P

SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

A GUIDE TO SOUTH PACIFIC FISHERIES

by

H. van Pel

South pacific Commission Noumea, New Caledonia

j^O^i^ Ni :

INTRODUCTION THE SOUTH PACIFIC AREA Main Ethnographic Divisions,.. ... physical Divisions ...... General Distribution of Fishing Methods and Gear

FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC... Marine and Fresh-water Resources of the Area Resources of the Ocean ...... Fish ...... Mammals ...... Resources of Reefs and Lagoons ... Fish ...... Crustaceans ...... Molluscs ...... Reptiles ...... Mammals ...... Plants ...... Echinodenns ...... Mineral Resources ......

OcL-LX ••• ••• ••• •••

Limestone ...... Miscellaneous ...... Resources of the Mangrove and Estuarine Areas Fish ...... Crustaceans ...... Molluscs ...... Plants ...... ••• •••

(ii) FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC (Continued) Resources of Inland Waters ... (Salt and Brackish) Fish ...... Crustaceans ...... (Fresh Water) Fish ...... Crustaceans ...... Molluscs Introduced Fish ...... The Fishermen ...... Subsistence and Local Market Fishermen Industrial Fishermen ...... The Fishing Craft ... Sea Fisheries Fishing without Gear ... Wounding Gear ...... Hook and Line Fishing ... Handlines Pole and Line ...... Free-floating Line Fish Traps ...... Fixed Traps ...... Bottom Traps...... Floating Traps Nets ...... Dipnets ...... Liftnets ...... Castnets ...... Set-nets Surrounding Wets ...... Gillnets and tanglenets Dragnets ...... (iii) FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC Page Sea Fisheries (Continued) Scarelines and Fish Drives ...... 23 Miscellaneous Fishing and Gathering Methods 25 Poisons and Explosives ., 27 Inland Fisheries ... 27 Fisheries Services and Research Organizations 29 International Organization 29 South Pacific Commission 29 Territorial Organisations 30 Territory of Fapua and New Guinea 30 Netherlands New Guinea 30 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 30 Guam 31 Cook Islands 31 French Polynesia 31 New Caledonia 31 Miscellaneous Organizations and Individual Research

Workers 31 Institutions outside the Area 31 Pacific Oceanic Fishery Investigation. 31 Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii 31 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization ... 32 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand 32 Individual Investigations 32 Aquariums and Museums ... 32 Fisheries Regulations and Protection 33 Territorial Fishing Industries 33 Territory of Papua and New Guinea 33

(iv) FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC Page Territorial Fishing Industries (continued) Netherlands New Guinea ...... 34 Fiji Islands 36 British Solomon Islands Protectorate 37 Western Samoa ...... 38 French Polynesia ...... 39 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands ... 41 New Caledonia and Dependencies ...... 42 Tonga 44 New Hebrides 44 Gilbert and Ellice Islands 45 Guam 46 American Samoa . 47 Cook Islands 48 Wallis Islands . 49 Nauru 49 Tokelau Islands.. 49 Norfolk Island .. 50 Fi3h Preservation .. 51 Fisheries Statistics 52 Local Market Statistics. 53 Industrial Fisheries 53 Tuna Fisheries 53 Whaling- 54 Pearl Shell, Trochus and Green Snail - Export of Shell 54 Rough Estimates of TeiTitorial Landings 56

PRESENT TRENDS IN FISHERIES 57

(v) Page THE FUTURE OF FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC 59 Subsistence Fisheries ...... 59 (a) Speeding up fishing operations ... 59 (b) Reducing time to and from fishing grounds 60 Local Market Fisheries ...... 61 (a) Efficient fishery, inadequate marketing 61 (b) Inefficient fishery ...... 61 Industrial Fisheries ...... 62 Fish Preservation and the Future of Fisheries 63 Conservation of Resources ...... 64

BIBLIOGRAPHY 66 INTRODUCTION

At its Twentieth Session, in October 1959, the South pacific Commission agreed to :;.. . publish in 1960 a Technical Paper of regional value, containing a synthesis of all data and recommendations that have been provided in reports on individual territories (this publication should provide basic information, par­ ticularly for several territories that are now establishing fisheries services)".

This decision arose from a need for taking stock of the work accomplished from July 1954 to date in the field of Fisheries. Since that time, all the territories within the Commission Area, except Pitcairn Island, have received advice and/or assistance in this field. The Kingdom of Tonga, which is not included in the Area, has also benefited from these services.

The scope of the project is quite vast. It includes sea fisheries in all their aspects, as well as inland fisheries and fish culture, uatters more or less closely related to fisheries, such as the organization of fisheries services, salt-making by solar evaporation, whaling, etc., which have also been dealt with by the Fisheries Officer since 1954. At the time of writing, all the more important islands in the Area have been visited and nineteen reports have been prepared for the authorities of the territories concerned. Some of these reports have received a wider distribution, with the concurrence of the terri­ torial and national authorities directly interested, as it was felt that their contents might be 01 value to other islands in the Area.

In addition to the reports, a number of articles on fisheries and related matters have been published in the Quarterly Bulletin (now the South Pacific Bulletin).

Extension work also forms part of the fisheries project and under this heading the Commission has published three booklets, dealing respectively with fish preservation, the care of fish nets, and fish ponds. A more important aspect of extension work, however, was the Fisheries Training Course (November 1956 - February 1957) organized at Noumea by the South Pacific Commission with the assistance of the Food and Agriculture organization. 2.

For various reasons, amongst which was the necessity to sift a consider­ able amount of information from different sources, publication of this paper could not be effected in 1960, in s^ite of the dilifeence of the Fisheries Officer and his staff.

THE SOUTH PACIFIC AREA

Through this paper, the terms "the Area" and "the South Pacific Area" will be used to designate the area of the South Pacific Commission as it is shown on the attached map. Extending from Netherlands New Guinea to Pitcairn and from the Marienas to Norfolk Island, it includes hundreds of islands. While each of these is, of course , different from many others., it is possible to group them in several ways, according to whether the points of similitude chosen are found in their ethnographic or in their physical characteristics.

Main Ethnographic Divisions

Three population groups are distinguished by ethnologists in the South Pacific Area: Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian.

Generally speakin^, the Melanesian group occupies the high islands of Mew Guinea, the Solomons, the New Hebrides and New Caledonia. Polynesia extends from Pitcairn in the east to the Ellice Islands in the west, and Micronesia from the Gilbert Islands to the Palaus. In terms of demographic statistics, the Melanesian group is by far the largest, with an estimated total of over 2,800,000, while Polynesia and Micronesia respectively have populations of approximately 257*000 and 151,000.

Physical Divisions

Although the islands in the area can be divided into low islands (coral islands) and high islands, such classifications do not always coincide with the 3- ethnic groups, high islands being found in all three ethnic areas as veil ^s low islands. However, Melanesia has an extremely high proportion of high, islands, atolls and other low coral islands beiaa the exception, while Polynesians and Mi crone sians inhabit chiefly low islands, and a small number of high islands all of which are of comparatively small size. These characteristics explain to a certain extent some of the similarities and dissimilarities existing be­ tween these ethnic and geographic groups. Affinities (or the lack of them) between unrelated populations often show in their basic skills, of which fish­ ing is one. A rough division according to the main fishing skills has there­ fore been attempted under the next heading.

