DOI 10.4467/0023589XKHNT.19.031.11039 Jan Szumski L. & A. Birkenmajer Institute for the History of Science Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland ORCID 0000-0001-6591-5795

The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the : Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989

The article focuses on the problems of Soviet ‘politics of history’ in the Eastern Bloc in 1945–1989 by the example of selected Slavic countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. The implementation of the Soviet system of political control over history pro- ceeded extremely reluctantly and with varying intensity depending on the historical period and particular country. The scope and degree of interference into the affairs of local disciplines of history in above-mentioned countries changed with the political situation and new tendencies in social and political life. Actions aimed at the history of Slavic countries were sanctioned by the CPSU and implemented in accordance with the interests of the State and the Communist Party of the USSR. Kremlin inspired and subsequently oversaw the realization of joint academic projects, provided guidelines on how to research and interpret historic events, thus constituting a signifi cant element of its ‘politics of history’.

Keywords: USSR, Politics of History, Eastern Bloc, Slavic Countries, Poland, Czechoslova- kia, Bulgaria Słowa kluczowe: ZSRR, polityka historyczna, blok wschodni, kraje słowiańskie, Polska, Czechosłowacja, Bułgaria

The fi eld of discourse in East-Central European states is in large part dominated by a ‘fash- ion for memory’.1 Thus the ‘politics of memory’ has become one of the most popular concepts in the public sphere as well as one of the most prominent objects of inquiry in the social sciences and in humanities. This area is studied in its historical, anthropological, and cultural dimensions. Its various offshoot topics, like the ‘teaching of history’, com- memoration, topographical memory, and photographic memory, have already acquired

1 This article has been originally written in English and then translated from English into Italian. The publication fi rst appeared under the same title as a part of the collective monograph Clio nei socialismi reali, ed. by Stefano Santoro and Francesco Zavatti, Milan 2019.

KWARTALNIK HISTORII NAUKI I TECHNIKI • T. 64 • 2019 • nr 4 • s. 61–81 62 Jan Szumski 8 7 6 T.W. Adorno, 5 4 H. Zinn, referred toas‘historicalpolitics’ and EasternEuropeafterWorld War II.InitsrenditioninEnglish,thisphenomenonisoften lems. Theydonotconcernlinguisticissues,butratherhistoricalcircumstancesinCentral translating thecorrespondingterminologyfromSlaviclanguagesgiverisetocertainprob- tween history and politics in communist Poland, carried out through the L. & A. Birkenmajer tween historyandpoliticsincommunistPoland, Birkenmajer carriedoutthroughtheL.&A. concerning thecountriesofEasternBlocduringCold War. nisms ofoversightforsuchaproject–wasthe‘politics of history’theSovietUnion carried outinaninstitutionalsense–i.e.,bycreatingtheproperstructuresandmecha- thesis. Namely, thatoneofthemostvividinstances‘politicshistory’articulatedand debate, asitwillnotbethesubjectofpresentarticle,Iwouldliketoproposeamodest to theRussianterm Bloc andtheformerSovietUnion their ownbodiesofliterature,intheWest aswellinthecountriesofformerWarsaw creating structuresresponsibleforcarryingout‘politicsofhistory’,inmarkingspeci and foreignpolicy. Onepopularviewholdsthattheactiveroleplayedbystateactorsin century, whenitcametoplayanevermoresigni Central Europeannation-states. directions forresearchandincreatingnarrativesaboutthemselves,isuniquetoEast- 3 See:S.Yekelchyk, 2 Communist Regimes. in ordertounderlinetheinstitutionalnatureofSovietpoliticstowardsEastEuropean attained anunusualpopularityatthecloseof20 post-war Germanexperience. has employedtheterm (ger. ‘historical memory’. range oftopicsrelatedtothehistoryideas,intellectuallifeandculture,butalso through thepast)and Istoricheskaya politika, Oxford 2014,p.8–10. Twenty Years afterCommunism:The PoliticsofMemoryandCommemoration Frankfurt/M 1963, p.125–146. p. 126–128. The PoliticsofMemoryinPostwarEurope Explaining thephenomenonofhistoryasaninstrumentinservicepoliticsand politika vXXIveke The ConvolutionsofHistoricalPolitics trepanaciya pamyati:bitvyzapravduoGULAGE,deportaciyax,vojneiKholokoste : DestroyingtheSettledPast,CreatinganUncertainFuture History” vol.78,2006,no.2,p.377–411;T. Sherlock, The presentarticleispartofalargerresearchprojectdedicated totherelationshipbe- Toronto 2004;M.Todorova, This new Western contemporarydiscourseusestheterm The term ‘politics of history’ came to intellectual life from German-speaking countries The term‘politicsofhistory’cametointellectuallifefromGerman-speakingcountries Geschichtspolitik The PoliticsofHistory fi eld ofactivityintheregionEast-CentralEurope–‘politicshistory’ Was Bedeutet: AufarbeitungderVergangenheit (1959) Stalin’s EmpireofMemory:Russian-UkrainianRelationsintheSovietHistorical Imagination , ed. by A. Miller,, ed.byA. M.Lipman,Moskva2012. 7 istoricheskaya politika Iusedtheterm‘politicsofhistory’insteadmemory’ p. 23–26. ) attheendof19 Aufarbeitung derVergangenheit Geschichtspolitik The MausoleumofGeorgiDimitrovasLieudememoir, , secondedition,Champaign1990. 5 In the last two decades, the German socio-political discourse Inthelasttwodecades,Germansocio-politicaldiscourse 8 Withoutgoingintotoomuchdetailaboutthisongoing 3 , ed. by A. Miller,, ed.byA. M.Lipman,Budapest,NewYork 2012; 2 or‘politicsofhistory’ . , ed.byR.Lebow, W. Kansteiner, C.Fogu, Durham,London2006, alongwith andthePolish term th Historical NarrativesintheSovietUnionandPost-Soviet century, butisassociatedmostlywiththe fi cant roleinthesecountries’domestic Vergangenheitsbewältigung politics ofhistory th (dealingwiththepast). centuryandespeciallyinthe21 4 , NewYork 2007;P. Polyan, anditappearstobeequivalent , [in:] Eingriffe.NeunKritischeModelle, polityka historyczna , ed.byM.Bernhard,J.Kubik, , Moskva2016. “TheJournalofModern tocoverabroad 6 Istoricheskaya Istoriomor, ili (working (working . fi c st ,

