May/June 2007 • Environmental Scientist 1 J
~ J: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THE MALTESE ISLANDS
The often conflicting demands of from the rock face. Both the cliffs and the boulder scree provide a suitable habitat for many species of flora and Malta's flora and fauna and her fauna, including endemic forms. human population are described by The surrounding sea is temperate and the coast is gen erally steep. The total length of the coastline is 190 km, MARK C. MIFSUD MSc, MIENVSc, MIBIOL, 64% of which is natural, 18% seminatural with another 18% artificial, the latter consisting mostly of harbour MIEEM, CBIOL, CENV, ofJunior College, shorelines. Some 5 % of the coastline is composed of sandy University of Malta beaches, only a few of which have significant sand dunes. At least 38 km of the coastline consists of sheer cliffs (Mifsud, 1996). The climate is typically Mediterranean with character istic hot and dry summers and mild, wet winters. The sea he Maltese islands are a small archipelago, situated sonal distribution of rainfall defines the wet period, from in the centre of the Mediterranean some 96km October to March with approximately 85% of the total south of Sicily and 290km north of the coast of annual precipitation, and the dry period from April to TLibya. The Maltese archipelago comprises three September. The islands have an average annual precipita inhabited islands; Malta (245. 7 km2), Gazo tion of 530mm, which is highly variable from year to year. (67.1 km2) and Camino (2.8 km2), together with a number Air temperatures may be described as moderate with a of uninhabited smaller islands; Cominotto (9.9 ha), Filfla mean of l8.5°C, and never fall too low to affect the (2.0 ha), Fungus Rock (0.7 ha) and St Paul's islands growth of vegetation (Chetcuti, 1988). Wind is common (10.1 ha). The islands are composed almost entirely of on the islands, with approximately 87% of the days of the marine sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age, mainly Oligo year being windy. The commonest wind is the northwest Miocene limestones, calcareous sandstones and clays erly, which prevails on 18% of windy days. The islands (Schembri, 1992). receive an average of 8.3 hours of bright sunshine per day Originally, the islands were covered by the Upper (Chetcuti, 1988). Coralline Limestone which forms limestone platforms with Originally, prior to colonization by man, the Maltese karstic topography. This is now limited to areas in the west islands most probably supported large tracts of Mediterre of Malta and the tops of hills and ridges. Where this layer nean sclerophyll forest, dominated mainly by Holm Oak has been removed, the less resistant Greensand and Blue (Quercus ilex) and Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis), with an Clay have been rapidly eroded to expose the underlying undergrowth of shrubs. Following colonization, man Globigerina Limestone. The Globigerina Limestone is the started to clear the woodland in order to make room for most extensive, exposed formation, which forms a gentle farmland and habitation. Grazing by domestic animals, rolling landscape, intersected by the sloping and often ter goats in particular, also had a significant effect on the raced valleys. The low lying Globigerina Limestone areas remaining natural forest, which is now only present in a have, over the centuries, been reclaimed for agricultural few localised pockets on the principal island. purposes and contain a soil cover, which is shallow and The only semi-natural woodland of any extent is the extensively modified through human influence. The Lower conifer wood at Buskett, which is dominated by Aleppo Coralline Limestone, the lowest stratum of the Maltese Pine. This semi-natural wood is relatively important as it stratographic succession, is only found inland in a few areas represents the only well established woodland ecosystem of faulting, and is a massive limestone forming the lower in the Maltese islands, with its specifically associated flora part of the sea cliffs on the southern and western coasts of and fauna. Maquis, frequently containing some large trees Malta and Goza. Malta and Gow, the two principal islands, such as