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Teopiiiq iii Aaew, TWorick The View from South America By James B. Richardson, III

Fell's Cave at the tip of Chile, dated by Junius Bird to 11,000 BP, has fluted and unfluted spear points in direct association with the extinct Ice Age horse. Photo taken at 1972 excavation, courtesyof the Department ofAnthrpology, Ameocan Museum ofNatural History

Junius Bird must have had a "Eureka!" moment in 1960 when he 1926-1927, Jesse D. Figgins of the Denver Museum of Natural History got radiocarbon data back from his work at Fell's Cave in southern excavated the Folsom site in New Chile. Bird, working for the American Museum of Natural History, momentous find of a fluted spear point i had excavated Fell's Cave in 1936 and 1937, prior to the 1947 an extinct bison was the first indisputa invention of radiocarbon dating. By 1960, new technology brought that New World hunters and gath him a surprise: the materials he uncovered were dated to 10,720 BP concurrently with Ice Age beasts (Before Present, which for scientists is 1950.) Not only did Fell's Cave - proving that hunters were in the q have the oldest date for human occupation in South America, but Americas at the same time as these fluted and unfluted fishtail-shaped spear points were in direct contact, now-extinct animals. In 1932, Figg or "associated with;' bones of an extinct Ice Age horse.' In the history excavated the Dent site in Colorado v of proving that these animals were hunted and killed by humans, this larger fluted spear points were found is an important association. butchered mammoths. This was soon ft In North America, spear points associated with extinct animals had in 1933 by Edgar Howard's excavations been discovered a decade before the first Fell's Cave excavation. In Blackwater Draw, near Clovis,

Ice Age bison from the Folsom site, New Mexico, in the Pleistocene Hall of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. The 1927 discovery of Folsom spear points inthe ribcage of one of these bison clearly demonstrated great time depth of the peopling of the New World MelindaMcNaugher, courtesy of the CarnegieMuseum of NaturalHistory. accession no. CM 10192 18 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I SUMMER2006 - I,'a Cr~ ~

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WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY ISUMMER 20T6 19 Who Was Here First? Rockshelter by Phil Jack of California By the 1970s it was clear that the New World University of Pennsylvania. It was there had been "filled up" by hunters and gatherers that Adovasio met Albert Miller, the by at least 11,500 years ago, but is there earlier conservationist and historian who had evidence for colonization of the Americas? discovered the site in 1955. In 1973, Adovasio Over the past 125 years there have been directed the first of six consecutive University claims that people were in the New World by of Pittsburgh field schools there, and it at least 25,000 to more than 100,000 years soon became his turn to have a eureka ago. But as David Meltzer of Southern moment when Bob Stuckenrath, director of Methodist University has observed, these the Smithsonian radiocarbon laboratory,

Fluted spear point used to kill a now-extinct bison discovered by Jesse Figgins near Folsom, New Although Monte Verde is clearly dated to 12,500 BP there is Mexico, in 1927. This was the first definite proof that an earlier cultural level at the site that dates to 53,000 BP, early hunters were in North America at the end of the which remains to be further investigated. Ice Age. Courtesyof the DenverMuseum of Natureand Science

New Mexico. This site produced the characteristic Folsom spear points and the larger fluted spear point type found at Dent, now called Clovis points. These points were associated with mammoths that lay below 2 the later Folsom level. Clovis sites have been found throughout North America and as far south as Venezuela. These Clovis Ice Age hunters and gatherers are now dated to between 11,500 and 10,500 BP. Fell's sites, dating to between 11,000 to 10,300 BP, are found throughout southern I I South America (Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile) and the Central Andes (Peru and purported early sites have a limited scientific Ecuador), with a scattering of handed him dates from the lowest cultural surface finds of "shelf life;' being disproved almost as fast as Fell's fishtail points in other countries, level of 16,000 to 13,000 BP. The Clovis they are discovered. The finding of sites barrier had been broken again, and this time including Panama.' 5 00 years old is now the site would "stick ing the Clovis Barrier."' In 1977, Tom Dillehay began excavations at ve punched through, the site of Monte Verde. Not only did he find epeated attempts to cast the earliest open-air shelters in the New the scientific rubbish World, but he also discovered butchered 'adowcroft in Avella, mastodons and a wide range of plant and Pennsylvania, and animal foods left behind by these intrepid Monte Verde in hunters and gatherers. Although Monte Verde southern Chile. is clearly dated to 12,500 BP there is an earlier en with the University of cultural level at the site that dates to 33,000 racted to Meadowcroft BP, which remains to be further investigated.'

