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Home , Anna Leonowens, Margaret Landon

SIMPLY ANOTHER an Americanized story written for an American public. The response from its AMERICAN MYTH audiences over time confirms its social REVISITED* significance in American society. In its first production, this musical ran for 1,246 shows (03/29/50-03/20/54, St Chalermsri Chantasingh ** James Theatre). In comparison, Guys and Dolls, which received the Critics Introduction Circle Award for the best play of the season, opened earlier in the same In his article on the relationships among season (11124/50-11/25/53, 46th St. literature, culture, and the history of a Theatre), and lasted for 1,200 people, "Literature and the Historian," performances. Both musicals were R. 9ordon Kelly discusses the revived for the 1976-1977 season. Guys legitimacy and validity of using literary and Dolls ran for only 239 shows (07/ texts as historical evidence. He states 21/76-02/13/77, Broadway Theatre) and that a literary text can serve as indicator was declared a flop. The revival of The of several social parameters of a culture King and I, on the other hand, ran for and of a people who produce and 719 shows (05/02177 -1 2/30178, Uris selectively preserve it. Because literary Playhouse) and was declared a hit works are cultural products, they should, (Rosenberg and Harburg; 1993: 324). In therefore, be understood in the context 1985 it was revived again and ran for of the cultures for which they are 191 shows (01 /07/85-06/30/85, intended. Broadway). Of the nine musicals in the 1985 season, it was the only revival Literary works as a class of declared a hit. Evidently The King and cultural artifacts must be I contains something that was understood historically (as extraordinarily appealing to American opposed to critically) in the audiences over time. context of the groups which produced them and responded This paper attempts to trace the four to them. "cultural propensities" which ensure the (Kelly in American Quarterly, popularity of ( 1951) and Vol. 26:2, 149). its 'progenitors' in American society. It will also discuss the role of the entertainment industry in the propagation Within the above paradigm, The King of the Anna myth and legend. and I can then be classified as an American cultural artifact. It is evidently Four Cultural Propensities

• This paper is an adaptation of part of the Kelly's paradigm that a literary piece author's study entitled "The should be understood historically in the Americanization of THE KING AND I" context of the groups that produce and (1999) respond to it asserts the inter-relatedness •· Ph. D. Lecturer, English Department, between a literary piece and the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, contextual audiences to which it has Nakom Pathom, .

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been directed. In reverse, what can this Hero worship is not alien to the literary piece tell us about the American American people either. There exist people and its society? What are the several historical and national heroes, underlying aspects in this narrative that such as George Washington, Thomas make it appealing to the American public Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Martin over time? Luther King, Jr. There also exist "mythical" heroes, such as Davy To search for the answer to the above Crockett, Kit Carson, and Buffalo Bill. query, we need to look, on the one hand, These figures are a creative blend of into the interplay ofthe narrative, theme, fact and imagination, whose life stories and characterization and the audiences' survive by means ofliterary works about reception of them, and, on the other them. hand, how those narrative characteristics affect their audiences. What purpose do these heroes, either Then we can perceive the "cultural dead or alive, serve in a community? propensities" of this story that are Theodore L. Gross in his enlightening congruent with the underlying or book, The Heroic Ideal in American unspoken American sentiments. In the Literature ( I977), maintains that literary case of the musical The King and I, heroes "dramatize the moral texture" of there are four predominant cultural a nation. Although they are merely propensities that work effectively with artistic creations ofthe imagination, these the American audiences. heroes embody "the unspoken ideals, the undesired terrors, the dream life and the Heroism and hero worship mundane existence of their readers." Gross also contends that by discovering People's love for heroism and hero the meaning of their characters, by worship is not anything new. Thomas analyzing the roots of their behavior, we Carlyle in his compilation ofessays, "On can discern the moral fabric of a nation Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic (Gross, I977: v). Gross explains that in History" (1993), states that American social heroes are usually "[w ]orship of a hero is transcendent exceptionally courageous and active men admiration of a Great Man" (Carlyle, who seek to realize an ideal, with II). He contends that "heroes" in passions more intense than those of the numerous societies have been people whom they represent (Gross, 8 transformed into objects ofworship . For and 34). example, the Norse made the god Odin from their national hero, in the similar The hero of American literature manner that Napoleon, the French must certainly struggle and view military hero, was made emperor for his his experience with perception; people from the ashes of the French but he must, in some sense, be Revolution (Goldberg, 1993: lx-lxi; and extraordinary, and he must Carlyle, 22-23). Michael Goldberg, pursue an ideal-in protest or Cariyle's editor, agrees with him that in accommodation to some form hero worship was "an ultimate creed of of authority (Gross, viii). mankind" (Goldberg, I993: lxi). The exemplification of this idea is available in several pieces of popular

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entertainment, from the animated distrust and fear of the king's power is cartoon character, Mickey Mouse, to the evident at her first landing in loner-hero in such movies like Mr. Smith ([he King and I, act 1, sc. 1). In order Goes to Washington (1939), Sergeant to reassure herself, she sings a make• York (1941), Shane (1953), Superman believe song, "," (1978), and Forrest Gump (1994). in order that she has something to These are archetypal Hollywood console her. Even in Landon's book, the creations of heroes. They have to battle portrait of Anna as a "little person" the odds, overcome forces of evil• fighting an imposing adversary is either within or without-and reaffirm designed to elicit sympathy among the spirit of the American dream. More readers. importantly, such movies "testify to the significant affinity between the [T]he slim figure of Anna American audience and such Leonowens seems a little rigid as characters" (Scott, 1996: 232). she moves between these flashing, colorful folk, we need The American love for heroes and hero• only remember her constant need worship has been manipulated for courage and the strong sense successfully in other areas in the society of duty which gives her steel as well. In athletics, for example, when it is necessary (E.M.B., American sentiments for heroism and Springfield Republican, February, hero-worship is manifested in the 1944: 4d, emphasis added). industry's creation of the star-system, focusing on particular star athletes even And yet Anna still puts up a brave front in team sports like basketball or football, and courageously challenges the king as instead of emphasizing team effort and well as traditional Siamese practices sportsmanship as desirable values. that contradict American ideals of freedom. This is a reaction with which This emphasis on the heroes is one the American audience can identify "cultural propensity" in the narrative of itself. At the same time, they admire The King and I. This story responds to Anna in so doing. When she clashes the innate love of heroes and hero• with the king on the housing issue (which worship in the American people. Since carries through the end of act I in the itsoriginall870booktoits 1956musical musical), Anna firmly stands her ground, incarnation, Anna is made to embody admirably proclaiming that she cannot the above-mentioned characteristics of live in the country "where a promise has an American hero (Gross, v, 8, 34). In no meaning" (The King and I , act 1, her dealing with the powers-that-be, sc.4). Like the hero of American namely the king in the story, Anna Western mythology, she is portrayed as answers to her impulse to stand up for a strong, independent character, seeking the ideals in which she believes. It is fairness and decency, and protecting easy for the American audience to freedom and liberty in a time and place associate itself with her because, in which there allegedly is no honor. compared to the autocratic king, she is one of"the little people" like themselves. In comparison to her adversaries, she A more subtle ideological battle ofthese would appear to be powerless. Her two opposing personalities later emerges