the carob (Ceratonia siliqua) and the olive (Olea have a seaward tilt to the Northeast, and the highest points europea), is often found in small sheltered pockets were are 253 metres at Dingli Cliffs in Malta, and 191 metres at grazing is prevented, or on steep slopes. Garigue is typical Dbiegi in Gow (Schembri, 1992). of rocky terrain and is characterized by low growing Most of the valleys on the islands are dry valleys, carry shrubs on karstland. Typical shrubs forming the garigue ing water along their courses only during the wet season. community include the Thyme (Thymus capitatus) and A few, however, maintain some water flowing throughout the spiny spurge (Euphorbia spinosa). Some garigue com the year. The shelter provided by the valley sides, and the munities are natural, while others are the result of degra availability of water, makes these valleys some of the rich dation of woodland and maquis. Likewise, steppe est habitats on the islands. Together with valleys, inland grassland is a community type which results in turn from cliffs are of particular ecological importance. The cliff the degradation of the maquis and garigue. The garigue base is invariably surrounded by screes of boulders eroded and steppe communities are widespread and are consid- 14 Erwhawaientlll Sc:lemtst • M;Jy/Jvne 2007
ued the most commo.1>. per year iD. 2001 (ADik. natnr:al vegetation types 20()2a). However 1he oocuring in the Mahese majority of solid - islands. 0th.et habitat p:rodw::cd comes from types found in the Mal the caMtt1IClian indomy tese Wands include: tran wh= it ;, estimated that sitional coastal wedsnds, app:toxiwately 2 million and dmie ~saline tonnes of conmuccion tnarllhlands, temporary wams are generated and pcnnanent !reshwa awmally. The main tcr pools and water - m.magemcnt llttat OOUtSCS, clif& and caves egy in die Malll:!ff (Sc::bemb:ci, 1989). islands is deposit of wure on lmd. The majority of Envlronmental solid waste is currently Issues In the being collecnld. umorted Maltese Islands and dmnped in a n:Ja The most serious envi tiwly large open dump ronmental problems
bathing wate.t dow:llBtn:Ull of the Ghammieq outflow. and groundwater ID polllible sourea of eo11h1rniti1am, High Jema of!rad, C'OPfC" and zinc were alJO found in che A.boat 80% of all the m.acaial depmited at the Magh!:.ib vicinity ofWied Gbammieq. In addition, cnother !ltlldy by dump d1lrint che year 2000 ~ ofwaste generated S!Jlfn= indicates that &b. (Mlllloa aurmule1mm} eollemd by the eonstructiw and building indoatry (PWminr in che vicinity of aewage olllfiowt1 had the higbcat metal Amhority, 2002). lothion.ein indllctian caused by e:rpolllU'e to heavy metals A major determinant of. the state of che environment is (Sm!na:, 2001). One dr.ou1d remember that the -.I the type& 1111.d mte.asity of me o! el1C'.IJY n:soum:s. Malm beauty of che Malu:.e eout atttaCIJI a large number of imports all ofits DgnifiQUJt primary energy; ew1w.Uy tlm to11rists~~ oamprisell ~ ail products md liquid petrolewn ps The only Stwlll!C tn:atmmt plant 021 the island, Sllll.t (Stm: of the Ezrrironment Report, 200S). There are two Antnin, ttClllll approiiima1dy 20% of the 9ia&ll:W:atLi pro power tlCl.1iona for gen.en.Ung dectticity in du: Malll:ae duced (State of the Env:ironme.nt Report, 2005). The islands, one at Marsa and die ocher a newer facility at treated watl:r is wsed for agricultme and fut industry. Ddimans. Both power sllllicma utilise heiny fuel oil a ooal. Odicr tteauncnt pb:nm a.re pl:mned in the North of che WU plwcd Ollt in 199S' becall!IC chc open coaJ ltorage island and in Gozo md 'Will 'be partly financed by the facility at Marsa 'WU identified as a 50Ul'te of~ ooal European Union. All dome61ic md ill.dmtriJIJ. wliltew-• dost pollution iD. the area (Mallia, 2002). However prob are planned to be ttemd by 2001. lems are far from