om the Dent site, Colorado, inthe Pleistocene Hall of the Carnegie Museum of Natural avated in 1932 by Jesse Figgins, this site was the first discovery of Clovis fluted spear

th an extinct Ice Age elephant. MalindaMcNaugher, courtesy of theCarnegie Museum of NaturalHistory, accession no. CM 10266 Both these sites have withstood every other location that is on the scientific "hot by 30,000 years ago. After crossing Beringia, critique skeptics have thrown at them and seat" is the Topper site in South Carolina with these Arctic peoples would have been able to survived as unshakable proof of the existence dates of 15,000 to 50,000 BP, but whether it move southward through the ice-free valleys of people in the Americas well before the will "stick" as a valid pre-Clovis site is still of Alaska and Canada into what is now the Clovis and Fell's Ice Age hunters and being debated.' The above-mentioned sites, United States."0 gatherers roamed the Americas. These two situated in a wide variety of environments sites, separated by 5,600 miles (9,000 km), are ranging from grasslands to mountains to Two If by Sea the northern and southern "bookends" that tropical forest to deserts, lead me to conclude The other currently favored route of entry support this conclusion. Other sites between that this adaptation to diverse environments was proposed by Charles J. Heusser in 1960, Meadowcroft and Monte Verde reinforce that and resources suggests a great depth of time. and further developed by Knut R. Fladmark people were in the Americas far earlier than Clovis. in 1979. They proposed that seafaring peoples South America has more credible sites One If by Land came by boat skirting the edge of the exposed dated between 13,000 and 11,000 BP than The routes of entry by the earliest colonists continental shelf along the north Pacific rim North America. One of these is Taima-Taima into the New World are another and down the coast of southern Alaska into inVenezuela, discovered by Jos6 Cruxent and archaeological "minefield." Obviously, they Washington. The problem with this Alex Krieger in 1962. Further excavations by had to come from the Old World, but from hypothesis is not only the lack of evidence for Alan Bryan and Ruth Gruhn in 1976 where and when? Who were they, and how early watercraft, but also the absence of produced a butchered mastodon associated did these early migrants get here? Few of the maritime sites in the Americas before 5,000 with spear points dating to between 13,390 myriad of theories on how the New World BP. On the watercraft side of the equation, and 12,580 BP. These were similar to the spear was peopled have stood the test of time. Australia was inhabited by 50,000 BP and the points found at Monte Verde. At Tibit6 in While two have gained recent acceptance, one islands of New Ireland and New Britain off Colombia a butchered mastodon was dated is seen as a "dark horse." the north coast of New Guinea by 30,000 to 11,740 BP, and in the lower Amazon of One theory that has fallen out of favor is years ago. With a series of open water barriers Brazil at Caverna da Pedra Pintada (Painted the Ice Free Corridor model. This theory is then between southeast Asia, Australia, New Cave), Anna Roosevelt found extensive based upon the fact that the ocean in the Britain, and New Ireland, the only mode of evidence of human occrnation Bering Strait, between Siberia and Alaska, was transportation had to be by boat. Thirty miles dating to 11,200 BP.7 400 feet (125 m) lower due to the amount of off the coast of Japan, early mariners were In North America, recent water locked up in the continental ice sheets quarrying obsidian to make tools more than finds at Cactus Hill in of North America, northern Europe, and Asia 21,000 years ago. Thus, it is clear that Virginia strongly support the - exposing dry land called Beringia. Once watercraft were a critical part of the cultural early levels at Meadowcroft across the Bering Strait, people could wend assemblages of coastally adapted peoples Rockshelter. Two spear points their way southward through a 930 mile making their livelihood from marine found at Cactus Hill, dated to (1,500 km) ice-free corridor between the resources. Unfortunately, there are few early between 16,940 and 15,070 BP, Cordilleran and Laurentian ice sheets, into maritime sites around the world. Since the sea are identical to the Miller the area that is the western United States. But level rose by 400 feet (120 m) when the Lanceolate point from the date of circa 11,500 BP for the opening of continental ice sheets melted, the continental Clovis fluted s;pear point purchaseed in Meadowcroft (named the Ice Free Corridor is too late to allow for shelves and the evidence of most of the Costa Rica in1903 after Albert Miller and the entry of the first people into the earliest maritime sites are now underwater by Carl V. Harttman, dating to 12,800 and Americas. Clovis hunters and gatherers were and many miles off the modern coastline." the first curatoor of 11,300 BP). These already spread throughout North America to In 1965, while conducting my dissertation anthropology at the Meadowcroft and Cactus Venezuela by this time.' research in the Talara region of northwest Carnegie Museeum A recently proposed route and date for Peru, I found a series of campsites I named of Natural Hist Hill spear points pre- MalindaMcNaugher, cour der date Clovis, and it has migration into the Americas, called the the Amotape complex. These overlook tar of theSection of Anthrop. ology, CarnegieMuseum of Nat .. istor, been proposed that the pre-Late Glacial Maximum model (pre- pits, like those of La Brea in Los Angeles, accessionCM 2438-4 no 3 Clovis fluted points are LGM), is based upon substantial evidence for California. The remains of the shellfish these derived from these earlier pre-Clovis people in the Americas and the hunters used as food are dated to 11,200 BP, lanceolate forms. One presence of hunters and gatherers in Siberia but due to the sketchy nature of the

WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I SUMMER2006 21 butchering camp south of the Ring site that This coastal fishing village they dated to 11,000 BP These sites was excavated by Daniel H. confirmed for the first time that the use of Sandweiss of the University seafood had been as early as I had claimed in of Maine and me in 1983, and the 1960s, based on the Amotape dates and we established a basal date artifacts. The publication of the Jaguay and Tachuay findings in 1998 fueled speculation of 10,575 BP that the west coast of South America was colonized by boat and not through the Andean Mountain chain." Once on the coast, it took another 1,000 years for settlement of the high Andes due to the need for appropriate clothing and adaptation to lower The Talara Tar Pits of northwest Peru have Ice Age animals dated to 14,000 years ago and evidence of oxygen levels above 8,202 feet (2,500 m). The 11,000-year-old exploitation of marine shellfish along dates for occupation of the Peruvian Andes the nearby coast. Here, Jim Richardson holds Ice Age bones. cluster at 10,000 BP for Guitarrero, DanielH. Sandwerss Pachamachay, and Telermachay caves and archaeological deposits, this evidence for Salar Punta Negra in Chile support this theory.4 early maritime adaptations was not The Paijan sites (10,500-8,500 BP) of the universally accepted. In 1981, I stressed that north coast of Peru are intriguing in that they most of the evidence for early fishing represent camps of terrestrial hunters five to settlements lie submerged on the continental 20 miles from the modern shoreline. The shelf. Later I wrote an article "Looking in the startling thing here is that ocean fish were also Right Places," which pointed out where to present, leading Claude Chauchat, the French look for the early maritime sites. Jon investigator, to speculate that this was part of Erlandson of the University of Oregon a seasonal round of hunting and gathering labeled this reasoning "Richardson's Rule."' that included the ancient coast, now I received a call in 1982 from Mike Moseley underwater, 10 or more miles off the modern at the University of Florida. He invited me to coast. 5 This brings up the question of why come and dig the Ring site near Ilo in far the Amotape, Ring, Jaguay, and Tachuay sites southern, coastal Peru. This coastal fishing were preserved and not drowned on the The Ring site was the earliest known fishing village inthe Americas village was excavated by Daniel H. Sandweiss continental shelf as sea levels rose. Except for until the discovery of the Quebrada Jaguay and Quebrada Tachuay sites, all located in of the University of Maine and me in 1983, Tachuay, which was a specialized bird hunting southern Peru. Robert Feldman (standing) and Jim and we established a basal date of 10,575 BP. camp, all of these sites are located back from Richardson intest pit. Because there was only one date for this site, the modern, as well as the ancient, submerged DanielH. Sandweiss our claim that the Ring site was the oldest coastlines close to the limited freshwater fishing village in the Americas was suspect. resources in this stark desert region. shelf. Presently, we have only a handful of However, my colleagues and I kept digging In North America there are a few maritime sites providing us with the critical evidence shell middens along the coast of Peru, and sites on the west coast that also have dates of that the earliest peoples in the Americas did in 1997, it was Sandweiss's turn for a 11,000 BR On San Miguel Island, 30 miles off not ignore the bounty of the ocean. "Eureka!" moment. the coast of Santa Barbara, California, Daisy Another major impediment to the At Quebrada Jaguay, on the Peruvian south Cave was excavated by Jon Erlandson. This maritime hypothesis of the peopling of the coast near Camand, Daniel Sandweiss dated a site is dated to 10,700 BP and represents Americas was the idea that the continental ice shell midden to 11,200 BP. At the same time, maritime adapted seafaring peoples at the sheet, along the Alaskan and Canadian coast, Susan deFrance of the University of Florida same time as Clovis. 6 Hundreds, if not covered the coast to the Pacific Ocean. It has and Dave Keefer of the United States thousands, of underwater sites await only been in the last decade that geological, Geological Survey discovered a bird discovery on the submerged continental pollen, and faunal studies have demonstrated

