Figure 1: , (What to Know About Tickets and Tours at the Alhambra in . (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.tripsavvy.com/alhambra-tickets-and-tours-1644404)

A Study of Alhambra, Granada LDEM 207 Final Paper Presented to: Dr. Nayla Al-Akl Presented by: Rayan Hamdar Due on: December 13, 2018

1 Outline

I. Introduction II. Paradisiacal Gardens III. Islamic Conquest of Spain and Building the Alhambra IV. Alhambra: Notions a. Cuarto Dorado b. Court of Myrtles c. Court of Lions V. Generalife: Summer Retreat a. Court of the Water Channel b. Water Stairway VI. Conclusion

2 List of Figures

Figure 1: Alhambra, Granada (What to Know About Tickets and Tours at the Alhambra in Spain. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.tripsavvy.com/alhambra-tickets-and-tours- 1644404) ...... 1 Figure 2: Chahar Bagh (Arcady. (2009, February 07). Char Bagh. Retrieved from http://www.gardenhistorygirl.com/2009/02/char-bagh-gardens.html) ...... 5 Figure 3: Climate of Mediterranean Basin (Mediterranean Sea. (2018, December 07). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea) ...... 6 Figure 4: Cuarto Dorado (Visiting the Alhambra: 12 Top Attractions, Tips & Tours | PlanetWare. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.planetware.com/granada/alhambra-hill-e- and-ah.htm) ...... 8 Figure 5: Court of Myrtles (Larken81. (2011, August 10). Court of Myrtles. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/12592344@N04/6027203815) ...... 9 Figure 6: Court of Lions (Alhambra--court-of-lions. (2017, May 11). Retrieved from https://elamarthistory.com/slide-lists/early-christian-byzantine-and-islamic-art/alhambra- palace-court-of-lions-2/) ...... 11 Figure 7: Hall of Abencerrajes (Dome, Hall of the Abencerrajes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.travelblog.org/Photos/6855084) ...... 12 Figure 8: Hall of Two Sisters (Nazaries dome in Alhambra. GRANADA, SPAIN. (2011, August 16). Retrieved from https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/nazaries-dome- alhambra-granada-spain-82904071) ...... 12 Figure 9: Court of the Water Channel (Els. (2008, May 14). Patio de la Acquia (Court of the Water Channel). Alhambra, Granada, Spain. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/elsa11/2492360169) ...... 14 Figure 10: Water Stairway (Jeffreygardens. (1970, January 01). The Generalife. Retrieved from http://jeffreygardens.blogspot.com/2012/04/generalife.html) ...... 16

3 For as long as he existed, man has strived to harness the landscape around him in order to make use of it. At first, it was all about mere survival; hunting and gathering were the most necessary activities relating to the landscape, as well as finding shelter. However, as man evolved in his thinking, and at the onset of tools, man’s understanding of the landscape started shifting. Two questions became crucial for man to answer in order to make sense of life; where did we come from, and where do we go after we die? So, man sought to answer these questions using nature as a guideline, and subsequently started worshipping nature. They found answers in alignments with the stellar, solar, and lunar entities, the Cosmos, in the happenings of natural disasters, or in seasonal changes. This relationship continued on for many centuries; each generation, each culture, had its own way of answering these questions by referring to nature in different ways, but all had the same reverence towards nature. The holy was seen as part of the landscape, the divinity being an actual part of the landscape (Rogers, 2001). Fast forward to the times of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, where man started seeing nature more aesthetically, aiming towards getting the best experience out of nature. This was established by building according to the genius locus, which they thought most accurately caught the spirit of the place, giving them the most out of the place in terms of spirituality, more so with the Greeks than with the Romans. During Roman and Hellenistic times, this relationship was no longer a priority of the landscape, more so than the monumentality of the buildings and the sheer drama, as well as the organization. It was the dawn of what would later be termed urbanization. There were still some exquisite exceptions to this growing order of landscape design, which were the villas built in at the time. These kept an elevated level of interaction with nature, implementing gardens in their centers and agricultural lands around them, especially in the villa rustica. The next major section in landscape history is the one based on the three Abrahamic religions and their view of paradise, which brings us to our focus in this paper; Islamic gardens (Rogers, 2001). The Islamic gardens, much like Christian and Jewish beliefs, were rooted in the notion of paradise and how the Divine created the landscape to represent the eternal beauty that is God, instead of seeing the landscape as the literal residence of the Divine. Paradise is a place of pleasure and rest, one of beauty and connection to God, reaching peace of mind in a lavish garden. In Islamic religion, all throughout the Quran, the mentions of paradise were always coupled with the imagery of gardens; lush gardens of greens and shade, with fruits aplenty and rivers of water, milk, honey, and wine that would steadily flow for all of eternity, granting the faithful Muslims infinite delight. This picture of a magnificent garden was only