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over the issue of slavery, which is slavery sentiments. By associating portrayed in the oppression of Tuptim Siamese slavery with American slavery, and the king's cruel persistence in the musical draws the audience's pursuing the fleeing woman and attention to the horror and cruelty that eventually punishing her. Anna's has been associated with American principled stance on this issue slavery. Because the details of the establishes her as a noble hero. She Siamese slavery system and the challenges the king to be "better" than conditions of palace slaves are not his traditional inclinations, and not "to accurately portrayed, the audience, throw away everything [he] has done." doubtless to say, equates the two Anna's courageous reaction further systems. In other words, given that the angers the king, and comers him into audience's only knowledge of slavery acting more assertively, when he retorts: was the nineteenth century American variety, Siamese slavery and the Court, Am I King, or am I not King? therefore, appear to be equally hideous Am I to be cuckold in my own and abhorrent. The audience cannot help palace? but associate Anna and her attempts to Am I to take order from English free the Siamese ladies from the palace schoolteacher? imprisonment, with President Lincoln as (The King and I, act 2, sc. 4). well. Thus, is portrayed as the Abraham Lincoln of In contrast to Anna's principled and Siam, who struggled to fight a similar heroic deeds, the king's savage action war as the president was fighting at the seems even more hideous. time. The narrative, through the character of Anna, has struck at the This leads us to another angle of Anna's heartstrings of American audiences and heroic character: her fight for the their belief in the corrupt forces that are enslaved court ladies. This campaign, trying to subvert the process of freedom which is clearly emphasized in all and righteousness for which, they versions of the narrative except for the believe, America stands. 1951 musical and the 1956 film version, enhances her personality and turns her Moreover, the egalitarian ideal ofnatural into an emulation of Abraham Lincoln, rights for all men is echoed in Anna's the Great Emancipator. Although exasperated argument with the king that Anna's "mission" of righting the wrong "laws should be the same for kings and and freeing the enslaved is not as slaves" ( of Siam, frequently displayed in the musical as it 1946). This statement carries a strong had been emphasized in the 1944 book allusion to the cherished American and the 1946 movie version, there are concept of "government of the people, more allusions to President Lincoln in by the people, for the people." It reflects the musical than in the original 1870 book Anna as a hero with unwavering version by Leonowens herself. dedication to preserve fundamental American values. That the idea is The most significant addition and allusion incomprehensible or inapplicable in any to Lincoln, "the Great Emancipator," is society where kings and slaves co-exist the ballet scene, "Little House ofUncle eludes the audiences. They see in Anna Thomas," which carries strong anti- the fragile embodiment of American

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ideals standing up strongly, and single• Reginald Rose, the writer and director handedly, against a much more powerful of this television show, had convincing authority, who seems intent on asserting evidence to substantiate his argument. his absolute power over other Statistics showed that a show like "The characters, but is still unable to conquer Defender," where issues of morality and Anna. Anna's battle, therefore, not only ethical dilemmas were central dramatic seems very logical and righteous, but conflicts in each episode, was very also very heroic and noble. To the popular among viewers. For example, American audience, Anna has been 21,000,000 viewers tuned in every transformed into a legendary hero. Saturday night to watch it (Efron, 61 ).

The morality-play appeal Evidently the narrative of The King and I also possesses this morality-play Another effective formula in popular appeal. As a matter offact, the constant literature is the use of a dramatic conflict battle of good and evil in this musical is between the forces of good and evil. multi-layered, more sophisticated, and Edith Efron in her analysis ofa television brilliantly depicted. First ofall, there is a show, "The Defender" ( 1962), mentions superficial battle between the king and that several "high-rating dramatic Anna. Anna is obviously made to be the shows" effectively employed this idea paragon ofgoodness and righteousness, and turned their shows into morality whereas the king is portrayed to be the plays, with the conflict between good oppressing force, who is trying to and evil as their central dramatic conflict. dominate her. Efron asserts that the idea that "ethics are a highly salable commodity in the Secondly, there is an inner battle within world of drama" is not new. It has been the king himself. Audiences see in the employed to the advantage and profits king the dilemma of a man with split of several box offices. Citing Reginald personalities. The musical maintains that Rose, the writer and director of the the "good" part of him is willing to accept television show "The Defender," Efron Western civilization and its ideals, as concludes that the audience was reflected in his attempt to modernize the contented to see that justice had been country, and especially in his liberal ideas well served, at least in drama. as expressed in the song, "It's a Puzzlement" (The King and I, act 1, Good drama always projects a sc.3). On the other hand, the musical writer's moral values. A also claims that another part of him, the dramatic plot is always the story "evil," still imprisons him with ofa moral struggle. Plot conflict "uncivilized" practices and beliefs ofhis is moral conflict .. ..The viewers native culture and religion, which are remain secure in the knowledge antithetical to the virtues that Anna that, before the hour is up, allegedly stands for. The intrigue is more justice will triumph over the than what the audience has anticipated procession of high-minded in a show. However, at the end of the lawbreakers and murderers story, the audience is made to see for (Efron citing Reginald Rose, themselves that the king (the 1980: 61). embodiment of evil) yields to Anna (the symbol of goodness). He meets the

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ultimate defeat: his death. 1 The death in this enchanting moment, but no serious of the king supposedly signifies the romantic relations developed from this defeat of the evil. The good (as episode. There is a brief moment of symbolized by Anna) prevails and is anticipation when Anna is waiting for resurrected in the new king. the king's move, but he apparently wants only to dance with her in the Western On a different level of interpretation, the fashion, putting his hand on her waist clash of wits and ideologies between and gliding to the music. In seeing this, Anna and the king parallels with the the audience is pleased with the nobility sexual tension that they have to keep it has witnessed. Anna does not let a within bounds. It is apparent in the momentary romantic urge overcome her dancing scene (The King and I, act 2, principles and sensibilities. The sc.4) that they are attracted to each interracial line is not crossed. The other, at least momentarily. The allusion goodness in their character has to this attraction is repeated in Anna's "triumphed over" the temptations of the accusation that the king never really flesh. Ethan Morddan states that it is a loves any of the women for he never musical "in which the two central lovers loves anyone and never will (act 2, sc. never kiss, scarcely even touch." He 4). But, as John Lardner mentions in his also implies that this is one of many review, "The Surefire Boys in Siam" elements that make this musical one, if (New Yorker, April?, 1951,27: 70-72), not the best, of Rodgers and the king "keeps the obviously romantic Hammerstein's "Big Five:" Oklahoma, nature of his feeling under pretty strict Carousel, Allegro, South Pacific, and discipline." With such proximity and The King and I. (Morddan, 1992: 145). opportunity, a romantic relationship could have developed further from this mutual As mentioned before, the ending of the attraction, which is not at all impossible. musical is crucial to its success. It fits However, both of them control the traditional narrative of good versus themselves nobly.2 The audience sees evil that the audience has anticipated them dancing and enjoying themselves (Scott, 1996: 234). It confirms the messages that good will triumph over 1 King of Siam (Rama IV, r. 1851- evil, and that the Western way is "better" 1868) contracted malaria during his and more "civilized" and thus should be expedition to investigate a total solar eclipse embraced. It also confirms the in a malaria-infested area in a southern anticipated conclusion of the contest province. The king was confined to bed for between the king and Anna. The king almost a month and passed away peacefully in 1868. The governess known as Anna H. on his dying bed capitulates to Anna. Leonowens did not actually stay in Siam long enough to witness his death in person. She came to the Siamese Court in March 2 In its latest version of Anna and the King 1862 and left for New York in 1867, (1999) starring Judy Foster as Anna and the presumably on a six-month leave. The king Hong Kong star, Chow Yun Fat, as the King, was not pleased to re-hire her. She never the romantic undercurrent is more explicitly came back to Siam until her death in portrayed. The final tableau shows the in 1915. Her son, Louise, came back and young PrinceChulalongkorn voicing his prospered in the reign of King sympathy as he watches his royal father (Rarna V, r. 1868-191 0) who dancing with "the woman he (the king) succeeded his father. loves."