General Distribution of Fishing Methods and Geor

A first glance at the field shows, on the one hand, a predominance of coas­ tal fishing in Melanesia, and on the otiier, of deep-sea fishing in Polynesia and Micronesia. A fringe area along the Northern coasts of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands and among a few islands of the northern New Hebrides shows evi­ dence, in places, of fishing skills akin to those of the Polynesian-Micronesian area. The presence of Polynesian and Micronesian outlyers such as Tikopia, Rennell, Ontong-Java and other islands explains this. Such fishing techniques as deep-sea fishing for castor-oil fish, king of herrings and tuna, which were once widespread auong the atolls and low islands of the Polynesian-Micronesian area were practically unknown in Melanesia. Con­ versely, the surround-nets and beach-seines common to many areas of New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia may have been known in a few of the other oigh islands, but never found much favour in Polynesia or in Micronesia.

The physical characteristics of the islands in regard to the possibilities of agriculture and the nature of the offshore waters had much to do with the attitude of the populations towards fishing- and with the particular techniques used. However, it seems strange that items of gear such as the pearlshell lure used in trolling for bonito and tuna in most Polynesian and Micronesian terri­ tories, should be absent from Melonesian islands, except in the "fringe area" mentioned, earlier. These observations are mentioned only because they may prove of interest to other workers in the area. 4.

FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC

Marine and Fresh-water Resources of the Area

It would obviously be impossible to produce a complete enumeration of resources within the scope of this paper, as it would include the contents of most of the items listed in the bibliography. However, the following pages will give a fairly comprehensive picture of aquatic resources of interest for subsistence or commercial purposes.

The aquatic resources of the area have been listed here in relation to their respective habitats: ocean, reefs and lagoons, estuaries and mangrove

areas? inland waters. Within these broad divisionss various sub-headings:

fish, crustaceansj molluscs; etc. have been used to bring some order into their enumeration.

Resources of the Ocean

These include a number of pelagic fish and some mammals such as the humpback whale and the porpoises.

Fish Albacore (Germo alalunga), yelioufin tuna (Neothunnus macropterus) and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) occupy the first rank among the pelagic fish of economic value. These three species are the mainstay of industrial fishing in the area. Other species of the tuna family are often taken during the same operation; bigeye tuna (Parathunnus sibi), mackerel tuna (Euthynnus affinis), dogtooth tuna (Gymnosarda nuda), wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), barred Spanish mackerel (Cybium commersoni). The various spear fishes —striped marlin frlakaira audax) and blue ia^rlin (M. ampla), sailfish (istiophorus orientalis), shortnose spearfish (Tetrapterus brevirostris), broadbill swordfish (Xiphias fdadius) — are all found in the area and contribute to a certain extent to the catches of industrial fishermen. Various species of sharks and the dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus) complete the list of large species.

Smaller pelagic species such as mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta), various

Clupeidae uuuer the general apellation of "sardines"; anchovies (Engraulidae), 5- flying fish (Exocoetidae), a number of Carangidae (generally known under local names or as "trevallies"), bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus), horse mackerel (Decapterus macrosoma) and yellowtail (Seriola grandis) care also found in the ocean, but seldom sought by fishermen in the South Pacific area except when they come into the immediate vicinity of the islands,

Mammals Humpback whales (Megaptera nodosa) migrate from the cold waters of the South to warmer regions of the tropics each year, and fairly large numbers are seen in many South Pacific territories. Porpoises are common throughout the area. Whales are the subject of both industrial and limited subsistence acti­ vities in the area. Porpoises are taken in a few territories for subsistence purposes only.

Resources of Reefs and Lagoons

The resources of reefs and lagoons are varied and subject to much more intensive exploitation than the resources of the ocean. They include many species of fish, one mammal, innumerable molluscs, a number of crustaceans, two species of turtles (Chelonidae), and some algae.

Fish While the various families represented in South Pacific reefs and lagoons have a fairly general distribution, specific distribution may be more restricted and can vary within the area. Reference to species will therefore be avoided. Detailed information in this connection can be found in items 3* 4, 6, 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33 and 38-55 of the bibliography.

The Mugilidae (mullets), Lutjanidae (snappers, grunts, etc.), Lethrinidae (breams, sweetlips), Serranidae and Epinephelidae (groupers, rock cods), Scaridae (parrot-fishes), and to a lesser extent the Acanthuridae (surgeon-fishes, unicorns), Mullidae (goat-fishes), Muraenidae (Moray eels), Siganidae (spinefeet, rabbit fish), are the families most heavily exploited in the area.

Eulaoidae, Isiuridae (sharks) and Sphyrnidae (hammerhead sharks) are common. 6.

On the outer (ocean) slopes of many reefs Ruvettus preciosus, the castor- oil fish, and various Genpylidae live at depths of 50 to over 200 fathoms.

Crustaceans

Various species of spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.)f sand lobsters and sea centipedes (Squilla spp.), crabs (Scylla serrata in particular), are found in the lagoon and reef areas. ";Jhile these are taken mostly for subsistence purposes, the spiny and sand lobsters and some crabs and squilla are sold on local markets., and commercial fishing of spiny lobsters has been attempted in Papua. Shrimps are taken in a few territories for the local markets.

Molluscs Octopus or devilfish (Octopus vulgaris) are present throughout the area and so are various species of squid (Decapoda). These are chiefly of subsis­ tence interest.

Bivalves of many species; raging in size from 2' giant clams to small Donax less than -j" long, are present on the reefs, in the lagoons and on the beaches in most islands.

Tridacnidae, Arcidae, Cardiidae, Donacidae, Asaphidae, Ostreidae and Pteridae are the most widely represented families. Among these, Pteridae deserve a. special mention, as Pinctada margaritifera, the blacklip pearlshell* and P_. maxima, the goldlip pearlshell, are exported in varying quantities by several territories in the area.

Amon^ the gastropods found in the area, only the Trochidae and Turbinidae are, or were until recently, the object of commercial fishing: Trocaus niloticus and Turbo marmoratus are the particular species involved. A large number of species, belonging to many families, provide food or ornaments. Turbinidae and Trociiidae, already mentioned for their commercial value, also cone within this category, together with Aftphiperatidae, Cy^atiidae, Tonnidae, Strombidae, Muricidae, Bursidae, Cypraeidae, Neritidae, Olividae, Conidae, Cassididae, Mitridae and many others.

Reptiles In the South Pacific lagoons are found various species of turtles (Chelonidae). 7.

Of these, the most common species are the hawksbill and the loggerhead turtle. The former is hunted chiefly for tortoise shell, wiiile the latter is taken for its meat.

Mammals The only mammal inhabiting exclusively the lagoons and reefs is a sirenian. variously known as "dugong" or "sea cow" (Pugong dugong). Its flesh is highly prized aid is used chiefly at the subsistence level, although sometimes sold on the local markets.

Porpoises and whales have already been mentioned in relation to their normal habitat, the ocean. However; porpoises ire chiefly taken during their incursions into lagoons.

Plants Some algae, generally belonging to the genera Laurentia and Caulerpa, are consumed in a number of islands.

Echinoderms Holothurians, or sea cucumbers, are common in the lagoons. Most are valueless, but some belong to the varieties used for making trepang or beche- de-mer. A certain number of varieties are eaten. Sea urchins, or sea eggs, are also commonly eaten by islanders.

Mineral Resources - Salt

Small-scale salt industries have flourished in the past in New Caledoniat and similar enterprises have been successfully established in Papua during- the last few years. In both territories, the solar evaporation method was used. Fiji, on the other hand, is investigating the possibility of utilizing the heat from a series of hot springs to produce salt in large stainless steel pans.

Small-scale industries for the production of salt by the solar process could be established in many South Pacific territories.

