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The Emergence and Electoral Success of Green Parties in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands

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The Emergence and Electoral Success of Green Parties in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands Rethinking Green Parties: The Emergence and Electoral Success of Green Parties in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands A Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Sheffield Mark Williams Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Politics August 1999 Abstract The proliferation of green parties on the European political landscape in recent decades has prompted much debate concerning the explanation of their emergence and the factors considered to influence their varying levels of electoral success. This thesis critically examines a number of perspectives and concepts drawn from the sociological and political studies literatures which shed light on these two key issues. Through a comparison of green party politics in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands, the thesis challenges the assessment of those who maintain that the emergence and/or electoral success of green parties can be understood principally in terms of the theory of 'post-materialist' value change, or in terms of the shift to 'post-industrial' society. Drawing on contemporary studies of 'high-consequence' risks, it argues for an alternative approach to understanding the emergence of green parties which is rooted in processes of social and global environmental change that have taken place during the post-war period. The question of green party electoral success is examined by means of the organisation of a variety of political and institutional factors into four overarching themes: political state-institutional structures, electoral dealignment and political competition, modes of interest representation, and internal dynamics. It is contended that attention to each of these can yield important insights into the conditions which have impacted on the electoral significance of green parties in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands. The final part of the thesis develops a new, ecologically informed approach to the emergence of green parties based primarily upon a reworking and synthesis of themes explored in previous chapters. Contents Tables IV Acknowledgements V Glossary of Political Parties VI 1. Approaching Green Parties 1 2. The Career of Green Parties in Austria, Britain and 32 the Netherlands 3. Green Parties, 'New Politics' and 'Post-materialism' 53 4. Green Parties and the Politics of 'Post-industrial' Society 78 5. Green Parties, 'Reflexive Modernity' and the Politics of 118 'Risk Society' 6. Political State-institutional Structures and Green Parties 160 7. Green Parties, Electoral Dealignment and the 181 Nature of Political Competition 8. Modes of Interest Representation and Green Parties: 209 The Role ofNeo-Corporatism, Pluralism and Social Movements 9. Internal Dynamics in Green Parties 233 10. Rethinking Green Parties 255 References 292 iii Tables 2.1 National Parliamentary Election Results in Austria, 1983-95 37 2.2 National Parliamentary Election Results in Britain, 1974-97 44 2.3 National Parliamentary Election Results in the Netherlands, 1989-98 50 3.1 Distribution of 'Post-materialist' Values in Austria, Britain and 61 the Netherlands, 1970-1990 4.1 Occupational Composition of the Workforce in Austria, Britain and 100 the Netherlands, 1970-94 4.2 Levels of Formal Education among Green Party Supporters and 113 Members in Austria, Britain and the Netherlands 10.1 Factors Potentially Influencing the Electoral Significance of 281 West European Green Parties, 1980-98 iv Acknowledgements The idea for this thesis grew out of a previous study I carried out on new social movements and green parties as part of a postgraduate research methods course at the Nottingham Trent University in 1993/4. I would like to express my gratitude to the late Malcolm Vout for his great kindness and assistance while I was enrolled at this institution, and to Larry Wilde for sparking my interest in green party politics and encouraging me to pursue a doctorate. I would also like to thank Rick Simon at Nottingham Trent for ensuring that I had enough part­ time teaching to keep me afloat throughout my time at Sheffield. Particular thanks must go to my supervisor, James Meadowcroft, who has been most generous with his advice and time while this thesis has been in preparation, and who has provided me with opportunities to pursue additional research relating to environmental politics. I am also grateful to Mike Kenny for his advice during the earlier stages of the research project. I must also thank Jon Burchell, with whom I have had countless stimulating discussions concerning green parties over the past few years. Among others who helped me a great deal are Gene Frankland, Paul Lucardie, Gerrit