The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 63 c fi , Warszawa , Warszawa , ed. by J. Con- uence. The period ends fl Universities under Dictatorship cant element of its ‘politics of history’. fi , [in:] However, it would not be the subject of However, 9 ned in the title refers to the period when the Kremlin began to ned in the fi , Leiden 2011. nd an answer to the following question: what was the mechanism nd an answer to the following question: fi Czech Universities under Communism Nationalism from the left: The Bulgarian Communist Party During the Second World War and Nationalism from the left: The Bulgarian Communist Party During the Second World War Nauki historyczne w Polsce 1944–1970. Zagadnienia polityczne i organizacyjne have based their research predominantly on the materials available in their 10 Actions aimed at the history of Slavic countries were sanctioned by the Central Com- Actions aimed at the history of Slavic countries The time period de The issue of relationship with and dependence on in the sphere of academia The issue of relationship with and dependence This article focuses on the problems of Soviet ‘politics of history’ in the Eastern Bloc on the problems of Soviet ‘politics of This article focuses the Early Post-War Years the Early Post-War nelly, M. Grüttner, University Park 2005, p. 167–183. University Park M. Grüttner, nelly, 2007; J. Havránek, of Kremlin’s control over Polish, Czechoslovakian and Bulgarian historical disciplines and of Kremlin’s control over Polish, my research does not include the content of un- implementing the decisions? However, the possibility of its realization. dertaken research and studies as well as I intend to try and mittee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (hereafter CC AUCP (b)) and, from (hereafter CC AUCP (Bolsheviks) mittee of the All-Union Communist Party CPSU), and inspired and sub- of the (hereafter 1952, the Communist Party with the interests of the State and the Commu- sequently implemented in accordance of the USSR, thus constituting a signi nist Party with the fall of the Communist regimes in East Central Europe in 1989. with the fall of the Communist regimes implement measures aimed not only at controlling politics, but also the academia and implement measures aimed not only the Soviet sphere of in scholarships of countries included into the present article. 10 T.P. Rutkowski, 10 T.P. and historical science are a topic that still has not been recognized as a subject for stud- and historical science are a topic that still has not been recognized as a subject under ies. This is explained by the fact that authors working on the issues of academia communism 9 Sygkelos, See: Y. Research conducted relationship which was apparent between the USSR and Socialist Federal of Yu- Federal was apparent between the USSR and Socialist relationship which case could The Yugoslavian in particular between 1948 and 1955. goslavia in that period, in much of Europe – the for another discussion of history arguably set the parameters to Tito, and his split with Stalin to socialism was strongly linked idea of a ‘national path’ historical role in the liberation interpretation of the Red Army’s was rooted in a different to the Sygkelos drew attention is within this context the work of Yannis It of Yugoslavia. on ‘Marxist nationalism’. Bulgarian case based in 1945–1989 by the example of selected Slavic countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Czechoslovakia, and Poland, example of selected Slavic countries: in 1945–1989 by the interest because of the speci case is beyond my scholarly Bulgaria. The Yugoslavian Institute for the History of Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Currently, a publica- Currently, of Sciences. Academy of the Polish Science History of for the Institute Khru\ of Nikita in the era relations Polish-Soviet on Russian archives from documents tion of years, carrying out this topic for several been working on prepared. I have shchev is being a Ful- thanks to year, In the 2017-2018 academic Archives. the Russian Federal queries in other Slavic coun- its scope to include project and broadened I carried out this bright Grant, at Stanford University’s and Berkeley, University of California, Eastern Bloc, at the ties of the Hoover Institute. 64 Jan Szumski 13 J. Szumski, 12 Russia ExpelsPolish HistorianWithoutExplanation, www.rferl.org/a/russia-expels-polish-historian-1 of Sciences( nature ofSovietstateapparatusfunctioninginrelationtoPeople’s democracycountries. them, thesedocumentsareofinestimablefactualvaluefor understandingtheextentand Slavic countries.Duetoguidelines,analysisandproblem-solvingmechanismscontainedin RGANI State ArchiveofContemporaryHistory( siiskii gosudarstvennyiarkhivsotsialno-politicheskoiistorii–RGASPI documents thatarestoredintheRussianStateArchiveofSocio-Political History( contain of researchers specializinginSoviettimes. of documents.AnexceptiontothistendencyisrepresentedbyafewworksAmerican own countriesandhavenottakenintoaccountthepost-Sovietpost-Party database 11 E.K. Valkenier, which makesthemparticularlyvaluable. often depictdesiredreality, theARANdocuments oftenpresentamorerealisticpicture, Party documents,whichshowedtheirfundamentaldifference.WhiletheParty documents research topic.For thepurposes ofthisstudy, theARANdocumentswerejuxtaposedwith historian accusingofhavingtieswithRussianintelligence. from RussiainDecember2017‘retaliation’fortheremovalPoland ofaRussian sociates andfriends,ProfessorHenrykG examples oftherisksfacingresearchersarecasesmineandonemycloseas- fi and Russia.Accesstothedocumentationinsomepost-Sovietcountriesisparticularlydif- my booktitled Belarusian policecon Poland werelargelylimitedtoresearchwithinPolish borders. previous studiescoveringtheproblemofpowerandscholarshiprelationsinpost-war represented bytheCentralCommitteeofCommunistParty oftheUSSR.However, my me tofocusprimarilyontheactivitiesofhighestparty-stateauthorities,whichwere institutional spheres.Sovietrealitiesandthespeci ground publishinghouse. Society inBia by theInstituteforHistoricalResearchonBelarusinVilniusandBelarusian cult becauseofbureaucraticinertiaandthepoliticalcontroloverusematerials.Good p. 23–27. glebocki/28880337.html [accessedon 27.07.2018]. Friends: SovietPowerandSocialistInternationalism inColdWar Czechoslovakia Culture andtheMakingofStalin’s New Empire,1943–1957 In additiontoParty documents,thecollectionsofArchiveRussianAcademy My currentstudyisbasedlargelyonmaterialsfromfourRussianfederalarchivesthat I havespentnearlytwodecadesresearchingpost-SovietarchivesinLithuania,Belarus, Czech, andPolishHigherEducation, 1945–1956 Societies” vol.7,1993,no.1,p.109–134; J.Connelly, In mypreviouspublicationsIanalyzedMoscow’s‘politicsofhistory’informaland ) constitute the primary source for the study of the Soviet politics of history towards ) constitutetheprimarysourceforstudyofSovietpoliticshistorytowards fi cial documentsofSovietauthoritiesandCommunistParty oftheUSSR.Party Polityka ahistoria. ZSRR wobecnaukihistorycznejwPolsce wlatach1945–1964 Arkhiv RossiiskoiAkademiiNauk–ARAN ł ystok. Thesubsequenteditionofthebookwaspublishedbyanunder- Sovietization oftheSovietBelarus.1944-1953 Stalinizing PolishHistoriography:What SovietArchivesDisclose fi scated allcopiesofthe 11 Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv noveishei istorii – Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyiarkhivnoveisheiistorii– łę , ChapelHill2000;P. Babiracki, bocki; thathistorianwasdetainedandexpelled fi rst editionoftheBelarusiantranslation Captive University:TheSovietization ofEastGerman, fi , ChapelHill2015;R.Applebaum, c natureofsourcematerialsdrove ) areofgreatsigni 12 On14 13 , whichwasreleasedjointly , Ithaca2019. , “EastEuropeanPolitics and Soviet SoftPowerinPoland. th September2012the ) and in the Russian ) andintheRussian fi cance forthis , Warszawa 2016, Empire of Ros- The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 65 www. lm-collection lm-collection Gosudarst- fi lm Collection, lm fi c institutions that fi ), which stores the materials of the USSR state USSR state of the the materials stores ), which ndings in this case went through a path fraught fi Those documents came to the Hoover Archives because of joint to the Hoover Archives because Those documents came Archives of the Soviet Communist Party and Soviet State Micro 14 cant collections relating to Soviet history. Particularly valuable for me Particularly to Soviet history. cant collections relating fi lms from the archives of the Communist Party of the USSR. Hoover’s the Communist Party lms from the archives of fi lm reels. fi guides can provide you culties and methodological pitfalls, since no information fi eld of history. A special role in the process of collecting and analyzing the situa- A special role in the process of collecting and analyzing eld of history. fi lming and digitization projects from the early 1990s. The original documents are 1990s. The original documents are and digitization projects from the early lming fi Secondly, I attempted to demonstrate the role of specialized scienti Secondly, The wide range of research contributed to the narrowing of the narrative down to The wide range of research contributed As a matter of fact, I was surprised and had a very positive experience working in the I was surprised and had a very positive As a matter of fact, of four Russian federal archives and the Wide-ranging archival search in the collections implementation of Soviet politics of history The dispersion of functions related to the I also used the collections of the State Archive of the Russian ( Federation Russian of the State Archive of the collections used the I also During my stay in the USA,During my hold Archives which from the Hoover I used documents hoover.org/library-archives/collections/archives-soviet-communist-party-and-soviet-statemicro [accessed on 24.07.2018]. tion in Eastern Bloc was played by the Soviet diplomatic missions, which also performed tion in Eastern Bloc was played by the Soviet diplomatic missions, which also to Poland, an additional role of a satellite transmitting the directives from the Kremlin Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. over re- were established by the CC CPSU with the aim to exercise substantive control topics that can illuminate the Kremlin’s policy in the most evident and interesting way. policy in the most evident and interesting way. topics that can illuminate the Kremlin’s cells of the central apparatus of the USSR Com- First, I analyzed the activity of individual the implementation of guidelines the ones that had initiated and supervised munist Party, in the with dif and winding roads of Russian bureaucracy with knowledge on how to navigate intricate archival collections. and extremely rich, but often scattered Hoover Archives. I was also impressed with working conditions at Hoover: relatively fast also impressed with working conditions Hoover Archives. I was on copying of documents, and, modern equipment, few restrictions paging of materials, and competent professional assistance. most of all, friendly to compare the sources from various levels of Hoover Archives was undertaken in order highest to the operational. This approach made it the decision-making process – from the of Soviet authority operations, starting with possible to trace the complicated procedure its examination and guidelines creation by the information gathering, continuing with of Moscow’s decisions towards the experts, and ending with the practical implementation selected East European historical discipline. politicized and bureaucratized access to archival among various governmental organs, of undertaken investigation greatly complicated materials, and an extremely broad nature the research advancement. Arriving at micro housed in Russian archives. 14 More on this subject see: holdings on the Soviet state and Communist Party apparatus are available on almost apparatus are available state and Communist Party holdings on the Soviet 12000 micro were the micro a number of signi vennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii – GARF Federatsii arkhiv Rossiiskoi vennyi an nature. At cultural and educational organizations of and so-called social institutions to model and methodological of the Soviet institutional of the introduction early stage to the organs of Party a supporting role institutions played countries, these East European authorities. 66 Jan Szumski with NaziGermany. the USSRanddevelopedspeci creation. Hepersonallyshapedtheinstitutionalfoundationsofdisciplinehistoryin pose ontoitssatellites–itiscrucialtounderstandtherolethatJosephStalinplayedin a researchareathatstillawaitsthoroughandin-depthanalysis. cational andpropagandanatureinthecontextoftheirrelationswithMoscow. Thisis the ‘Party’ disciplineofhistoryinthe above-listed countriesanditsinstitutionsofedu- search directionsandthecontentinaparticularhistoricaldiscipline.Aseparatetopicis 15 G. Roberts, Institutions apparatus relatedtocontrol over researchnolongersawtheorganizationalshiftsof Stalinization lasteduntil1965. Inlateryears,however, thestructuresofcentralParty nauki ivysshihuchebnihzavedeniy ( ties. We canlistoffjustafew of theseunits:CCDepartmentScienceandCulture nevertheless succeededinmanagingvirtuallyallaspects ofscholarlyresearchactivi- dirempted themselvesfromunitsasdiscreteandindependent bureaucraticbodies,they and theirnames,whiletheyfoldedthemselvesinto largerbureaucraticunitsor ous organizationalcellsoftheCentralCommittee.While theychangedtheirstructures this timethattheSovietizationofhistoricaldisciplinewas carriedoutintheUSSR. in the1930sandfunctionedwithlittlerevisionwellinto postwarperiod.Itwasduring research institutions.ThebasictenetsofParty controloverresearchintheUSSRwereformed the CCAUCP (b)/CPSUcontinuallyexerteditsin and understrictcontroloftheParty. Insometimesless,moreapparentways, sive periods,theproblemofscholarlyresearchalwaysremainedatcenterattention control overthelifeofsociety, and,secondly, mattersofParty ideologyandpropaganda. of theAUCP (b)/CPSU,whichcarriedout, a speci was predicatedonahandfulofdevelopedbureaucraticstructures,eachwhichplayed direct interferencewiththeircontent. the authoritiesresortedtocomplicatedmanipulationsbothintermsoftextsselectionand were toshapethevisionofpastthatwasdesignatedfromabove.To ful tion ofthesedocumentsandtheirusageinjointprojectspublishededitedcollections ing thevisionofrelationswithEasternBloccountriesdesiredbyKremlin.Properselec- Otdel NaukiiKulturi “Journal ofColdWar Studies”vol.4,2002, no.4,p.98. In ordertounderstandtheSovietvisionofhistory–onethatMoscowtriedim- In thepostwarperiod,issuespertainingtoresearchlay within thepurviewofvari- Irrespective ofthechangingformsandmethodspoliticalguardianshipinsucces- In theUSSRanditssatellitePeople’s Democracies,statecontroloverscholarlyresearch The enormouscollectionsofdocumentsstoredinSovietarchivesweretohelpbuild- fi c role.AtthetopofpowerandParty hierarchywastheCentralCommittee Stalin, thePactwith NaziGermany, andthe OriginsofPostwarSovietDiplomatic Historiography 15 ), CCDepartmentofScienceandEducationalInstitutions ( fi c interpretationsofthepast,inparticularSovietPact ). Rapidandwidescalereorganizations tiedtode- fi rst and foremost, functions associated with state rst andforemost,functionsassociatedwithstate fl uence on the organization of research and on uence ontheorganizationofresearchand fi ll thistask, Otdel ,