- Limestone Coral limestone is used in a few territories to produce lime for building 8. purposes. In otherSj rough-shaped blocks or slabs are used directly in con­ struction. Crushed coral was used during the war to build a great many air­ strips, some of which are still in occasional use. Finally, coral limestone is used as an additive in the nickel smelters of Noumea.

Miscellaneous The "palololo worn", which makes its brief appearance in October-November in Samoa and Fiji;, is considered a great delicacy by the islanders in these groups. In spite of itc co^iioa naae, the "palolo" is not a worn, but the spawn of an annelid. Eunice viridis, whose reproductive cycle is closely related to certain phases of the noon.

Resources of the Mangrove and Estuarine Areas p

Crabs, oysters and fish arc found in the mangrovejfreas and estuaries around high islands. ^'^\ J^IA^ AT „ j+A

Various Lutjanidae, especially .L. argenticaaculatus ai^Kuore co^anon ip/ /^/^'" \ / l~ / / ^"""^ these areas thanyin the lagoon'proper. Gerridae, Leiognathidae, Epmepnelidae, Sillaginidae, Sparidae, Mugiiidae and Siganidae favour these areas at high tide. Carangidae are found chiefly in the estuaries, together with Chanos chanos (milkfish), Megalops cyprinoides (tarpon), Elops machnata (herring). Sharks t!r e of course present in these areas at high tide. ' ' Crustaceans The mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) is practically always present in the mangrove swamps and estuaries. They are often sold in the local markets, in some places this crab is considered a delicacy when it is moulting and has shed its hard shell.

Molluscs Among the main families represented are Cardiidae, Ostreidae, Cerithidae and Arcidae. Apart from the oysters, which are often sold in the local markets, these shellfish are chiefly used for subsistence. Two species of oysters deserve special mention; Griffea vitrefacta and G_. cucullata, known respec­ tively as rock and mangrove oysters. 9.

Plants The flora of mangrove areas includes various species of tre^s belonging mainly to the genera Bruguiera and Rhizophora. The bark and timber from these have various uses, some of which are directly related to fisheries. For instance, the bark is used for tanning nets and lines, the timber for making canoe ribs and the aerial roots for making traps, bows, etc..

Resources of Inland Waters

Inland waters in the area include salt and brackish water ponds and swamps, as we_l as fresh-water streams, lakes and swamps.

The salt and brackish waters in this division mainly harbour fish and crustaceans.

Fish Mullets are prevalent in these waters. Milkfish are found chiefly in artificial ponds, where Chanos fry taken in the lagoons or the ocean are stocked. Elopidae are common in places, while Sp-ridae and Lutjanidae are sometimes observed.

Crustaceans Scyila serrata, the mangrove crab, is practically the only crustacean of any importance found here, Various species of shrimps (Penaeidae?) are often present,

The fresh-water fauna of the area includea a few species of fish, crustaceans and molluscs of some importance as subsistence or market resources.

Fish Various Kuhliidae are fairly common in streams (K. rupestris, iC. mar^-jnata, i£* spleadens) but do not constitute an important resource. Mugilidae (Cestraeus plicatilis especially) are aore numerous and are sometimes taken for subsistence purposes. Gobiidae and Eleotridae are usually represented in all streams. Anguillidae are common and often used at the subsistence level; they reach, in some cases, enormous sizes.

A number of salt and brackish water species; especially those frequenting 10. the moigrove swamps and estuaries, are found in many cases in the middle and upper reaches of rivers. These include Elopidae, Lutjaaidae and Carongidae. Some sharks are known to frequent rivers, and sawfish (pristidae) live in lakes in Netherlands New Guinea.

Crustaceans A number of fresh-water prawns are found in the streams, lakes and swamps. They usually belong to the genus Macrobrachium. True crayfish of the family Parastacidae are found in the lakes of New Guinea, where they are represented by a number of species.

Molluscs The only fresh-water mollusc which is important in the area both from the subsistence and from the local market point of view is Batissa unionis, the "Kai ni waidranu" of Fiji, which is found in three rivers of the island of Viti Levu. In the same island, various small molluscs of the families Melanidae and Ancillidae are used at the subsistence level.

Introduced Fish A number of species of fish have been introduced into the fresh waters of the area, for various purposes. Among those introduced as food resources are Tilapia mossambica and T_. jzilli,, Osphronemus goramy, Trichogaster pectoralis, Cyprinus carpio, Qphicephalus striatus. Game fish are represented by two species only: Salmo irideus and Micropterus saliaoides. Fish released for mosciUito con­ trol purposes are; Lebistes reticulatus and Gambusia affinis.

The Fishermen

If we consider that the economy of all the islands of the Pacific is, or was until recent times purely a subsistence economy> with at best a. few instances of barter between coastal and inland tribes in high islands, it is not surprising to find that, wherever the islanders have access to a body of water, fresh, brackish or salt, thej take part in some kind of fishing activity.

Subsistence and Local Market Fishermen

An extremely wide range of techniques is represented through the area, from 11. the simple hand gathering of molluscs, crustaceans and small fish, which is usually the task of women and children, to elaborate systems of fixed trapsa fish drives involving many participants, and some hook and line methods which are closely related to the most modern deep-sea fishing practices.

Generally speaking, these activities are carried out on a part-time basis, for subsistence purposes only, and any surplus of fish is given to rela­ tions and friends. Exceptions to this rule are found in the vicinity of towns, where groups or communities of fishermen are often engaged in full-time activity to supply a local market. Instances of small-scale market fisheries can be ob­ served at Noumea, Suva, Papeete, Port Moresby, Hollandia; etc..

Industrial Fishermen

Two types of commercial fishing are practised at the industrial level in the area. The oldest is the production of mother-of-pearl shells (Pinctada margaritifera, Trochus niloticus. Turbo marmoratus). More recently, tuna fishing with longlines was introduced by Japanese fleets working with mother ships or supplying canneries or freezing plants ashore. At the time of writing, two Japanese fleets supply respectively the Van Camp cannery at Pago Pago, American Samoa, and the freezing plant of the South Pacific Fishing Company at Pallicolo, Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, One interesting development is the training of Samoan fishermen aboard the Japanese longliners operating for Van Camp. A separate training scheme sponsored by the Administration and the can­ nery has also been operating in American Samoa, and the local fishermen are now supplying small quantities of tuna to the cannery.

Plans are being made in. a number of territories for setting up tuna fishin^ industries on similar lines,

The Fishing Craft

Any boat or canoe available is used at times for fishing. Only in a few instances are boats of European design built expressly for the purposej the "bonito boats" of French Polynesia, the "machine boats" of the Cook Islands (for pearlshell diving) and the live-well cutters of New Caledonia are the main examples. 12,

Various types of canoes are made especially for a certain type of fishing; the "bonito canoes" of Polynesia, the rough planked canoes of the Tuamotu pearlshell divers, the large and heavy canoes used in Tahiti to set the "ature" nets; are instances of such craft.

Canoes are by far the most widely used craft in the area, and a great variety of types is found. Three categories can be distinguished: the dugoutj the dugout with raised platform, and the planked canoe. Within each category, endless variety of forms, of sizes and of construction techniques is apparent. The presence of outriggers is almost general, the only exception being the square-ended dugouts used in some lakes of Netherlands New Guinea. Both single and double outriggers ore found in Melanesia, while single outriggers are pre­ valent in Polynesia and Micronesia.

Amon^ the dugout canoes, a rough distinction can be made between the plain dugout with one or two outriggers (which is found practically everywhere in the area, although it is much scarcer in the atolls of Micronesia and Polynesia), and the built-up dugout, in which the hollowed tree trunk supports a course of planks, on top of which is laid a sturdy platform, this latter type is restricted to Fiji, New Caledonia, and parts of New Guinea. Dimensions are quite variable in the case of plain dugouts, from an 8' model built for a child and observed in. Papeete, to large craft of 40' and possibly more. The built-up canoe, on the other hand, is almost always of large size, and none have been observed of less than 16' length.