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He raises her salary, asking her to stay confessed Communist who was a on to educate the new king, allowing the former Time editor, testified that Hiss new Westernized manners and protocol provided him with classified documents into the court and thus into the country. between 1936-193 8, all of which were The musical foreshadows this transmitted in the department's most development in the dying scene by secret Code D. There were some suggesting the influence that Anna has microfilms (which were later called "the on the new king (act 2, sc. 6). While the pumpkin papers" because Chambers hid whole assemblage pays homage to the them in a hollowed-out pumpkin) and 84 Western modernity as symbolically documents, 41 of which were promised by the new king, the evilness memoranda written in Hiss's hand. In of the old system, supposedly, dies as January 1950 Hiss was found guilty of the old king passes away unnoticed by perjury for his denial of charges of the new generation. espionage and was sentenced to five years in prison (Manchester, 1974: 5-7, The democratic crusader appeal 509). But Hiss was only one among thirty-seven government employees in During the 1950s, there was a dramatic high office who were accused of rise of a combination of patriotism and participating in espionage for the religious zeal in American society. Russians. The country was then Numerous historians have attributed engulfed with fearful apprehension that these sentiments to the spread of Communist spies had been lodged in the Communism and the fear of the Cold federal government's high offices for War. Patriotism and religiosity seemed years without anyone's being aware of synonymous. People were less tolerant it (Manchester, 502). ofatheism and agnosticism, and equated them with Communism, the doctrine This atmosphere of suspicion and expounded in Marx and Engles' paranoia paved the way for the rise of Communist Manifesto ( 1848). a demagogue who gave the decade the name "McCarthyism." In 1950 in America awoke to the 1950s with the Wheeling, West Virginia, Joseph apprehension that the Communist threat McCarthy (then 41 ), a junior Republican was approaching and becoming more senator from Wisconsin, announced in real. The fear of the Cold War and a Lincoln Day speech that he had, "a Communist invasion of America, which list of 205 that were known to the was wide- spread throughout the Secretary of State as being members country at the time, was manifested in of the Communist Party and are still the "red scare" tactics of Senator Joseph working and shaping the policy of the McCarthy (R, Wisconsin), following the State Department" (McCarthy cited in persecution of Alger Hiss. Manchester, 522). McCarthy was seeking an election campaign issue and was advised to use Communist hunting His~ was a Harvard graduate who had held several prominent offices, including for his platform. That McCarthy never one in the Department of Justice from provided the list that he claimed to have 1935 to 1936, and later in the State in his possession, or, that he later Department. The Hiss case began in changed the number to 57 and again later 1948 when Whittaker Chambers, a self- to 81, did not matter to the general public.

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McCarthy could not provide any conform (Ravitch, 1990: 302, 303). substantiation to his accusations of Communist affiliation in the State More importantly, as William Department, and to many Americans Manchester notes, "McCarthy had McCarthy's charges were baseless kindled a fire in America's grassroots." (Manchester, 523). Indeed, in his book, Despite his being exposed as a fraud Nightmare in Red ( 1990), Richard Fried and a liar by congressional committees, maintains that McCarthy actually "didn't he had strong support from the know a Communist from a street general public. McCarthy received cleaner," even after being briefed by "pyramids of rumpled dollar bills and "experts" in communism "including change," which totaled thousands of Richard Nixon, Styles Bridges, J. Edgar dollars (Manchester, 526; Fried, 127). Hoover, congressional staffers, and In the 1952 election he scored best in journalists" (Fried, 122-123). the areas that had traditionally been Republican (Patterson, 1994: 334). By then, however, the issue had become fiercely partisan between Republicans Certain happenings in the international and Democrats. Shielded by political arena helped fuel 1950s anti• congressional immunity, McCarthy Communist tensions at home. In 1949, started his "red-baiting campaign," 's Nationalist government, which making unfounded charges against a was led by Generalismo Chiang Khai• large number of people in several circles Chek and supported by the United as being Communists or Communist States, fell to the Communist army led sympathizers, including by Chairman Mao Tse-tung. In June Ambassador to the United Nations 1950, South Korea, which was also Philip Jessup, Generals George C. supported by the Truman government, Marshall and Dwight D. Eisenhower fell to the invading Communist North (Nash, 1971: 406). The Tydings Korea, which was aided by the Chinese committee, a bi-partisan committee Communists(Clements, 1975 : 193). This chaired by Senator Millard Tyding (R, also gave rise to the concern that the Maryland) to investigate McCarthy's Communists were gaining ground and allegations, was the first of five closing in on areas of American senatorial attempts to investigate influence. To concerned Americans, a McCarthy's charges against the "pro• Communist invasion seemed imminent Communists." None of the committees and was merely a matter of time. In the found any evidence to support any of congressional midterm-elections in McCarthy's charges. November 1950, both the domestic and international situations were successfully Nevertheless, McCarthy's reckless manipulated as a campaign issue by accusations and his mud-smearing Republicans who accused Democrats of techniques, which were described by a being "soft on communism" (Morris, fellow Republican as "a forum of hate 1976: 517-518). and·character assassination sheltered by the shield of congressional immunity," Amidst this red-scare atmosphere, many had a greater impact on the society, Americans needed reassurance. They which was to enhance the atmosphere turned to religion and expressions of of fear, suspicion, and pressure to patriotism. Douglas Miller and Marion

