrong with selection. For example, if you have a list ofpeople that, provided we know exactly whattheir that constitute the population or universefrom chances are.In other words, if we've doubled which you want a sample, then take everynth their chances of falling into the sample, when we person off that list in a random way, anyway want to talk about the whole city ofChicago, that is random. (Incidentally, here is a wayto we simply cut them down.We give each of the demonstrate that people can't pick a random num- old people a half-vote so to speak. Ifthey each ber but rather should use some automaticdevice have a half-vote, then they're not over-repre- for doing so : suppose you have 40 or 50 people sented when it comes to taking the whole popu- in a group. Say to them : "Now I want to seeif lation. And when it comes to studying the old you can pick a random numberfrom one to ten. people alone, we've got enough of them sothat Take a pencil and write down as quickly as you we can study them assubgroup without having can, without consulting a neighbor or anyoneelse, quite as large a sampling error as we mighthave the first number that pops into your head between had had we not doubled-sampled. We candouble- one and ten." And after theyhave done this, tell sample a sub-group or triple-sample or quadruple- them to be sure not to change the number no mat- sample just so long as we know what we'redoing; ter what happens. Ideally these numbers ought just so the chances are clear and we know howto to be collected and tallied centrally. weight them back when we need to. This is per- Hand-show tallies are quicker, but people may haps a small point. But it sometimes can be very change their choices. Use a blackbcArd or other important.It can be a very practical problem form of visual presentation to tally hand counts when it comes to small samples and a subgroup alongside each number from one to ten. If there with whom we shall work and want to know some- are 100 people voting, thereshould be exactly ten thing about. of each number, within chance variation. You wouldn't expect it to come out perfectly you 13.3.14 Samples that do not guarantee might get 9 or 11, or even 12 or 8 votes for a equal selection of every member ofthe universe given number occasionally. But lo and behold, you are known as biasedsamples. We tend to think of find that if scoring is done honestly, there is the word "biased" as meaning"prejudiced" or "in quite an unequal popularity of the digits: If peo- favor of" something or other.But actually ple aren't sophisticated about this, you'll find "biased" is a statistical term. Here weintend it there are far too many threes and sevens, and to mean that some members of theuniverse have far too few ones, twos and tens, and there may more chance ofappearing in the sample than be a cluster at five. others. The method of drawing thesample is Sometimes when people are very sophisticated "biased" in favor of some people in it ratherthan and are trying to avoid threes and sevens, you'll others. get no votesor almost no votesfor threes and sevens because they're trying to fool you. 13.3.14a The famous Literary Digest But in any case, people really don't give you what poll of 1936 had the great misfortuneof predict- People don't choose President you would expect by chance. ing that Governor Landon would defeat on a chance basis.They have certain guessing Roosevelt for reelection. A real problem ofthe habits, and these guessing habits lead them to pollsters was that, although they had anextremely choose in a very non-chance way. The lesson of large sample, they had an extremely biased one this is that you need a more automatic process because of the ways they had obtained thesample. of arriving at random numbers than the process They had used only lists of telephone subscribers of just thinking of one or two or three, as the case and in the days of the depression manypeople may be.) couldn't afford telephones. Poor people were more likely to vote forRoosevelt than for Landon, 13.42 There are tables of random num- yet, the poor people had a very low chanceof being bers provided. Many statistics books have them. represented whereas well-to-do people had an There are also simple ways of making your own. unusually high chance of being represented in the For example, you want to take every 10th name sample. Thus the sample was biased and led to a off a list, and you don't know whether to start poor prediction. with the first name or the ninth name or the 131 proportion in tenth name, or theeighth or the fifth name orthe exactly represented in their right give everybody exact- the sample, there are just exactlythe right num- third name. You do want to ber of them in the sample ascompared to their ly the same chance though.Solve this problem by At the taking ten little slips of paperand write a digit on position in the total group or universe. shake them up in a hat. same time you'vepreserved the principles of an each. Fold these up and total group or Have someone pick oneof the pieces of Daper out equal chance for everyone in the of the container withoutlooking and start with universe to appear in the sample. whatever number is picked. 13.43 That is the classic methoddraw- 13.5 Clustering ing it out of a hat and it will give everysingle number an even chance ofshowing up. If the 13.51 Similarly in sampling, anotherde- number turned out to be two,then you'd start out vice used for purposes ofconvenience and money- with number two, andyou'd pick the second, the saving is that called "clustering."Instead of twelfth, the twenty-second,and the thirty-second, drawing individuals, it is possible todraw groups and the forty-second name onthe list until the list or clusters ofindividuals. This avoids an enor- was completed. mous amountof travel in case peopledrawn spread out is ac- completely at random from the list are 13.44 That particular method over a lot ofcountry. In other words,individuals tually a so-called"stratified random method," can be arrangedby geographic locale, and one called that because thelist is arranged in a cer- can divide acity into sections and take everynth tain order in advance,before one picks out household within every nth block. makes a choice from it.You want to preserve that order, sometimes atleast. 13.52 Here is an example. Supposethat from a city of 100,000families one was going to 13.45 Suppose you want to getexactly a sample of of men and women and take a sample of 1000. This means the right representhtion of every 100. Everyfamily in this there are, say, a hundredpeople to choose from. one family out in ten. That should city should have exactly onechance in 100 of You want a sample of one falling into the sample. Nowif we were to take give you five men andfive women, if there are take a random number exactly fifty women andfifty men in your uni- the city directory and to sometimes you between 1 and 100 andthen take every 100th verse. Butjust by chance alone have a random sample might end up with as many as sevenwomen and family essentially we would You want to avoid this of families in the city.But this might result in three men or vice versa. our having totravel to every nook and crannyof if you can. One wayto guarantee that youdo for purposes proportion and still use ran- the city. Suppose insteadof that get exactly the right cost-saving we were to dom methods is simply todivide the universe into of convenience and fifty men and the fifty divide the city into sections.We could, as a matter two subuniverses, the of fact, combine stratificationand clustering by women. Sampleat the same rate fromeach random basis of the organizing the city bysocio-economic districts. take one out of ten on a Usually cities are organizedby the best neighbor- women, do the sameto the list of men. Thenyou'll and so on down and exactly five women, and hoods, the not-quite-so elegant, get exactly five men to the poorest ones. you still have arandom sample of ten people. Within each of theseneighbor- 13.46 You also can do this on morethan 13.53 for instance, if you wantto hoods we can apply ourover-all sampling rate if one thing at once arrange theneighborhood be sure that you getthe right representationof we like, but we can now of by blocks and take everynth block. Suppose that men and womenand the right representation tenth block. We can startwith a young and oldpeople. You could dividethe group we take every want to divide it into random number between oneand ten, with that into halvesyou might tenth three, four, or five subgroups,but let's say you as the firstblock, and we would take every just divide it into twothe upper half of the block from then on. Thiswould give us a sample age group andthe lower half of the age group. of one in ten for blocks.If we took every tenth Now you've got foursub-universes. You've got household on a random Lasiswithin each of those old men and young menand old women and young selected blocks within the ten percent ofthe women. blocks we've now got in ourhands we would have one out of every 100households, or every 13.47 The virtues of this device are sub-groups of old men, tenth household in everytenth block. This would evident. With the four of 1/10 x 1/10 or 1/100 young men, old women,and young women, all give us an over-all rate -

How far off might wanted. We've also pre- about in our illustrations. the sampling rate we our samplebe? What sort of figureswould we get served our samplingrequirement of giving every- compared to the figures we Instead of going to every from our sample as body the same chance. could get if we'd takenthe whole universe? block, or practically everyblock, in the district we now aregoing only to every tenthblock. And 13.62 Clearly one can'ttell exactly we can repeatthis process throughout everydis- ahead of time whatwould happen ifthe whole trict in town. universe were measuredinstead of just a sample. He could measure thewhole and see whatwould 13.54 This is a perfectlylegitimate pro- to avoid measurinr however, we've probably happen. But we're trying cedure. In so doing, the whole universe when we usea sample.There run up thesampling error a bit. Forinstance, if just all of a certain typeof are some prettygood ways of estimating it should turn out that what would happen, andit turns out thatthere people were on two blocksand if we happened to responsible for blocks we would be over are twoprimary factors that are strike one of those two variations in the sampling error. representing that particular groupof people. First of all let's clear upwhat we Let's say all theimmigrants from 13.63 13.55 mean by"sampling error." It issimply the very Mars live in that twoblock area, and they're a how far We want to make sure thing we've beentalking about, namely, peculiar bunch of people. off a measure mightbe, based on asample, as that they're representedjust right, not too much have been if we'd taken tenth block and compared to what it would or toolittle.If we take every the whole population oruniverse. In other words, happen to pick one ofthose two blocks that are from the total? If we're we're going to get too many how far off is the sample full of Martians, taking cans of cherriesoff the assembly line,and Martians in our sample.But, on the other hand, bad on the two blocks fall into our we found oneout of every 500 was should neither of the basis of a sample, whatwould we have gottenif sample (which is even morelikely for actually opened every last canwould it still be small chance), thenwe're not we had they have only a one in 500 orwould it be one in 400 or onein 600 going to have anyMartians at all.They'll be exactly, but No matter what we or one in 800 orwhat? We can't tell clearly under-represented. we canestimate this pretty closely.The sampling do, we're going tohave trouble with proper rep- sample and with and this is going toin- error varieswith the size of the resentation of Martians how different themembers of the population are crease our error. from one another on aparticular measure. 13.56 Notice that it doesn'tincrease the Take the because we don't know 13.64 Here is an illustration. bias or introduce bias, second point first: suppose wedidn't know and whether we're going tohave too few or too many fingers there direction of error isunpredict- were tryingto find out how many and therefore the are on ahuman hand. Ourfirst problem is to able. And if thedirection of the error isnot human beings wewould procedure, then no bias is determine how many forced by the sampling inherent in the have to have in oursample before we could gen- introduced there is nothing eralize with some safetyto all humanbeings system to guaranteein advance that anypartic- beings. Maybe there are be over- or under-repre- the universe of human ular group is going to some known casesof six fingered peopleand four sented, only that itwill be either UZI der- or over- fingered people. but they are very,very rare in- represented. deed, and the chances arethat if we do a sample from the world, we would 13.57 To summarize briefly,the idea of of two people at random stratifying has to dowith arrangingpopulations find that each of themhad five-fingered hands. in order prior tosampling to reduce error.The If we drew three,they'd stillall have five- problem of clusteringinvolves sampling in groups fingered hands. No matterwhether we drew four, for administrativeconvenience, even thoughit five, six, or how many, wewouldn't need to draw tends to increase error. very manybefore we could tellabout the whole population of people. People arealike in the number of fingers they haveand you don't need a 13.6 Sampling and Error large sample to predictsuch a similarity. 13.65 But suppose we chosesomething 13.61 Let's go back to a problem wedis- how how we can tell from in which people aredifferent, for example, cussed briefly earlier much they weigh, and we areinterested in trying the sample how faroff it might be. Suppose we If we of our universe insteadof to get a picture ofhow much people weigh. had taken 100 percent took a sample of two orthree at random fromthe just a small sample ofthe sort we've beentalking 133 whole population of the world, we might end up any more, but theodds are better that we're going getting rather large differences some people to be more toward the middle. might weigh under 100 pounds, some over 300 13.6.11 Take four people or five people pounds, and anywhere in between. We know that or six or seven c)r eight orten people. By the time there's just a lot of variation in the weight dis- we take tenpebble drawn at random from all the tribution of people. Therefore, given the same people in the world, the odds arepretty good that size sample as in the case of the number of fingers the average we get from adding theweights of on the hand, we're going to have amuch larger these ten people and dividing by tenis going to sampling error. be somewhere in the middle. It'sgoing to be much world than 13.66 If we were to take ten people and closer to the true average for the whole count the number of fingers, we would find that when we draw just one or two or three. we had almost novariation at all our spread 13.6.12 The point is, does it matter would be zero. But in the case of weights, we whether the population of the worldis two billion probably would find that we had considerable or three billion orfour billion? Suppose we took variation from person to person. Therefore pre- a randomsample of 100,000 people drawn at ran- dicting everybody's weight is far more hazardous dom from all the people inthe world, with every- from just a small sample. You can see that as the one in the worldhaving exactly an equal chanceof variation becomes greater, the hazard increases. appearing in our sample. Suppose wetook these 100,000 weights and tooktheir average. We 13.67 Another way of putting it is to would be awfully close to the true average that say that as the characteristicbeing measured is, the average of all the peoplein the world if varies from member to member in the population, we had anopportunity to measure it. Andit the sampling error for a given sample increases. wouldn't make much differencereally whether And, conversely, as the variation reduces, or gets there were one billion or twobillion or three bil- smaller from person to person, from member to lion, or ten billion people in theworld. The fact member in a sample, then the sampling error, that we drew a sample of100,000 would guar- given the same size sample, will be smaller. antee that our average based onthat would be the average 13.68 Now let's go back to the first dependable and would predict closely cause of sampling errorthat the sampling of the total, just so our samplingprocedures were error varied with thenumber. It's pretty clear valid. that the larger the sample one draws, the smaller 13.6.13 There is an exception to this, the error is going to be in predicting the total .and that is when we get mightyclose to the total. universe from the sample. It perhaps is not so In other words, if we'retaking something like clear to say that the proportion of the universe half of the total population, or 1/3of the total that this number represents turns out to be not population, then the fact that we'redealing with particularly important, but rather the absolute a proportion ofthe total enters into the picture. number itself. But for most practical purposes, youwouldn't be sampling if we were drawing ahalf or a third 13.69 Let's take the weight distribution We might as well use again as an example. If we take just one person, of the Lotal population. he's liable to have just any old weight, and there's them all. just no telling how far off we might be. Suppose 13.6.14 Normally we're drawingrather we are after the averageweight. Then if we took small segments of a population,and we're worry- two persons and added their weights and divided ing about our sampling error.Actually, if we by two, we'd get an estimate of the average can get enoughof them our sampling errorisn't weight. Obviously this could be 'way off ; in other going to be too bad. It depends,of course, on how words, we might happen to get two, 300-pounders, variable the scores are from oneto another and we'd come up with an average of 300 pounds our point two.If we get scorths that don't varytoo whereas obviously that's much too large. On the much from one another andif we can get a decent other hand, we might get two, 100-pounders, and number of cases we're all right. we'd come up with an average of 100 pounds. That's obviously too light. 13.7 Size of Sample 13.6.10 But if we increased to three people at random, the odds are that we're going 13.71 People are always asking,"Well, that is, the odds how many do you need tohave before you can to move in toward the middle The answer always are that we're notgoing to be either 300 or 100 have a sample that is okay?"