Alta"n.atin: l!OUrCCtl of energy arc at hen: nn.der-ulilileD.. Wood is used in a ws:y limiud quantity as biomas& and wind energy ia only ll5Cd to pump wster &om the local aquif'cn (State of the F.mirarunent Reporr, 2005). Sohr enugy .ia che most oommonly uaed ehuna!M aoarce ofenergy .!thaop it ll1ill und«-miliacd. The ~ daily solar energy falling on the Malrese islands ranges &om a ped of 2.7 KWh/m2 in wimer to 7.8 KWb/m2 in wmmer (State of the Ezrrironm.ent :Rqiart, 1998). Bm: only a mW!. fri!OOoo. of this Cl1et'8Y is utilised. The popularity ofsolar wn:r hem:n is lowwilh the papulmon, lllthough rising electricity p:r:ices and peaum.mt S11beidies for the purdiue Cl08IS of the solar wan:z hea!rz might increase their popularity. Photovoltaic elea:ricity prodaction is very limited on the island, probably due to the high lnltial cmt of!he technology. Pmate motor usage amongst the Maltefe population is va:y high with an avenge of 1.S cm per hOlllSl:hold (Planning Amhority. 1998), possibly becau&e ofche inadequacy of the public lraDlpO%t systan. At the aid of the year 2000 th.ere wa:c abom: 300 Ian of major roads and 182,lOS private can iD Malta, whidi. means that there arc 1.6 m of road pct car (Mallia, 2002). This indi.eallel the po11=ntitl and acmal am~ 1ion oflocal. treSic. Motor-vehicle geoenued air pollution includes carbOll. clio:dde, carbon monmidc, nitrogen azidct, parW:ulall:S and, up to 2001, particulate lead owing to the use of leaded petroL Lead~ in pliiygrowul. dmt w:a fomd II> be at an a1mning level (Sarona, 1996); thus, lecdcd petrol was phased ou in 201>1. Volatile o.rplllc c:ompoimds arc aLo emit ted by on, and a high level ofVOCs in.clw:ling the autinogen ben•ene ha-re been. identified in the Mldtae lda.b.d,,, More thll!l 78% of site!> tested for meat Report, 1998). I.aching &om artificial. !erti!izm 1-.,.,.,e were found to m:ccd the WHO limit nhie of l'C$1111$ in gro'(llldno:z with ~ high levds of nitra~ l .Sppb (Vella, 2002). Motor traffic e1so generates noise while Iha prmimity of the grnun.dwaw table tn seH31m polluti011 and residenlll ill a llllmher ofareas are beinJ sul> results in high lcvelio of salinity in groundwater (Depm jccted a> lerels ofnoise of appxoximately 6SdB for :1t. leatt mcnt of Health Policy and Planning, 1997, State of che 1-2 h0'01'9 daily, which can be dettimental to hwdi Enviramnmt Rqio!t. 2005). (Mallia, 2002). The Maltese isluids have e rich variety of flora and Frcthnter pr;xluction in the Maltae Wands ia fauna co:uidering their relllti'vdy mW!. siu. However, dependent Oil dec:tricity. About 51>% ol !he tow w11tet miall, i&olatcd Wands tend to have • 900.'lewhat lmpom' produ.oed on che isJandio comes from revene osmosu i.!lh.ed resideot m6nma and the Maltese Wands are 110 pl1111ts 1hat des1din•o:e - 'ftter end n:qaire large amO'lllUll e:n:epcion (Snlam. and Gall.Ci, 1982). New.rth.cless, the ofelectricity to lunctioo. The water Ihm prodw;ed is o(a Afro..Europea.n migration system ha! chru principal very high quality but it is then mixed with che lawcr quali migration roUCl:S on:r che Mcdi:tr:mmcan, one of which ty gro~ &om local aqailer$, 'Which is cheaper to passes over lhe Maltese arcbipelaBO. The isla.nds' stnitqpc extract. This reduces the - quality to hMls that do not location pbya an imporwst tole for many specie& of always comply with EU mmda.rds (Sau: of lhc Environ- migratory birds during tbe annual $prlng and autumn May/June 2007 • Environmental Scientist 17
migrations. More than 360 species of birds have to date Unpublished BEd (Hons) Thesis, Faculty of been recorded in the Maltese islands, of which 15 are resi Education, University of Malta. dent breeders, and the rest either regular or irregular Department of Health Policy and Planning, 1997. The migrants (Sultana and Gauci, 1982). National Environmental Health Action Plan, Malta. Bird hunting is a popular hobby pursued with a passion Enemalta, (1998). Enemalta Annual Report 1998, Malta. by people in various countries over the world and especial Fenech N., (1992). Fatal Flight, The Maltese Obsession ly so in the Maltese islands. In Malta this issue attracts a with Killing Birds, Quiller Press, London. large amount of public attention, most probably because Mallia E. A and Fsadni M. (2002). Energy: of the very large hunting and trapping population that has Transformation, Use and Environmental Impact. increased from 11,300in 1996(Mifsud, 1996)to 15,216in In: State of the Environment Report for Malta, 2002. 