Planked canoes can be extremely simple, like the Tuamotu pearlshell divers' craft, which is essentially made of threo planks and a transom, with a very simple outrigger mounted on one stiff boom forward and one supple attachment aft. On the other hand, planked canoes of extremely complicated construction and great beauty are found in particular in the Solomon Islands and in Micronesia.

Paddles and sails are still used in the- majority of canoes, but the use of outboard motors is now firmly established in some territories and gradually spreading to others.

Five main types of motor fishing boats of modern design are used in the 13. area. The largest and most specialized of these is the Japanese longliner; however, these boats work for large companies exporting the catches and, with the exception of Tonga, no territory has attempted to introduce this type for local fishing. Next in size, a few live bait tuna clippers are found in Guam and the Marianas. The bonito boats of Tahiti are usually 16' to 2.0' longj and have a roof and foredeck sheltering the engine (usually a Diesel of 10 to 20 HP), and a self-bailing cockpit. The fishing cutters of New Caledonia are almost always equipped with a live-well, and are derived from an old type of half- decked, round bilge, sailing cutter. The only improvement made was the addition of an engine. They range from 25' to about JO1. Finally, round bilge, 25' sailing boats carrying an air-compressor are used by the pearling industry of the Cook Islands under the name of "machine boats".

Sea Fisheries

In this brief list of fiehin,-. gear and methods in use in the South Pacific, only those methods actually used by subsistence or commercial fishermen have been noted. Other methods and other types of &ear have been tried by various fisheries services, but are not at present used by fishermen. It is worth mentioning here that out of the thirteen categories of fishing gear defined by

professor von Brandt (Classification of FishinCT Gear in "Modern Fishing Gear of the World"), eleven are in current use in the area.

Fishing without Gear

Hand-gathering of molluscs, crustaceans and small fish is a universal prac­ tice in the South Pacific. Fringing and outer reefs are worked at low tide, very often at night with the help of torches made of coconut fronds and, more recently, in some territories with pressure lanterns. While it undoubtedly represents the most primitive form of fishing, two or three hours on a reef will commonly provide a meal for two to three persons. Tools such as knives or sticks are often used in this type of fishing, but do not constitute fishing gear properly speaking. H.

Wounding, Gear This category includes spears and harpoons held in the hand or thrown, and arrows or spears propelled by bows, slinks or spearguns.

Single- or multi-pronged spears are used through the area for sea fish­ ing, sometimes in conjunction with other types of gear, such as surrounding- nets, either on the reefs or from canoes or boats. In former times, bone, wood, the darts from the tails of rays, and many other materials were used to provide spear points. Nowadays metal prongs are universally used.

Single- or multi-pronged arrows are shot from bows at fish and turtles.

Single-pronged hand spears, unbarbed. are still used in many territories for underwater spearfishing. The use of diving goggles has made this method much more effective than in the past. The hand spear tends to be replaced in many islands by the "Hawaiian sling", propelling a steel spear, generally un- barbed. Finally, in a few territories, the modern speargun lias become popular, and some home-made versions of this gear actually include improvements over the European design. The spears used with this gear are generally barbed.

Hand harpoons of local manufacture are used in Tonga to kill humpback whales, while the Australian whale chasers working for the whaling station at Norfolk Island use modern harpoon-guns.

Hook and Line Fishing

Handlines, lines mounted on poles, and free-floating lines are the main types used in the Pacific. These are all equipped with hooks. Two types of line fishing deserve special mention, however, as they do not fit quite exactly into this broad classification: the kite fishing of the Solomon Islands and the octopus lure found in many Polynesian and Melanesian islands. In kite fish­ ing, a kite made of small twigs and large leaves is used to take a line away

from shore and over a school of garfish (Belonidae). No hook is usedf a loose skein of spiderwebs acting both as lure and catching device. The garfish's teeth become entangled in the web, which is exceptionally strong. The octopus lure is basically composed of a conical or oval rock about 1-j" x 3" on which are tied fragments of cowrie shell. In a number of places, it is adorned with 15.

"legs" and a "tail" which, according to local legends, are supposed to com­ plete the resemblance to a rat or a spiny lobster. This lure is tied at the end of a short length of line^ mounted on a short pole. It is dangled and jerked in the water in rocky areas where the octopus hide in cracks and holes. Wheii the octopus seizes it, it is immediately jerked out of the water.

Handlines

Handlines are used for still fishingi drifting or trolling. The first two methods require the use of bait, while trolling is done with lures. still fishing is usually done from shore, while the other two methods require a canoe or boat. The first of these three methods is well known and does not require description. Two distinct methods of drift fishing are used. In the fiist, a handline is weighted with a heavy sinker and two or more hooks are attached to the mainline slightly above the sinker, by means of short leaders. These leaders may be attached directly on the mainline, or on a spreader rig fixed between the mainline and the sinker. The sinker is dragged on the bot­ tom and the catch consists of fish living or feeding on or near the bottom.

The second type of drift fishing is used in Polynesia and Micronesia to catch large tunas castor-oil fish, various Gempylidae and sharks, at depths of 50 to several hundred fathoms. The line is usually equipped with a single hook, which was fonnerly a large wooden hook of a special type, although European steel hooks are generally used now. Instead of a sinker, a large flat stone is used to take the line down to the desired depth. Various ways of attaching the stone are useds but all have in common a quick release featui'e which allows the stone to drop free when the hook is considered to be at the right depth. & variant of this method is used in the Gilbert Islands for midwater tuna fishing. The rig used is similar to that described for drift fishing on the bottom, "but the leaders are made of steel wire. The sinker remains attached.

Both still fishing and drift fishing can be practised at any time of the day or night, but success often depends on the state of the tide and the phase of the moon.

Trolling is most efficient in the daytime, near the edge of a reef or in 16. the vicinity of passes. This method requires a canoe or boat, which can be pro­ pelled by paddles, oars, sail or motor. Speeds of 3 to 7 knots are adequate; although it is preferable to troll between 4 and 6 knots.

The length of line paid out depends on the speed of the craft and on its height above water. The lines used are generally cotton or hemp lines, 1/6" to •£•" in diameter, with a wire leader, and a lure. Lures may be made from a wide range of materials. Lily leaves, wood, pearlshell, feathers, rags, fish-skin, bone, stone, etc., were the traditional materials in pre-European days arid the only additions have been horn, metal and, lately, plastics. Many stores through­ out the area now stocK lures of European or Japanese design and manufacture, but islanders often prefer to continue making their own traditional types. Some fishermen prefer to rig a dead fish on a single hook. This practice, however, does not come under the heading of "bait".

In a few instances, motor fishii% boats have been equipped with outrigger booms j which make it possible to spread a greater number of trolling lines.

The colour of the lures used can be of some importance, and efforts are generally made to approximate the colour, shape and size of the small fish preyed upon by the tuna, bonito, kingfish, trevally, etc..

Another use of handlines, which is not as widespread as those described above, consists of letting down a baited hook in the midst of a school of fish chummed up with chopped bait. Such lines have no sinkers. Trevally, wahoo, dolphin and other pelagic species are often caught in this way. pole and Line

Lines mounted on poles are used for still fishing, for livebait fishing and for a type of trolling w:.ich is closely related to the live-bait technique. The poles can be made of wood or bamboo, and the lines may be fitted with floats, sinkers, steel leaders, baited hooks or lures.