134 41,T,

need to that you're trying to get across,not the content has to be, "Well, how accurately do you in the content also know it, and how much time, effort,and money of the message, and omissions are you willing tospend to know it that accu- should not occur in. the testing. of cases rately?" That's because as the number 13.83 Certain informationneeds to be increases, the sampling error drops.Usually we communicated. If a list is madeof these things, might be able to say that the averageheight, for then test questions usually canbe devised, often an example, of all menin the world is 68 inches, in the form of verbal testquestions. Sometimes plus or minus so many inches. It's the"so many" they are non-verbal orstraight visual ; sometimes that varies with the size of the sample. they're behavioral orperformance tests.For be able example, if you're trying toteach a man how to 13.72 In other words we might fertilize a field, to say that it's 68 inches,plus or minus a half an assemble something or how to inch. Fine, if that's as close as youneed to know it verbal questions may notsuffice. You want to that is fine, if you knowthat the odds are watch him do it and seehow he can actually do pretty heavy that the true averagewould be some- it, see whether he can doitfor real and not where between 671/2 inches and681/2 inches for just on paper. Basically atest should cover the everybody in the whole world.There's no point content of the objectivesappropriately. in spending any more timeand effort and money should a test, accurately. But if it's 13.84 The question arises, in finding it out any more if it is on paper andpencil, be the so-calledobjec- a matter of great consequenceto you to be right test in which you check the inch, then, of tive or closed-ended type within the nearest quarter of an answer, orshould it be open-endedin which course, the samplingsize will have to be increased people are asked to writeout in fairly free style enormously. what the answer is. The answerto that depends. 13.73 As a general rule it turns out Generally speaking youwant your test to be reli- that you have to multiply yoursample size by four able so that no matterwho scores it or how it's in order to reduce the sampling errorby one-half, scored the same answer comesout each time. You other things being equal. Wewon't go into the want it to be validto measure what it is you techniques for computing sampling errorhere for hope itwill measure, whatit'ssupposed to these can be determined fromtexts in statistics, measure. some of whk.h arementioned in the bibliog- how here is that 13.85 If you're trying to find out raphy. The main point to remember well a man understands someprinciples of say, as you increasethe number of cases you reduce fertilizing ground, then perhaps aseries of verbal sampling error. And as youhave more vari- people, who may not the trait being questions can do this. Some ability from person to person on read well or have goodvocabularies, can still measured, the greater the sampling error.Also, of fertilization very reduces, the lower the sampling understand the principles as the variability well indeed; asking forthis in terms of words can error. be misleading. However,assuming that we have people who can read andwrite respectably, you of these things inwords. 13.8 Testing can ask some example, Now let's talk abouttesting. 13.86 Closed-ended itemsfor 13.81 true-false questions, alisted series of answers,of Much of what one attempts tocommunicate has be right for each item, communicating informa- which one is supposed to to do with information, calling for a matchingof certain things tion, skills, and sometimesattitudes.Basically or items things on the which would give an answer to on the lefthand side with certain one wants a test right hand side of thetest tend to give fairly how much is learned fromeither a particular It doesn't make set of messages. One reliable or dependable answers. message or a whole group or much difference who ratesthe paper or who the needs a method to determine howchanged how the test is going to NI the people are as a result ofbeing ex- teacher is, the score on different same. A certain answerwill be right or wrong, posed to this program ofcommunication. This it, provided the scoringkey goes right back tothe question of the objectives no matter who scores because the differences that onehopes to get are is agreed upon in advance. the differences in the totalobjectives. 13.87 On the other hand,open-ended tests questions present more of aproblem. You may 13.82 One should avoid devising One of them simply for the contents of the messagesthem- have two experts read the answers. always go back to the says "This is awonderful answer." The other one selves and instead should isn't very good." objectives in arriving at tests.It's the objectives may say, "This answer 13.88 So this is the problem. It's pos- same thing is true with respectto attitudes. In sible to achieve reliability when you have open- fact, almost exactly the same principlesapply ended material, but it takes some doing. Usnally, to measuring changes in attitudes asthose apply- to get reliability the points have to be listedthat ing to measures of changes in informationand in need agreement. Say, "We'll give so much credit skills. for mention of such and such a point and take so 13.93 Basically you want a valid and much off for this and that kind of error." Then reliable measure of attitudes before anychange you need to try out youragreement: have the is supposed to take place before any programof same answers read and ratedindependently by the communication is instituted.It's necessary to two or more people who are going to do the rating, take a measure afterward, andthere are lots of then compare the answers and note differences. problems about taking some ofthese measures. Start all over again, until you get a satisfactory Perhaps the best summarythe best source of level of agreement. Check this revised version on material for how to measure attitudechange new material and see that you aregetting a satis- is in a volume called Experimentsin Mass Com- factory level of agreement between scores. munications by Hovland, Lumsdaine, andShef- 13.89 It's not necessary, incidentally, as field,published by the Princeton University some people feel, forobjective tests always to be Press in 1949. This reports a seriesof experi- about straightforward facts and routine unin- ments in which films attitude ororientation teresting things.Actually it's possible to test films were presented to soldiersin World War complex ideas in this way; it just takes a little II. Effects of these presentations weremeasured ingenuity in writing the questions. under carefully controlled conditions. Inaddition a number of otherkinds of communication pro- 13.8.10 We have talked about behavioral grams designed to effectchanges in information tests of skills. You can actuallywatch people per- and skills, in some cases, and attitudesin other form something but again you must worryabout cases, were measured ;effects of these were reliability. The question remainswhether two measured rather sensitively and precisely. people equally competent watching someone perform would come up with the same judgmentof 13.94 The important thing is to find out performance. This again should be tried outin just what you are accomplishing in your program. advance on a trial basis, because of possible This can be done by some formof automatic hazards. Just because it's a matter of actualbe- testing, instead of relying just onimpressions. havior doesn't mean that the measureof it is If one is trying to teach skills, then testfor those going to be reliable. The same principleshave to skills at the end of a sessionat the end of a be followed as for open-ended verbaltests. program of trainingand compare them with the skill level at the beginning oftraining. If it's a question ofinformation you can test that with 13.9Testing Attitude Change a paper andpencil test ;again, compare post- training test scores with pre-trainingtest scores 13.91 In addition to changes in informa- to see if significant differences havetaken place. tion that have to be tested for andchanges in skills that have to be testedfor, perhaps the 13.95 You'll need to be concerned about most subtle and most important ofall are changes a number ofthings. For instance people may in attitudes. They need to be testedfor too. learn a good deal but not becauseof your pro- Probably the most important function of anagri- gram. Instead theypicked up the information cultural communication program is toshift or somewhere else during the sameperiod of time. change certain attitudes. Maybe what youwant Therefore have a control group ofpeople who is a different attitude toward the useof experts are not exposed tothe program. And, if you test and you have to find out whetherthere's any these people at the two different pointsof time, change on this. any changes whichthey have could not be caused by the training program. Thedifferences be- 13.92 The most important thing is to tween the changes in the control groupand the get the initial level of attitude just asit is in the changes in the experimental group those who case of information. Inother words, if you're try- received the trainingshould be attributed to ing to test for changes in information,you've the training program, and not thedifferences got to find out what the initialinformation is. that would otherwise have takenplace. If everyone knew it all before youstarted, you didn't teach much. So you've got to find outwhat 13.96 The same principles apply to atti- people did know when you started so that you tude changes. The changes in attitudesthat are can find out just howmuch they've learned. The supposedly the result of a training program