2004 (State of the Environment Report, 2005). This cre Ministry for Home Affairs and the Environment. ates a relatively large number of hunters with respect to Planning Authority (1998). Planning Authority the whole population and a high individual hunter figure Household Travel Survey, November 1998. Planning per unit area of land. In addition, hunting of protected Authority, Floriana, Malta. species and hunting during the closed season are extensive Planning Authority (2001). Demography Topic Paper, in the Maltese islands, most likely due to the latl. of law Planning Authority, Floriana, Malta. enforcement and the hunters' attitudes (Fenech, 1992). Planning Authority (2002). Space for Waste, The Waste Hunting and trapping of birds may be minority pastimes Management Subject Plan. Prepared by Enviros but they still constitute very powerful lobbies, and the two Aspinwall for the Planning Authority, Floriana, Malta. large political parties in the islands are normally unenthu Mallia A., Briguglio M., Ellul A.E. and Formosa S, siastic about moderating the practice. (2002). Physical Background, Demography, Tourism, Birds are almost certainly the most publicised threatened Mineral Resources and Land Use. In: State of the organisms on the Maltese islands. However, other impor Environment Report for Malta, 2002. Ministry for tant organisms such as the Maltese Freshwater Crab, Pota Home Affairs and the Environment. mon fluviatile, are also decreasing in number owing to Mifsud M. (1996). Managing Hunting and Trapping in the increased influence by humans such as direct persecution, Maltese Islands, Unpublished MSc thesis, International and habitat destruction due to development. Some flower Environment Institute, University of Malta. ing plants, including the French Daffodil, Narcissus taretta, Saliba M. (1999). Environmental Impact Assessment of are still being removed from the natural environment and the Maghtab Landfill on the Marine Environment, sold at flea markets even though it is an illegal practice. Unpublished BSc thesis, Faculty of Science, University In summary, the major environmental issues in the Mal of Malta. tese islands include waste management, quarrying, habitat Ventura C.S. and Sammut M. (1996). 'Petrol lead in a destruction, pollution from electricity generation and vehi small island environment', International Journal of cle transport, the under-utilisation of alternative sources of Risk & Safety in Medicine 9 (1996) 33-40 IOS Press. energy, water quality, and the collection or hunting of flora Schembri P.J. and Sultana]. (Ed.), (1989). Red Data Book and fauna. The main cause of these issues is the high pop For The Maltese Islands, Department of Information ulation density that exerts a significant impact on the envi Malta. ronment and its resources. In addition, the unwillingness Schembri P.J. (1992). Tuna, Blat u hajja, Malta University of the major political parties to moderate practices and Services Limited. traditions, amplifies some of these issues. d Stafrace A, (2001). Mullus surmuletus as a multiple biomarker for marine pollution. Unpublished MSc References thesis, Faculty of Science, University of Malta. Axiak: V., Pavlakis P., Sieber A, and Tarchi D. (2000) and State of the Environment Report for Malta, (1998). Sammut A, (2002a). Reassessing the extent of impact of Environmental Protection Department, Malta. Malta's (Central Mediterranean) Major sewage outfall State of the Environment Report for Malta, (2005). using ERS SAR. Marine Pollution Bull. 40 (9): 734-738. Environmental Protection Department, Malta. Axiak, V. and Sammut A., (2002a). The Coast and 'Structure Plan For The Maltese Islands', Draft Final Freshwater Resources. In: State of the Environment Written Statement and Key Diagram, Government of Report for Malta, 2002. Ministry for Home Affairs and Malta, 1990. the Environment. Sultana]. & Gauci C. 'A New Guide To The Birds of Axiak, V., Debono H,, Gauci V. (2002b). Solid and Liquid Malta', MOS Publishing Company, 1982. Wastes. In: State of the Environment Report for Malta, Vella AJ., Callus]., Galea H., Vella A.O. (2002). Air 2002. Ministry for Home Affairs and the Environment. Quality. In: State of the Environment Report for Malta, Chetcuti D., (1998). The Climate of the Maltese Islands, 2002. Ministry for Home Affairs and the Environment.