Still fishing with pole and line is generally practised at the edge of a reef or of a rocky shore, with comparatively thin lines and small baited hooks. The line is usually weighted with a small sinker. In some places, a small 17. white feather is attached to the hook, forming a lure, which is cast in the breakers at the edge of the reef and jerked back and forth. Long bamboo poles and thin line equipped with a float, small sinker and baited hook are used near shore in calm water. The inhabitants of the northern Cook Islands catch mackerel (Pecaptsrus sp.) in deep water using a short pole (about 2' lon^) and line. They sail to their fishing grounds in canoes and go into the water equipped with diving goggles and the abovementioned pole and line, chewing some coconut meat which they spit out under water to attract a school of mackerel. tvhen these are sufficiently near, the fishermen go into action. Their hooks are barbless and garnished with a pinch of kapok. Each fish is swung into the canoe, where it throws the hook. Fair quantities of fish oan be caught in this way.

Live bait is used in a few islands, in conjunction with pole and line, for tuna and bonito fishing. Special canoes are used in most cases, but in Saipan this type of fishing is done with motor-boats equipped with sprinklers and live- bait tanks.

More common than the livebait technique is a trolling method with pole and line, practised in a number of territories from canoes, and in Tahiti from small motor-boats. Both techniques use the same type of gear.

Briefly, these two methods take advantage of the state of wild confusion and excitement which at times makes tuna schools lose all sense of caution when feeding at the surface. Small pearlshell or metal lures mounted on stout poles and lines are trolled slowly at the surface, and are generally taken freely by the fish.

When live bait is available, careful chummin., helps to keep the school near the boat, within reach of the lines. When live bait is not used, the fishermen depend on the natural prey of the tuna taking refuge under their canoe or boat.

The poles are generally 13' - 15' long and the lines are composed of 10' - 12' of cotton line, a short wire leader and a pearl-shell lure with a barbless hook. When a fish bites, it is swung out of the water and unhooked in the middle of its trajectory, after which it falls in the boat. 18.

Free-floating Lines

These tend to become obsolete in their traditional form, which was formerly used in many territories to catch Mugilidae and Mullidae. A modern development of this gear, the Japanese tuna longline, is also akin to the Polynesian method of drift fishing for tuna described earlier.

In this method, a baited hook is suspended from a float at a pre-determined depth. In the case of traditional gear used;, especially in Melanesia, for the capture of mullets or goatfish, units composed of a float, a short line and a hook were used. The modern longline, however, is designed for indus­ trial operation, and consists of a mainline, supported at intervals of about 180 fathoms by droplines of 12 to 15 fathoms tied to floats. The length of mainline between two droplines is called a "basket" of line. Each basket of line generally carries five hooks, spaced at about 30 fathom intervals and hang­ ing from the mainline at the end of a 12 fathom trace. Each trace is in three parts: first, a 42' piece of cotton line connected with the mainline by a knot or a snap fastener; next, a 24' piece of wire cable, and then a 6' wire leader with a special galvanized or tinned hook of large size. Japanese longliners use up to 300 baskets tied end to end. This method requires very hard work and the gear is very expensive.

Besides yellowfin tuna and albacore, this gear catches spearfishes, Spanish mackerel and sharks.

Fish Traps

Prom the most elementary devices to elaborate fixed traps, some type of im­ pounding gear is or was verj recently used in practically every South Pacific island.

Generally speaking, traps can be divided into two categories: fixed traps of a more or less permanent nature, generally of great size, ^d bottom traps which are much smaller and are often moved from place to place.

Fixed traps Amongst the fixed traps, those built of rocks are of course the most per­ manent. They are found on many islands, generally on a fringing reef, or in 19. the case of atolls inside a shallow passage., A number of different types are found, but the principle is always the same and involves one or two wings lead­ ing the fish into one or more enclosures shaped so as to prevent them from get­ ting out again. Besides small quantities of rejf fish which are found almost regularly in these traps, large catches of pelagic species are occasionally made.

Another type of fish trap of a less permanent nature is found in many terri­ tories from Tonga and Western Samoa to Guam. It is made of stakes supporting screens of wire fitting, split bamboo, reeds or even cotton netting. The principle of the wing or wings leading the fish into one or more enclosures is the same as for stone traps.

In both these types of traps, the shape of the wings, the overall dimensions of the trap, the number of fish pounds or enclosures and the orientation of the trap depend to a verp. great exte.it on the topography of the sea floor as well as on the direction of currents.

Bottom traps Bottom traps of various shapes and sizes are found in a „,reat number of territories in the area. There are cylindrical aua rectangular traps made of woven vines and baited to catch eels, barrel-shaped traps made of the aerial roots of mangrove or pandanus or of split bamboo; box-shaped ti'aps made of chickenwire with steel frames, and hemispherical traps made of rattan or wire. The shapes of the funnels leading into these traps vary widely and they may be placed at the side or at the top of the trap, depending on the shape of the gear and on the particular species they are designed for. Bottom traps often make important contributions to local subsistence catches.

Floating traps A unique type of trap is found in the Blanche Bay area near Rabaul in New Guinea. The fishermen in this area use huge egg-shaped traps which float just below the surface of the water and are moored over depths of up to 100 fathoms by means of long twisted rattan lines and special anchors made of a bell-shaped rattan basket filled with stones. 20.

Nets. Dipnets

Scoopnets or dipn&tss varying in size from small to very large, are found in many places. These nets are generally mounted on a round or oval wooden frame. In some places, dipnets are replaced b^ rudimentary pushnets made of a square or rectangular piece of netting mounted on two sticks placed along- opposite sides. The lower edge of these pushnets is usually weighted with small sinkers.

In a number of Polynesian and Micronesian islands, large dipnets are used to catch flying fish at night, by the light of a torch or lamp.

To illustrate the wide range of uses of dipnets, it is worth mentioning that they are used in Fivi and Samoa to scoop the "^alolo".

Liftnets Liftnets car. be considered as derived from the scoopnets. While the idea is logical, no proof can be produced to substantiate it.

Two types of liftnets have been observed in the Solomon Islands. The first is a small one, about three feet square. It is maue of small meshes and is mounted on two crossed bamboos. The whole is attached to the end of a pole.

This net is laid on the bottom in shallow water and lifted when fish are above it. Catches consist mainly of mullet and sardines.

The second type of liftnet observed is 48' square, and is placed between four platforms made of poles, at some distance from shore. A short wing leads from the shore to the net. Mullet following the shore are diverted by this wing and the net is lifted when they pass between the platforms. Twelve men are necessary to operate this liftnet, three on each platform. The net ob­ served was nude of hibiscus-fibre twine, 1/8" thick, with 2" mesh.

In a number of territories, small (about 21 diameter) liftnets mounted on a wooden or wire hoop, are used to catch mangrove crabs. A bait is tied in the middle. 21.

Castnets Castnets of two types are used in the South Pacific; round nets which cover the fish entirelys and rectangular nets designed to encircle the fish.

The so-called "round" castnet is actually conical in shape, and is fitted with sinkers around the base. A rope is sometimes attached at the apex. The lead rope is tied at regular intervals to short lines attached to the inside of the cone, forming a series of pockets around the base of the net. When the net has been thrown over a school of fishs it lies flat on the bottom. Most of the fish covered by the net swim into the pockets while trying to escape. The net is then drawn very slowly, either by means of the rope tied to its apex, or by taking hold of the apex itself. During this operation, the sinkers tend to bunch together at the bottom, and further prevent the fish from escaping.