The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 67 c fi , ed. by Otdel po 18 Otdel vneshney ), which included , ed. by E.P. Hoffmann, R. F. Laird, Hoffmann, R. F. , ed. by E.P. 19 These departments were gures. fi was called into existence. Speci , ) ). Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and ). Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Mezhdunarodnyi otdel ), which oversaw all the countries of the ), which oversaw all the countries of the Otdel po kontaktam s kommunisticheski- c historical c fi , p. 35–36. 17 cant role in matters concerning the politics of historical scholarship in the politics of historical scholarship cant role in matters concerning fi The Role of the CPSU International Department in Soviet Foreign Relations and National Security Polityka Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1991. Classic and Contemporary Issues Soviet Foreign Policy, 16 , [in:] Sektor evropeyskih stran narodnoy demokratii ). In its formation as Department of Foreign Politics, which began functioning in which began functioning Politics, Department of Foreign ). In its formation as Otdel CK KPSS kompartiyami. 1953-1957: Annotirovannyj spravochnik po svyazyam s inostrannymi Communist Party of the Soviet Union records), op. 132, d. 45, l. 7 (letter to Mikhail Suslov, September 15, of the Soviet Union records), op. 132, d. 45, l. 7 (letter to Mikhail Suslov, Communist Party 1950). N.G. Tomilin, Moskva 1999, p. 13. N.G. Tomilin, Policy F. J. Fleron, New Brunswick, London 2009, p. 445. F. Anticommunist and national-liberation movements in Poland and Hungary in 1956 movements in Poland Anticommunist and national-liberation After the death of J. Stalin and the reorganization of the Party apparatus that followed, of the Party After the death of J. Stalin and the reorganization Apart from the Department of Science in all its incarnations and organizational forms, of Science in all its incarnations Apart from the Department These departments were tasked with organizing research parties and festivities, with research parties and with organizing were tasked These departments Albania were assembled into their own, separate section. Of note is the fact that, up untilAlbania were assembled into their own, ‘thaw’ of its relations with the USSR – Yugoslavia October 1, 1955 – i.e. the moment of the and other capitalist countries. Italy, found itself in the same section as France, 18 17 17 (The Central Committee of the Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsial´no-politicheskoi istorii (RGASPI) f. Kramer, 19 M. forced the Party leadership of the USSR to develop more sophisticated and effective meth- leadership of the USSR to develop more forced the Party this end, 1957 saw the replacement countries. To ods for ensuring their control over these ones: The Department for Liaison with Commu- of the above departments with two new ( of Socialist Countries Parties nist and Workers’ a department named The Department for Liaison with Foreign Communist Parties ( Communist Parties Liaison with Foreign a department named The Department for politiki one of which was the Section of Balkan and April, 1946, seventeen sections were formed, Slavic Countries. partiyami svyazyam s inostrannimi kommunisticheskimi stran mi i rabochimi partiyami sotsialisticheskih ( Eastern Bloc, and The International Department developing countries. all capitalist countries of the world and there was one more organizational unit of the Communist Party apparatus that played apparatus Party organizational unit of the Communist there was one more a hugely signi ( Politics This was the Department of Foreign countries. Pact the Warsaw where it was determined, for instance, whether or not Tomas Masaryk was a ‘progressive’ Masaryk was for instance, whether or not Tomas where it was determined, historical actor. monitoring the content of historical publications (both those printed in the USSR and in the USSR and (both those printed publications the content of historical monitoring interest’), and to the USSR’s ‘national to be relevant abroad but deemed those printed in the countries for historians of congresses and conferences the proceedings with noting con- for international texts were prepared It was here that community.’ of the ‘socialist interpretation were decided, that the basic schemas of historical gresses and colloquia, relationship was was ascertained – and this to the Party that a historian’s relationship of assessing speci obligatory for the purpose Khrushchev era and remained more or less unchanged for the duration of the Party’s Party’s of the duration for the unchanged or less more and remained era Khrushchev existence. and Czechoslova- their loyalty to the USSR. Poland countries were assembled on the basis of Democ- Sector of European Countries of People’s kia were assembled into a section named racies ( 16 J. Szumski, 16 J. 68 Jan Szumski 22 21 M. Dostal, Rossiiskiigosudarstvennyiarkhivnoveishei istorii(RGANI)f. 5(ApparatusoftheCPSU records), op.55,d.3, 20 to ‘Slavicissues’. of itsworkerswereusedtorealizecurrentpoliticaltasks andtosolveproblemsrelated the Party’s relationshiptoitwascompletelyutilitarian.Theknowledgeandcompetencies This institutewasbuiltupontheframeworkofAS-USSR andvariousintellectuals, ence onthebasisofadecisionPolitburo oftheCCAUCP (b)onAugust31,1946. sored. Likewise,itwasherethatdecisionsweremadeaboutthecompositionofspeci fact, itwasherethatacademicworksmentioningEasternBlocpoliticalactivistswerecen- to ‘politicsofhistory’werebynomeansamongminorconcernsthisdepartment.In Ministry ofInternalAffairsandtheKGB,butalsootherkindsreports.Issuespertaining reports fromSovietembassies,consulates,researchinstitutes,aswellthe cialist’ department.Theyreceiveddocumentsfromvariousgoverningbodies:memosand munist Party oftheSovietUnion. had necessitatedtheacceptanceofsecretaries Central CommitteeoftheCom- research institutionlaywithinthepurviewoflowerunitsParty rule,eventhisaction of SciencetheCCCPSU. ies oftheAS-USSR,whosedissertationprojectshadtobeapprovedbyDepartment institutions toapprovingcandidatesfordoctoralstudiesintheInstituteofSlavicStud- involved everythingfromthevettingofcandidatesforleadershippositionsinresearch Soviet academicresearchonstructuresofruleandgovernance.Thesecadrepolitics model ofrelationsexistedbetweenpoliticalandacademicelites. the structuresofParty rule.IntheUSSR,aparticularkindofnationalizedandmilitarized and itsinstitutions.TheacademicresearchelitesoftheUSSRweredirectlyintegratedinto ments oftheCommunistParty wereindirectcontactwiththePresidiumofAS-USSR of controlbytheCommunistParty overhistoricalscienceandresearch.Particular depart- Sciences oftheUSSR. and endowedwithresourcesmaterialsprovidedbytheinstitutesofAcademy tioned asanindependentcenterforanalysis,separatefromotherSovietspecialservices, and recommendationsforsolvingspeci the homeforexpertpanelsconductinganalysesoncurrenteventsorwritingdirectives History ofCzechoslovakia’,‘TheBulgaria’,etc. editorial boardsresponsibleforhistoricalsurveyssuchasthe‘TheHistoryofPoland’, ‘The ‘Slavic unity’–thisnewPan-Slavism –Moscowwastorealizeitsimperialambitions Europe involvedareturntoanolderideaofPan-Slavism. Undertheideologicalcoverof The above-mentionedInstituteofSlavicStudiestheAS-USSR wascalledintoexist- The Party assignedanexceptionallybroad setofcompetenciesanddutiestothe‘so- The breadthanddepthofcadrepoliticstesti The AcademyofSciencestheUSSRfunctionedassecondarybureaucraticlevel The OverseasDepartment,dealingwithallcountriesoutsidetheEasternBloc,wasalso p. 141. [in:] Dokumenty kistoriiotechestvennogo slavyanovedeniya 40.godovXXveka 1996, no6,p.6. ll. 62-63(lettertoCCCPSUintotheacceptance ofIvanKhrenovonthedirectorialposition,January23,1963). Slavistika SSSR idalnegorusskogo zarubezhya20-40.godovXXveka Slavistika SSSR Neizvestnye dokumentypoistoriisozdaniya InstitutaslavyanovedeniyaANSSSR 22 Indeed,onekeyelementofthepoliticalSovietization East-Central Whileappointingapersontodirectorialpositioningiven 20 fi c problems.Inasense,thisdepartmentfunc- fi es totheimmensedependenceof , ed. by A.N., Goriyanov,, ed.byA.N., M.Yu. Dostal, , ed.byM.Robinson, Moskva1992, , “Slavyanovedenie” fi c 21