22 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I SUMMER2006 that this coast was ice free, forested, and had propose that Solutrean hunters were early into the New World. DNA specialists have wildlife. Thus, these seafaring migrants could migrants into North America and ancestral to proposed from one to four separate have taken advantage of these resources as Meadowcroft and Cactus Hill hunters and migrations from Asia into the Americas based they skirted the ancient north Pacific coastal gatherers, as well as the later Clovis. In on their research. 9 There were over 6,000 margins to move southward into what is now addition to the comparison of stone tools, languages spoken on Earth in the recent past. Washington State. It must be stressed that they indicate that sea ice, such as that in the These are grouped into 300 language families, they could not have walked on dry land, for Arctic, covered the North Atlantic. From of which half are found in the Americas. the numerous rivers crosscutting the exposed Europe to the Grand Banks would have only Simulating the entry rate and proliferation of coast would have necessitated watercraft to been a 1,550 mile (2,500 km) commute by New World languages, Johanna Nichols move across the rushing water emanating out Solutrean seafarers along an ice shelf that calculates that people came into the Americas of the inland glacial front. 7 teemed with sea mammals and fish. This from coastal Asia before 20,000 years ago. theory rests on the archaeological "shoulders" Nettle, however, believes that language A European Connection? of Meadowcroft and Cactus Hill. Solutrean diversity argues for a late entry at circa 12,000 Who were these early seafarers, and where did experts, however, view this theory as more BP. Both the DNA and linguistics methods of they come from? This is an often asked fiction than fact. This model does not dating are imprecise, thus dating of the question, which brings us to the newest preclude later migrants from entering into earliest migrants into the Americas from Asia proposed maritime route of entry into the the New World from Asia, as pointed out by should be used with caution. Daniel New World. Dennis Stanford of the Stanford and Bradley."I Nettle points out, "The problem of the Smithsonian Institution and Bruce Bradley of To sort out fact from fiction, what does the colonization of the Americas will be the University of Exeter have startled the DNA, linguistic, and skeletal evidence reveal definitively answered only by archaeology, scientific community by proposing that the about where the earliest colonizers into the because archaeology has the direct methods First Americans came by boat from southern Americas came from? The DNA evidence for dating human presence.' '0 France and northern Spain before 17,000 points to migrations into the Americas from The evidence from human skeletal material years ago! Although not a new theory, they Asia, beginning as early as 25-35,000 years is another matter, for bones can be directly stress the similarities between the Upper ago. This is done using the imprecise dated by the radiocarbon method. There has Paleolithic Solutrean (22,000-17,000 BP) molecular clock that calculates mutation been a major revelation in the interpretation culture spear points and the Meadowcroft rates and the diversity of genetic lineages to of human skeletons from the just-published Miller and Cactus Hill spear points. They estimate the timing of the arrival of humans results of research on 81 skeletons from Lagoa Santa, Brazil. These and other recently dated skeletons from the Valley of Mexico point to two separate migrations from Asia. There are two different skull shapes represented: the 11,000-7,500 BP skulls are long and narrow, similar to skulls of modern Australians, Melanesians, and sub-Saharan Africans, while the post-7,500 BP skulls are short and wide, like those of American Indians and northeast Asians. According to these new studies of all known pre-7,500 BP skulls from the Americas, it appears that the earliest population is derived from the same group of people in southeast Asia that initially colonized Australia and Melanesia. The post- 7,500 BP peoples reflect a new population coming from northeast Asia. The authors propose that the skull morphology supports the conclusion that two biologically distinct Meadowcroft Rockshelter, excavated by J.M. Adovasio and dated at 15,000 years ago, is the strongest