Voerman, Brian Doherty and the green party secretariats, MPs and activists who responded to my requests for information and interviews. I would also like to thank my parents for their continued support and encouragement during the years that I have spent in higher education. My final thanks go to Vashti Gosling. for putting up with me while this thesis was being written. This dissertation is my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration. I alone am responsible for its contents. v Glossary of Political Parties Domestic Language Name English Name ALO Alternative Liste Osterreichs Alternative List of Austria AOV Algemeen Ouderen Verbond Aged League ARP Anti-Revolutionaire Partij Anti-Revolutionary Party BIP Btirgerinitiative Parlament Citizens' Parliamentary Initiative CD Centrumdemocraten Centre Democrats CDA Christian Democratisch Appel Christian Democratic Appeal CHU Christelijk Historische Unie Christian Historical Union CPN Communistische Partij Communist Party of the Nederland Netherlands D66 Democraten 66 Democrats 66 DG De Groenen Greens EFGP nla European Federation of Green Parties EVP Evangelische Volkspartij Evangelical People's Party FPO Freiheitliche Partei Osterreichs Freedom Party of Austria G Die GrODen Greens GGEP nla Green Group in the European Parliament GL GroenLinks Green Left GPV Gereformeerd Politiek Verbond Reformed Political Union KPO Kommunistische Partei Osterreichs Communist Party of Austria KVP Katholieke Volkspartij Catholic People's Party LF Liberales Forum Liberal Forum OVP Osterreichische Volkspartei Austrian People's Party PC PlaidCymru Welsh Nationalist Party VI PEP Evangelische Progressieve Progressive Evangelical Volkspartij Party PPR Politieke Partij Radicalen Political Party of Radicals PSP Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij Pacifist Socialist Party PU55 Unie 55+ Political Union 55+ PvdA Partij van der Arbeid Labour Party RPF Reformatorische Politi eke Reformed Political Federatie Federation SDP nla Social Democratic Party SGP Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij Reformed Political Party SNP nla Scottish National Party SP Socialistische Partij Socialist Party SPO Sozialistische Partei Osterreichs Socialist Party of Austria vGO Vereinte GrOne Osterreichs United Greens of Austria VVD Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Liberal Party Democratie vii Chapter 1 Approaching Green Parties In recent decades green parties have flourished on the European political landscape. 1 The green party phenomenon has spread so fast that there is now no European country - West or East - which has not witnessed the establishment of such a party (Kortvellyessy 1996).2 In its infancy, green party politics in Europe reflected a somewhat modest response to growing public concern about the 'ecological crisis' which had come to the fore in the early 1970s.3 Yet since these formative years, green parties have invested considerable energy to develop substantive political programmes which fundamentally challenge the established ideologies of parties and movements associated with the Left and Right. Most notably, green parties have called into question the wisdom of the untrammelled economic growth and anthropocentric politics which for decades formed the chief ingredients of social democratic and communist party politics, and which have, more recently, underpinned the neo-liberal outlook. The rise of the green party as a significant promotional vehicle of social and economic change has facilitated a process of rethinking among many on the radical Left, and, in some cases, this has prompted the development of new partnerships between reformed socialists, ex-communists and greens (Wainwright 1994). The extent to which green parties have managed to capture the political attention and support of European electorates in recent decades can be quite 1 For general discussions on the history of individual green parties, see Parkin (1989); M01ler­ Rommel (1989b); Richardson and Rootes (1995) and O'Neill (1997). 2 While Britain was the first European country to witness the development of a green party - namely, PEOPLE in 1973 - New Zealand is credited as being the country to have produced the world's first national green party. This was the Values Party and was founded in 1972 (parkin 1989). 3 In this thesis the terms 'ecological' and 'ecology' will be taken as broad equivalents to those of 'environmental' and 'environmentalism' (Vincent 1993). It should be noted that some commentators have, for philosophical and ideological reasons, chosen to attach quite different meanings to these terms (see, for example, Bookchin 1986; Dobson 1995). 1 readily observed. Green parties are now represented in 17 national parliaments across Europe (The Guardian, 15 March 1999).4 In addition, at the time of writing, green parties are represented in five national governments in the European Union (EU), namely, those of Italy (1996-), France (1997-), Germany
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