The "rectangular" castnet is a strip of netting 2' - 31 high and about 15' - 20' lon,j, with sinkers at regular intervals on one of the lon^ sides and small floats along the other. The ends of the corkline are usually joined together. The net is thrown in such a way that it falls in a more or less regular circle around the fish.

While castnets are fairly widespread in the area, there are still many islands where they are unknown. These nets are usually made of cotton, but nylon castnets are becoming popular in some territories.

Set-nets Barrage nets are used in particular in Hew Caledonia and in Fi^i. They are rectangular nets, each 50 to 100 yards long and 5' to 6' high. Several of these are normally used together and it is not uncommon to find a set over 1 ,000 yards long. They are laid parallel to the coast , generally yust outside a narrow strip of mangroves, at high tide. When the tide recedes, the fish which have been foraging in the mangrove area are fenced in by the net and the fishermen collect them at low tide. The ends of the set are sometimes brought in to the shore. These barrage nets have cork and lead ropes and are sometimes used as beach seines. When used for barrage, they are often supported on scaall stakes. The material used is generally strong cotton twine or multifilament nylon and, while the mesh size can vary, 2" is a common dimension. 22.

Surrounding nets Two types of surrounding nets can be found in the Pacific, In the first, the fish surrounded are gilled, in the second, the net merely serves as an enclosure and the fish are taken with dipnets, spears, or by hand.

The first type is used for mackerel. It is about 220 yards long and over 12' deep. It is made of nylon twine 1/36" thick and the meshes are 2-g" stretched. It is fitted with cork and lead ropes. It is set from a skiff rowed as noiselessly as possible around the snoal of mackerel. Once the net is closed, a few splashes with the oars frighten the fish; which, then are gilled while trying to escape.

The second type of surrounding net is used in shallow water. Actually, several nets 50 to 100 yards lon0 are generally used end to end, being set around a school of fish by a number of boats or canoes. In other cases, as observed for instance in the Solomon Islands, numerous pieces of netting are sewn together to form a huge net, about 120 fathoms long, 100 meshes deep. Dimensions of meshes and twine vary widely according to the kind and size of fish sought, and materials range from locally made twine to spun nylon yarn. Once a school of fish is encircled, a number of fishermen jump into the en­ closure and spear them.

A variation of this second type of encircling net is the verandah net, designed to catch not only the fish v/hich remain inside the enclosure, but also a large proportion of those which jump over the cork line, as large mullet very often do. A horizontal strip of net is sewn along the top, and lies flat on the water outside the enclosure when the net is set2 it is supported by the regular cork rope on the inside and by a second cork rope on the outside edge, and evenly spaced bamboo sticks hold it spread out to its full width of 4'6".

Mullet jumping over the first cork-rope normally land onto the "verandah" ; which considerably increases the efficiency of the net.

A slightly different arrangement has been observed in Papua; where a number of rafts> each supporting a net 20' x 12', were manoeuvered immediately outside a surrounding net by a number of fishermen. 25-

Gillnets and tangle nets Gillnets are used in a number of territories. They are chiefly set in shallow water and the fish are driven, into them, although recently driftnets have been used successfully in some islands. Dimensions of nets and net meshes vary widely.

Tangle nets are becoming very popular in many islands. They are generally made of monofilament nylon, sometimes of nylon twine. Another type of tangle net is the traditional gear used in many ialands to catch turtles and sea cows, but such nets are becoming obsolete in most of the area. The traditional material used to make them was plaited or twisted coconut fibre. Since the last world war, however, field-telephone wire, electric wire, parachute cords and a variety of readily available surplus war materials have bean used.

Trammel nets have been used in a few places, but do not seem to have gained popularity anywhere in the area.

Dragnets Proper beach-seines complete with a bag are not common in the South Pacific. However, straight cotton or nylon twine nets are often used in the same way as beach seines.

Scarelines and Fish Drives

Scaring and driving fish on reef flats and in shallow water near the coast is probably one of the oldest methods of community fishing. This technique is found in many islands. Generally speaking, this method involves a large number of fishermen of both sexes. A small difference can be made according to whether the fish is driven to the shore or whether the drive takes place on some outer reef flat, in which case the fish is driven into a net. On coastal fish drives a long scareline ua.de of vines and coconut leaver, or of twisted coconut leaves tied end to end, is used. The length of these scarelines is variable — it can reach a thousand feet and more.

This scareline is carried out onto the reef by about JO to 40 persons. When a point far enough from the coast has been reached, the line is spread out 24.

in a half circle and the fishermen station themselves at regular intervals. The scareline is then pushed or dragged towards the coast with much commotion and splashing. About three-quarters of the way to the coast the shape oi" the line has altered already to form about three-quarters of a circle, with the opening towards the coast. When the ends of the line reach the coast thy cir­ cle is closed and the rest of the line is dragged ashore, generally assuming an oval shape.

At this point the fishermen have come much closer together and the fish are hemmed into a small space. About 10 yards from the shore the scareline is doubled over, forming an almost solid wall of coconut leaves to preveat the es­ cape of fish. A number of fish jump on the beach and the rest are killed with spears.

On offshore reefs where depths are from 31 - 10', interspersed with coral h^ads coming much closer to the surface> the fish drive takes another aspect. Here a net is used, into which the fish are driven. When a school of fish is sighted on such a reif the net, usually a bag-net with a rectangular entrance, is set in a suitable place, generally in depths of 4' - 5'• The cork and lead ropes of the net are usually 15' long and the opening is 5' high. The distance from the entrance to the bottom of the bag is about 15'• Both local twines and cotton may be used to make such nets and, while the meshes commonly measure 2" stretched., this dimension may vary.

The opening of the net is held up by two stron^, poles and the bag usually faces the current, which keeps it stretched.

The number of fishermen involved is usually in the vicinity of forty, but, if suitable transport is available, this number can be increased considerably. All fishermen must be good swimmers and divers. Each is equipped with diving goggles and a pole. When the net is set, fishermen start scaring fish, working from quite a distance to drive them towards an area which will be surrounded by the scarelines, each of which is over 1 ,000' in length. Two scarelines are used and are set by skiffs or canoes after the fish have been driven towards the area. Each scareline is set in an arc, and the whole is then dragged to­ wards the net. Two skiffs or canoes wait near the net and the scarelines are 25- gradually coiled into them as the fish drive comes on. As the circle becomes smaller, tin intervals between the swimmers decrease. They use their sticks to beat against the bottom and to splash the water on the surface, frightening the fish, which finally swim into the net, after which the mouth of the bag is lifted out of the water.

Large quantities of reef fish can be caught by this method. Such drives are often community affairs undertaken to satisfy subsistence needs, but in some cases, for instance in Fiji, the catch may be sold.

A third type of drive uses a permanent trap built of stones instead of the net described above.

In the British Solomon Islands porpoises are scared and driven into the shallows by a line of canoes. The canoes used in such a drive are built for speed, especially the "porpoise canoe", in which stands the leader. Up to 50 porpoises can be caught at a time in this way.

Miscellaneous Fishing and Gathering Methods

In a number of territories, such as Netherlands New Guinea and Tonga, various mackerels and related species are attracted by light. Kerosene pressure lamps mounted on canoes or boats are commonly used nowadays, although coconut frond torches are still used in a number of places.

The fish attracted in this way are caught with hook and line. Flying fish> as mentioned earlier, are taken with dip nets after being attracted by lights. Squid may be attracted in the same way and taken either with a dip net or a spear.

Small reef fish, shells, crayfish and crabs, are taken in many territories by fishermen wading over the reef flats at night with torches or lamps. Dip- nets, spears, cudgels or bush knives may be used to catch the fish.