The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 69

23 the two- 24 cantly when fi The History of The History of c institutes and fi was not to see the light uence in the years immediately immediately in the years uence fl and the three-tome rst attempts to reconstruct the his- attempts to reconstruct rst 25 fi cacy of institutional contacts was put to of institutional contacts was put to cacy was published in 1954–58, fi History of Yugoslavia The two-tome appeared in 1954–55, 26 eld in which the ef eld fi cance of the Soviet project of writing a canonical account of cance of the Soviet project of writing a canonical fi The History of Poland Marxist Kiev and Minsk aimed at creating a Party-approved, ces in , “Belarusk h starychny ahlyad” 2013, no 1–2, p. 83. fi , vol. 1, ed. by G.E. Sanchuk, P.N. Tretyakov, Moskva 1956; vol. 2, ed. by S.A. Moskva Nikitin, Tretyakov, , vol. 1, ed. by G.E. Sanchuk, P.N. 27 , 2 vols, ed. by Yu.V. Bromlei, I.S. Dostyan, V.G. Karasev, S.A. Nikitin, Moskva 1963. Karasev, Bromlei, I.S. Dostyan, V.G. , 2 vols, ed. by Yu.V. , 2 vols, ed. by P.N. Tretyakov, S.A. Nikitin, L.B. Valev, Moskva 1954–1955. S.A. Nikitin, L.B. Valev, Tretyakov, , 2 vols, ed. by P.N. in 1956–60, , vol. 1, ed. by V.D. Korolyuk, I.S. Miller, P.N. Tretyakov, Moskva 1954; vol. 2, ed. by I.S. Miller, Moskva 1954; vol. 2, ed. by I.S. Miller, Tretyakov, P.N. I.S. Miller, Korolyuk, , vol. 1, ed. by V.D. plans erce confrontation, by this narrative was the gravedigger of Moscow’s H storyya Belarus u lyusterku rassakrechanyx dakumenta CK UKP(b)/KPSS (drugaya palova 40. – fi ict, which in fact had severed all relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia and and Yugoslavia ict, which in fact had severed all relations between the USSR fl The History of Bulgaria Istoriya Polshi Moskva 1958. Zuev, Moskva 1955; vol. 3, ed. by F.G. I.A. Khrenov, Istoriya Bolgarii Istoriya Chekhoslovakii pershaya palova 60. h.) Moskva 1959; vol. 3, ed. by I.N. Melnikova, Moskva 1960. Istoriya Yugoslavii The CC CPSU’s constant political supervision of these undertakings is the best measure The CC CPSU’s constant political supervision It was at this time that the Party undertook its undertook this time that the Party It was at In 1947, the Academy of Science of the USRR on the Old Square (headquarters of the In 1947, the Academy of Science of the peoples also changed signi The idea of writing a history of the Slavic The Institute of Slavic Studies of the AS-USSR, along with the Institute of the History of Studies of the AS-USSR, along with the The Institute of Slavic 24 25 26 27 Finally, the three-tome Finally, Czechoslovakia of day until 1963. of the meaning and signi Szumsk , 23 J. following World War II. War World following its own Soviet image. Europe in countries of East-Central in the Slavic torical disciplines on the Soviet model, Eastern Bloc states were created in of science National academies up. Moscow sought from the ground were built institutes and workshops within which Slavic Studies of the the Institute of these countries, while historians in out ‘progressive’ revolutions carried the coordinating center for methodological AS-USSR was to become project of writing these coun- research activities. The fundamental out in these countries’ the tries’ histories became tome of in of and its sphere existence plane of its expanding CC CPSU – the symbol for the Party apparatus), was tasked with writing as quickly as pos- apparatus), was CC CPSU – the symbol for the Party Slavic countries, in which the central idea was to sible a Marxist synthesis of the works of the Soviet Union in uniting all Slavs. The Stalin- be the vanguard role played by Russia and Tito con with the CC CPSU, they worked to develop a Soviet vision of the history of Slavic countries. worked to develop a Soviet vision of with the CC CPSU, they experts and analysts, ready to the institute often played the role of Research workers of CPSU with any issues related of the Department of Science of the CC attend to the needs the discipline of history were The majority of shared projects within to Slavic countries. the Institute was of the Institute. Moreover, carried out under the academic patronage and Bulgarian research trips to the USSR. Czechoslovakian, a vehicle for Polish, had led to a the energies of the ‘new Slavic movement.’ for East-Central Europe, having leeched Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria) countries (Poland, work on histories of the three Slavic it was around this same time work was being carried was commenced in 1948. Notably, out in the regional of nations – the Ukrainians and the Belarusians. history of two other ‘associated’ Slavic the USSR, was its own kind of laboratory: in close cooperation with speci kind of laboratory: in close cooperation the USSR, was its own the test. 70 Jan Szumski към other institutions,including the MainArchivesofMinistryInternalAffairs the Marx-Engels-LeninInstitute, butwasalsoforti Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) wascarriedoutnotonlybytheInstitute of SlavicStudiesand (such asPolish-Russian relations, theInterwarPeriod, thegenesisofWorld War II,orthe CC BulgarianCommunistParty), createdin1953. the region’spoliticalupheavalsin19 the time.Onemajorexpressionofthistrendwerepublicationsdedicatedtotopic region ofEast-CentralEurope,reactinginthiswaytotheneedsMarxistscholarshipat Studies. Inthe1970s,Institutereturnedtoitsprojectofgeneralhistoriesentire to includeBalkancountries,functioninguntil1991astheInstituteofSlavicand of Slaviccountries.In1968,theInstitutebroadenedscopeitsresearchactivities 1950s researcherssculptedauniqueconceptionandcanonizationschemeoftheworks the projectcoursedthroughInstituteofSlavicStudiesAS-USSR,wherein the historyofPoland, Czechoslovakia,andBulgaria.TheParty’s academicpatronageof 28 tioned by the CC-CPSU, whilehistorianscouldalwaysexpecttoreceivespeci tioned bytheCC-CPSU, tutes werethefollowing:inPoland the these onesdedicatedtothehistoryofleftwingandcommunist movements.Theseinsti- tional cooperationthattheywererealizedinactualhistoricalscholarship. a sortofDecalogueSoviethistoricalsciences;itwasthroughthesestructureinstitu- Their analysesandinsightsaboutsigni were carriedoutwiththehelpofresearchworkersinMarx-Engels-LeninInstitute. Comintern, contactsbetweenthehistoricalstudyofParty andthetaskofevaluation centers, andacademicpresses.InthecaseofhistoryCommunistParty andthe its manyorganizationalforms,formulatingguidelinesforhistorians,academicresearch communist movementinparticular, theDepartmentofScienceplayed akeyroleacross history’ apparatus. Party oftheUSSR,functioningasonemanymovingpartsinthiscountry’s‘politics inspired andrealizedinaccordancewiththeinterestsofStateCommunist sequent tasksandassignments.Itisthuspossibletoclaimthattheseactionswereboth the CentralCommittee;itwasinCCthatdecisionsweremadeastoresearchers’sub- materials fromthesevisitsweresentnotonlytothePresidiumofAS-USSR,butalso for theirworkandtoremaininconstantcontactwiththeSovietembassy. Documentary of Czechoslovakia,formedin1950;andBulgariathe tute oftheHistoryCommunistParty ofCzechoslovakiaattheCCCommunistParty in 1946;Czechoslovakiathe ment oftheHistoryParty attheCCPolish UnitedWorkers’ Party), calledintoexistence The historicalassessmentofhistory’smostcontestedmoments andsensitiveissues Every visitofSovietdelegationstotheSlaviccountriesEasternBlocwassanc- Poland, Czechoslovakia,andBulgariasawtheformationofanalogousinstitutions, In thecaseoflatemodernhistory, andthehistoryofUSSRinternational Pisarev, V.I. Freidzon, Moskva1974. Centralnaya iYugo-Vostochnaya Evropa vNovoevremya