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Nowak in their intriguing book, The (President Eisenhower cited Fifties: The Way We Really Were in Miller and Novak, 85). (1978), contend that many Americans in the fifties believed that a new Christian The president himself was regarded as civilization and a new Christendom, if exemplary of the new American "simple any would ever come about, would be piety" although he was not an official on America soil (Miller and Nowak, 84). member of any church until after his During World War ll, religious concerns 1952 election. Re asserted his idea of became increasingly evident. After the "simple faith" by advocating any faith. war religiosity slightly declined before Politics and religion re-united in his regaining its popularity again in the mid• assertion: "Our government makes no forties and early fifties. Bible sales sense unless it is founded in a deeply skyrocketed. Between 1946 and 1953 felt religious faith, and I don't care what the yearly distribution ofthe Bibles rose it is." Millions of Americans liked his to 143 percent. Biblical stories were simple piety, especially when he retold in several different styles in assured them that "America was "the syndicated newspapers and magazines, mightiest power which God has seen fit such as The Reader :s- Digest. Citing the to put upon His footstool" (Eisenhower results of several surveys, Miller and cited in Miller and Nowak, 90). Nowak relate that church attendance soared in the early fifties. Sixty-three Miller and Nowak also maintain that, per cent ofthe population was officially despite the spirit of the separation of affiliated with churches. Ninety-six church and state as expressed in the percent of those who answered the First Amendment, politics and religion questionnaires identified themselves as have always mixed in America, and it Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish (Miller was the most evident in the fifties. For and Nowak, 85-86). Theologian Will example, there was a "float of God" in Herberg concluded that the three major the parade during Eisenhower's faiths had come to serve as America's inauguration in 1953. In 1954, Congress new "triple melting pot" when ethnic enacted legislation adding the phrase sub-cultures began to decline "under God" to the pledge ofallegiance. (Marchand, 1982: 174-1 76). The time That same year they passed a bill was ripe for the American Legion to authorizing the construction of a prayer launch a well-publicized and well• room for Congressmen near the financed campaign to bring the nation Rotunda on Capital Hill. In 1956, "In ·"back to God." Religions of the one God We Trust" as a national motto Supreme God were identified with unanimously passed the House and Americanism. These sentiments were Senate without debate (Miller and solemnly proclaimed by President Nowak, 87). Eisenhower: Understanding this cultural context of Recognition of the Supreme intense piety, religiosity, and patriotic being is the first, the most basic, fervor makes intelligible The King and expression of Americanism. rs emphasis-both in its theme and in Without God, there can be no its depiction of Anna's character-on American form of government, religious and democratic ideals. Because nor an American way of life Anna is not only an embodiment of

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American values and ideals, but also a aspires to Jearn. The English language Christian, the battle between Anna and has continually been utilized as a the king, therefore, carries a multi• missionary tool to spread in layered significance. Superficially, it non-English-speaking and non-Christian represents a general ideological clash countries. In Landon's book, Anna tells between the democratic determination the king that she cannot "teach English embedded in Anna's character, and the and omit references to Christianity" obvious autocratic stubbornness in the (Landon, 1944: 23 3). This sentiment was king. In the ballet scene (act 2, sc.3), probably a reflection of a policy of the this ideological battle is dramatized American Presbyterian Mission (to before the king. The judgment is clear which Landon also belonged). In an in the ballet's narrative: the God-like article on "The Schools of Siam" (1884), Buddha is not on the king's side; the king Mrs. S. G. McFarland expressed is at fault and wi ll eventually be exactly the same attitude when she conquered by the goodness represented mentioned the objective of establishing by the enslaved crusaders led by Anna. a Presbyterian school in Siam as a conversion tool. She was disappointed that some children were sent to Jearn Moreover, the king is portrayed as a English, but not Christianity. The villain, not only because he is not a missionaries were trying to win the trust civilized democrat, but also because he of the Siamese and to assure them that is, by definition, a heathen. His religious "the missionaries labor[ed] for the zeal is made to look ridiculous. His highest welfare of the country." prayer, which is nothing similar to a However, she reached the same Buddhist prayer (Gedney, 1961: 84-85; conclusion as Anna that the English DaGrossa, 1994: 92), is vulgar, language and Christianity could be nonsensical, sexist, and prejudicial. equated. Oh, Buddha, give us the aid of your strength and wisdom, And Christianity implies knowledge, help us to prove to the visiting and missionaries believe in English that we are schools."The Oriental mind is extraordinary and remarkable quick in childhood, but early people. Help also Mrs. Anna to stops its growth;" then to civilize keep awake for the scientific and Christianize such a people sewing of dresses, even though the most hopeful plan is to begin she be only a woman and a with the children.[... ] [A]nd Christian, and therefore how foolish it is for any one unworthy of your interest to suppose that the (The King and I, act 1, sc. 6) English language can be learned Without learning the In this particular scene, Christianity is religion of Jesus at the same identified-indeed, seemingly equated• time with the American ideals of democracy (McFarland, 1884: 221-222, and freedom, as well as with the English emphasis added). language, which is the crucial tool for the acquisition of Western knowledge Evidently Anna takes on the same and technology, which the king himself stance as a Christian crusader who

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considers it her duty to "civilize and Therefore, the underlying crusading Christianize" the Siamese by teaching appeal in this musical is reassuring and the language and religion at the same comforting to its audience. It also time. intertwines with the morality-play appeal discussed above. At least in this musical, However, by mis-representing the Christian and democratic Anna (the and putting it on the comparative scale good) wins the battle, and the heathen with Christianity-as depicted in the autocratic king (the evil) is definitely prayer scene (act 1, sc. 6)-the musical conquered. A critic of Landon's book is, seemingly, turned into a missionary concluded that, "We follow their [the tool. As a matter of fact, the tactic of Orientals'] fates with much of Anna's condemning Buddhism and praising emotion in our anxiety now and then, at Christianity had been used by the least, to see tyranny the loser"( Ernestine missionaries in Siam before and during Evans in Weekly Book Review p. 1, J King Mongkut's reign (Bowring, 1969: 1, February, 1944). When the musical 338-341, McFarland, 1884: 207-213). was revived in 1977, it was once again Approvingly quoting the French a Broadway hit. The audience again Diplomat de Ia Loubere, Bowring agrees identified themselves with Anna and her that it was not a good tactic to condemn "mission." They still felt contented with and insult Buddhism the way the the narration, and the idea of Anna as a missionaries were doing because it only crusader coming to an allegedly barbaric served to offend the Siamese. land to win the nation to the more "civilized" ways of the West. One We want to make a tabula prominent critic stated that "the slow rasa and we fail. [ ...] [de La winning of the King to Western ways• Loubere] says of the Siamese, builds most satisfyingly" (Clive Barnes, they, with other Orientals, , March 15,1977: believe that different 50). rei igions belong to different nations; they do not molest us The Oriental appeal in our opinions, why should we trouble them? Why should not the sages of the heathen be It is obvious from most of the critical praised when praise is reviews of the books and the plays that becoming? Why should their one of the most important themes that has contributed to the popularity of the merits be concealed? · (Bowring, 341; 343). Anna narrative is its exotic "Oriental" setting, which according to one reviewer, represented "the richest vein of But to the American audience unfamiliar untapped material discovered in years" with Siamese history or Buddhist teachings, the depiction of the king and (Sterling North in Book Week, February, the representation of Buddhism as 1944: 2). Another critic associated the Siamese setting with the Tales of the ridiculous and nonsensical are an unfair Arabian Nights. and stereotypical display of the alleged flaws and falseness of Buddhism against [T]he fascination of the story the already-accepted excellence and lies in the contrast between a superiority ofChristianity. splendidScheherazade