Whilst beche-de-mer or sea cucumber were gathered in large quantities be­ fore the last world war, the fact that the Chinese market has been closed to luxury items since then has reduced this industry to negligible proportions. Some beche-de-mer is still gathered by wading or diving in Papua. This is pro­ cessed to make "trepang" and shipped to Singapore. 26.

A number of species of sea cucumbers are found in very large quantities on the reefs and in the lagoons of the South Pacific. Host belong to the black variety^ which is considered a very poor grade, but brown and grey varieties are also present in fair quantities. The prospects for trepang exports may become better in the future.

Various shells which have nacreous inner layers are gathered by skin-divers and even, sometimes by wading over reef flats.

The trochus, Trochus niloticus, is gathered by divers or waders. It is not found at depths greater than 7 fathoms. The green snail;, Turbo marmoratus, is taken by divers in the same way as trochus, and generally during trochus fishing. These two species are gastropods and belong to the western part of the South Pacific. However, transplants of Trochus niloticus have been carried out successfully in the Cook Islands and much earlier in some of the Micronesian islands (Truk, Ponape and Jaluit).

The blacklip pearlshell, Pinctada margaritifera, is a bivalve which is found in practically all the South Pacific territories. The only commercial production of blacklip, however, is found in the Cook Islands and French Poly­ nesia and, to a much smaller extentj in the Australian and Dutch territories of New Guinea. Skin and dress divers are employed to bring up these shells from depths of up to 20 fathoms. Another pearl oyster, Pinctada maxima, the gold- lip pearlshell, is found in the waters of New Guinea and taken by divers in the same way as blacklip.

In many places rock and mangrove oysters are collected at low tide for sub­ sistence purposes. In some territories they are sold to shops and restaurants. Nearly everywhere in the South Pacific a number of species of shellfish are gathered at low tide or by diving, and used for food or to make ornaments. Many species of clams are found in the sand or mud of coastal areas.. Various giant clams are either pried from their supports with crowbars or brought up from the bottom by divers.

Sea urchins, or sea eggs, are taken b^ diving or wading in many islands. The roe of sea urchins is highly esteemed as food and may be eaten raw or 27. cooked. Canoe-loads cf sea urciins were seen in Malaita (British Solomon Islands). These animals are taken with the help of wooden sticks or forks and their sharp spines are broken awa„ so that the;/ can be handled more comfortably.

Crabs are taken in many places in the shallow parts of lagoons, either with nets or by hand. In some placess such as Mew Caledonia, mangrove crabs are taken out of their burrows at low tide, when they are moulting. These soft-shelled crabs are considered a delicacy.

Turtles are caught on the beacn on many islands when they come in to lay their eggs in the sand.

Poisons and Explosives

A variety of poisons are or were formerly used in a number of islands. These poisons are chiefly extracted from plants, such as the toxic kernels of Barringtonia and Cerbera, tne roots of ^erris, the stems and leaves of Euphorbia, etc.. The toxic principles vary with the species of plant used. A less important source of fishing poison is found in the internal organs of a type of sea cucumber.

The use of poisons is now prohibited in most; if not all territories of the South Pacific, but it is not always possible to enforce this prohibition. Although most of the fish caught with poisons are merely stupefied, a number are also killed, together with quantities of other aquatic life.

Even more than fishing poisons, explosives have caused untold damage. Their use is prohibited everywhere., but here again difficulties are found when it comes to enforcing the law. Certain reef and coastal areas have been severe­ ly depopulated by the use of explosives, which do not only kill more fish than can be taken in many instances, but also destroy plankton; corals and othex- marine life.

Inland Fisheries

In some islands in the area., rivers as well as fresh and brackish water lakes and swamps provide or could provide large .amounts of fish, crustaceans and shell­ fish. 28.,

In most cases, however, the production from such waters is low, sometimes because the inhabitants have exhausted the fauna through destructive methods such as poisons and explosives, but more often because the natural fauna is poor.

With the exception of AJamaroe Lake in Netherlands New Guinea, very little had been done before 1954 to improve the fish population of inland waters in the area. Mosquito-eating fish, such as Gambusia affinis and Lebistes reticulatus, were, however, introduced for mosquito control in a number of territories. Trochogaster pectoralis and Helostoma teamincki, respectively known as Sepat Siam and kissing gourami, were introduced in 1938 in the Ajamaroe Lake, the original stock being brought from Java. The introduction was successful and, in 19511 some Sepat Siam were brought into Lake Sentani, also in Netherlands New Guinea.

The first introductions of Tilapia mossambica were made in 1954 in experi­ mental fishponds at Sigatoka, Fiji; Bomano, Papua, and in Goroka, Australian New Guinea. The breeding stock was imported from Singapore. In the same year Tilapia mossaabica were introduced to Guam from Manila and in 1955 the South Pacific Commission brought in the same fish from Manila to Port Laguerre. In 1957 T_. mossambica obtained from Manila were introduced into the Sentani Lake.

Since then, tilapia have spread both within territories where they had originally been introduced and also to other territories. One particularly interesting aspect of theae introductions is that in most cases the fish have been used to stock natural waters, although the early introductions had been made with a view to the development of fish culture in ponds.

Tilapia mossambica has now come to be appreciated in a number of territories as a food resource, as a mosquito-control agent and also for the assistance it gives in weed control. There is good reason to hope t.»at this fish will find new uses as bait for deep-sea fishing and as forage for predatory fish of economic importance. In natural waters it appears to grow larger than in the few ponds operated in the Commission's area. Over the last year full-sized male tilapias grown in artificial ponds were found to reach a size of 6", whilo 29. in natural ponds, rivers and lakes, specimens 8" Ion,;, were found and in one river tilapias of 14"» weighing 2 lbs, have been caught. The males grow bigger than the females.

One particular characteristic of _T. mossambica is that it can live in very poor waters. An example in point is that of Lake Siwi in the New Hebrides, which is one of the poorest the author has ever seen as far as flora and fauna are concerned.

A number of other species have been introduced in the area, such as trout (Fiji and New Guinea), carp (New Caledonia and New Guinea), giant gourami (New «... ,——_ •• i """" — * Caledonia and New Guinea), and murrell (Fiji, through New Caledonia). Some of these introductions have failed, some have succeeded and others are still uncertain.

On the credit side, developments la inland fisheries in the area can boast of two Government experimental stations, a Highland station at an a Ititude of 5,300' in Papua and a Lowland station in Netherlands New Guinea. In addition, the experimental ponds at Sigatoka, Fiji, are still bein^, maintained and may be used for development work.

Fisheries Services and Research Organizations

There are now several institutions and services in the area dealing with fisheries and related problems.

International Organization

South Pacific Commission The Commission has a Fisheries Officer and one Assistant Fisheries Officer working under the Executive Officer for Economic Development. Their task is to carry out field surveys of fisheries and related problems and advise terri­ tories in the South Pacific Commission area: to organize and conduct training courses and to produce extension literature in the form of articles for the South Pacific Bulletin, booklets, reports on territorial surveys, and Technical Papers. 30.

Practically all territories in the area have been visited since July 1954. The exceptions are Pitcaim, Nauru and Niue. In addition, the Kingdom of Tonga^, which is not included in the Commission area, but is closely associated in Com­ mission activities, has been visited. Close co-operation is maintained with all fisheries services and institutions of a public or private nature dealing with fisheries problems in the area, and contacts are constantly made and kept up outside the area for purposes of information.

Territorial Organizations

Territory of Papua and New Guinea Within the Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries, the Division of Fisheries includes both scientific and technical staff. One research vessel and several small craft are actively engaged in fishing experiments.