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The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 71 c fi ict,’ and a fairly fl nally disbanded in 1962, its fi rst editorial board was composed of the fi k Nejedlý, the Polish Wanda Wasilewska, the Ser- Wasilewska, Wanda k Nejedlý, the Polish ě In accordance with Moscow’s directives, the Slavic In accordance with Moscow’s directives, in academic environments. nding supporters even fi – Soviet Information Bureau) and the Slavic Commit- – Soviet Information Vsesoiuznoe Obshchestvo Kul’turnoi Sviazi s zagran- Obshchestvo Kul’turnoi Vsesoiuznoe The Slavic Committee was ). Here, we will pause for a moment to consider this last one. ). Here, we will pause , as well as the Ideological Secretary for the CC BCP(b) – the Belarusian, as well as the Ideological Secretary for ć Slavianskii komitet – All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries), Sovinformburo Sovinformburo Countries), Foreign Relations with Society for Cultural – All-Union The deft exploitation of the slogans and mottos of Slavic identity, the manipulation identity, of the slogans and mottos of Slavic The deft exploitation The organizational work involved in building a ‘new Slavic movement’ was overseen by involved in building a ‘new Slavic The organizational work Now, let us try to recount the mechanisms of decision-making related to historical Now, speci Arriving from various sources, information would either arrive in the hands of The tertiary level of Party control over historical scholarship and implementation of and implementation scholarship control over historical level of Party The tertiary As a result of the Tito-Stalin split at the end of the 1940s, the meaning and functions As a result of the Tito-Stalin split at the Sovetskoye informatsionnoye byuro Sovetskoye informatsionnoye of historical events to correspond to the ‘perennial Slavic-Germanic con to correspond to the ‘perennial Slavic-Germanic of historical events broad, for the time, sense of support for any and all notions of cooperation and mutual sense of support for any and all notions broad, for the time, helped to ensure that theseSlavs in intellectual circles – these strategies recognition among disseminated across East- foundation for broad propaganda message themes became the fell Slogans of a Slavic revival years immediately following the war. Central Europe in the social ground, onto particularly fertile the CC AUCP(b). Apart from the Kremlin-inspired All-Slavic Committee, in 1942 a publica- Apart from the CC AUCP(b). Its tion called ‘Slaviane’ began to be published. Russian Nikolai Derzhavin, the Czech Zden bian Božidar Moslari was tasked with popularizing the idea of a union of Slavic The committee Timofei Gorbunov. of the USSR in strengthening the independencenations, in clarifying the role and meaning issues of ‘Slaviane’ were to be translated into and wellbeing of Slavic countries. Further Serbian, Czech, and Bulgarian. Polish, functions absorbed into the Soviet Committee for the Defense of Peace. functions absorbed into the Soviet Committee secretaries of the CC CPSU, or pass through the Fourth European Department of the Min- European Department secretaries of the CC CPSU, or pass through the Fourth been subjected Affairs of the USSR. In either case, it would have already istry of Foreign scholarship at the peak of political power in Moscow as well as the implementation of scholarship at the peak of political power in Moscow as well as the implementation will do this on these decisions down the line in the Slavic countries of the Eastern Bloc. We the answer the basis of both my own original research and using existing literature, and will be by no means simple: this was an extremely complicated process. Mechanisms of Decision-Making itsei ( tee ( the Soviet interpretation of history in Slavic countries involved so-called social organiza- involved so-called in Slavic countries interpretation of history the Soviet about history. disseminating propaganda largely with concerned themselves tions, which ( VOKS we can list the Among these USSR, the Directorate of Historical Diplomacy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Affairs of Foreign Ministry of the Diplomacy Historical of the Directorate USSR, and others. USSR, of the Slavic Committee’s research contacts with the Slavic countries of the Eastern Bloc of the Slavic Committee’s research contacts The Sovietization unity’ began to lose popularity. diminished, while the very idea of ‘Slavic came to be realized by other means and through of the countries of East-Central Europe other propaganda techniques. ‘people’s democracies’ saw their own national Slavic committees assembled. ‘people’s democracies’ saw their own national 72 Jan Szumski of decision-makersandexperts. Before any bassies inPoland, Czechoslovakia,orBulgaria–whichoftenhadthecharacterof‘reports.’ taking careofbusinessappliedinthecasematerialsacquiredthroughSovietem- to multiplelevelsofanalysisoverthecourseitsjourney. Moreover, aspeci individual decision;insteaddelegating theirresolutiontolower-ranking Party dignitaries. greater roleintheKremlin’sOlympus. Ofcourse,Suslovdidnotpersonallydealwithevery Mikhail Suslov, who,fromthesecondhalfof the 1940sonward,begantoacquireanever- decision-maker inquestionsofscienceandideology– inparticularhumanities–was tions would carried outbetweenpeoplefromresearchinstitutesandmembersoftheseSovietdelega- plans fortheirassignmentsattheSovietembassy. Reportsoriginatingfromconversations lasted manymonths,Sovietconsultantswouldmakesuretoestablishandcon gathering information. Soviet lecturerscarriedoutentireseriesoflecturesattheseuniversitieswhiletheywere and curricula,onhighereducation,departmentsdivisionsinuniversities.Indeed, tations:’ theymonitoredandreportedontheprocessoforganizingschoolsystem oftentimes lastedseveralmonths)weredesignatedinarchivaldocumentationas‘consul- countries werethereportsofSovietspecialists.Theirvisitsandresearchpracticums(which of historybooksrecommendedfortranslationintoRussian. assigned thetaskofstrictlymonitoringbookmarketandcompilingaquarterlylist emy, inculture,andintellectuallife.TheembassyoftheUSSRPoland, moreover, was communist elitemilieus,butalsothegeneralmoodofsociety, thesituationinacad- the mostsigni These reportswouldmaketheirwayuptotheCentralCommittee,andtheydocumented ered fromconsuls,whokeptclosecontactswithlocalleadershipinEasternBloccountries. ports compiledbytheseSovietembassieswereinturnbasedlargelyoninformationgath- viceroy. Thiswasespeciallytrueinthesecondhalfof1940sandearly1950s.Re- much representative,butwhichratherresembledthedignitiesenjoyedbyagovernoror by theDepartment ofScience(initsmany forms andincarnations).Issues pertainingto a broaderrangeofissues.Issues relatedtotheacademicresearchwereusuallyexamined tensive expertanalysis;from multipleDepartmentsiftheprojectinquestiondealtwith to academicresearchchangedfromyearyear. Withoutadoubtthemostin sending themoffontotheircorrectadministrativechannels. the Department forLiaisonwithCommunistandWorkers’ Parties ofSocialist Countries.In in turn,senttotheproperadministrativecells: ropean DepartmentoftheMinistryForeign AffairstotheCCCPSU,wherenoteswere, who wouldsendthemontoMoscow. Part ofthematerialspassedthrough theFourth Eu- In accordancewith‘Kremlin Kitchen’ rules,allprojectswereat During theirstaysatvariouskindsofacademicandresearchinstitutions,whichoften A keysourceofinformationonthesubjectgeneralsituationinEasternBloc In EasternBloccountries,theambassadorofUSSRplayedarolewhichwasnotso The setofpersonsintheKremlinresponsibleformaking decisionsonissuesrelated fi rst place,however, theywerereceivedbymembersofthePolitburo responsiblefor