136 Z, e

worthwhile. Did theylike it or didn'tthey like by administering someform of they bored? ought to be tested and a it; did they find itinteresting or were questionnaire beforethe training program Many things comeout just in ordinary,informal similar form atthe end.If possible, thisalso not be quite asobjective, administered at conversation. They will should be comparedwith scales as reliable,and as validperhaps as the more the same time topeople who didnot take the they will help youevaluate be similar formal methods, but training program.Such people should what has been going on.They certainlycould be presumably the sameinitially other methods. by having attitudes attitudes are not the same used to supplement as thetrainees whose the most im- when the programends. 13.10.6 Finally, perhaps portant measure ofthe effectivenessof any pro- education andinformation willreflect gram of be- 13.10 Road Testing itself in the actual,subsequent, long-term havior of receivers.In other words,if a program Of importance hereis to attempt add informationand change at- 13.10.1 and valid meas- is designed to to get somesystematic, reliable, titudes and behaviorabout child-rearing,the acid ure ofchange. We havediscussed some rather test is "How dothese peoplebehave with their formal methods.There are, asindicated above, receiving my program? How does Lumsdaine and children after some built-inmethods in addition. their behavior now compareto their behaviorhad "road-testing." Let'stalk of two May talk about that are less they not had theprogram?" of a number ofsuch techniques of a programis formal, less systematic,and less preciseperhaps 13.10.7 If the objective techniques and measureswe've to get people tooperate their farmsin a somewhat than some of those they have beendoing, then the already discussed. different way than acid test is "Dothey actually changein the direc- One of these devicesis simply to advocated by theprogram? Is their 13.10.2 and give tion that is later, use expertsto take a look at the program change immediate,six months later, a year their judgments.This can beelaborated, but five years later ?"This is the realproof. is to it. basically that's all there Some of thequestions suggested attention 13.10.8 Perhaps ss-ste- 13.10.3 Another way is to pay here are not too easyto answer. to, observe, andtalk to people asthey attend a matic fieldobservations couldbe undertaken This is probably the moreusual way in clear in the long runjust what program. which would make have which people testtheir teachingeffectiveness, or effects long term, real,and lasting determine the success orfailure of a communica- taken place. Butagain, there are somedangers. just watch to seehow people Sometimes the peoplewho are mostlikely to pay tion session. They interested ? Do seem to bereacting: Do they look attention toinnovation, to whatis current and they look bored ? Aseries of studies haveshown choice in the wayof improvements, arethe very that people who aremost interested inwatching a people who cometo your programs.If we just absolutely motionless,where- comparethem with thepeople film will tend to be look at those and change as peoplewho are bored bythe film tend to get who did not come, wemight find that more fidgety, move around,and finally fallasleep. takes place amongthe people whodid come. We don't knowwhether movie- It might wellbe that those peo- 13.10.4 13.10.9 They definitely attention characteristicswould hold up forother ple would havechanged anyway. to an audience,but it's exactly like thosewho didn't come.Peo- forms of presentations are not likely to be not a bad sign.After all, if people arereally ple who don't comeare much more going to pay attention.Their wouldn't changeif they did come. interested, they are people who The only way eyes willbe glued to thespeaker or the visual This is a cautionto keep in mind. have you.If they're it is to assignpeople to your pro- demonstration, or what to deal with of bored, they'll bedoing all sorts ofother things. grams atrandom. In otherwords, keep half distracted ; they'll payattention this isn't feasibleand you're They'll be easily them out. Of course, Thus you may to lots of extraneousstimuli but pay littleatten- not likely to dothat in any case. of the communication.That is have to resort toobservation. At leastobserve the tion to the focus be changes one way ofmeasuring audienceinterest. changes that dotake place. They may have resultedfrom things that Another measure, of course,is to that could easily Whether your pro- 13.10.5 with took place in yourprograms. simply discuss thesubject of the program take credit completely ornot, we may Have them tell youwhat they grams can them afterward. never findout. thought about it,whether they thoughtit was 14.Administration: Visual Communication Programs

prepared by Hal R. Taylor

14.1 Introduction derstanding and a deeper knowledge about almost any subject. If visuals are to do this, even 14.11 Visuals are means to ends rather when they also serve as attention-getters, their than ends in themselves. Whether one conducts impact should not overpower the subject-matter a visual program for himself or for others, such message they carry or intend to communicate. an attitude becomes essential in placing visual communication in a useful role with regard to the 14.22 Anyone responsible for the plan- broad objectives of an institution or organization. ning and development of a broad educational program whether in a county, state, or federal 14.12 There is no one best tool in the organization must recognize and be sensitive visual communicator's kit. Each method has its to audience expectations. People want answers to own particular strengths and itslimitations. specific questions. But frequently they also want Each works well under certain conditions and in answers integrated with their broad interests and certhin situations. Effectiveness generally de- plans. Too frequently they themselves must in- pends upon how skillfully the teaching-learning terpret or integrate information from different situation is handled by the instructor and how a areas of subject matter. Consequently, if answers particular visual device is used in the total teach- are incomplete, people are forced into excessive, ing context. undirected effort as they attempt to assimilate information into the context of their personal 14.13 One visual medium normally is best used in combination with other visual media interests. or other means of communication, since the more 14.23 Similarly, excessive use of one we can make use of multiple channels the better medium or even reliance upon many different media likely we are to succeed in transmitting our mes- sometimes fails to provide the response desired. sage. Just as the writer varies size and organiza- Quantity of information presented is never a tion of words and paragraphs as he writes a direct measure of effective communication. descriptive story, so does the most effective visual communicator combine a variety of tools for 14.24 Four principles for integrating best results. At one time, he may wish to supple- visual communication efforts with other comment a visual medium with verbal communication munication techniques are useful : and discussion techniques. Later, he may find 1.Correlate visual communication efforts with that the same, or similar, visual medium performs other teaching materials. more efficiently as illustrative matter in a written 2. Use visuals to support the particular topic communication. being taught. 3. Test visuals to determine response and effectiveness in supporting the basie problem or 14.2Coordinating Visuals in a program area. Total Communication Effort 4. Relate visual and verbal messages to some common experience so that they will reinforce 14.21 As use of visual means of com- each other in other words, be sure to communication spreads throughout an organization, municate effectively. it becomes necessary to incorporate and use visuals as integral parts of the program in which 14.25 Visual communication has much we are involved. No longer are visuals novel. To- in common with other means of communication. day audiences quickly learn to expect visuals to Effective communication is an essential ingred- perform a servicethat of aiding faster un- ient of teaching. Perhaps teaching transcends

138 the much more simple act of merecommunication, do not always require a largebudget and often since teaching must also include a goodunder- can be constructed orimprovised from materials standing in depth of things, i.e., whatis to be already available.Second, the artistic skill or taught to the learner ; planning, presenting,and talent of the person who plans to usevisuals is organizing experiences ; and evaluation ofthe much less important than his common sense,alert- message taught. Even when we saythat good ness to new possibilities,and sincere interest in teachers supply motivation and even inspiration helping others learn. we are also touching onconcepts similar to 14.32 Few county extension offices or the persuasive acts of communication. other field offices are so remote as tohave no 14.26 To communicate effectively, the available resources for preparation of simple teacher must know his students how they learn visuals. Perhaps there are few officeswithout best, their individual skills, knowledges,abilities, a visual programof one kind or another. The and their fears and desires. As we usevisual question then lies in the degree of organization : means to communicate, wecomplement learning the degree of planned, intensive, andsuccessful -- weblend cues of previous experiences into use of materialsalready available.Therefore, meaningful messages, thereby promoting under- even an office withalready established plans, con- standing, developing it, and enhancingthinking. taining excellent equipment and staff, might wish to reexamine its efforts for possiblechanges. 14.27 Unfortunately, many who must administer a program of any kind have considered 14.33 One method of going about this visual techniques and materials merely as sup- would be, first, to analyze the needs.Included plementary "aids" rather than integral and in- would be a survey of the subject-matter program dispensable communication elements in an educa- area to determinewhat equipment and materials tional program. No one has been entirely at are already onhand, the extent of their use, and fault for such thinking.Little substantial re- the possible restrictions ontheiruse.Once search exists to tell how best to administer a vis- known, services may be improved through an ual communication program. A few studies do organized, systematic plan for operating as indicate that the most important factor for suc- formal or as informal as needs may suggest. cess is the personal leadershipof the program 14.34 Provisions for services presup- director, but no research points out specific ad- pose that the functionsof the program call for ministration procedures for him to follow. services. Whether such needs areimmediately 14.28 Often then, visual operations evident or not, there should be a continuousstudy merely grow, like Topsy, into centers forthe of the program to keep personnelinformed and storage of equipment. They become production up-to-date on program policies andchanges and shops without creativity. Then it becomes even any technical andspecialized assistance available more difficult foradministrators to determine from others. If possible, the study shouldinclude how to establish and operate a visual programat a plan ofdetailed action research about short- its fullest capacity for the organization's broad term and long-term needs, based onthe original responsibilities. But at least a few operational survey of visual equipmentand materials. goals may help alleviate confusion and misunder- Thus it becomes possible to bal- standings. They include developing and using to 14.35 the utmost existing resources and materials ; or- ance materials interms of adequate coverage of the subject-matter program andin terms of the ganizing and operating more economical and hand. It efficient methods for the handling and use of different types of visual materials on and furthering the also is possible to plan a budget andtime schedule equipment and materials ; for obtaining new materials that areunavailable knowledge and skills in visual communication of from resources within or outside theorganiza- each staff member through simple, yet extensive tion. Most important, an organizedstudy can in- and thorough, training programs. clude provisions for productionof effective, yet inexpensive materials. 14.3 Making Maximum Use of 14.36 Problems of budget, of course, Existing Materials or Resources may create from the outset aserious limithtion on how broad a visual programshall be. If plans 14.31 Individuals who must develop a include obtaining various pieces ofprojection program in the use of visual communication can equipment, probably it would be best togain sup- rely on two key points useful as guideposts to port from the central administrationfunds, at progress. First, many effective visualmaterials least in part. Then, rentals canwork as a library 139 without a charge for each service or loan. Pro- 14.3.12 1. Providing materials and production services requiring minimum materials fessional services so instructors can use visual and supplies might be chargeable and payable to materials under the best possible conditions. For a revolving fund from which payments for re- example, suggest the best means of darkening placements of supplies and materials could be rooms or controlling light, ventilating rooms, made. placing electrical outlets, and improving accous- tics ; give guidance and counsel 14.37 County offices, whether or not on proper room they are serviced by a state visual specialist, often conditioning when new constructionis being cooperate with adjoining offices on equipment planned ; obtain sufficient copies of various mate- and various specialized services. Even if funds rials to meet additional requests that arise from for materials are plentiful, such a practicecan use; urge procurement of enough portable equip- help avoid duplication of materials and equipment ment to meet demands; service equipment and provide standby equipment for use when other and create more efficient use of expensive items. equipment is being repaired; train others in the 14.38 But no matter the size, budget, operation and care of equipment and in proper or staff of a visual operation whether that of handling of materials. a centralized state office or a county office the major purpose should be that of improving in- 14.3.13 2. Providing those services struction. Each office can improve its instruc- which make it possible for instructors to have mation and self-services. Here are five ways: terials and equipment when they need them. For instance, issue catalogs, bibliographies, and spe- 1.Collect and distribute information to staff cial bulletins giving accurate, up-to-date informa- members about availability and use of materials. tion on available materials ; work out a filing 2. Stimulate and sponsor production of home- system so that materials will be readily accessible ; made materials. establish a distribution system to make it easy to 3. Develop a collection of teaching materials obtain materials, considering convenience of most for distribution to staff members and cooperating importance to the person who will use them individuals or groups. rather than convenience to the supplying sources ; 4. Encourage practical research in visualcom- see that equipment is kept as close to the point munication use for improvement of the instruc- of use as possible if necessary, assign equip- tional program. ment to individuals on a long-term basis to avoid 5. Design and promote an organization-wide costs of maintenance and transportation dam- program for use of visual teaching materials. ages; see that equipment is regularly inspected and servicedthrough a minor maintenance 14.39 The five points above were formu- operation,atleast, such asoiling,replacing lated more than 20 years agoas objectives for a lamps, etc. school system in Cook County, Illinois. They still offer a substantial beginning point,or reorgani- 14.3.14 3. Providing materials and zation point, for any center today. services which allow specialists or agents to select and use materials which fit their teaching-learn- 14.3.10 Innumerable resources exist ing situations. For example, cooperate with super- which discuss making and using visual materials. visors and other workers in selecting materials ; The bibliography lists several books usefulas buy materials on the basis of program needs ; as- guides to visual production and administration. sist supervisors, agents, and specialists in choice and use of material ; plan production of and pro- 14.3.11 Items listed in the bibliography duce simple materials to meet spettific needs, are written primarily for the teacher who uses but limit production to those materials not avail- visuals in classroom teaching. Each item has ideas able from commercial sources. adaptable to extension work. Dale, and Wittich and Schuller list possible sources of materials of 14.3.15 4. Providing facilities and pro- special value to county workers. Of particular fessional services which assure that materials will interest, probably, in administeringa state visual be used as an integral part of the total extension program are points suggested by Francis W. Noel program. For example, when possible buy mate- in the 48th Yearbook of the National Society for rials that meet the needs of all age groups con- the Study of Education. He offers a number of tained in the program; cooperate with other or- functions of a visual unit applicable to extension ganizations oncontinuous programrevision programs. Included are these, especially useful plans; continually evaluate materials in terms of to a state-wide organization or large countyor program objectives, and, if possible, experiment field office: and conduct research which may contribute to