4 further perfected by the notion that everything in paradise - be it the birds’ singing, the flowers’ scents, or the trees’ slender shape – worshipped Allah and showcased His bottomless grace and power, as well as His eternal beauty. Paradise is believed to be endless, with no boundaries, extended: And a Garden the breadth whereof is As the breadth of heaven and earth…. (Sura 57/21)

Figure 2: Chahar Bagh (Arcady. (2009, February 07). Char Bagh. Retrieved from http://www.gardenhistorygirl.com/2009/02/char-bagh-gardens.html)

This however, comes with the notion that although paradise might be infinite in its expanse, it is enclosed with walls and has limited entrances, as seen by the Quran’s mention of gates, which gatekeepers will open to the faithful and devout Muslims (Sura 39/73). The Quran also mentions the presence of not one garden, but two gardens which are identical in every aspect. Theologians interpreted this as what is referred to by the Persians as the chahar bagh (Figure 2), which is the organization of the paradisiacal garden into four identical square quadrants, separated by the four steadily-flowing rivers mentioned above, which gush out of a central fountain or source, the Spring of Life. This later became the organization followed by many Islamic royal gardens in order to try and create a closer image of paradise on Earth (Ettinghausen & MacDougall, 1976). Paradise – and consequently, Islamic gardens as well – was viewed as a place of pleasure, derived by the entertainment of all the senses. When one sat in such a garden, his senses would continuously be stimulated. The sense of sight was captured by manipulating light and by including colorful decorations and vegetation. The sense of smell was kept busy due to the

5 vegetation present. The running water created slight sounds for the ear’s delight. However, it was not to the extent of it being overwhelmingly powerful and confusing; rather, it was tuned to a suitable level of sensory excitement, just higher than the usual baseline, such that it soothes the viewer while providing him with an experience that was fit to be compared with what was expected to be paradise (Foret, 2009). This concept of paradise most probably has arisen as an effect of the climate of the Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa. The experience of oases in an arid land of sand would bring about the notion that paradise must be similar to this haven in the dessert, only multiple times better. The Arabs mainly lived in desserts where the sand was infertile and unsuitable to plant in, the sun was intolerable during the day, the night too cold in contrast, and water very scarce. Therefore, it is quite understandable for them to picture their eternal rest in the afterlife as a garden that would provide for all that they lack. Their organization of their gardens will hence take this picture as a guideline, since gardens were places of pleasure on Earth. This was possible once the Arabs expanded their influence and reached areas with different climates and types of landscapes, namely Spain, or what was known as (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Climate of Mediterranean Basin (Mediterranean Sea. (2018, December 07). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea)

During the flourishing of Islam, the Arabs sought to increase their area of influence, and performed several conquests. During the Umayyad caliphate, they eventually reached the Iberian Peninsula. With only a small military force, the commander Tariq ibn-Ziyad started the conquest on the south of Spain, or what was known as Hispania at the time. This was around the year 711 A.D., and their conquest continued as they wanted to expand their influence further north. During their rule of Spain, the Muslims took Cordoba to be their capital, and Spain became known as Andalusia. As with every conquest, the invading power brought a new culture to the occupied lands, and this allowed for an exchange in cultures and