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background and the tidy• Orient as it has been Orientalized" (Said, minded Victorian lady period• 104). This is particularly true in the case piece. Seen through Anna's of The King and I, especially when we incredulous, indignant eyes, the have Rodgers' testimony that he re• suppressed inner life of the created this musical from his own harem, the unspeakable interpretation of Siamese culture without cruelties, the lusts and the any particular intention of achieving brazen color come to us as historical and cultural authenticity. perpetual astonishment (Rodgers, 1975: 270) The Siamese (IsabelleMallet in the New York scenes that were so fascinating to the Times~September, 1944, p. 1, critics are, therefore, "Siamized" scenes J .1, emphasis added). as invented by . The result is a In this regard, an article by Leslie spectacular stage performance with "all Donaldson in The Magill s Survey of scent and glitter, ritualized movement and Cinema (First Series, 1980: vol.2, 897- high barbaric style" (Time, April9, 1951, 899) provides additional evidence ofthe 78). musical's "Oriental" appeaL Donaldson maintains that exotic locales certainly At least one of the "Orientalized" or contributed significantly to the success "Siamized" aspects of this musical was and popularity of several musicals at the noticed by The New Yorker's critic, tum of the century. John Lardner. He makes an insightful observation about the language of the The Western fascination with Oriental characters. things and people is actually voiced in the song, "Western People Funny" in this Mr. Hammerstein 's version musical, when Lady Thiang voices her isdistinctly in his own style• indignation that Western people "feel so except, perhaps, that the sentimental about the Oriental" and that characters who are they try to turn them (the Oriental) theoretically Siamese, which "inside down and upside out" (act 2, sc. means all but half a dozen 1). members of the cast, speak thesort of pidgin English that The idea of Oriental exoticism and how is used on stage and screen it has been stereotyped as expressed for the presentation of every . above is consistent with Edward Said's kind of foreigner from Kurd contention that the Orient is labeled as to Eskimo,and that calls blindly "a living tableau of queerness" (Said, for the elimination of "the" ("to 1979: 103). As mentioned in the song, whom I pay vast sum of twenty "Western People Funny," there is pounds a year") and of the something fascinating about the Orient introductory "it" ("Is a that triggered curiosity among the puzzlement"). Western people. Perhaps it was their (April7, 1951,70-72, emphasis differences from the familiar Western added). people and locales. However, Said argues that the Orient that interested the Lardner's remark about the "pidgin West "is not the Orient as it is, but the English" spoken by foreigners on stage

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is interestingly true. There are more Anna and her wise than enough ofsuch examples on screen counseling the country of and on stage to support his Siam might have remained observation. This is one of the "stock" backward, never becoming a characteristics of Orientals as land where free men and "Orientalized" by American producers women walk · and directors who do not care to (Bodeen, 80, emphasis added). differentiate among Asian linguistic differences that might affect in different Bodeen also maintains that Rex ways the manner in which they Harrison carries himself more like a pronounce English. However, it is "monarch schooled in the best doubtful that many people in the audience tradition of Oxford rather than the were as perceptive, in this regard, as of Siam" (Bodeen, 81). Mr. Lardner. Most of the critics' reviews of the 1951 musical supported this statement. They But what is more significant in this found 's performance musical is not only the exoticism of the superb and splendidly done, which setting, the costumes, the language and supports the contention that his the "strange" characteristics in the play. interpretation of the king's character met Even more compelling is that its the audience's expectation of an Oriental-ness allows the story to be Oriental king. No critics expected an readily accepted by the audience as Oriental king to be capable of reserved convincing and logical. Because of the manners and composed anger, while general belief in Western cultural Anna was expected to be proper and hegemony, that the West is "superior and sober-minded, "as a Victorian rebel in a more civilized" (Said, 7), the audience barbaric land" (Newsweek, April 9, is prepared to believe that this story 1951' 73). must have happened the way it has been told. Not many people in the audience It would be interesting to see the would stop to question its authenticity audience's reaction if a similar play or to check the historical basis for it. were to be produced with Anna trying The play and the musical are so effective to "civilize" an American president. Or and compelling in their characterization better yet, if the exact same play were of the cultural contrasts between East to be produced with reversed roles and and West that the audiences would locale. Instead of an English woman instantly accept the narrative as it is told, trying to educate a Siamese king, we and the characters as they are depicted. could have a Siamese woman trying to Movie critic DeWitt Bodeen 's educate an English king at an English comments on the movie Anna and the court. This is a hypothetical question that King of Siam ( 1946) supports this will never be answered. But its argument. impossibility also reinforces the point that Rodgers and Hammerstein 's [I]n his first speech, [the new "Siamized" characteristics of this king] frees all his people so that musical have significantly contributed to none can hold another in its success and popularity. bondage.This is all based upon the actual truth, for without

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The characteristics discussed above are Like Ian Scott in his discussion on the prominent "cultural propensities" in the significant role of Hollywood in the Anna Leonowens legend. They are creation of modem-day heroes (Scott, elements that have been effectively 1996: 232-239), Hodson maintains that employed to engage, appeal to, and the popular culture industry plays an intrigue the American audience of the important role in the general propagation several incarnations of the musical The of modem-day legends and myths. In King and I. The next question is: how the early 1920s, Lawrence of Arabia are these "cultural propensities" used by was depicted as "a modem-day Richard the entertainment industry in the re• Lion-Heart" and was regarded as "a creation of the legend of Anna? character model for English-speaking school boys," establishing his image "in The Role of Popular flowing Beduin robes [ ...] in the Entertainment Industry in the imagination and memory of the public" Perpetuation of Anna's Legend while his other contributions to British nationalism have already been forgotten and Myth (Hodson, 1995: xi, 1).

In his book, Lawrence of Arabia and In his analysis, Hodson traces the career American Culture (I 995), Joel ofT. E. Lawrence's "popularizer," Hodson provides a very interesting and Lowell Thomas, the American journalist, insightful paradigm with which to adventurer, and former war consider the legend of Anna correspondent during the First World Leonowens. His analysis examines the War. Thomas played a crucial role in rise to mythical status ofT. E. Lawrence the propagation of the Lawrence of (1888-1935), a British soldier in the First Arabia image, mostly through his World War, whose transatlantic lectures and traveling displays of the legendary image was perpetuated by the story of Lawrence entitled, "With machinery of popular culture and the Allenby in Palestine and Lawrence in popular entertainment industry in a Arabia." The lecture was reportedly fashion similar to that of Anna "unusually successful." Leonowens. Hodson's analysis and discussion ofthe process of Lawrence's [T]he program was a transfiguration and of the propagation phenomenal success around the of the Lawrence of Arabia legend world. In England, it received provide an instructive model for rave reviews, and over a million · considering the transformation of Anna of Britons flocked to see it. Leonowens into an American legend. It The box office sometimes also suggests parallel aspects of the netted $2,000 a week profit. propagation processes of these two Thomas received guest-of• myths in American society. It further honor invitations and the demonstrates how the four cultural gratitude of prominent propensities in The King and I (as government officials. A discussed above) have also been utilized luncheon in his honor was to perpetuate the Lawrence of Arabia sponsored by the English• legend as well. Speaking Union, and the queen