140 revision ; supervise use of materials atall levels, tion's program to its own personneland to the by working directly with co-workers,by working public ;(2) provide equipment and materials to indirectly through in-service trainingactivities, outside groups when their use is related tothe and by keeping supervisors andadministrators organization's program and might help in the informed of progress. formulation of regulations or interpretations of it.

14.3.16 5. Providing those services which will help instructors make full useof local 14.4 Problems of Storing, resources alreadyavailable. Possibilities would be to assist in locating materials, placesof local in- Filing, and Adapting Materials people terest, professional designers and other One of the most frustrating tasks who can contribute information andexperience to 14.41 particular operations ; work with instructors to of any educational office is that of keeping up survey and appraise local resourcespreliminary with visual materials. Even if adequate storage to the development of a list of suitable resources. space is available, few offices have asystem for Too often we forget local, state andnational A-V finding materials quickly. And even if such a affiliation would be worth- system exists, all too frequently much of the mate- groups with whom Hal is stored and forgotten, seldom if ever while. used again, despite the economies of materials 14.3.17 6. Providing those services that which may be useful in a different situation or will assure instructor competencyin use of visuals circumstance than that originally intended. supervisor-administrator competency. as well as 14.42 Tasks of keeping records, filing For instance, be concerned with acontinuous pro- poster and chart materials,and performing gram of in-servicegrowth to help personnel gain abilities routine tasks of handling should require a mini- knowledge and understanding, skills and simplest form. Included would mum of effort and operate in their essential to effective visual use. The degree to which such office procedure is organ- be the philosophical andpsychological factors ized depends on the particular needs and upon underlying use of visuals ;results of research amount of space available, number of people who studies ;types of visuals available inspecific of will use the materials, whether the office receives areas ;local or nationally available sources or distributes materials inpackets, and individual materials and equipment;values and limitations storing, filing preferences or office policies. of visuals, methods of obtaining, If an office distHbutes and loans visual equip- and maintaining kinds ofmaterials and equip- that affect selec- ment, as in a state visual operation, there should ment ; principles of good teaching be some method for determining who has what on tion and use ; processesinvolved in the produc- service loan, when it shall be returned, when and who has tionof simpler materials ;and the requested it for loan next, and when each item was procedures and policiesavailable within the of others nec- last serviced. Films and filmstrips must be in- organization and the responsibilities spected after each booking, and some definite pro- essary for bestservices to all. cedure becomes essential for booking these too. In other words, the person or 14.3.18 14.43 Simple clerical forms work most personsadministering a visual programmust satisfactorily. Some state offices keep film and provide professionalleadership to help create equipment records on cards ; others use alarge competency in the use ofmaterials. Many states sheet of paper for each item showing ayear's already do this, in part,by preparing teacher's record at a glance. Size or form of recordswould guides and manuals,lists of resources and sug- depend upon number of films to be rented and gestions for use, urgingappointment of preview various types of machines owned andloaned by and selection committees,and in planning or con- workshops or through in- the office. ducting meetings and A constant re-examination ofroutine operations dividual conferences. helps to see which steps mightbe eliminated or should be develop improved. After all, the main purpose 14.3.19 Such activities soon describes one sys- tile necessity to providematerial and services primarily to serve others. Noel interpret the total tem in which a large visualdepartment fined indi- which will help administrators viduals for overdue materials.A look at the extension program to professionaland lay groups. spent a dollar to help :(1) produce records showed that the department Noel suggests two ways for every 10 cents itcollected. Elimination of the visual materials whichhelp explain the organiza- fines, plus a program of urging users to return provide a variety of boxes made to hold from 25 equipment and materials on time, solved the prob- to several hundred slides in separate grooves for lem and reduced record-keeping to a minimum. easy access. Large collections can be stored in drawer cabinets made up of such boxes. 14.44 Storage of ma terialsflannel- boards, chalkboards, charts, posters, exhibit pan- 14.49 Filmstrips generally are pack- els,models,etc. obviouslyrequiresspecial aged in metal cans. Storage and filing becomes a treatment if the materials aren't to become dog- rather simple matter if one keeps all filmstrips eared and worn. More important, there is little in a central location, clean and free from dust and point in keeping chart and poster materials at all clutter. if there is no intention of ever using them again. 14.4.10 Storage of flat photographs can 14.45 Some offices keep flannelboard be troublesome for anyone, especially if the sup- symbols, posters, charts, etc., on edge in storage ply includes several different sizes. Large photo- bins separated by vertical dividers, much like graphs, useful for exhibit purposes say larger music houses store records. Each bin or section than 8 x 10 probably would best be stored on within bins is labeled according to content. Ac- edge the same as charts and posters, particularly cess to materials then becomes much more con- if they are mounted on display boards. Those venient than if items are stacked on top of each photographs which are 8 x 10 in size fit easily other.Such an arrangement alsofacilitates into ordinary metal letter-file cabinets. You may storage of unused poster board and similar sup- wish to devise a similar system for 10 x 10 or 7 x plies. It may be possible to store flannelboards, acetates for overhead projection. Smaller prints chalkboards, exhibit panels, and models in similar probably keep more conveniently.1 envelopes. bins constructed to fit each item. Some offices Generally it works best to store photographs of keep projectors, cameras, and other equipment like subjects in the same envelope if they are nearby; others store projection equipment in kept at all. Some photographers dislike to keep separate rooms. In either case the main objective small prints. They prefer to file and store only is to have a specific place for each item of equip- the negatives so that when a specific print is ment; after loan or use, a machine is returned to needed they can develop it for the immediate need. its assigned storage spot. Such a system is helpful both to large, state offices or the smallest 14.4.11 Filing systems, whether for county office. black and white negatives, colored slides, or acetates for overhead projection, should serve 14.46 Movie films, tapes, and kineo- at least two purposes: (1) to hold the negatives or scopes generally fit most conveniently in storage slides themselves together with relevant data shelves manufactured for such materials. Sim- regarding subject-matter and (2) to allow each ilar shelves are not too difficult to construct. picture to be found at a moment's notice. Of these, Films, generally packaged in metal cans, may be perhaps the second purpose is most important. filed by subject-matter or alphabetically by title. Again, a checkout form of some nature provides a 14.4.12 A contact print for identifica- record of inspection, location and length of loan, tion of black and white pictures attached to a etc. card and a system whereby cards contain negative numbers, date of exposure, and information re- 14.47 It is possible to store and file garding the subject will permit indefinite expan- slides in a variety of different ways. Probably sion of a system. Furthermore, a file that is one of the most convenient methods is to keep organized in that way, enables location of a sub- them in large cabinets holding vertical carriers in ject without excessive handling of negatives which slides may be fitted. Carriers hold from 50 to 100 slides, or more, and a cabinet may con- which sometimes results in scratches or smears. tain 25 to 100 carriers, depending upon size. Car- 14.4.13 Negative files might take the riers may be pulled out from the cabinet for view- form of albums, containing transparent or trans- ing and selecting slides without removal until lucent envelopes. Commercial sources have these time of use. available for purchase. It is easy to make home- 14.48 Smaller numbers of slides are made albums from ordinary letter-size envelopes more economically stored in homemade cases or similar to the negative size. Punch holes in en- manufactured boxes. Many county agents, with velopes along one side so as to insert them into small collections, merely use empty cigar boxes a loose-leaf binder. Some photographers prefer in which to store slides, with the slides numbered to file negatives by inserting them into envelopes, for index reference. Photographic supply houses then filing the package in a metal card file. In