6 ideas. The Muslims brought with them the knowledge and philosophy they had culminated in the East, whereas the Spanish offered new agriculture and different landscapes. The Arabs took advantage of their resources and the new culture to create some of the most magnificent and exotic gardens in Islamic history. One example of these gardens that still stands to this day – more or less intact – is the Alhambra in Granada (Demaray, 1969). The Alhambra started out as the ruins of a small fortress from the Roman Empire. It was later renovated and expanded into a palace-garden complex by the Nasrids in the mid-13th century – mainly during the times of Mohamad ben Al-Ahmar, Yusuf I, and Mohamad V. The complex, whose name means ‘the red one’ in due to the redness of its brick walls, was first built as a military stronghold; however, it then became the residence of the royal family. Due to increased conflict with the Christian forces in northern Spain, the Arabs were driven further south, and the began to decline. The Alhambra was the last site of Moorish rule in Spain, its last ruler fleeing on January 2, 1492 (“Historical Introduction”, n.d.). The palace sits on the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the city of Granada. Although the walls of the Alhambra contrast painfully with the surrounding natural forest, it was built to serve as isolation from the bustle of the adjacent city, as well as to keep any unwanted guests from entering and preserve the security of the royal family. The walls could also be linked to the idea of the walled paradise in Islamic religion mentioned earlier, where only a select few can enter. Although one would expect the entire palace-garden to have a quadripartite organizational pattern similar to that of the chahar bagh, that is not the case. The complex comprises of several courtyards and spaces, each with its own pattern and layout (Moore, Mitchell & Turnbull, 2000). Together, they form the massive palace within the walls. Of these spaces, the most discussed in scholarship – and seemingly the most important – are the Cuarto Dorado, the Court of Myrtles, and the Court of Lions. The first space that one enters in the Alhambra is the Cuarto Dorado – the Patio of the Gilded Room. Its name is not an exaggeration, as in days when the sunlight was strong, this room really did appear as though it was gold-plated. This is due to several factors, the first being that the patio was not an indoor room; rather, it was an enclosed space with an open roof, similar to what one might see in the ruins of early Roman houses with the enclosed gardens. This layout is common with all the courts and patios in the Alhambra, thus making use of the Spanish climate. The sunlight which enters the patio is directly reflected off the marble tiled floor, giving a sense that the ground is glowing from beneath one’s feet. An

7 added value to the marble floor is its cooling effect; it stays cold to the touch and maintains the room’s ambient temperature. In the middle of the patio is a small fountain inlaid in the floor. The fountain is a circular basin with scalloped edges and a water outlet in the middle. The single source of water causes circular ripples to emanate from the center, which will reflect some sunlight at their peaks. As the ripples reach the scalloped edges of the basin, they will be reflected back towards the center, and this cause the water to give off a shimmering pattern of light for the viewer’s delight (Moore et al., 2000). The fountain’s low height was not without meaning as well, as it allowed the water to gently flow into the octagonal cavity in the floor, producing the soothing acoustics of running water without them being overwhelming. Continuing with the light’s manipulation, the arches above the entrance’s door are finely carved into repeating patterns. When struck by sunlight, these will create patterns of golden light on the walls behind them creating captivating visuals (Figure 4). On the southern side of the court is a wall that is lavishly decorated with stuccos and tiles, with two doors that are similar in shape and size. While one takes the visitors back the entrance, the other leads them into our next space of interest, the Court of Myrtles, and ultimately into the rest of the palace.

Figure 4: Cuarto Dorado (Visiting the Alhambra: 12 Top Attractions, Tips & Tours | PlanetWare. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.planetware.com/granada/alhambra-hill-e-and-ah.htm)

The Court of Myrtles, as one might guess, gets its name from the neatly trimmed and manicured hedges of myrtle, stretching on either side of the open space. The myrtle is the

8 first vegetation that one encounters in the Alhambra’s palace. An evergreen with glossy leaves that give off a fresh aroma similar to that of the eucalyptus, the myrtle is seen as a symbol of Divine generosity. It grows white flowers, which adds to the colorful aspect of the space, which would have been amplified by tapestries hanging from the windows at either side of the court. The hedges were specifically trimmed to that height – which is almost elbow height – so that one can glide one’s hand along its top in order to excite the aroma even more. It was also kept at that convenient height so as not to obstruct the visual field from the sides of the court. In the middle of the court, along the north-south axis, stretches a pool of still water. The stillness of the water serves two main purposes; one is to give off a shimmering light due to the incident sunlight, and the other is to act as a mirror, reflecting the porticoes with intricately carved arches, the tiled walls on either side of the axis, and the Comares Tower in the background, ultimately creating an alluring dual image (Figure 5). This pool, which is 24 by 114 feet, has two circular fountains at either ends of it. The fountains are inlaid in the floor, with one small jet in the center of each, gently spilling out water. The water then gradually cascades down small chutes into the pool; this emphasizes the pool’s stillness and helps create soft sounds without disturbing the visual display of the pool.