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attended one of audience's love of heroism and hero• hisperformances. (Hodson, 42). worship sentiments. Despite his small stature and boyish appearance, Although Lowell Thomas was not the Lawrence was projected as a superhero only author of the Lawrence of Arabia with "superhuman ability and a mythic legend, he became, literally, Lawrence's quality." Thomas popularized him as "a "popularizer" because of the popularity shy but heroic Oxford scholar-turned• of his shows, even though the story of warrior" (Hodson, 40). This suggests his life and his contribution was full of the innate nobility and gentility of his "inaccuracies and hyperbole." In his character- that he was not at all a three-installment 1919 magazine article, natural savage or war-mongering soldier "War in the Land of the Arabian by nature or by profession. His mission Nights," Thomas' sub-title of the first in the Arabian deserts, therefore, installment as "Lawrence- Prince of became a noble mission that he felt Mecca" successfully established the obligated to pursue. In the process, the image of Lawrence as an Arabian Arabs were portrayed as "childish," and prince. Even Winston Churchill made thus needed the Westerner Lawrence's the allusion to Thomas' appellation of "protection." Thomas also re-created Lawrence, in his writing about villains for his hero to vanquish-the Lawrence, saying that he "looked what Turks and the Germans. Lawrence he was, one of nature's greatest became "the uncrowned king of princes" (Hodson, 36-40). Arabia," and "the terror of the Turks," who could "blush like a school girl" According to Hodson, the success of (Hodson, 36). Lowell Thomas's Lawrence of Arabia lectures and the re-creation ofthe legend In addition, Thomas's performance can be attributed to both the contents served as a reunion for "war heroes" in and techniques of its presentation. real life-veterans of the Middle East Thomas combined several aspects of campaign-who were delighted to see entertainment, including photographs, their own part in the war recorded, film footage, stage entertainment, music publicized, and disseminated to the and narration, to create the so-called general public. Hodson contends that modem vaudeville performance serving the post-World War I mood also as both entertainment and reportage contributed to its success. It was a time (Hodson, 41). when people did not want to hear about the horrors ofthe war, but they loved to Apparently, the "Oriental" effects, reminisce about its glories. generated by the combination of"veiled They wanted to hear about dancers, film footage of Sudanese Allenby the Crusader, the minstrels, incense and organ music as conquest of the Holy Land, well as a commercialized rendition of and, in particular, the mystery the Islamic call to prayer" (Hodson, man of Arabia. And they 42), were successfully manipulated in wanted to hearLowell Thomas, the presentation, adding to the already• who had been there and Oriental subject matter. Thomas "witnessed" the action, tell effectively employed certain other about it. elements. First, he invoked his (Hodson, 43, emphasis added).

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Thus emerged another salutary effect Hodson also maintains that the movie that contributed to the successful Lawrence of Arabia is "one of many propagation of Lawrence's mythic examples of Hollywood distortions of image: the underlying biblical allusions history and biography." Moreover, it and the biblical setting of the story. It contributes to, confirms, and reinforces drew support from several religious stereotypical images of the Arabs. groups. The interplay of the biblical Quoting Gary Crowdus, film critic and allusions and the audiences' desire to editor of Cineaste, a magazine devoted "witness" the recreated incidents are to the arts and politics of the cinema, evident in Hodson's discussion. These Hodson concludes that: two elements increased the credibility of Thomas's story of Lawrence of [t]he Spiegel-Lean epic [of Arabia. Lawrence of Arabia] also disparaged the Arabs, From the lecture-performance by Lowell propagating the old Western Thomas, the commercialization of the stereotype of the Arabs as Lawrence of Arabia myth was subservient, savage, comic, expanded by the 1962 filming of and incapable of ruling Lawrence ofArabia, a joint production themselves, thus pandering to of Columbia and Horizon Pictures of the preconceived notions of London, starring the Irish actor, Peter Western audiences. The O'Toole, as Lawrence. Its producer• viewing public, however, was director team, Sam Spiegel and David not particularly interested in Lean, had played similar roles in the whether Lawrence of Arabia highly successful movie, Bridge on the was a racist film or a River Kwai ( 1957). historically misleading one (Hodson, 123, emphasis added). The usual mechanism of Hollywood came into play in the distortion ofT. E. Hodson also mentions that the historical Lawrence's life as depicted in this distortions in this movie were intentional movie. According to his brother, A. W. because the producer had several Lawrence, the production company had historians working for the company as turned the movie into another mythical researchers and advisers. Accessibility American Western with "a cowboy-and• to historical and cultural facts was not Indian style treatment," trying to tell an at all their problem. The intentions of . adventure story "in terms of a the producer were apparent in Spiegel's psychological study which is pretentious reply to the statement of Lawrence's and false." The in-authenticity of the brother printed earlier in the New York movie verged on the brink of indecency. Times. Spiegel stated that, "We think life Robert Bolt, the screenplay writer, should imitate art, and not the other way depicted T. E. Lawrence as a round" (Spiegel cited in Hodson, 123). hom?sexual, because of his lack of interest in women and his admiration for This discussion on the propagation of the young men, despite contradictory Lawrence of Arabia myth by the information from other sources entertainment industry suggests a strong (Hodson, 122-123). resemblance to the process of the propagation of the Anna Leonowens

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legend. The four cultural propensities Although she was not battling to win the discussed earlier-the hero-worship, the Holy Land from the infidels as Thomas crusader allusion, the morality-play, and had portrayed in Lawrence of Arabia, the Oriental appeals- have been Anna had undertaken as important a effectively employed in the case of the task, for she had extended the arm of Lawrence of Arabia myth. The Western civilization and the light of differences between the two Christianity to an allegedly barbaric, propagation processes lie merely in enslaved and uncivilized people. In details of the subjects, setting, and Anna, Leon ow ens' case ,she had been narration. there to experience everything in person. Her legitimacy and credibility to tell the To begin with, Anna Leonowens did not story were thus seemingly equal- if not need Lowell Thomas to help propagate more- than Lowell Thomas' in his herself as legend. She acted, efficiently Lawrence of Arabia venture. and effectively, as her own "popularizer." She wrote the accounts The next popularizer for Anna was of her own experiences at the Siamese . Comparatively Court, which were published by the speaking, she was a Lowell Thomas for Atlantic Monthly in 1870 and 1872. In the propagation of the Anna between writing, she gave lectures, Leon owens legend. It was Landon's repeating her Siamese tales as well as book ( 1944) that established the history her re-created life history. Her legend ofAnna's early life, which Leonowens and its related tales were firmly herself chose not to mention in any established. When she moved to detail in her first book(l870). Landon's Halifax, Canada, to live with her experiences in Siam during her ten daughter's family, her literary fame in years of living there, as well as her New York had preceded her. Anna, who association with the Presbyterian was considered "an exotic addition" to mission in Siam, added new elements the city, was invited to tell her story time and greater depth to the character of and again and was paid as high as $ 60 Anna in the story, making her more for a lecture (Smith Dow, 79). devout, thereby enhancing admirable facets to the already-noble Anna. Comparable to Lowell Thomas's lecture Landon's real-life experiences in Siam on T. E. Lawrence, Anna Leon owens' as well as the claim that she had access tales reinforced the "preconceived to personal additional information from notions" of Western audiences, as Anna's granddaughter, Avis S. Fyshe, mentioned by Hodson about the bolstered her claim ofveracity that the Lawrence of Arabia myth. In Anna's story was "seventy-five percent fact, case, she drew on the exotic Orient and and twenty-five percent fiction based the glamorous but 'heathen' Court of on fact" (Landon, 1944: 360). But Siam for her materials. However, the because her so-called " facts" were fundamental themes of her tale were derived from Leonowens' own similar in many respects to those of the reconstructed and romanticized "facts," Lawrence of Arabia myth. Her story the results were largely romanticized was a usual "cowboy-and-Indian style," myth. with Anna herself as its hero, and the king and his court as the villains.