fi nal decisionwasmade,thegivenproblemhadtopassthroughseverallevels fi rst maketheirwaytotheSovietembassy, anditwas theambassadorhimself fi cant issuespertainingtothe functioningofastate,thesituationwithin fi rst totheDepartmentofScienceand fi rst toundergoex- fi c mannerof fi fl rm the rm uential The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 73 eld, fi cial press fi , meaning memos ow, sometimes even ow, fl zapiski ), made without being discussed ) of the CC CPSU, shared resolu- ) of the CC CPSU, shared ) of individual secretaries, bypass- resheniya oprosom c political approach, one that we could call fi postanovleniya of the Central Com- departments owing to various fl Pered Komitetom stavilis sleduyushhie zadachi…Vseslavyanskij komitet v 1941–1945 stavilis sleduyushhie zadachi…Vseslavyanskij Pered Komitetom 29 eld would be sought out. Various so-called consultancy groups functioned within consultancy groups functioned within so-called Various eld would be sought out. fi ., “Istoricheskij arkhiv” 2010, no 3, p. 35. gg The project of building the Kremlin’s vision of its historical relations with other coun- The project of building the Kremlin’s vision of its historical relations with other The process of implementing decisions was likewise very complex. The overall atmos- The process of implementing decisions The sheer volume of information volume of information The sheer were made on the basis of so-called The majority of decisions a. The ambassador or a lower-ranking diplomat would call the person in question in a. The ambassador or a lower-ranking fi ‘archival’ politics. It goes without saying that both the archive and the politics emerging ‘archival’ politics. It goes without saying that both the archive and the politics the from its instrumentalization belonged to but one of many mechanisms for controlling tries could not have existed without a speci 29 Chernobaeva, T. N. Zelov, ‘Archival’ Politics and Shared Projects Politics ‘Archival’ phere of secrecy surrounding the centers of power meant that even the of phere of secrecy surrounding the centers originating from various departments of the CC CPSU, which oftentimes contained ready departments of the CC CPSU, which originating from various possible forms. On the one These decisions fell into one of two provisions for projects. ‘resolutions’ ( hand, they were individual of the USSR usually disseminated in print, tions of the CC and the Council of Ministers or standing commissions. On the other hand resolutions of the Presidium, the Secretariat, ( – and not infrequently – there were ‘decisions’ issues were sometimes Moreover, manner. at meetings, oftentimes in a fairly arbitrary ( resolved by means of a so-called ‘agreement’ Presidium, or Sec- processes of the Politburo, ing in this way the formal decision-making retariat. about writing instead only generally, never gave the names of individual departments, Central Committee.’ Decisions were disseminated a resolution of ‘a department of the Prague, or was the Soviet embassy in Warsaw, through a variety of channels. One of these So inform them of the decision. In issues demanding for a conversation and in the meantime channels of information wide-ranging discretion made use of other bypassing the local Soviet embassy. academic research in ‘people’s democracies’ were often solved in cooperation with the with in cooperation solved were often democracies’ in ‘people’s research academic po- uniquely sensitive having a Issues community.’ the ‘socialist with dealing department of Ideology. the Department also have to include for their part, would litical character, came to be resolved political education issues relating to a large portion of After 1958, the historical sci- the case with This was especially Ideological Commission. within the ences. level of sections and groups. worked through on the administrative mittee was regularly testimony of specialists in the further elaboration, the expert If a given issue demanded given of specialists in a given departments. These were composed these above-mentioned institutions, who additionally employed by academic and research usually researchers dignitaries. information and advice to Party provided specialist 74 Jan Szumski Kurbsky andrelicsofOld-RussianliteraturefromtheKievanRus’period. 31 S. Fitzpatrick, sian historyandhistoricalmyth:the16 him toconductresearchunderminingtheauthenticityoftwosourcesfundamentalRus- an studyingCentralAsiaatthetime.Itwashisfameandinternationalrenownthatallowed note theYale SovietologistFrederick Barghoorn, orEdwardL.Keenan, anAmericanhistori- infrequently could researchers, butalsoresearchersfromtheWest limitedaccesstotheSovietarchives. in theboundsofexistingpoliticalregime,tobesure–allowednotonlyEasternBloc of theUSSR.TherelativeopeningSovietarchivesafter1956–anonlywith- of researchthatcouldbecarriedoutonthebasisdocumentsassembledinarchives ly importantpartofthesepoliticsinvolveddeterminingtheacceptablethemesandscopes Moscow’s politicsofhistory. permitting theirindependentveri were implementingpoliticalorders,freelyjugglingvarious‘corrected’sourceswithout archival resources,makingspeci history hadforcenturiesbeeninextricablylinkedwithitseasternneighbor. Manipulating USSR’s relationshipswithitsneighbors.ThiswasespeciallythecasePoland, whose 30 E.L. Keenan, For themostpart,theirprojectsmadeuseofmaterialsfrom19 the USSRforprojectsthatconcernedlabormovementsandcommunistmovement. bor movementbroadlyde cal workdealingwiththeregion thencomprisedof‘people’sdemocracies’began.An- in anegativelight. from accessinganymaterialsordocumentsthatrepresented thepoliticsofearlyRussia politics ofRussiaortheUSSRwithregardtothesecountries. Thus,historianswerebarred to anytopicsthatcouldleadevenaslightshadeofdoubt concerningthe‘progressive’ on thebasisofverysimilarmotivations.Very generally, Icansaythataccesswasdenied by Sovietdecision-makerstoallowevenlimitedaccessarchival materialswereallmade ments thatweregivenaccesstohistoriansfrom‘people’s democracies.’Decisionsmade movements.’ research includedthehistoryof‘relationswithdemocratic Russia’and‘nationalliberation frequently, fromthe which effectivelyledtohimchanginghisfocusModernRussiaandRuthenia. non grata fi style andthecapitalistsystem,’wholeaffairendedwithexpulsionfromUSSRand, the KGBaccusedof‘discreditingsocialistsystem’and‘propagatinganAmericanlife- nally, withatenuredpositionatHarvard.Nevertheless,acquiringthestatusof uted to Prince A. M.Kurbskiiuted toPrinceA. andTsar IvanIV, Nevertheless, thesewereverydangerousexpeditionsforWestern researcherswhonot In additiontotheretentionofstrictcontroloveraccessarchivalmaterials,anequal- Historians fromEasternBloccountriesweregenerallyallowedaccesstoarchivesin From themid1950s,adiversehostofresearchpropositions forcooperativehistori- I candrawseveralconclusionsfromanalysesconducted on CCCPSUarchivaldocu- in the USSR entailed losing the ability to carry out research in Soviet archives, intheUSSRentailedlosingabilitytocarryoutresearchSovietarchives, The Kurbskii-Groznyi apocrypha:theseventeenth-century genesisofthe‘correspondence’attrib- A SpyintheArchives. AMemoirofColdWar Russia, fi nd themselves accused of ‘espionage.’ By way of example here we can nd themselvesaccusedof‘espionage.’Byway ofexampleherewecan fi rst halfofthe20 fi ned, otherequallyacceptableandimportanttopicsofarchival fi fi c setsofmaterialsavailableonlytoresearcherswho cation –thesewerejustsomeofthemanifestations th Cambridge1971. centurylettersofIvantheTerrible toKnyazAndrey th century. Apartfromresearchconcerningthela- London,NewYork 2014,p.44. th 30 centuryand,less For Keenan, who 31 persona persona The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 75