Figure 5: Court of Myrtles (Larken81. (2011, August 10). Court of Myrtles. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/12592344@N04/6027203815)

This combination of sensory stimulation – visual, auditory, and olfactory – are essential in the experience of pleasure in this court, and experiencing that pleasure is in itself essential

9 in bringing one to a state of peace so that one can contemplate God’s greatness through the garden. This relationship between pleasure and the contemplation of God was what drove the Arabs to organize their gardens as they did because through this they could reach the pleasure above all pleasures, the knowledge of God. However, the pleasure they sought after was not just sensory pleasure; pleasure derived from intellect and cognitive acuity was also important, as mentioned by the philosopher Ibn Khaldun. He states that the enjoyment of beauty, as well as the enjoyment of cognition would bestow one with the harmony needed to know God (Foret, 2009). The pleasure in knowledge is an important part of our next space. Moving from the Court of Myrtles, one would reach the Court of Lions, which might as well be the most famous court in Alhambra. The rectangular patio is famously named for the fountain in its center; a circular basin with a central jet, sitting on the back of 12 carved marble lions which spew water out of their mouths (Figure 6). Upon entering the court, one can instantly see the referencing of the chahar bagh mentioned earlier. Moving out of the center of the room – radiating from the fountain – are four water canals, representing the Spring of Life with the four rivers flowing out of it. However, when one pays closer attention, it can be seen that only two of the canals move outward from the center, whereas the other two actually flow into the center from two rooms along the North-South axis, known as the Hall of two Sisters and the Hall of Abencerrajes. In both halls, there is a small circular fountain inlaid in the floor, with a single jet of water, much like the fountains in the Court of Myrtles. However, instead of emptying into a pool of still water, they spill into the water canals that reach the fountain of lions. This cools the air inside – along with the marble floors – and causes soft auditory stimulation inside the halls, which complements with what the viewer would be seeing.

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Figure 6: Court of Lions (Alhambra-palace-court-of-lions. (2017, May 11). Retrieved from https://elamarthistory.com/slide- lists/early-christian-byzantine-and-islamic-art/alhambra-palace-court-of-lions-2/)

Looking up in the halls, one would see an exquisite display of architectural ability in both halls. Adorning the ceilings of both halls are domed , or honeycomb vaults, made of carved stucco that are pointing downwards (Figures 7 & 8). The rooms could be compared to caves – with the muqarnas as stalactites – which are an important motif in Islamic tradition since they draw on the idea that the Prophet Muhamad was given the first revelation of the Quran in a cave. This would instill a feeling of reverence in the viewer, helping him/her to contemplate God (Ahmad, 2008). Adding to the notion of religion in the architecture of the muqarnas is the dome shape, which is common in a lot of great mosques throughout Islamic history. The shape represents the domes of heavenly spheres, which could be seen stretching upward as if reaching God at the very top (Moustafa, 2008). The patterns and symmetry of the muqarnas emphasize this notion of expanding infinitely towards the heavens by using the geometrical concept of continuity, which states that a pattern can be replicated infinitely (Tennant, 2004). Another major religious and geometrical concept used in the muqarnas is the organization of the dome into an octagon, a shape we also saw in the Cuarto Dorado. The number eight is a primary number in the Islamic religion, the ‘perfect’ number of God’s mercy, attesting that God’s mercy is more powerful than His wrath, seen as the seven levels of hell (Demaray, 1969).

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Figure 7: Hall of Abencerrajes (Dome, Hall of the Abencerrajes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.travelblog.org/Photos/6855084)

Figure 8: Hall of Two Sisters (Nazaries dome in Alhambra. GRANADA, SPAIN. (2011, August 16). Retrieved from https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/nazaries-dome-alhambra-granada-spain-82904071)

Going back to the court, one might not see this space as serving striking as the other spaces, since there is currently barely any greenery, and the room looks basic – with the exception of the fountain. However, one must try to picture what might have been in during early times of the Alhambra. There are two prominent theories that would give justice to the room regarding its organization and use. In one theory, the Court of lions is envisioned as a lavish garden which served to pleasure the patron of Alhambra. This theory states that during the time of Alhambra’s occupation, the Court of Lions was divided into four spaces of greenery, with the fountain as the center. These four divisions – or parterres – were said to be at a lower level than the ground’s surface, providing a sunken space where the vegetation was grown. This served three main purposes; one of these was to create the impression that the