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The Hollywood distortions ofhistory and version was, according to Zanuck, "very biography began with the 1946 filming funny." of Anna and the King ofSiam (starring Rex Harris and Irene Dunn) by the Fox The comedy possibilities are Studio (which would later produce the enormous. This picture, with all 1956 musical film as well) under the its tenderness and conflict is administrative control of Darryl F. basically one of the funniest I Zanuck, who was well known for his have ever read. It is genuine imposing and weighty "suggestions" on comedy because it comes out his producers and directors. After of the characters themselves reading the script of the film, Zanuck and is a result of clashes of stated "on the record" in his memo to personalities. The incidents you the producer, Louis Leighton, that it have used for comedy purposes would make the best picture ofthe year are wonderful. [... ] I still feel because it was "something entirely that the king, almost as an original and [had] great quality" (Zanuck afterthought on his deathbed, in Behlmer, 1993: 88). After all, Zanuck should give Anna a raise which was an "expert" in making "biopics," he would not give her for forty biographical films of famous characters years. [ ...] The banquet for (Custen, 1997: 27). He wanted to create the foreigners is riotious. The the film's "rooting interest," a critical letter to [President] Lincoln, incident, or special qualities which would etc., etc., are wonderful ensure that the famous person's life moments would be clearly defined for the (Zanuck in Behlmer, 88, audience. The multi-dimensional emphasis added). narrative of Anna and the King of Siam (1944) with numerous descriptive Zanuck's memo points out to us several passages was thus adapted to become of the alterations that occurred in the more tightly focused in the 1946 film. process. The incidents Zanuck mentions in this memo are all variations from Landon's version, which itselfrepresent s From Zanuck's memo, it is evident that an adaptation and elaboration of the an alteration ofthe tone and the narrative Leonowens' version. However, Anna style emerged with this film version. did not get a raise (in salary) in this movie Leon owens' own writing was dry and version. She had to wait for another five . humorless, portraying an English years, until she finally got the raise in governess with an "hauteur" attitude the 1951 musical film version. towards her employer, his custom, and Nonetheless, the comic tone of this his people. In Landon's version, we see movie version was established and was a serious and conscientious governess retained in the 1951 and 1956 versions. who was liberated, but pious, and more feminine. Her writing was stylistically Another revelation that we learn from "lighter" and descriptively more Zanuck's memo is that people in the engaging than Leonowens'. However, entertainment business anticipated that there was nothing hilarious in her this film would become a highly accounts. But the film script for the 1946 profitable commodity. Everybody, from directors to actors and actresses,

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wanted to have a part in its production messages of the film. Anna's importance (Behlmer, 89). to the Siamese Court was very much enhanced by the ending of the film, George Custen in Twentieth Century s which emphasized the legacy of her Fox: Darryl Zahuck and the Culture contributions to the country. The 1946 of Hollywood (1997), studies the film version then served as a key influence of Zanuck and his studio on popularizer to the perpetuation ofAnna 's the production of Hollywood films. He legend. mentions that a producer like Zanuck had "far greater influence and impact Then came the 195 l musical version of on a film than audiences would have The King and I. realized." His "suggestions" and reactions to a script called for immediate The musical represents the prototype of adaptation and thus alteration of the the modern popularizer of the Anna original script, no matter what that might legendary myth. The obscure governess, be. Quoting a reporter who had been whose image had been vaguely observing Zanuck at a story conference, portrayed in two books and a black-and• Custen agrees with the reporter that by white picture, had received a color the time the film appeared on the screen treatment, both in her characterization the character's viewpoints as expressed and in its presentation on stage. Anna in the film, was already Zanuck's was transformed into a glamorous (Custen, 190). personality. Theatrical effects made her character seem more "real" to her Zanuck's impact on films was derived audience because then people could hear from his keen sense of the interests of her "say" the actual words in front of the American audience. Although he them. The audience had actually lived in southern California (Los Angeles "witnessed" the occurrences in the area) where films were usual1y Siamese Court as presented to them on previewed, he knew the kind of stage. The theatrical illusions work to audiences he would need to deal with. gain the audience's approval--or greater Born and raised in Wahoo, Nebraska, approval-of Anna's character. he often imposed on his films Midwest Compared to Lowell Thomas's small-town attitudes and values, which performance in "creating" Lawrence of were recognized as fundamentally Arabia, this was what the audience American. Custen contends that cherished-the idea of"being there" in Zanuck's insight about his audiences the midst of the re-created "mission" was one of many factors that had made and being part of it (Hodson, 1995: 43). him one of the most successful studio managers of his time (Custen, 27-28, The most enduring popularizer of the 189). Anna legend is the 1956 film version of the musical. Here we can see the Zanuck's intervention was probably an cumulative impact of the popular explanation why the 1946 Anna and the entertainment industry on its end King of Siam differed so much from product. The musical film is similar to Landon's book. The story was greatly the 1951 stage version. However, there altered, especially its ending, which is are several changes once again made very significant to the theme and the to comply with "suggestions" from Fox's

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mogul, Darryl Zanuck. This time, as who had just experienced the Civil ~vident from his October 1954 memo Rights and the Women's Liberation to Rodgers and Hammerstein, as well movements, slavery was a hideous as to the film's producer, Charles practice with painful and long-lasting Brackett, Zanuck was more concerned negative effects on the life of a nation. with the length of the film. He revealed that for the 1946 movie version, he They associated Siamese slavery system needed to waste "three reels of finished as portrayed in the musical and the film film" in the process of trimming it down with American slavery. Then they to a running time oftwo hours and eight imposed the judgment of their time on minutes. Therefore, he "suggested" that Anna and the Siamese society as the creators of this musical film plan the presented to them. The stereotypical shooting with regards to time constraints image ofth e Siamese people, society and so that they would not have to waste monarchy remained horrendous, if not "thirty minutes of hard-earned film." worse, in their opinion. The legendary (Behlmer, 250) image of the righteous Anna, as imprinted upon celluloid, had been Following his suggestions, Rodgers and established in their minds and would be Hammerstein cut six songs from various difficult, if not impossible, to eradicate. scenes, which changes the voice and As one critic said in a 1977 review on slightly shifts the emphasis ofthe musical the revival, "It is essentially the from those of the 1951 stage version. imperishable material that makes The King and I one of the great musicals of Because of its accessibility, the 1956 theater history" (Variety, April 15, 1977, musical film double-functions as a 140). repeated reminder of the Anna legend. This movie version often brings back the It is noticeable that in the production already-cherished Anna into American processes mentioned earlier, either by homes, with its frequent reruns on Rodgers and Hammerstein or Fox television and its availability on Studio, none of the production videocassettes. The glamour of the companies expressed concern about the Court, as well as its uncivilized and veracity of the story. The emphasis is backward character, has been displayed more on the marketability of the end time and again for new generations of product than the authenticity or veracity audiences. While Anna' s mission of the legend itself. _remains fundamentally and ideally American, the alleged backward-ness Evidently the legend ofAnna Leonowens of the Siamese Court has seemed even has traveled a path similar to that of more primitive by comparison. Lawrence of Arabia, a path paved by the entertainment industry. In his For example, un-informed audiences in discussion ofHollywood and its creation 1977 may not have recognized that when oflegendary figures, Ian Scott contends Anna was preaching anti-slavery (in that these two myths are just a fraction Siam) on Broadway in 1951, America of the industry's creative business, had not yet even begun to fight the racial which is intent on re-confirming what legacy of its heritage of slavery. And the American audience wants to believe for the American audiences of the 1977, about itself and about American ideals.