142 independ- should have a number 14.4.20 Thus, indexing can be either case, each envelope ent of the storage system.It may be desirable matching a number on thenegative inside, written in the same file withphoto- of the film. to index other visuals in India ink on the margin graphic prints of negatives.Cards ideally might Small strips of film say contain simple sketches orphotographs of charts, 14.4.14 to make, lengths of four or six exposures are easier to posters, etc. Polaroid copies are easy handle than individualframes or negatives. at little expense, and maybe mounted oncards Photographers place them inenvelopes of suitable or put into aloose-leaf notebook indexform. size and shape, then numberthe envelopes con- Even small operations willfind frames themselves con- 14.4.21 secutively. The negative a filing systemvaluable, especially as newvisuals tain the number and a lettersuffix to the number. are added tothe office. But once started,it is For instance, envelope 283would contain nega- vital that a filing system be kept upto date. There tives 283a, 283b, 283c, and so on. are no half measures.It is either complete and accurate or it is useless. 14.4.15 Other photographersmake print or proof sheetsof entire rolls of filminstead of 14.4.22 For further study about several individual contact prints fornegative identifica- methods for filing, in particular, thebibliography tion. They place strips on asheet of 8 x 10 enlarg- contains several books on thesubject. Issues of ing paper, expose anddevelop. Subject data goes Modern Photography, PopularPhotography, and on the backand the proof sheets arefiled in an other photographic magazines alsooften carry ordinary letter file. articles on methods of filingphotographs. Many of these methods are adaptable tothe problems of 14.4.16 It may be desirable to prepare filing and storing other visual materials. separate files or albums tohandle several different negative sizes one for each sizeof negative. Or, providing a file oralbum will hold all 14.5Suggestions for Training sizes satisfactorily, one maywish to continue con- secutive numbering, regardlessof size. 14.51 As previously mentioned, the responsibility for conducting a programin visual 14.4.17 Location of subjects, facilitated others informed cards or proofs, becomes communication includes keeping by arrangement of print about the latest research, methods,materials, and difficult unless there is a simplesystem of cate- in the conduct gorizing subjects. Many stateextension services equipment which would be useful which might be of the total program. Sometimesthis leads to the have standard filing systems only the person responsible duplicated as topic subjectsfor filing negatives. erroneous belief that popularity over the for conducting the visual operation orhe who uses Another system, gaining in visuals more than anyone else canspeak with any country, is the Agdex systemfor classifying, authority where visual communications are con- indexing, and filing agriculturalpublications de- cerned. Hence, all problems arisingin planning veloped by the National Project inAgricultural conferences, meetings, and workshops arereferred Communications.Subjects are grouped under to him. Such a practice leadsto further sepa- major headings and separated bytopics or phases. rating the visual activities from theircoordinative It provides subject breakdownsand combinations role in the implementation of thetotal extension of various subject areas, althoughthe central core program. of the system is built around farmproducts. 14.52 Of course the visual specialist 14.4.18 Using the Agdex system to find if there is onewill continue to serve as a con- a photograph onweed control in corn, one would sultant.But if more specialists,agents, and first look under the basicheading of "field crops," supervisors and administrators canbecome com- then locate "corn," and thefinal category of petent in the preparation and useof visual mate- 44 weed control." Cards or data sheets filed under rials, they will be able to applythe principles of contain a contact effective visual communicationto their imme- that subject heading would each important if print of the photograph available onweed control diate problems. This is especially negative on there is no specialist and only a personwith other in corn and show the number of the assignments who is responsibleto other staff hand. members for most visual consultantwork. He 14.4.19 Photographs of people might be simply cannot spend all histime on visuals, and indexed alphabetically by the namesof the sit- the better informed aboutvisual communication ters. Sections of a county or sthte orregion also the rest of the staff becomes,the more likely might be arranged alphabetically byplace name. such a system will work at all. 143 Art ...

14.53 Many extension specialists and 2. To recognize that leadership is a function of agents today generally agree that to use visuals every individual, and to encourage the exer- is to improve their teaching. They say they have cise of leadership by each person in accord- the problem of how to prepare materials ; how to ance with his interests, needs, andabilities. use materialseffectively; how to use visuals with- 3. To provide means by which persons can out disrupting other activities. Someeducators plan together, share their experiences, and once were concernedwith where to find visual cooperatively evaluate their achievements. material. Now they also face the problem of 4. To place the responsibility for making de- 4 evaluating the tremendous amount of material cisions that affect the total enterprise with available in order to decide which type best suits the group rather than with one or a few particular purposes. The needs of one staff also individuals. may be entirelydifferent from those of another. At any rate, before anyone can develop a training 5. To achieve flexibility of organization to the program he should learn all he canof the strong end that necessary adjustments can readily and weak areas in which training is necessary be made. just as he determines needs for a visual program. 14.56 Despite the number of texts de- 14.54 Six methods are common. First, voted to administration of visual programs, few the director or administrative officer of the or- authors submit specific and practical suggestions ganization may determine needs. Many training for the development of in-service training pro- programs do owe their existence to a decision grams. Periodical literature is morehelpful. In made by a single man. Second, a training staff it authors suggest that the logically organized in- may determine existence of aproblem and even service training program begins with national or decide what the particular solution may be. Some- regional conferences, followed by local confer- times a clearer and more detailed account of ences which arouse awareness of newtendencies. training direction is produced through a third Others urge regular in-service classes or seminars procedure when an advisory or management in which use of visual materials and their pro- group studies a situation.Fourth, the job itself duction is emphasized. Still others, documenting may determine specific needsawidening con- local programs which were successful, place em- cept of the job and the place the job occupies in phasis on demonstrations using selected materials relationship to the entire organization contributes before groups to encourage interest; enlisting the to this. Fifth, individual specialists or agents may help of specialists, supervisors, or administrators recognize difficulties and offer their suggestions in the planning of state or county visual pro- for improvement through conferences, interviews, grams ; enlisting help of experiencedworkers in and informal discussions. Finally, a personnel in- carrying on more formal training work with other ventory and survey can evaluate a program al- workers. ready in progress and help determine additional 14.57 In nearly all cases, writers rec- direction. It also can make use of case studies, ommended the use of homemade materials, local problems, and tests to determine how individuals problems needing visualization, and the distribu- act. In a sense, this method of developing a training program is similar to the fifthwhere in- tion of informative printed materials. dividuals create and ask for the training. 14.58 As one plans a training program, and as it progresses, he should ask instructors, 14.55 Through the latter efforts, it is trainees, and himself : "Can visual training be possibletoestablish some rather important conducted with other training programs, agri- principles of democratic action while also cre- culture or home economics? Are we placing so ating objectives for the training program. These Miel, and Misner in much emphasis on visual communication that are expressed by Koopman, other methods of communication are forgotten? Democracy in School Administration1 thusly : Are we creating visuals as ends rather than means 1. To facilitate the continuous growth of in- to the total extension program?" dividuhl and social personalities by providing all persons; with opportunities to par- 14.59 Here are some suggested steps ticipate actively in all enterprises that con- which might help in the development of a visual cern them. training program: 1. Review literature. Look over 1 G. Robert Koopman, Alice Miel, and Paul J. Misner, 14.5.10 Democracy in School Administration, Appleton-Century the latest books and brochures relating to visual Company, New York, 1943. instruction, planning, preparation and use of all

144 visual media. Note the various approaches. Ab- all the ingenuity and creativity one can muster stract items which might be of value to the train- complete freedom from inhibition. But of most im- ing program itself. Obtain a copy of The Audio- portance is the simple, but difficult, wisdom of Visual Equipment Directory or some similar man- knowing when to quit. If we apply the principles ual for discussions about equipment. of brainstorming and leave judgments by the wayside for a moment, even seemingly trivial acts 14.5.11 2. Surv ey the individuals or may drive a point home. groups who will be participants in the program. Re-examine old requests for information ;pre- 14.5.17 6. Prepare a list of local sources vious training of individuals ;theskills and of supply. Individuals in rural areas often may knowledge they already have; the equipment and not realize that their nearby newspaper offices, facilities they have available for ready use. Com- hardware stores,grocerystores,stati on ery pare individuals and their resources to see how stores, dime stores, drug stores, and lumber yards to enlist their aidas legitimizers, discussion handle many of the items helpful in making sim- leaders, etc. ple visuals. Included might be newsprint, poster board, brushes and felt pens, India ink, poster 14.5.12 3. Catalog existing visual ma- paints, peg boards, and so on. Local prices may terials and equipment used in the organization. be prohibitive, so investigate the situation, and, Such a listing might be helpful as an indication ifpossible, provide a list of sources where of available materials and experience. It might quantity orders may lower prices. Many times also provide reminders to trainees of items they office closets, attics at home, even the local junk- might wish to re-use. yard may contain materials that will stimulate 14.5.13 4. Establish an advisory group the imagination.Similary a list may provide for training sessions. Include people who have suppliers of materials which are not available been exposed to other training programs, who locally. are familiar with communication theory, who have successfully used visual materials, who are professionals in the visual fieldeducation, in- 14.6 Summary dustry, church groups, etc., all of whom have 14.61 Administration of a visual com- state and national organizations. Ask the group munication program involves adopting and pro- to pool individual ideas and experiences relating moting the philosophy that visual techniques are to the problem of in-service training; to training means to an end. They should be incorporated in- in visual communication. These people might be to an educational program to become an inte- helpful with point #2. grated part of communication efforts. Four basic 14.5.14 5. Prepare examples of mul- principles apply: tiple-use visuals. Show how materials for one pur- 1.Correlate visual communication efforts with pose have been adapted foranothermagazine other teaching materials. and bulletin illustrations to visuals for talks and 2. Use visuals to support the subject-matter exhibits, how slides may be converted to black- being taught. and-white enlargements, how television art be- 3. Test visuals for response and effectiveness. comes useful for demonstrations,how an actual 4. Relate visual messages to experience in or- object may substitute for experience about several der to reinforce other messages, and vice different things. versa. Edgar Dale says that the teach- 14.5.15 14.62 Little substantial research exists ers of the past were skilled inhandling experi- to offer guideposts to visual communication ad- ence.2 So must a trainer in visual communication ministration, but even the smallest operation can provide co-workers with experiences in the use of lend assistance to a broad knowledge of what visual materials. That may be no easy task, for visuals can and cannot do. Such an attitude is an experience has scores anddozens of aspects especially worthwhile, if we develop other atti- and leads. tudes showing that many effective visuals do not 14.5.16 Thus, making multiple use of require a large budget and that the most im- visuals means much more than merely using the portant factors in visualization are common sense, same visual over and over again.Involved are alertness to new possibilities, and sincere interest in helping others learn. 2 "Role of Visual Materials in Education," California Jountal of Secondary Education, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 14.63 Functions of a visual program 1941. vary, of course, but in general most operations

145 should include handling of materials andservices 14.65 Training in visual communication so that: is necessary if specialists, agents, andadministrators are to become competent in the prepara- 1. Use is always under best possibleconditions. tion and use of visual materials. Avariety of 2. Specialists may have materials andequip- methods for training are possible. Here are a ment when and where they need them. few suggestions : 3. Specialists may select and usematerials 1. Review literature in order to be able todis- which fit their teaching-learning situations. cuss questions which mayarise; catalog existing 4. Materials will be used as an integral part materials and equipment now used. of the total extension program. 2. Establish an advisory group fortraining 5.Specialists and agents make full use of the sessions. Ask them to help survey the individuals resources available locally. or groups to be trained. 6. Competency in use is assured for all who 3. Prepare examples of multiple-usevisuals ; use them. keep workshop problems localized ;use homemade materials when possible;and distribute pertinent 14.64 Problems of filing, storing, and information about sources of supply. adapting visuals should be solved by routine and simple methods. Locate storage spaces for charts, 14.66 Finally, in the midst of design posters, exhibit panels, and equipment close to- and production, indexing and filing, itis neces- gether so that each item has an assigned spot. sary to remember thatgood administration of a If possible, arrange an indexing system for visual program involves much morethan the photographic negatives to include other materials handling of materials, although this is important. and equipment. The Agdex system of filing,de- The key to successful administrationis a focus veloped by NPAC for agricultural publications on people. Certainlyif a communication point adapts to filing visual materials just as do many of view has value it should be put to useby com- of the systems already in use by the state exten- munication specialists in their ownadministra- sion services. tive practices.