12 person moving in the court was walking on a ‘carpet of flowers’, so to speak, providing this consistent image of one being in paradise (Nevins, 1988). Another aim behind this difference in level was to facilitate irrigation. Since the water canals are positioned on the inside of the parterres, the canals could have had small holes in their sides through which water would seep very gradually into the soil underneath, keeping the vegetation properly hydrated – much like the drip irrigation one would witness in today’s gardens. The third advantage for having the parterres sunken would be to keep the people’s field of vision unobstructed. One must keep in mind that in such a room, the visitors would most likely be seated on cushions, therefore they needed to still be able to enjoy the room with ease. Another theory for the use of the Court of Lions lies in the Islamic notion of pleasure through knowledge and through the contemplation of God. This theory centers on the idea that the Court of Lions was used for intellectual pursuits and for social gatherings. The court was seen as a place where intellectuals and writers studied important works of Islamic literature and interpreted them. This madrasa would have emphasized the pleasure of reading prose and reflecting on poetry, which helped build a sense of wisdom among the visitors. The court could have also been used to lecture in the teachings of the holy Quran, which is the basis of Islam and Islamic decoration. This is highlighted by the Quranic verses that spread across the Alhambra’s inner walls, which were inscribed using calligraphy, a hallmark of . Some scholars even state that the Court of Lions was used in celebrating the visitors and entertaining them (Foret, 2009). These were referred to as majalis, and were an important aspect of Islamic social life. Nonetheless, one must keep in mind that even with the Court of Lions being used as a madrasa, a majlis, or a place of religious preaching, this does not exclude the fact that this is an , so there will surely have been vegetation to liven up the place, thought probably not quite as exaggerated as the sunken parterres. The Alhambra was the primary household of the ruling family of Granada. However, as isolated as it is, with its walls keeping the inhabitants away from the city’s bustle, the ruling family needed a place to escape from everything, including the political and social duties expected of them. Therefore, they built the summer palace of Generalife as a country estate. This complex was built in the late 13th century and early 14th century and was originally linked to the Alhambra for easier movement between both . Generalife is composed of five main spaces overall, distributed onto separate terraces. The two spaces that are most known are the Court of the Water Channel and the Water Stairway.

13 As discussed earlier, water is an essential feature of Islamic gardens that was incorporated into almost every court and space in their palace gardens. Generalife is no different; in fact, considering Generalife’s size in comparison with the Alhambra, the former has more extensively made use of water throughout its organization. The first water feature one encounters is in the Court of the Water Channel. This court, as one would guess, is named for the long canal of water across the center, along the viewer’s vision through the entrance. It is fed by a small circular fountain with scalloped edges at its farthest side, at the residential building’s entrance. On either side, jets of water flank the canal. These spew water in a crossing manner into the water in the canal (Figure 9). However, this stunning display is thought to be a later addition to the palace, since the sound they generate is too overwhelming and would not fit in with the Islamic notion of sensory pleasure (dailymotion.com, 2013). Instead, the waterway was intended for similar purposes as the water canal in the Court of Myrtles; for reflection of sunlight to provide a shimmering display, to cause the mirror image of the surrounding geometrically engraved arches, and to cool the atmosphere whenever it got too hot.

Figure 9: Court of the Water Channel (Els. (2008, May 14). Patio de la Acquia (Court of the Water Channel). Alhambra, Granada, Spain. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/elsa11/2492360169)

Behind the jets of water on both sides, there are beds of vegetation which provide a colorful display for the viewer to enjoy by including a staggering variety of flowering plants. These consisted of about twenty flowers common to Andalusian gardens, each with a purpose

14 behind its use. For example, jasmine blossoms were grown to relieve the harsh colors of the rocks used in building with their green foliage. White lilies were used to symbolize purity. Narcissus, pomegranate blossoms, and chamomile were said to inspire poets in their writings (Ettinghausen & MacDougall, 1976). Therefore, in addition to instilling a colorful aspect to the garden and enriching the sensory experience with their aromas, flowers were used as a source of literary contemplation and inspiration, combining both types of pleasure found in Islamic gardens. In order to fully enjoy this court, the viewer can walk along a walkway to the side of the space, which has arched openings in the wall adjacent to it. These arches, which provide a view onto the Alhambra and the city of Granada underneath – a sort of belvedere, or borrowed view – was not originally part of Generalife, but an addition done by the Christians once they took over Granada. This use of water – not just in the Court of the Water Channel, but all throughout the Alhambra as well – could be attributed to the need of the ruling entity to showcase their power by manipulating water. However, in the Water Stairway – our next space in Generalife – the water was used for a mainly religious purpose. The Water Stairway is actually one of the later spaces in Generalife, but it is a very important one. As the name implies, it is a diagonal stairway that leads from the Patio of Cypresses to the Sultana’s Mirador. It is one of the most celebrated spaces thanks to its defining feature; its rails are water channels that carry water from the top of the stairs to the bottom in little currents. The stair also has three landings, each finely decorated with mosaics in the concentric geometric shapes (Moore et al., 2000). A small circular fountain is inlaid in the center of each landing’s floor, in the middle of an eight-pointed star shape (Figure 10) – which relates back to the number eight being an important number in Islamic religious tradition.