evidence for the earliest human occupation inNorth America. AlberMiler WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I SUMMER2006 23 record. Meadowcroft and Monte Verde have 28(2), (1938), 250-75. Junius B. Bird. Travels and Meadowcroft and Monte Verde Archaeology in South Chile, edited by John Hyslop played a pivotal role in establishing that the have played a pivotal role in (Iowa City, Univ. of Iowa Press, 1988). First Americans were much older than 2 Anthony T. Boldurian and John L. Cotter. Clovis establishing that the First previously known, but, as with any scientific Revisited: New Perspectives from Blackwater Draw, New Mexico (Philadelphia: The University Museum, Americans are much older discovery, the proof that Meadowcroft and University of Pennsylvania, 1999). David J. Meltzer. than previously known ... Monte Verde are as old as Adovasio and Search for the First Americans (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1993). Dillehay have said has been a scientific roller 1 Robert E. Bell. Archaeological Investigations at the El coaster of heated debates and acrimony for Inga Site, Ecuador (Quito, Ecuador: Casa de laCul- tura Ecuatoriana, 1965). Claude Chauchat and Jesus over 20 years. Through it all, these sites have Briceflo, "Paijan and Fishtail Points from Quebrada had "sticking" power. The continuing Santa Maria, North Coast of Peru," Current Research in the Pleistocene 15, (1998), 10-11. Richard discussion of issues revolving around the Cooke, "Prehistory of Native Americans on the Cen- peopling of the Americas are not only aired in tral American Land Bridge: Colonization, Dispersal, and Divergence," Journal of Archaeological Research scientific journals and at professional 13(2),(2005), 129-187. Gustavo A. Martinez, "'Fish- tail' Projectile Points and Megamammals: meetings, but on the national news, New Evi- History dence from Paso Otero 5 (Argentina)," Antiquity 75, and Discovery channels, and in National (2001), 523-528. Georges A. Pearson, "Pan-Ameri- can Paleoindian Dispersals and the Origins of Fishtail Geographic, Smithsonian Magazine, books, Projectile Points as seen through the Lithic Raw- and other popular publications. Thus, these Material Reduction Strategies and Tool-Manufacturing J.M. Adovasio talking with Richard "Scotty" MacNeish Techniques at the Guardiria Site, Turrialba Valley, debates on the peopling of the Americas will at Meadowcroft Rockshelter. MacNeish was a major Costa Rica," Settlement of the American Continents be argued not only within the scientific edited by C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David proponent of the early peopling of the Americas A. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson (Tucson: Univ. of through his work in North America, Mesoamerica, community, but also in public forums far Arizona Press, 85-102, 2004). Georges A. Pearson and South America. into the future.' and Joshua W. Ream, "Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela," JamesB. Richardson.III Current Research in the Pleistocene 22, (2005), 28-31. Michael J. Snarskis, "Turrialba: A Paleo-lndian Quarry and groups colonized the Americas at different James B. Richardson, III, curator emeritus of Workshop Site in Eastern Costa Rica," American Antiquity 44, (1979), 125- times. A new study shows that the northern anthropology at the Carnegie Museum of 138. James L. Swauger and William J. Mayer-Oaks, Natural History and professor of anthropology, "A Fluted Point From Costa Rica," American Chinese and Koreans have the same ear wax University of Pittsburgh. Since 1965 he has Antiquity 17 (3) (1952), 264-265. 4Gary Haynes, as American Indians, confirming their conducted extensive archaeological research The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, northeast Asian ancestry. In the future, new on early maritime societies and the rise of 2002). David J. Meltzer, "Clocking the First Ameri- lines of evidence, such as the just-announced civilization on the Peruvian coast. He also cans," Annual Review of Anthropology 24, (1995), 21-45, 1995. Anna C. Roosevelt, John Douglas earwax connection, will continue to fuel the conducts archaeological research on Martha's and Linda Brown, "The Migrations and Adaptations of the 2 Vineyard and in Western Pennsylvania. debate on who the First Americans were. ' First Americans: Clovis and Pre-Clovis Viewed from South America," The First Americans: The Pleis- As can be surmised from the above Major comprehensive works on the peopling of the tocene Colonization of the New World, edited by Nina discussion, the answer to the questions of Americas are: J.M. Adovasio with Jake Page. The First G. Jablonski, Memoir of the California Academy of Sciences 27, (2002),159-236. "Who were the First Americans?" "Where did Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology's Greatest Mys- tery (New York: Random House, 2002). C. Michael J. M. Adovasio with Jake Page, The First Americans: they come from?" and "When did they enter Barton, Geoffrey A. Clark, David R. Yesner and In Pursuit of Archaeology's Greatest Mystery (New the Americas?" is in a constant state of flux as Georges A. Pearson, editors. The Settlement of the York: Random House, 2002). Mark A. McConaughy, American Continents (Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, "And Yet Another Opinion About Pre-Clovis in the new evidence is brought to bear on this 2004). Thomas D. Dillehay. The Settlement of the Eastern United States," Paper Presented at the Americas: A New Prehistory (New York: Basic Books, Annual Eastern States Archaeological Federation volatile issue. In the past 20 years, the "Clovis 2000). Daniele Lavall~e, The First South Americans: Conference, Williamsburg, Virginia, Nov. 10-13, 2005. First" position of colonization The Peopling of a Continent from the Earliest Evi- after 11,500 BP Thomas D. Dillehay, editor, Monte Verde: A Late dence to High Culture (Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah has been put to Pleistocene Settlement in Chile: The Paleoenviron- rest by the research at Press, 2000). Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turn- mental Context, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Smithson- mire, eds. Ice Age Peoples of North America: Meadowcroft and Monte Verde and other Environ- ian Institution Press, 1989). Thomas D. Dillehay, ments, Origins, and Adaptations of the First editor, Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in pre-Clovis sites. New pre-Clovis sites are Americans (Corvallis, Oregon: Center for the Study of Chile: The Archaeological Context, vol. 2 (Washing- the First Americans, 1999). James B. Richardson Ill. discovered every year and fuel the debate on ton, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997). People of the Andes (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Thomas D. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Americas: the peopling of the New World. This story Books, 1994). In addition to the above books, "fast A New Prehistory (New York: Basic Books, 2000). will continue to unfold as new data and more breaking" news of discoveries can be found in Current Research in the Pleistocene and in Mammoth Trum- 7 Alan L. Bryan, et al, "An El Jobo Mastodon Kill at sophisticated methods of discovery and pet, both published by The Center for the Study of Taima-Taima, Venezuela," Science (1978) the First Americans, Texas A&M University. 200:1275-1277. G. Correal, Evidencias Culturales y analysis are developed to wring out the last Megafauna Pleistoc6nica en Colombia (Bogata, Junius B. Bird. "Antiquity and Migrations of the Early Colombia: Finarco, 1981). Anna C. Roosevelt, et al, bit of evidence from the archaeological Inhabitants of Patagonia," Geographical Review "Paeleoindian Cave Dwellers in the Amazon: The Peo-