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In so doing, Hollywood producers seek the images from which audiences to portray leading characters of formed their beliefs, "whether or not American Westerns as strong, tough, they were historically accurate" and independent "sometimes within the (Custen, 205, 200). The King and I is law, sometimes outside it, but [men] who merely one prime example of such always sought order, fairness and occurrences. decency." Therefore, a movie production often follows a formula to Conclusion: The American satisfy the audience's expectations. Dream Re-confirmed in The King and[. Their characters trod a righteous path which sought to The story of The King and I is actually protect freedom and liberty, to another American success story. present honorable principles in Instead of ordinary material success in a time and place in which there the Horatio Alger's rags-to-riches was no honour. In order to do fashion, this story contains a higher value this, of course, a myth had to because it is a manifestation of a be created which set up the successful cultural mission, single• conflict between the righteous handedly performed by a fragile, but and needy and the evil and courageous young woman who, though corrupt. In so many Western British by birth, possesses all the settings, the backdrop was righteous characteristics which were always another Tombstone- or ideally "American," with which the a town just like it-that always American public want to identify needing saving, if not from itself themselves. then from the outlaw fraternity that inhabited it The legend of Anna Leonowens was (Scott235, emphasis added). thus the re-confirmation of the existing ideals that Americans wanted to strive We have a long list of American for. To see these ideals expressed on Western movies to verify how such a the screen or on the stage was to formula has been manipulated by the reassure themselves and reaffirm those American entertainment industry, "American" characteristics that they especially in its perpetuation ofmodern• cherish. They do not concern themselves day myths. It also confirms the impact whether the characters have been ofHollywood's moguls, such as Darryl realistically portrayed or whether the Zanuck, on the culture of Hollywood circumstances are authentic. They only and the shaping of American society, need reassurance, and the entertainment through the industry's intentional industry, as evident in the case of, The oversimplification and downright King and I is always ready to perform distortion ofcomplicated historical facts. that task to satisfy them. By In his analysis of the industry, Custen incorporating into the story cultural contends that "popular entertainment propensities with which the audiences was sometimes formed out of are familiar- and highly value, the manipulation, theft, and popular entertainment industry has been misappropriation." And yet it creates successful in reading the mind of their images· with a significant social agenda,

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target audiences and continuously Clements, John. 1975. Chronology of reaping profits. The United States. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. However, in the case of a fictionalized story as popular as the musical The King Custen, George F. 1997. Twentieth and I, the producers' claim to complete Century's Fox: Darryl Zanuck historical veracity while simultaneously and the Culture of Hollywood. being aware of the additions and New York: Basic Books. adaptations made by their own studios Da Grossa, Pamela.1994 "The King is inappropriate and irresponsible. By stereotyping a culture and a nation in and I: East and West, Men such an appealing and memorable way, and Women," In Literary Studies: the industry has committed a cultural East and West . . H on o l u 1 u : crime. The industry, with utmost subtlety University of Hawaii. and insensitivity, has helped instill and Donaldson, Leslie. 1980 "The King and reinforce in the public's mind the prejudicial notion of"the Other." In this I" in The Magill Survey of way, the industry not only satisfies or Cinema . . First Series. Vol. II ed. reassures the American public of what Frank N. Magill, Englewood Cliffs, and who they are, but also indoctrinates NJ: Salem Press. crucial values and assumptions in their Efron, Edith. 1980 "The Eternal Conflict audiences, "coaching" them how to look at people of different cultural heritages. of Good and Evil," TV Guide the This, the audiences have learned to do First 25 Years . . Jay Harris, ed. without even realizing it. In the case of New York: A Plume Book. The King and I, the industry has enjoyed Evans, Ernestine. 1944 in Weekly Book half a century of acclaim and profits at Review . p. 1, J 1, February. the expense of a respectable monarch, Fried, Richard M. 1990. Nightmare in his culture, and his people. Red. New York: Oxford University References Press. Gedney, Williams J. Translated and Anna and the King of Siam. 1946. Dir. edited. 1961. Life and Ritual in Old . Perf. Rex Siam. by Phya Anuman Rajadhon. Harrison; ; Linda New Haven, CT: HRAF Press. Darnell; Lee J. Cobb, and Gale Goldberg, Michael G. ed. 1993. Thomas Saundergaard. Twentieth-Century Carlyle:On Heroes, Hero• Fox. Worship & the Heroic in History. Barnes, Clive. The New York Times, Los Angeles: UCA Press. March 15,1977: 50. Gross, Theodore L. 1977. The Heroic Behlmer, Rudy. Ed. 1993. Memo from Ideal in American Literature. New Darryl F Zanuck. New York: York: The Free Press. Grove Press. Hodson, Joel C. 1995. Lawrence of Bowring, John, Sir. 1969. The Kingdom Arabia and American Culture. and People of Siam. Kuala Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 22

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Kelly, R. Gordon. "Literature and the Morddan, Ethan. 1992. Rodgers and Historian," American Quarterly. Hammerstein. New York: Harry S. Vol. 26: 2, 145-159. Abrahms Inc., Publishers. Landon, Margaret. 1944. Anna and the Morris, R. B. 1976. Encyclopedia of King ofSiam . New York: The John American History: Bicentennial Day Co. Edition. New York: Harper & Lardner, John. "The Surefire Boys in Row, Publishers. Siam," in The New Yorker . 27: Nash, Gerald. l971.The Great pp.70-72, April?, 1951. Transition. : Allyn & The King and I. 1951. By Richard Bacon, Inc. Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein Newsweek, April9, 1951, p. 73 . II. Dir. John van Druten. Perf. Yul North, Sterling. In Book Week, Brynner; ; St. February, 1944: 2. James' Theatre, NY. 29 March Patterson, James T. 1994. America in The King and I. 1956. Dir. Walter the Twentieth Century. New York: Lang. Perf. Yul Brynner; Deborah Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Kerr; Rita Moreno; and Terry Ravitch. Diane. 1990. The American Saunders, Twentieth-Century Fox. Reader. New York: Harper Collins Mallet, Isabelle. In the New York Times, Publishers. September, 1944, p. 1, J.l. Rodgers, Richard.1975. Musical Manchester, William. 1974. The Glory Stages. New York: Random House. and the Dream. Boston: Little, Rosenberg, Bernard and E. Harburg. Brown and Co. 1993. The Broadway Musical. Marchand, Roland. 1982. "Visions of New York: New York University Classlessness, Quest for Dominion: Press. American Popular Culture, 1945- Said, Edward. 1979. Orientalism.New 1960," Reshaping America: York: Vintage Books. Society and Institution, 1945- Scott, Ian. 1996. "Mr. Innocent Goes to 1960. Ed. Robert H. Bremner and Washington: Hollywood and T h e Gary W. Reichard. Columbus: Ohio Mythology of American Politics," University Press. Representing and Imagining McFarland, S. G. 1884. "The Schools America. Ed. John P. Davies. of Siam," Siam and Laos as Seen Keele, Staffordshire: Keele by Our American Missionaries. University Press. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Smith Dow, Leslie. 1991 Anna Publication. Leonowens: A Life Beyond THE Miller, Douglas T. and Marion KING AND I. Nova Scotia: Pottersfield Nowak.l977. The Fifties. Garden Press. City: NY: Doubleday. Time,April9, 1951,78. Variety, April15, 1977, p. 140.

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