146 Authors and Editors

Most of the authors and editors identifiedwith this book are well known in one or more particular fields of education, research, orcommunication. For the benefit of those inother fields who will see this book, the authors andeditors (at the time they made their contributionsto this book) were associated, as follows :

DR. J. STACY ADAMS, with theLaboratory for Hu- man Development,Stanford University. DR. JOHN BALL, visiting professor,College of Communication Arts, Michigan StateUniver- sity. DR. ERWIN P. BETTINGHAUS, instructor,College of Communication Arts, MichiganState Uni- versity. MR. FRANCIS C. BYRNES, associatedirector, Na- tional Project in AgriculturalCommunication s. DR. JOHN OLIVER COOK, professorof psychology, Department of Psychology, North Carolina State College. DR. GEORGE GERBNER, associateprofessor, Insti- tute of CommunicationsResearch, University of Illinois. MR. MARTIN KRAMPEN,Fulbright scholar from Italy, College of CommunicationArts, Michigan State University. DR. A. A. LUMSDAINE, programdirector for training and education, AmericanInstitute for Re- search, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. DR. NATHAN MACCOBY, professorof mass Com- munications, Department of Communication and Journalism, Stanford University. DR. ROBERT C. SNIDER, assistantexecutive secre- tary, Division of Audio-VisualInstruction, Na- tional Education Association. DR. I. A. TAYLOR, professor ofpsychology, North- east Missouri State TeachersCollege, Kirks- ville, Missouri. MR. HAL R. TAYLOR, Office ofInformation, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

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150 "The Influence Upon Film Learning of Procedures De- KELMAN, H. C. "Attitudes Change as a Functionof Re- signed to Stimulate Anticipatory Responses."Boston sponse Restriction." HumanRelations, Vol. 6, 1953, pp. University, 1954a. 185-214. " 'Reinstatement' of ITTELSON, WILLIAM H., and CANTRIL, HADLEY. Percep- KELMAN, H. C., and HOVLAND, C. I. the Communicator in Delayed Measurementof Opinion tion A Transactional Approach. Garden City, New Psychology, Vol. York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1954. Change. Journal of Abnormal and Social 48, 1953, pp. 327-335. IVINS, WILLIAM M., JR. Prints and Visual Communication. KENDLER, H. H., KENDLER, T. S., and COOK,J. 0. "Im- Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, plications of Learning Theory for the Designof Audio- 1953. Visual Aids." Human Resources ResearchLaboratory JANIS, I. L. "Anxiety Indices Related to Susceptibility Memo Report No. 12-A, November 1951. to Persuasion." Journal of Abncrmal and Social Psychol- KENDLER, H. 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154 WEISS, W., and FINE, B. J. "Opinion Change as a Func- WHORF, BENJAMIN L. Language, Thought andReality. tion of Some Intrapersonal Attributes of theCorn- New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956. municatees." Journal of Abnormca and Social Psychol- WIENER, NORBERT. Cybernetics, or Controland Communi- ogy, Vol. 51, 1955, pp. 246-253. cation in the Animal and the Machine.Cambridge, WEISS, W., and FINE, B. J. "Stimulus Familiarization as a Massachusetts: Technology Press, .1948. Factor in Ideational Learning." Boston University, un- WITTICH, WALTER ARNO, and SCHULLER, CHARLESFRANCIS. published, 1955. Audio-Visual Materials, Their Nature and Use. New WERNER, H., and WAPNER, S. "Toward a General Theory York: Harper and Brothers, 1953. of Perception." Psychological Review, Vol. 59, 1952, pp. WITTICH, WALTER ARNO, and FOLIOS, J. G.Audic-Vitual 325-338. Paths to Learning. New York: Harper andBrothers, WENDT, PAUL R. Audio-Visual Instruction. *14 in a series 1946. of pamphlets on "What Research Says to the Teacher," WULFF, J. J. "The Teaching Effectiveness of aFilm Washington, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, Mechanical Assembly Demonstration with Supplemen- American Educational Research Association of the Na- tary Nomenclature Training."Yale University, un- tional Education Association, 1957. published, 1954. WERTHEIMER, MAX.Productive Thinking. New York: WULFF, J. J.SHEFFIELD, F. W., and KRAELING, D. G. Harper and Brothers, 1945. " 'Familiarization' Procedures Used asAdjuncts to WESTLEY, BRUCE H., and MACLEAN, MALCOLM S., JR., "A Assembly Task Training With a DemonstrationFilm." Conceptual Model for Communications Research." Jour- Staff Research. Memorandum, Chanute AFB,Illinois: nalism Quarterly, Winter 1957. Training Aids Research Laboratory, 1954. WHITING, JOHN R. Photography is a Language. New YALE MOTION PICTURE RESEARCH PROJECT."Do 'Motiva- York: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company, 1946. tion' and 'Participation' Questions IncreaseLearning?" WHORF, BENJAMIN L. Collected Papers on Meta linguistics. Educational Screen, Vol. 26, 1947, pp. 256-259, 274-283. Washington: Foreign Service Institute, Department of ZIPF, G. K. The Psycho-Biology of Language. Boston: State, 1952. Houghton Mifflin, 1935.

cl,

155 Subject Index

abstract art, 7.89 attitudes, 4.25, 4.32: characterization: abstract representation, 11.2.17 changing, 9.4.37 technique for, 11.3.39 abstractions, 7.13.5 formation of, 10.13 through visuals, 7.15.3 acceptance, 5.42 group-anchored, 6.7.11 chunking, 6.64 accommodation, of eye to light, 7.51 see also, opinion change close-ended test, 13.84 action, portrayal of, 10.76 attributes, 6.33: closeup, 11.3.39- actions, 5.43 anxiety-provoking, 6.54 closure, 7.9.11, 11.26: adaptation level theory, 6.75, 8.6 audience: in grouping, 11.38 adequacy: expectations, 14.22 clustering, 13.51 graphic, 11.4.15 research, 6.71 code, 4.42 of design, 11.41 audio-visual demonstrations, 10.4.12 codes, 1.34, 6.36 of statement, 2.14.1 availability, 2.88 codifying, 7.13.3 typographic, 11.4.15 coding, 7.13.3 adjustment: balance, need for, 7.14.2 cognition, need for, 6.7.19 in visual perception, 7.14.4 before-after, prescription, 11.3.41 cognitions, 6.23, 10.21 of eye lens, 7.54 behavior, categorizing, 6.33 cognitive dissonance, 6.23, 6.77 administration, visual program, 14.61 beliefs, 2.14.7 cognitive theorists, 10.21 advisory group, visual training bias, 9.4.38 coherence, 2.14.1 14.5.13 biased samples, 13.3.14 color, 7.48: aerial perspective, 7.9.25 bilingualism, 6.65 association, 11.4.14 aesthetic, 12.16 binocular vision, 7.55 contrast, 11.4.11 aesthetic qualities, of graphic, bits, 6.64 11.4.20 in attracting attention, 11.3.20 boomerang effect, 6.73 meaning, codifying, 11.4.14 AGDEX system, 14.4.17 Boring's analysis of good form, agreement, level of (in testing) 13.88 preference, 11.4.12 7.9.35 use of in learning, 10.4.20 ambiguous stimuli, 7.11.1 Boston University experiment, Ames' distorted room, 7.9.63 commitments, 5.43 10.5.11, 10.5.15 common movement: analogic coding, 7.13.4 breaking habits, 5.63 in grouping, 11.36 analysis, the age of, 2.25 brightness, 11.4.11: in visual grouping, 7.98 constancy, 7.52 animation, 12.4.15 communication: apparent motion, 7.9.63 in attracting attention, 11.3.21 as a field, 2.2 appeals, emotional and rational, 6.52 budget, for visual program, as process, 2.51, 2.53, 4.63 apprehension, span of, 6.64 14.31, 14.36 case study, 1.3 Aristotle: channels of, 6.41 on rhetoric, 3.41 camera angle, in demonstrating, definition, 2.42 on the senses, 7.21 10.4.13 example and diagram, 2.92 arrangement, in visual layout, 11.2.20 cameras, 12.2.13 in learning, 10.12 art in social communication, 2.14.5 captioning, 11.3.18, 11.49 in social framework, 3.5.34 articulation, 7.9.38: captions: mass produced, 2.32 in perception, 7.88 influence of, 12.37 networks, 6.46 assertion, 6.24 photographic, 12.35, 12.3.10 nonverbal, 11.12 Issimilation, of elements in rumor, cartoons, for attention-directing, of facts, 10.86 7.12.6 10.4.10 physical elements of, 3.5.27 assumptions, 11.2.10 categorizing behavior, 6.62 planning, 9.22 asymmetrical balancing, in design, category, 6.33 problems, 9.31 11.49 causal relations, 3.5.14 process and effects, 2.36 attention, 5.42: cell assembly theory, 8.2 specific outcomes, 9.16 -gaining devices, 10.4.17 chances, in sampling, 13.3.12 verbal model, 2.89 -getting, 9.4.34 change, 13.13 communication agents, agencies, 2.87 -getting devices, 11.3.17 changes, in attitude, 13.91 communication approach, 226 attitude: channel, 3.56, 4.51 communication breakdown, 4.24 change, 6.22, 13.91 channels, 2.10.6, 6.41: communication events, 2.86 initial level of, 13.92 multiple, 14.13 communication failure, 2.10.16