24 WESTERNPENNSYLVANIA HISTORY I SUMMER 2006 piingof the Americas," Science 272, (1996), 373-384. Sea," Discovering Archaeology 1(1), (1999), 59-65. 112. Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley, "Ocean Trails Daniel H. Sandweiss, James B. Joseph M. McAvoy and Lynn D. McAvoy, Archaeological Richardson III, Eliza- and Prairie Paths? Thought about Clovis Origins," in The Investigations of the 44SX202, Cactus Hill, Sussex beth Reitz, Jeffrey Hsu, and Robert Feldman, "Early First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the County, Virginia. Virginia Department of Historic Maritime Adaptations in the Andes: Preliminary Stud- New World, edited by Nina G. Jablonski (Memoirs of the ies at the Ring Site, Peru," in Ecology, Settlement and California Resources Report Series No. 8 and Nottoway River Academy of Sciences No. 27, 2002), 255- History of the Dsmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Don 273. 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Duk-Rodkin, "Quaternary Geology of the Ice-Free Maritime Adaptations in South America," Science Ted Goebel, "Ice Age Atlantis? Exploring the Solutrean- Corridor: Glacial Controls on the Peopling of the Ameri- 281, (1998),1830-1832. Clovis 'Connection'," World Archaeology 37(4), (2005), cas," In Prehistoric Mongoloid Dispersals, edited by T. 507-532. Akazawa and E. J. Szathmry (New York: Oxford Univ. 'Mark S. Aldenderfer. Montane Foragers: Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic (Iowa City: Univ. of Press, 1996:214-227). Carole A.S. Mandryk, "Invent- "Joseph F. Powell. The First Americans: Race, Evolution Iowa Press, 1998), 136-142. Martin Grosjean, Lau- ed Traditions and the Ultimate American Origin Myth: and the Origin of Native Americans (New York: Univ. of taro Nufiez and Isabel Cartajena, "Palaeoindian Occu- In the Beginning... there was an Ice-Free Corridor," in Cambridge Press, 2005). Theodore G. 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