34 c fi lms fi es, the Soviet side notably fi , 5 vols, ed. by P.N. Pospelov, V. Kral, V. Pospelov, , 5 vols, ed. by P.N. , Czechoslovak-Soviet relations, 33 , 3 vols, ed by L.V. Valev, Khr. Khristov, Moskva Khristov, Khr. Valev, , 3 vols, ed by L.V. , 12 vols, ed. by I. Khrenov, Moskva 1963–1986. , 12 vols, ed. by I. Khrenov, 32 c departments, which played a deciding role in c departments, which played a deciding nalized by expressing this decision to Novotný, nalized by expressing fi fi rst made available to historians in the early 1990s. fi The selection and assortment of these documents was The selection and assortment of these 35 rmed by Secretaries of the CC CPSU Mikhail Suslov, Pyotr Pospelov, and Pyotr Pospelov, of the CC CPSU Mikhail Suslov, rmed by Secretaries fi Oftentimes the most useful documents were kept far from the nal editorial decisions. fi It is worthwhile to add a few words on the subject of the bureaucratic organs respon- It is worthwhile to add a few words on As the analysis of documents from Russian archives testi As the analysis of documents from Russian In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, several editorial boards were assembled in the USSR and 1980s, several editorial boards were In the 1960s, 1970s However, the Central Committee arrived at a negative decision, citing the ‘inexpedi- the Central Committee arrived at However, 1954). Dokumenty i materialy po istorii sovetsko-polskikh otnoshenij Moskva 1973–1988. Sovetsko-bolgarskie otnosheniya i svyazi: dokumenty i materialy 1976–1987. Dokumenty i materialy po istorii sovetsko-chekhoslovackikh otnoshenii insisted on sharing the task of editing historical volumes, but in fact played a dominant insisted on sharing the task of editing volumes, in selecting documents and in mak- role in determining the content of historical ing while working on cooperative projects, or work- researchers who sought them. Whether archives, historians could only order micro ing on their individual queries in USSR available to them by the Soviet side. Operational of those documents which were made work of the Comintern, documentation of the materials dealing with the intelligence of speci and Secretariat of the Politburo in USSR the role played by the Communist Party understanding both the function and politics – these materials were only sible for coordinating research activities carried out within the territories of the USSR and sible for coordinating research activities cooperation between historians. What other Slavic countries, as well as for organizing and the USSR, for Historians of Poland I have in mind here are the bilateral Commissions which was Czechoslovakia and the USSR, and Bulgaria and the USSR, the main task of exchange to support historians by conducting archival queries or sponsoring academic and Bulgarian-Soviet relations. vision of Moscow’s relations with these Slavic intended to help create the appropriate time for an objective presentation of the past. countries, as there was no room at the 32 of Science and Culture to CC CPSU, October 4, 5, op. 17, d. 470, l. 214 (Report sent by Department RGANI f. 33 chapters, written by historians from other countries, would remain unknown.’ This deci- historians from other countries, would chapters, written by sion was con entire affair was Nikolay Shatalin. The in Moscow at the time. who happened to be which were to work with selected historians from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria to Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria to with selected historians from Poland, which were to work edited collections of docu- collected in Soviet archives and to publish analyze documents relations ments concerning the history of Polish-Soviet ency of assembling an editorial collegium in a situation in which the content of speci an editorial collegium in a situation in ency of assembling tonín Novotný, a Czechoslovak communist leader, put forward one particularly ambitious ambitious particularly one put forward leader, communist a Czechoslovak Novotný, tonín of capitalism with the ‘development dealing project research a joint He proposed project. Hun- Czechoslovakia, from the USSR, was to include historians which in Austria-Hungary,’ proposal submitted his 1954, Novotný In September, and Romania. Austria, Poland, gary, to the CC CPSU. for transmission Prague, Nikolay Firyubin, ambassador in to the Soviet Nikolay Zorin Affairs Foreign Vice Minister for in Moscow, proposal arrived When this member Mikhail of CC CPSU Presidium in the hands deposited the proposal immediately Suslov. 35 34 76 Jan Szumski Yevgeny Zhukov. was adopted.TheheadoftheSovietsidethisCommissionmemberAS-USSR Historians oftheUSSRandBulgariatookplace,duringwhichtimeananalogousstatute 38 A. Ulunyan, B.Matveev, A. Desyat’letrabotykomissii istorikovSSSRiNRB,“Voprosy istorii”1978,no11, 38 37 A. 37 A. Nedorezov, ies, themeaningofOctoberrevolution,andPolish-Soviet cooperation. included: theoriginofSlavicpeoples,relationsbetweenPolish andRussianrevolutionar- Warsaw in1967,duringwhichtimeaplanofkeyhistoricalissueswasagreedupon.These programs. TheCommissionofHistoriansPoland andtheUSSRwas 36 J. Szumski, Results obtainedandconclusions: existence inAutumn1965.The history –thatis,theorganizational andinstitutionaldecisionsthatMoscowattempted to has demonstratedthattheimplementationofSoviet system ofpoliticalcontrolover analysis. research methodsandtechniques.Itisaninteresting trailawaitinganin-depth interdisciplinary research,studyingtheworkoflocalhistorians andtheuseofappropriate the 1968eventsinCzechoslovakiaand1981martiallaw inPoland. Thiswouldrequire research question.Itwouldbeinterestingtoinvestigatethe situationinthisrespectafter zational, methodologicalandfactualreceptionofSovietsolutions wouldposeaseparate the above-mentionedcountriestoSovietpoliticsofhistory. Determiningtheorgani- was narroweddown.Itnottheaimofpresentpaper todeterminethereactionof within thesecooperativeefforts. they likewiseservedasmechanismsoffurthercontrolovertopicsandresearchtrajectories between theUSSRandspeci and strengtheningof‘brotherlybondscooperationintherealmhistoricalsciences’ ment ofspeci ence in1967,andMayofthatyearthe Brezhnev era.TheSoviet-CzechoslovakCommissionforHistorianswascalledintoexist- camp mainlycameintobeinginthelate1960sandearly1970s–so-called Commission. and experiencedmanagerofhistoricalaffairs,waselectedheadtheSovietside rians oftheUSSRandCzSSR.’PyotrPospielov, aformerhigh-rankingParty dignitary took placeinPrague,wheremembersadoptedthe‘StatuteofCommissionforHisto- p. 176–177. p. 182. The undertakenresearchontheinstitutionalnatureof Sovietpoliticsofhistory It isimportanttoemphasizethatforthepurposeofthisarticleresearchproblem Commissions forHistorianswerecalledintoexistenceonlywiththeexpressagree- One yearlater, inJune1968So Other bilateralhistoricalcommissionsestablishedwithcountriesfromthesocialist Polityka 37 fi c cellsoftheCCCPSU.Theywereintendedtosymbolizedeepening 10 letrabotykomissiisovetskikhichekhoslovackikh istorikov 38 , p.342. fi c countriesfrom‘people’s democracies.’Ontheotherhand, fi rst meetingoftheCommission’sleadershiptookplacein fi a, Bulgaria,the fi rst organizationalmeetingofthisCommission fi rst meetingoftheCommissionfor , “Voprosy istorii”1977, no8, fi rst calledinto 36 The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 77 cen- th rst half of the 20 fi cation of historical documents was a common cation of historical documents fi cally recognized ‘labor movement’ on Polish, Czecho- recognized ‘labor movement’ on Polish, cally fi cial historical description of the history of the Slavic countries of fi Historical studies on the speci Historical studies on The monopoly on of that over time the function of ideological The undertaken research has also shown subsequently oversaw the realization of joint The Old Square in Moscow inspired and Moscow’s efforts to be the main censor and oracle in the evaluation Paradoxically, All Soviet party documents mentioned above demonstrate that the most exposed to mentioned above demonstrate All Soviet party documents the Eastern Bloc was somewhat broken in the mid 1950s. There were, then, certain dis- the Eastern Bloc was somewhat broken historical discipline and opinions especially of the crepancies between the canon of Soviet who were close to decision-making circles. Moscow and Czechoslovakian historians Polish history that slightly differed from the So- of Polish agreed with the existence of a version control evolved gradually from direct intervention viet canon. Methods and techniques of was used only as a last resort in cases of to more subtle actions, while direct intervention clear violation of prescribed historical interpretation. from those countries who worked inspectors control of history was transferred to Party – from the ideological point of view – studies to prevent the emergence of undesirable with obvious patriotic and often anti-Russian senti- and research related to historic events ments. on how to research and interpret historic events, academic projects, provided guidelines in accordance with the interests of the state and thus implementing its historical policy policy was to determine, in agree- of the USSR. An important part of this Communist Party of Polish- ment with the ‘leading’ historical institutions in the USSR, the topics and areas had to be Russian, Czechoslovakian-Russian and Bulgarian-Russian relations research that based on the documents stored in the USSR archives. intend- of history of the Slavic countries often led to results opposite to what had been the collections of example, the emerging volumes of source materials, including ed. For foundation documents covering the history of the January Uprising (1863), became the the motive historical studies that relied on national tradition and emphasized of Polish tury, especially the interwar period and World War II, where the patterns and visions II, where the patterns War the interwar period and World especially tury, dominated. Falsi articulated from above prove the ‘progressiveness’ with the preparation of facts that would phenomenon, along ‘cooperation’ of the ‘demo- option, would show ‘friendship’ and of only one political from above, etc. cratic’ forces selected for independence were territories, and the history of uprisings slovakian, and Bulgarian with various in- historians that were associated engaged Party monopolized by politically nature and additionally were vigilantly observed stitutions of educational and ideological authorities in Moscow. by Party manipulation and distortion was research on the history of the was research on the history manipulation and distortion impose in Polish, Czechoslovakian, and Bulgarian realities proceeded extremely reluctantly reluctantly extremely proceeded realities and Bulgarian Czechoslovakian, in Polish, impose The country. particular period and historical on the depending intensity varying and with of history in above- of local disciplines into the affairs degree of interference scope and tendencies in social situation and new with the political countries changed mentioned decline by the mid pressure started to fact that political life. Despite the and political of an objective schol- beyond the reach always remained areas and topics 1950s, certain for political reasons. arly analysis 78 Jan Szumski Chernyaev A.S., Chernyaev A.S., Centralnaya iYugo-Vostochnaya Evropa vNovoevremya Babiracki P., Applebaum R., Dokumenty kistoriiotechestvennogo slavyanovedeniya40.godovXXveka Dokumenty imaterialypoistorii sovetsko-chekhoslovackikhotnoshenii Dokumenty imaterialypoistoriisovetsko-polskikhotnoshenij Connelly J., Akademiya naukvresheniyaxPolitbyuroCKRKP(b)-VKP(b)-KPSS: 1922–1991,tom.2. State ArchiveoftheRussianFederation ( Russian StateArchiveofContemporaryHistory( Russian StateArchiveoftheSocio-Political History( Archival sources Bibliography archives, butalsoinclosecooperationwithscholarsfromotheracademic This kindofresearchshouldbeconducted,notonlyintheformfurtherworkwith of thecomplicatedrelationsbetweenhistoryandpoliticsinCentralEasternEurope. able sourcesarestillundisclosed,whichdoesnotallowforacomprehensivedescription strictions onaccesstoprimarysourcespreservedinRussianarchives.Manyofthosevalu- the intentionsofOldSquareideologuesobviouslyfailed. project cannolongerbereducedtoamereimposedideologicalcanon,andinthissense of strugglesforindependence.TheevaluationcooperationwithMoscowwithinthis riography andthehistoryofideas. ferent countries,specializingintheSovietstudies,includingcontemporaryhistory, histo- Adorno T.W., Sources andcriticalliterature er Education,1945–1956 akov, I.S.Miller, Yu.A. Pisarev, V.I. Freidzon, Moskva1974. 1943–1957, Applebaum’s PhDdissertationfromProquestDissertations). Czechoslovakia 40. godovXXveka Goriyanov,A.N. M.Yu. Dostal,[in:] Pospelov, V. Kral,Moskva1973–1988. Moskva 1963–1986. 2008. 1952–1958 Kritische Modelle. istorii sotsialno-politicheskoi istorii Nowadays scholarsconductingtheirresearchintheSovietstudiesfacenumerousre- , RGANI). Captive University:TheSovietizationofEastGerman,Czech, andPolishHigh- Soviet SoftPowerinPoland.CultureandtheMakingofStalin’s NewEmpire, Was Bedeutet: , ed.byV.Yu. A Empire ofFriends:SovietPowerandSocialistInternationalisminColdWar ChapelHill2015. Sovmestnyj iskhod(Dnevnikdvukhepokh.1972–1991gody) (this bookwaspublishedbyCornellUniversityPressin2019,Iused Frankfurt/M 1963,p.125–146. , ed.byM.Robinson, Moskva1992.