156 communication goals, 9.11: design: energy, electro-chemical and types of, 9.14 functional principles in, 11.31 nervous, 5.13 communication research, 6.82 structural principles in, 11.31 environment, 1.22 communication revolution, 2.31 visibility, 11.41 equilibrium, 6.23, 7.14.2 communication skills, 4.23, 4.34 visual, 7.43 error, sampling, 13.63 communicative acts, Newcomb's, 6.12 destination, 3.58 estimates, 5.51 competency, visual materials use, development, in visual perception evaluation: 14.3.17 7.14.3 process of, 13.21 comprehension, in graphic adequacy, diagonal line, 7.44 purpose of, 13.12 11.4.17 diagram, 2.93: technique for, 11.3.40 concept, 6.24 Bryant and Wallace model, 3.5.30 through visuals 7.15.4 concepts, learning of, 9.4.25 communication model, 6.13 event, 2.61 conditioning: conception of truth, 2.14.2 execution phase, in creative process, classical, 6.31 Gulley model, 3.5.28 11.28 verbal, 6.32 Heise and Miller patterns, 6.46 expectations, 1.26: conformity, 11.35: Hovland model, 3.5.37 audience, 14.22 motive of, 7.12.1 Johnson model, 3.? expected reward, 5.23 congruity, 6.22 Leavitt patterns, 6.4.10 experimental studies, 6.15 congruity theory, Osgood's, 6.12 Minnick's model, 3.5.24 experts, use of in testing, 13.10.2 connotative meaning, 1.36 Ogden-Richards model, 3.5.16 explanations, 10.8.15 consequences, 2.83, 2.10.4, 5.21 Osgood model, 3.5.19 exposure, in the creative process, consistency: Riley and Riley model, 3.5.34 11.22 in visual layout, 11.2.18 Rothstein system, 3.5.10 extension work, use in visuals in, of forms, 7.9.44 Ihannon-Weaver system, 3.55 14.3.11 content, 2.57, 4.43, 11.2.10, 13.82: S.M.C.R model, 4.1 extraneous stimuli, 10.8.18: expressing inood, 11.3.36 social communication, 2.14.6 for learning, 10.4.16 content attractors, 11.3.27 structure of freedom, 2.13.7 extrinsic motivation, 10.35 content symbols, 11.3.27 the eye, 7.31 eye attractors, 11.3.19 context, 7.41 the Interpreter model, 5.12 eye blinking, as related to fatigue, perceptual, 2.88 the visual field, 7.31 11.4.19 continuity, 7.9.10: Westley and MacLean model, 3.5.32 eye movement, 7.54 as grouping techniques,11.37 differentiation phase, in contiguity: perception, 7.8.10 familiarization training, 10.43 principle of, 10.8.13 diffusion phase, of perception, 7.88 fatigue, in graphic adequacy, 11.4.19 theorists, 10.21 digital coding, 7.13.3 facts, communication of, 10.86 contrast, 7.9.17: dimensionalization of inputs, 6.3.10 fear appeals, 6.53 as.separating technique, 11.3.11 direct feedback, 5.51 feedback, 3.5.32, 5.51, 9.4.30, 13.23: control, 2.13.16 discrepancy, 6.75 to practice, 10.5.13 control group, 13.95 discrimination learning, 6.65 fidelity, of models, 3.23 controlled experiment, 13.95 discrimination, visual, 7.61 field observation, in testing, 13.10.6 convergence, of the eye, 7.55 dissonance, 6.77 figure-ground, 7.9.19, 7.9.37, 11.3.12 conversation, as means of testing, distance, perception, 10.72 filing visual materials, 14.41 13.85 distortion, 7.9.31: filled space, 7.9.27 correlation, visuals and other for learning, 10.4.11 filled spacing, 11.3.10 material, 14.24 double-sample, 13.3.13 film, storage of, 14.46 correspondence, to event, 2.14.1 drive, in learning, 10.31 filmstrip, 12.48 fixation, 7.9.30 creative process, 11.22 drives: creative thought, 12.12 learned, 16.62 form, 1.24, 2.57: credibility, 6.23, 6.28, 6.77 physiological, 10.62 as dynamic system, 7.9.42 criteriality, 6.33, 6.62 primary and secondary, 10.62 constancy of, 7.9.44 cue, 10.41 dynamic basis of form, 7.9.42 persistence of, 7.9.43 cue-learning, 10.47 schematic, in teaching, 9.4.26 cues: dynamics, 1.39 symbolic, in teaching, 9.4.26 depth, 11.3.13 symmetry of, 7.9.45 guidance, 10.5.16 effects, 2.10.4 transposition of, 7.9.49 relevant, 10.48 effective communication, 14.25 forms,7.9.34: cultural context, 1.37 efficiency, in graphic adequacy, fusion of, 7.9.48 cybernetic theory, 8.5 11.4.18 good and poor, 7.9.39 elaboration, in creative process, 11.28 in visual communication, 11.21 decision-making, 6.7.15: elements, 4.45: meaningfulness of, 7.9.47 skills, 9.4.28 of a communication, 11.2.14 open and closed, 7.9.41 decode, 4.61 emotional representation, 7.13.5 strong and weak, 7.9.40 decoding, 5.13, 6.61 empathy, 11.3.36 freedom, 2.13.3: defensive avoidance, 6.54 emphasis, in visual layout, 11.2.19 structure of, 2.13.4 demonstrations, audio-visual, 10.4.12 empirical relationship of facts. functional model, 3.25 denotative meaning, 1.36 10.8.16 functional techniques, 11.3.15 depth cues, 7.9.21, 11.3.13 encode, 4.61 fusion of forms, 7.9.48 design, adequacy, 11.41 encoding, 5.15, 6.31: gadgets, photographic, 12.2.15 descriptive model, 3.24 linguistic, 6.39 gimmicks, for motivation, 9.93 157 misconceptions, about visual goals, of communication, 10.81 interview, for bias, 9.4.39 hiterviewing variables, 3.5.22 communication, 11.12 good figure, 11.3.14: menmonic devices, 10.8.14 principle of, 7.9.34 intrapersonal communication, 6.11 introductory sequences, 10.41 mock-up: grouping techniques, 11.33 of equipment, 9.4.20 grouping, visual, 11.2.17 surface, 9.4.23 guessing habits, 13.41 judgment, 2.12.1 mock-ups or models, 9.59 habit, strength of, 5.61 judgments, 6.25 model: habits, breaking, 5.63 as a code, 3.22 homeostasis, 7.14.2 knowledge, 4.28, 4.33 verbal, 3.41 horizontal line, 7.44 models, 3.12: humanizing, 2.13.1 labelling, 11.3.18 dimensions of, 3.32 hypothesis theory (perception) 8.10 language learning, 6.65: forms of, 3.31 Mowrer's theory of, 6.12 use in teaching, 3.51 icon, 11.2.16 theories of, 6.31 modulations, visual, 7.51 icons, 7.13.5 language of vision, 12.1 mood induction, 11.3.31 ideal qualities in communication, 2.14.7 layout, visual, 11.2.17 mood, influencing, 11.3.31 ideal social communication layouts, 11.3.14 motion pictures, 12.4.13 process, 2.14.7 learned integrations, 3.5.22 motion, representation of, 10.75 identification: learning, 10.11: motivating, as a communication technique for, 11.3.38 five kinds of, 9.4.11 goal, 9.45 through visuals, 7.15.2 four essentials of, 10.22 motivation, 10.83, 11.2.16: to induce practice, 10.5.11 from films, 10.41 building of, 10.3.10 identifications, 9.4.17 in visual communication, 7.13.1 extrinsic, 10.35 illumination phase, in creative paired-associate, 10.8.10 in behavior change, 9.4.44 process, 11.26 serial, 10.86 in learning, 10.31 image, 1.26 verbal, 9.4.12 in subsequent behavior, 10.38 immediate commitment, 9.4.43 learning process, 5.11 role of, 7.12.1 immediate past experience, 1.23 learning theories, 6.12: motivation theory (perception), 8.91 implicit practice, 10.54, 10.58 (perception), 8.12 motor skill level, 3.5.23 incubation, in creative process, 11.25 least effort, 5.23 movement: indirect feedback, 5.52 lecture-demonstration in teaching, apparent, 7.9.63 influenceability, 6.7.17 9.4.27 in attracting attention, 11.3.22 influence, interpersonal, 6.4.14 lettering, in visuals, 11.2.18, 11.2.20 perception of, 7.9.62 influencing, communication for, 9.4.32 levelling, elements in rumor, 7.12.6 relative, 7.9.64 informal social communication, light and shade, 7.9.26 moving,. objects, 7.9.29 Festinger's theory of, 6.12 liking factor, in lcar--;-g, 10.32 multiple channels, 4.52, 14.13 information, capacity for, 6.64 line, as element of design, 7.43 multiple statements, 2.81 information elements, linear perspective, 7.0.24 mystery, in attracting attention, in teaching, 9.4.24 lines, expressing mood, 11.3.32 11.3.26 information source, 3.54 local resources, use of, 14.3.16 information theory, 6.36, 6.63 logic, 2.25 narration, in visual demonstration, inkblot test, 7.11.1 logical relationship, of facts, 10.8.15 10.4.23 input, 3.5.20, 6.3.10: long-range effects, 2.10.17 naturalness, of form, 7.9.36 stimulut, 9.4.18 negative-positive, evaluation, 11.3.40 in-service training, 14.56 mandatory prescription, 11.3.41 inspiration in creative process, 11.26 n-step flow hypothesis, 6.4.16 manual skills, 9.4.30 networks of communication, 6.46 instructional leadership, 12.56 mass communication,6.11 instructional techniques, film, 12.55 6.43, 6.4.14 nomenclature, in familiarization, 10.45 mass media, 2.32, 3.5.32, non-communication events, 2.85 instructions, in prescription, 11.3.41 massed review, 10.5.25 non-interference, principle of, 10.8.12 meaning, 1.35, 5.42, 11.15, 11.2.15: integrated visual communication, number of elements, in design, 11.46 7.8.13 in visual communication, 7.13 integra'ing, techniques for, 11.3.14 meaning and words, 12.13 integrat .-)n, of similars and meaningfulness of forms, 7.9.47 objective test, 13.84 adjaceut, .46 means, 2.94 objectives, of communication, 13.81 integration phase, in perception, 7.8.12 means and controlsdimension, 2.83 objectivity, 2.25 intellectual ability, 6.72 means-ends, evaluation, 11.3.40 objects, expressing mood, 11.3.34 interaction analysis, Bale's, 6.12 measurement, in evaluation, 13.21 observation, as means of testing,13.83 interaction, in perception, 7.23 measurement theory, 3.5.10 obstacles: interaction models, 2.56, 2.62, 2.71 message, 2.53, 4.41, 6.51,11.2.10, 14.21: content, 9.5.15 interaction phase, in creative personalizing of, 10.3.10 in communication, 9.15 types of, 3.54 personal, 9.52 process, 11.25 situation and resource, 9.53 interest factor, in learning, 10.32 message content, 6.22 messages, 5.41 off centering, in design, 11.49 internal responses, 5.43 office procedure, in handling interpersonal communication, 6.11 abstract, 11.2.16 concrete, 11.2.16 visual material, 14.42 interpersonal influence, 6.4.14 open-ended test, 13.84 interposition, 7.9.22 in sampling, 13.81 methods of improving visual openness, 11.22 interpretation, 3.5.23, 5.14 operational model, 3.25 interpreter model, 5.11 instruction, 14.38

