Statistical Properties of Microbial Phenotypes and Colony Growth

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Statistical Properties of Microbial Phenotypes and Colony Growth Statistical Properties of Microbial Phenotypes and Colony Growth Fluctuations in Transfection, Phenotypic Switching and Range Expansion Jan-Timm Eike Dieter Maximilian Kuhr Munchen¨ 2011 Statistical Properties of Microbial Phenotypes and Colony Growth Fluctuations in Transfection, Phenotypic Switching and Range Expansion Jan-Timm Eike Dieter Maximilian Kuhr Dissertation an der Fakult¨at fur¨ Physik der Ludwig{Maximilians{Universit¨at Munchen¨ vorgelegt von Jan-Timm Eike Dieter Maximilian Kuhr aus Starnberg Munchen,¨ den 31. Oktober 2011 Erstgutachter: Prof. E. Frey Zweitgutachter: Prof. J. O. R¨adler Tag der mundlichen¨ Prufung:¨ 19. Januar 2012 Zusammenfassung Zellen sind die fundamentalen Einheiten aus denen alle Lebewesen aufgebaut sind. Will man verstehen wie grundlegende Aspekte des Lebens auf elementarer Ebene organisiert sind, liegt es also nahe zun¨achst einzelne Zellen zu untersuchen. Moderne Mikroskopietechniken machen es m¨oglich sowohl subzellul¨are Abl¨aufe als auch kollektives Verhalten vieler Mikroben zu un- tersuchen. In diesem mikroskopischen Regime kommt Fluktuationen eine enorme Bedeutung zu. Da dieses Rauschen eine inh¨arente Eigenschaft solcher Systeme ist, hat das Leben ro- buste Systeme entwickelt, welche trotz großer Schwankungen sehr effektiv arbeiten. Nicht nur das: die Fluktuationen werden teilweise sogar ausgenutzt um vorteilhafte Funktionen zu verwirklichen. Bei der Modellierung in diesem Forschungsbereich helfen Konzepte aus der sta- tistischer Mechanik und der Analyse stochastischer Prozesse weiter, welche die Fluktuationen beschreiben k¨onnen. Grob gliedert sich diese Arbeit in zwei Teile, in denen auch in die Hintergrunde,¨ Konzepte und die Literatur zu den entsprechenden Themenkomplexen eingefuhrt¨ wird. Der erste Teil setzt sich mit der Modellierung intrazellul¨arer Prozesse auseinander, fur¨ die molekulares Rauschen bedeutsam ist. Dazu werden zwei Ver¨offentlichungen, die aus Kollabo- rationen mit experimentellen Biophysikern erwachsen sind, diskutiert: Im Rahmen von gentherapeutischen Behandlungen wird externes Erbmaterial an Zellen verab- reicht um fehlerhaftes Verhalten zu beheben. Um diesen Prozess zu charakterisieren, wurden Plasmide, welche Fluorophore kodieren, mittels zweier chemischer Transfektionsmethoden in eukaryotische Zellen eingebracht. Die Verteilung der Expressionsniveaus l¨asst sich durch mehrere stark stochastische Schritte w¨ahrend der Transfektion und nachgeschaltete, quasi- deterministische Expression erkl¨aren. Die zweite Kollaboration besch¨aftigt sich mit dem Umschaltverhalten zwischen verschiedenen Ph¨anotypen in Bakterien. Im hier untersuchten Fall wird das Auftreten von \Kompetenz" in B. subtilis betrachtet. Diese F¨ahigkeit, genetisches Material aus dem extrazellul¨aren Medium aufzunehmen, ist durch ein Netzwerk wechselwirkender Gene stark reguliert. W¨ahrend sich die verschiedenen Ph¨anotypen auf stabile Fixpunkte in nicht-linearer Differentialgleichungen zuruckf¨ uhren¨ lassen, wird das Umschalten zwischen den Ph¨anotypen durch Fluktuationen in der kleinen Anzahl von mRNA-Molekulen¨ ausgel¨ost. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit geht auf kollektives, stochastisches Wachstum vieler Zellen in einer expandierenden Kolonie ein. Im dazugeh¨origen Manuskript wird ein theoretisches Modell mit Methoden der statistischen Mechanik analysiert. Das Wachstums mikrobieller Kolonien wird als Modellsystem fur¨ Kolonisationsprozesse ge- sehen. Inspiriert durch Experimente wird ein stochastischer Oberfl¨achenwachstums-Prozess, beschrieben durch ein verallgemeinertes Eden-Modell, analysiert. Das Modell berucksichtigt¨ vi 0. Zusammenfassung explizit Selektion zwischen zwei St¨ammen, irreversible Mutationen sowie die Rauheit der voranschreitenden Front der Kolonie. Der asymmetrische Charakter der Mutationen bringt einen absorbierenden Zustand mit sich, in dem sich nur mehr der Mutantenstamm an der Front befindet. Dadurch verbindet das Modell zwei interessante Teilgebiete aus der statis- tischen Mechanik des Nicht-Gleichgewichts: Phasenuberg¨ ¨ange zu absorbierenden Zust¨anden und dynamische Oberfl¨achenaufrauhung. Wie fur¨ diese Prozesse ublich,¨ lassen sich in der N¨ahe des Phasenubergangs¨ kritische Exponenten definieren, die das Divergenzverhalten physikali- scher Observablen beschreiben und eine Einteilung in Universalit¨atsklassen erm¨oglichen. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die Kopplung von Oberfl¨achen- und Populationsdynamik qualitative Ver¨anderungen mit sich bringt, sodass sich das Modell keiner bisher bekannten Universa- lit¨atsklasse zuordnen l¨asst. Abstract Cells are the fundamental units of which all life forms are composed. To understand the elementary organization of life, it is therefore meaningful to start the investigation on the single cell level. Modern microscopy permits the examination of both subcellular processes and collective microbial behavior. In this microscopic regime, fluctuations are of eminent importance. As this noise is an inherent property of such systems, life evolved robust systems, which work effectively in spite of severe fluctuations. Moreover, life also makes use of these fluctuations for its benefit. For modeling purposes in this field of research, concepts from statistical mechanics and from the analysis of stochastic processes can be applied to account for the fluctuations. This work is roughly divided into two parts, which also address the background, concepts and literature of the corresponding topics. The first part is concerned with the modeling of intracellular processes, for which noise is im- portant. In this context two publications, which arose from collaborations with experimental biophysicists, are discussed: In gene therapy external genetic material is injected into cells to remedy deficient behavior. To characterize this process, fluorophore encoding plasmids were administered to eukaryotic cells by means of two chemical transfection methods. The distribution of expression levels is explained by several strongly stochastic steps during transfection and subsequent quasi- deterministic gene expression. The second collaboration addresses the switching kinetics between different phenotypes in bacteria. In the case at hand, the emergence of \competence" in B. subtilis is studied. This ability (to take up genetic material from the extracellular medium) is strongly regulated by a network of interacting genes. While the different phenotypes are associated with stable fixed points of non-linear differential equations, switching between phenotypes relies on fluctuations in the small number of mRNA molecules. The second part of this work elaborates on collective, stochastic growth of many cells in an expanding colony. The corresponding manuscript analyzes a theoretical model with methods from statistical mechanics. Microbial colony growth is sometimes seen as a model system for range expansion or colo- nization processes. Inspired by experiments, a stochastic surface growth process, in the form of a generalized Eden model, is set up and analyzed. The model explicitly takes into account selection between two strains, irreversible mutations, and the roughness of the propagating colony front. The asymmetric character of mutations implies the existence of an absorbing state, where only the mutant strain is at the front of the expanding population. Hence, the model combines two interesting branches of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics: phase viii 0. Abstract transitions to absorbing states and dynamic surface roughening. As usual for these processes, one can define critical exponents, which describe the divergence of observables near the phase transition, and admit organization of models into universality classes. It turns out that the coupling between roughening dynamics and population dynamics induces qualitative different behavior. As a consequence, the model cannot be assigned to any universality class currently known. Contents Zusammenfassung v Abstract vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Biological Systems and the Physical Approach . .1 1.1.1 Quantitative Data . .1 1.1.2 Biological Systems are Complex Systems . .1 1.2 Fluctuations in Biological Systems . .2 1.3 Biological Systems in Space . .2 1.3.1 Biological Relevant Length Scales . .2 1.3.2 Spatial Dimension of Biological Systems . .3 1.3.3 Non-linearities in Stochastic Spatial Systems . .3 1.4 Scope of this Work . .4 I Gene Expression and Regulation in Single Cells 5 2 Molecular Biology and its Modeling 7 2.1 Storage and Flow of Information . .7 2.1.1 The Genetic Code . .8 2.1.2 The Flow of Information . .8 2.1.3 Complications . 10 2.2 Gene Regulation . 11 2.2.1 The lac Operon - Transcription Regulation . 11 2.2.2 Other Regulation Mechanisms . 12 2.2.3 Some Important Examples of Regulation . 12 2.3 Observation on the Single Cell Level . 13 2.3.1 Diffusion and Fluctuations in Chemical Reactions . 13 2.3.2 Single Cell vs. Population-Wide Studies . 13 2.3.3 Fluorescent Proteins | Reporters of Gene Expression . 14 2.4 Mathematical Treatment . 14 2.4.1 Averaged Description by Differential Equations . 15 2.4.2 Stochastic Description by the Master Equation . 15 2.4.3 Gillespie's Stochastic Algorithm . 16 2.4.4 Analytical Approximations of the Master Equation . 17 3 Artificial Gene Transfer and Transgene Expression 19 3.1 Horizontal Gene Transfer . 19 x Contents 3.1.1 Modes of Horizontal Gene Transfer . 19 3.1.2 The Endosymbiont Theory . 20 3.2 Transfection . 20 3.2.1 Transfection Methods . 21 3.2.2 Applications of Transfection . 22 3.2.3 Stochasticity in Transfection . 23 G. Schwake, S. Youssef, J.-T. Kuhr, S. Gude, M. P.
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