Aufarbeitung derVergangenheit (1959) , ChapelHill2000. fi ani, V.D. Esakov, Moskva2010. , RGASPI). Slavistika SSSR idalnegorusskogo zarubezhya20- Slavistika SSSR Gosudarstvennyi arkhivRossiiskoiFederatsii Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyiarkhivnoveishei Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyiarkhiv , ed.byN.P. Danilova,V.A. Dy- , 12vols,ed.byI.Khrenov, ,

[in:] , 5vols,ed.byP.N. Eingriffe. Neun fi elds anddif- , Moskva , ed.by , GARF). The USSR’s Politics of History toward the Slavic Countries of the Eastern Bloc: Formal and Institutional Frameworks. 1945–1989 79

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Melnikova, Moskva Nikitin, Moskva 1959; AN SSSR 2014. 2005, p. 167–183. University Park M. Grüttner, ed. by J. Connelly, Todorova M., Todorova Szumski J., Szumsk J., Sygkelos Y., Sygkelos Y., Sherlock T., Sherlock T., dokumenty i materialy Sovetsko-bolgarskie otnosheniya i svyazi: Otdel CK KPSS 1953–1957: Annotirovannyj po svyazyam s inostrannymi kompartiyami. Roberts G., Polyan P., P., Polyan Rutkowski T.P., Nedorezov A., Kramer M., Istoriya Chekhoslovakii E.L., Keenan Istoricheskaya politika v XXI veke Istoricheskaya politika Istoriya Bolgarii Istoriya Polshi Istoriya Yugoslavii Havránek J., Havránek komissii CK KPSS.Ideologicheskie Dokumenty 1958–1964: Dostal M., Dostal S., Fitzpatrick 80 Jan Szumski The PoliticsofMemoryinPostwarEurope The ConvolutionsofHistoricalPolitics Slezkine, LiladharPendse, andThomasSliwowski. thank theparticipantsinthisseminarfortheircomments,aswellJohnConnelly, Yuri of Slavic,EastEuropean,andEurasianStudiesattheKrouzek’sseminar. Iwouldliketo A draftofthearticlewaspresentedatUniversityCalifornia,Berkeley, intheInstitute Acknowledgements ford University(ScholarResearchSupport). (Fulbright SeniorAward2017/2018)andtheHooverInstitutionLibrary&Archives,Stan- Research supportforthisarticlewasprovidedbythePolish–U.S. Fulbright Commission Funding Zinn H., Valkenier E.K., MatveevB., Ulunyan A., Twenty Years afterCommunism:ThePoliticsofMemoryandCommemoration Polityka historycznaZSRRwobeckrajóws Article acceptedon24July2019 Article submittedon7July2019 Zelov N.,ChernobaevaT., Yekelchyk S., Artyku formalne iinstytucjonalne. 1945–1989 nim wlatach1945–1989 na przyk Czechos 2012. komitet v1941–1945gg 1978, no11. M. Bernhard,J.Kubik, Oxford2014. ham, London2006. cal Imagination, ropean Politics andSocieties”vol.7,1993,no1,p.109–134. ł Jan Szumski e-mail: [email protected] California, Berkeley, HooverInstitutionscholarship holder. and historyofPoles inUSSR.In 2017–2018visitingscholarattheUniversityof research interestscoverhistoryofPolish-Soviet relationsandscienti at theHistoricalResearchOf jer InstitutefortheHistoryofScience,Polish AcademyofSciences,headspecialist po ł The PoliticsofHistory owacji iBu ś wi Stalin’s EmpireofMemory:Russian-UkrainianRelationsintheSovietHistori- ę Stalinizing PolishHistoriography:WhatSovietArchivesDisclose cony jestproblemomradzieckiej „politykihistorycznej”wblokuwschod- Toronto 2004. PhD (dr hab.), historian, Associate Professor at the L. & A. Birkenma- PhD(drhab.),historian,AssociateProfessorattheL.&A. ł garii. Wprowadzanie radzieckiegosystemu politycznejkontrolinad Desyat’ let raboty komissii istorikov SSSR iNRB Desyat’ letrabotykomissiiistorikovSSSR Pered Komitetom stavilissleduyushhiezadachi…Vseslavyanskij ., “Istoricheskijarkhiv”2010,no3. , secondedition,Champaign1990. fi ce, InstituteofNationalRemembrance,Poland. His , ed. by A. Miller,, ed.byA. M.Lipman,Budapest,NewYork ł adzie wybranychkrajóws , ed.byR.Lebow, W. Kansteiner, C.Fogu Dur- ł owia ń skich blokuwschodniego: ramy ł owia , “Voprosy istorii” ń skich: Polski, fi c contacts, c , “EastEu- , ed.by The USSR's Politics of History… historią postępowało opornie i z różnym natężeniem, zależnym od okresu i kraju. Za- kres i stopień wpływu na nauki historyczne w wymienionych krajach zmieniał się wraz z sytuacją polityczną oraz nowymi trendami w życiu społecznym i politycznym. Działania wobec historii krajów słowiańskich były sankcjonowane przez KPZR i wprowadzane zgod- nie z interesami państwa i Partii. Kreml inspirował, a następnie nadzorował realizację wspólnych projektów badawczych, zapewniał wskazówki, jak należy badać i interpretować wydarzenia historyczne, ustanawiając w ten sposób istotny element swojej „polityki his- torycznej”.

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