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Figure 10: Water Stairway (Jeffreygardens. (1970, January 01). The Generalife. Retrieved from http://jeffreygardens.blogspot.com/2012/04/generalife.html)

The stairway is flanked by trees growing on either side and over the stairs, forming a sort of archway or tunnel covering the length of the stairs., which is similar to the pergolas that define Roman garden designs (Ettinghausen & MacDougall, 1976). This ‘green’ archway, along with the water cascading down the rails and spewing out of the fountains, cools the atmosphere along the stairway and provides shade for the people walking. Combining this coolness with the sound of the rushing water and the geometric decorations, one would be caught in a tunnel of sensory delight, which would help prepare the person walking up the stairs for reaching the top. At the very top of the staircase, there is a small oratory in order for the sultan and his family to worship God in a private setting and probably serving as a place where they partook their everyday prayers (Ruggles, 2006). The presence of an oratory at the end of the staircase heightens the importance of the Water Stairway even more, by ascribing a new aspect to the water. In Islamic tradition, water is seen as a source of life and one of purity. Therefore, it is imperative that a devout Muslim cleans oneself with water, termed wudu, which involves an ablution before prayer (Foret, 2009). This could have been done along the staircase, where the arms and face are cleaned with the water of the rails and the feet would be cleaned with the water of the fountain. These two gardens are two of the most prominent Arab palaces in Spain, mainly because they are the last surviving Moorish gardens after the were driven out of Andalusia. These gardens, as well as all other Islamic gardens, were built on the universal Islamic notion

16 of pleasure and Earthly paradise. This was achieved by the geometric patterns and mathematical symmetry used to decorate the walls, the water that was manipulated to get the best out of it, the greenery that was grown for their smell, colors, and shade, as well as the crucial religious aspects represented by the Quranic calligraphies. Pleasure was a vital concept for the Muslims, because it is only through this soft pleasure of the senses and mind can one truly contemplate God and get closer to spiritual awakening. Ruzbihan Baqli of Shiraz, a Persian poet of the 13th century, described this notion in the best of ways, stating that one can achieve spiritual awakening by looking at three main things; water, greenery, and a lovely face (Ettinghausen & MacDougall, 1976).

17 References (2013, January 24). Retrieved from https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xwzhq6 Ahmad, I. (2008). The Bride Unveiled: Influences on and Interpretations of the Alhambra. Retrieved from https://www.alislam.org/library/articles/Alhambra.pdf Demaray, H. Disinger. (1969). Gardens and culture: eight studies in history and aesthetics. Beirut: Eastern Press. Ettinghausen, R., & MacDougall, E. B. (1976). The islamic garden. Washington: Dumbarton Foret, A. S. (2009). Reflections on pleasure: The fourteenth-century Alhambra(Master's thesis, Lousiana State University, 2009). Baton Rouge: Arts and Humanities Commons. doi:etd-04142009-221615 Moore, C. W., Mitchell, W. J., & Turnbull, W. (2000). The poetics of gardens. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Moustafa, N. (2008). Essence of the alhambra, a phenomenological account of the nasrid palaces through the lens of twelfth century andalucian islamic philosophy (Order No. U593817). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1430279127). Retrieved from https://search-proquest- com.ezproxy.aub.edu.lb/docview/1430279127?accountid=8555 Nevins, D. (1988). Learning from the Hispano-Arab garden. Retrieved from http://www.dnalandscape.com/press/Learning from the Hispano Arab Garden.pdf Oaks Trustees for Harvard University. Rogers, E. B. (2001). Landscape design: A cultural and architectural history. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Ruggles, D. F. (2006). Gardens, landscape, and vision in the palaces of Islamic Spain. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. Tennant, R. F. (2004). Islamic tilings of the Alhambra palace: teaching the beauty of mathematics. Teachers, Learners, and Curriculum Journal, 2. Retrieved from http://www.alhambra- patronato.es/ria/bitstream/handle/10514/93/islamic%20tilings%20of%20the%20Alhambra%2 0Palace%20Raymond%20Tennant.pdf?sequence=3 Www.area25.es, A. I. (n.d.). Historical introduction. Retrieved from https://www.alhambradegranada.org/en/info/historicalintroduction.asp

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