158 prescription: rest pause, in learning, 10.5.28 opinion change, 6.22, 6.5.10, 6.72 retention, of attitudes, 10.13 opinion leader, 6.4.15 technique for, 11.3.41 through visuals, 7.15.5 retina, 7.53 optical effects, as learning aid, 10.71 review: optical illusions, 7.9.55 present observation, 1.23 prestige phenomenon, 6.21 distribution of, 10.5.24 ordering, for learning, 10.86 massed, 10.5.25 outcomes, specific, 9.61 primacy, 6.58 principles, learning of, 9.4.25 spaced, 10.5.25 output, 3.5.23 reward, 5.22: overlap, 7.9.22 probabilistic theorj, 8.7 process, 2.52, 3.43, 4.63: extrinsic type, 10.64 over-represented, 13.56 in learning, 10.61 overt practice, 10.55 case study, 1.2 communication as, 1.12 intrinsic type, 10.64 concept, 1.1 vicarious types, 10.64 paired associates, 9.4.12, 9.4.17 rewards, primary and secondary, parollax of movement, 7.9.28 creative, 11.22 models showing, 3.5.26 10.62 past experience, 1.23 of perceiving, 7.71 road-testing, 13.23, 13.10.1 pattern, in perception, 7.8.12 role, 1.37 patterning, of communication visualization, 11.21 producer of statement, 2.56 rumor, 7.12.6 channels, 6.46 rumor transmission, 6.7.12 pattern of events, 2.52 projected visuals, 12.4 perception, 2.71, 5.14, 7.21: prompting, during practice, 10.5.17 propaganda, 2.33 samples, biased, 13.3.14 basic stages of, 7.87 sampling, 13.31: development of, 7.81 proximity: as grouping technique.11.34 accuracy of, 13.35 of distance, 10.72 in visual grouping, 7.96 error, 13.54, 13.63 of movement, 7.9.62 psychophysical correspondence, 6.3.10 size, 13.72 other theories, 8.1 psychophysical studies, 6.64 schematic representation, 11.2.16 studies of, 6.66 psychophysical study, in decoding, schematic symbol, 7.13.5 variability of, 7.11.1 science, 2.14.4 perceptions, 6.23 6.68 purpose, 1.22, 4.62, 11.2.10 seeing, process of, 7.71 perceptual constancy, principle of, selecting motion pictures, 12.14.17 7.9.50 quality, a, 11.3.39 selection of visual materials, 14.3.14 perceptual dimension, 2.82 self-esteem, 6.7.17 perceptual integration, 7.9.32 random members, tables of, 13.42 semantic differential, 6.24 perceptual-motor skill, training, sensation elements, 7.41 10.8.19 random selection, 13.41 rationale, 2.23, 2.41 sensory psychology,6.3.10 perceptual organization, 7.71 sensory-tonic theory, 8.3 persistence of form, 7.9.43 realism, in visual display, 9.91 separating, techniques for, 11.39 personal functions, visual perception, recall, 6.55 separation, in visual grouping, 7.9.13 7.14.1 receiver, 3.57, 4.31, 5.31, 6.71 sequential patterns, in learning, 9.4.13 recency, 6.58 personality characteristics, as serial learning, 10.86 variables, 6.7.17 record, of an event, 2.10.11 redundancy, 6.36, 6.62 serial position curve, bowed, 10.87 persuasibility, 6.7.18 services, in visual program, 14.3.12 photographer, 12.29 referent, 3.5.15 reinforcement, in learning, 10.61 set, role of, 7.12.1 photographic captions, types of, set theory, perception, 8.4 12.3.11 reinforcement theory, 10.22 relating, through visuals, 7.15.6 shape, in attracting attention, 11.3.25 photographs: shapes, 7.46 indexing of, 14.4.17 relation: sharpening, elements in rumor, 7.12.6 selection of, 12.24 of facts, 10.8.10 technique for, 11.3.42 shooting ratio, 12.27 storage of, 14.4.10 significant variables, 4.22 photography, 12.2 relationship: sign-learning theory, 8.12.3 logical, 10.8.15 pictures, two-dimensional, 10.71 signs, 3.5.20 plan drawing, a, 11,3.39 empirical, 10.8.16 relations, of design elements, 7.42 similarity: points of view, 2.10.12 as a groupingtechnique, 11.35 positioning of elements, in relative movement, 7.9.64 relevance, of a communication, 6.79 in visual grouping, 7.97 design, 11.48 similars and adjacents, integration positioning, of shapes, 7.45 relevant cues, 10.48 reliability, of test, 13.84 of, 7.9.46 positivists, 2.31: simplification, in visual display, 9.71 representation, 13.55: conceptions, 2.59 situation, 2.88 post-decision state, 6.7.15 abstract, 11.2.16 emotional, 7.13.5 situational variable, 3.43 practice, 9.4.17: size: amount of, 10.5.18 of motion, 10.75 schematic, 11.2.16 in attracting attention, 11.3.23 as motivational effect,10.5.12 in visual design, 11.42 distribution of, 10.5.24 representational level, 3.5.23 response, 2.83, 3.5.21, 5.12,5.15, 10.51: size perspective, 7.9.23 implicit, 10.54, 10.58 skill: in audio-visual learning, 10.51 active, 9.81 implicit, 10.52 complex or generalized, 9.4.14 overt 10.55 specific and unitary, 9.4.15 simulated, 9.4.29 overt, 10.51 partial or component, 6.32 skills, decision-making, 9.4.28 preference, in graphic adequacy, slickness, of device, 9.92 11.4.20 response element, 9.4.18 response guidance,10.5.15 slides, 12.48: preparation, in the creative storage and filing, 14.47 process, 11.22 responsibility, social, 2.13.8 159 1.

slow motion, for learning, 10.4.15 systematic behavior theory, 8.12.2 variation, in sampling, 13.67 S-M-C-R model, 4.11, 9.52 symmetry of form, 7.9.45 verbal behavior, functional analysis social-cultural context, 4.29, 4.35 of, 6.12, 6.32 tachistoscope, 11.47, 11.4.10 verbal learning, 9.4.12 social status, 6.7.12 teaching, 14.25: verbal reinforcement, 6.65 social systems, 1.37 as a communication goat, 9.44 verbalization level, 10.4.23 socio-economic districts, 13.52 techniques, 2.10.6: vertical line, 7.44 solipsism, 7.78 for grouping, 11.33 visibility, of design, 11.41 someone, 2.10.1 for integrating, 11.3.14 visibility meter, 11.44 source, 1.35, 4.21,5.31, 6.21 for separating, 11.39 visual administration, 14.31 spaced review, 10.5.25 functional, 11.3.15 visual aids, 9.63 span of apprehension,6.64 structural, 11.32 visual communication, 7.11, 14.11: spatial structure, 7.92 telegraphic form, captions, 11.3.18 specialized services, in visual decoding, 6.66 television, 6.42 goals, 10.81 program, 14.34 television viewing, studies of, 6.44 purposes, 11.3.37 speed, in graphic adequacy, 11.4.16 temporal structure, 7.92 uses of 7.15.1 statement, 2.53 testing, 13.81: visual discrimination, 7.61 status, 1.37 effectiveness of visuals, 14.24 visual equipment and services, 14.3.12 status differentials, 6.7.12 text, accompanying photos, 12.3.10 visual field, 7.31 stereoscope, 7.56 texture, 6.3.10 visual grouping, 7.94 sterotypes, 11.24 thought, 3.5.14 visual integration with other stimuli: title, photographic, 12.3.10 techniques, 14.24 extraneous, 10.4.16, 10.8.18 topological theory (perception), 8.11 visual materials, 9.54 vibratory, 6.3.11 training, in visual communication, visual modulations, 7.51 stimulus, 3.5.20, 5.12: 14.51 visual perception, 6.66: manipulation of, 10.41 transaction, in perception, 7.24 functions, 7.10.1 stimulus input, 9.4.18 transactional theory, 8.8 personal functions of, 7.14.1 storing visual materials, 14.41 transmitter, 3.55 structure of, 7.91 stratified random method, 13.44 transparencies, 9.5.11 summary, 7.16.1 structural techniques, 11.32 transposition: visual production, 14.31 structure: affective, 11.2.16 visual program: of message, 4.45 cognitive, 11.2.16 determining needs, 14.53 of visual perception, 7.91 in visual communication, 11.2.15 functions, 14.63 structuring, 6.7.19 of relation of sensations, 7.42 methods of setting up, 14.33 perceptual, 11.2.16 operational goals, 14.28 subgroup, in sampling, 13.3.13 transposition of form, 7.9.49 substance learning, 9.4.13 visual sensations, 7.41 treatment, 4.44 visual symbol, 7.81 substitutes, for equipment, 9.4.20 troubleshooting, 9.4.28 substitutes, use of in films, 10.4.19 visual symbols, 11.2.15: truth, as quality of content, 2.14.1 continuous, 11.3.34 sub-universes, 13.46 tryout, of training devices, 9.91 visual training program, steps in summation, in visual grouping, 7.94 two-step flow hypothesis, 6.4.15 developing, 14.59 superposition, 7.9.22 visualization process, 11.21 supply, local sources of, 14.5.17 under-represented, 13.56 visuals, 14.11: symbol, 3.5.14, 7.13.1, 11.15: understanding, 5.42 multiple-use, 14.5.14 visual, 7.42, 7.81 universe, 13.37 projected, 12.4 symbols: utility, as criterion, 3.23 utilization, film, 12.5 content, 11.3.27 wall charts, 9.5.12 cultural, 11.3.30 valence, 6.24 Whetstone, on vision, 7.56 personal, 11.3.28 white space, in attracting attention, schematic, 7.13.5 validity, 2.14.3 social, 11.3.29 value, 1.22 11.3.24 visual, 11.2.15 variability of perception, 7.11.1 words and pictures, 12.3

160 Other Publications Availablefrom DAVI Audiovisual Instruction, publishedmonthly except July and August.One year subscriptionfor non-DAVI members, $5.00(Included as a part of $7.00 DAVI membership.) AV Communication Review, quarterlyjournal devoted to research and theory. One year subscription, $6.00 ($5.00for DAVI members.) New Media in Higher Education, edited byJames W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., 1963. 160 p. cloth$4.00 (Stock #381-11616) ; paper $3.00 (Stock #381-11618). The Changing Role of the AudiovisualProcess in Education: A Definition and a Glossary of Related Terms, edited byDonald P. Ely. AV Communi- cation Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, SupplementNo. 6, January-February 1963. 148 p. $3.50 (Stock #079-02724). The Role of the Computer in FutureInstructional Systems, by Donald D. Bushnell. AV Communication Review, Vol.11, No. 2, Supplement No. 7, March-April 1963. 70 p. $1.50 (Stock#079-02726). The Automation of School InformationSystems, edited by Donald D. Bush- nell, DAVI Monograph #1, 1964, 136 p.,$2.50 (Stock #071-02550). Perception Theory and AV Education,edited by Kenneth Norberg. AV Communication Review, Vol. 10, No. 5,September-October 1962. 108 p. $2.00 (Stock #071-02704) . Learning Theory and AV Utilization,edited by Wesley C. Meierhenry.AV Communication Review, Vol. 9, No. 5,Supplement No. 4, September- October 1961. 88 p. $1.50 (Stock#079-02596). Teaching Machines and ProgrammedLearning: A Source Book, edited by A. A. Lumsdaine and RobertGlaser. Department of AudiovisualInstruc- tion, NEA, 1960. 724 p. $7.50(Stock #071-02320). (Payment must accompany ordersfor $2.00 or less).

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