The Division also deals with inland fisheries problems and has established an experimental fish culture station at Dobel in the highlands. Another sta­ tion is envisaged in the vicinity of Port Moresby and will be equipped with a laboratory and aquarium facilities.

Netherlands New Guinea The territory of Netherlands New Guinea has a Sea Fisheries Division under the Department of Economic Affairs, and an Inland Fisheries Sub-Division within the Agricultural Section of the same Department.

The Sea Fisheries Division is staffed by technical officers and maintains

two fisheries stations? one in Hollandia and one in Manokwari. The Division is equipped with one research vessel and a few small motorboats. Construction of small motor fishing-boats has bet-, undertaken to promote native fisheries.

The Inland Fisheries Sub-Division has a small staff headed by an Inland Fisheries Officer. It maintains one inland fisheries station, where several experimental fishponds have been built.

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands The staff of the Fisheries Section until recently was directed by a Marine Biologist based at Koror, Palau Islands, where a local tuna fishery is being organized. Equipment includes a small research vessel. 31.

Guam The staff of the Agricultural Department in Agana includes a Pish Waixlen in charge of sea and inland fisheries matters. A marine biologist has ver^ recent­ ly been appointed to organize tne Fisheries Section.

Cook Islands Two Fisheries Officers are amongst the staff of the Department of Agricul­ ture ^iid deal with fisheries problems. One of their most important tasks is research on blaclclip pearlshell,

French Polynesia The Division of Pearlshell and Fineries of the Department of Animal In­ dustries has a small staff headed by a biologist. While most of the problems dealt with are connected with the pearlshell industry, general regulations and other fisheries problems are also taken care of.

New Caledonia The Institut Francais d'Oceanie in Noumea includes one section devoted to oceanographic research. Two marine biologists and one specialist in physical oceanography carry out the research programme with the help of a small staff. The Institute has one research vetsel, which is used for research in physical eceanography and experimental fishing, - mainly for tuna species. Amongst the work carried out by the staff at the Institute, the survey of trochus problems in New Caledonia deserves special mention.

Miscellaneous Organizations and Individual Research Workers Institutions outside the Area - Pacific Oceanic Fishery Investigation; Based on Hawaii, the POFI has

carried out widespread research on yellowfin tunas albacore and skipjack, es­ pecially in the Line Islands, in the Tuamotu Islands and in the Marquesas Islands.

- Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii; Various research projects on the behaviour of tuna species have been carried out by this laboratory in connection with the work of POFI. A team of research workers is engaged in research on fish poisoning of the "ciguatera" type. 32.

- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia: The CSIRO has co-operated in the biological study of Pinctada luargari tifera sponsored by the South Pacific Commission in the Cook Islands. In addition, research in physical oceanography has been carried out in collaboration with IFO.

- Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand: The DSHt has recently completed a hydrographic and physical survey of the Manihiki Lagoon, in the Cook Islands, in connection with the biological survey of Pinctada margaritifera.

Individual Investigations Various surveys have been carried out in the area by the following inves­ tigators; Professor L.G.M. Baas-Becking professor A. H. Banner Dr. V.E. Brock and M. Takata Dr. V.E. Brock and Y. Yamaguchi Dr. P..L.A. Catala Dr. C.F. Hickling Mr. James Hornell Dr. John A. Randall Professor J. Risbec Dr. L.E. Schulta and a number of other scientists.

Aquariums and Museums The Catala-Stucki Aquarium in Noumea is the only one in the area. Dr. and Mrs. Catala are carrying out research on corals, and their aquarium is the first in which fluorescent corals have been displayed and studied.

There are several museums in the area, in particular in Suva, Papeete and

Noumea. Various collections of shells, fishing' gear3 canoes, etc., can be found among their exhibits. 33.

Fisheries Regulations and Protection

Fisheries regulations and protection measures have been promulgated in most, if not all territories of the area. However, such regulations and measures are only effective if enforced and, generally speaking, it can be said that the only texts which are applied are those related to whaling and to the minimum sizes of shells exported from South Pacific territories.

Territorial Fishing Industries

The fishing industries of the various territories within the Commission area will be reviewed briefly here, in the order of importance of the terri­ torial populations.

Territory of Papua and Hew Guinea

Coastal fishing is quite active along the shore of Papua and New Guinea and around neighbouring islands. Most of the fishing is done from canoes, but some motorboats are used in places.

Most of the sea fishing is done near the coast or near the reefs. There- is little ocean fishing.

Besides fish and shellfish, a number of other marine resources are taken and used, such as turtles, dugong, spiny lobster,, crabs, squid, octopus, shrimps, sea urchins and beche-de-mer (sea cucumber).

The fishing grounds around Papua and New Guinea are fair to good. Weather conditions have a considerable effect on fishing and winds of force zero to 4 are best.

Export of fisheries products consists mainly of trochus shell, green snail and mother-of-pearl shell. Small quantities of beche-de-mer are also exported, and some attempts have been made to export frozen opiny lobsters.

There are a few professional fishermen and many more practice fishing on a part-time basis, generally for family consumption only. Large numbers of women and children gather quantities of shells at low tide. Some primitive fish preservation methods are used. Marketing of fish is a problem in many 34- places. The main fish market in the territory is the Koki market in Port Moresby, where fish, shellfish and crustaceans are sold. On the whole, the fish supply is sufficient in coastal villages, but not in the interior of the mainland.

While sufficient quantities of fish are founti in the mouths and estuaries of rivers, in brackish water, the fresh-water fauna is generally poor. Some fish and fresh-water shrimps are found in inland waters. A few streams have been stocked successfully with trout. An experimental fresh-water fish culture station has been established at Dobel, at an altitude of 5,300' and there are a number of other fresh-water fish ponds being exploited in the territory. numer­ ous bodies of fresh water are found in the interior, but the population get prac­ tically no fresh fish and must rely on imported canned fish.

The main types of gear used are spear, pole and line, handline, trolling line, stone trap, bottom trap, anchored mid-water trap, r^efnet, gillnet, sur­ rounding net, seine and dipnet. Most nets are made of local fibres or of cotton. Lines may be of local fibres, cotton or nylon. In general, floats are made of light wood and sinkers of shells.

Some improvements in fisheries are already being observed and it is expec­ ted that this industry will eventually become important with the mechanization of fishing boats, improvement of fish preservation and marketing, modernization of fishing gear, the stocking of inland waters and with the development of fresh-water fish culture and of oyster culture. Recommendations along these lines have been made by the Commission and have been implemented in parts.

Netherlands New Guinea

Sea fishing is actively practised aloiv, the coast of Netherlands New Guinea and around neighbouring islands, chiefly for subsistence purposes- Around the main centres of population some fishermen sell their catches, but they are gen­ erally operating on a part-time basis. There is very little fish of local origin sold in the interior.

Most fishing crafts are canoes propelled by paddle or sail, but over the last few years outboard motors have been introduced for use on outrigger canoes. 35.

There are also a few small notor fishing boats,

The most important types of gear used are spear, pole and line, handline, trolling line* bottom traps reef trap* beach trap, reefnet, seine, gillnet, dipnet and castnet.

There are some good fishing grounds, mostly reefs, but it cannot be said that the territory has rich fishing grounds.

As in Papua and New Guinea, weather conditions exert considerable influence on sea fishing and a wind of force 4 or less is preferable.

Fish and other marine organisms provide the bulk of food of animal origin in coastal villages. Shells are ^uite important .and at low tide a number of women and children gather them,

The supply of fish in most coastal villages is sufficient and some even export fish to other places, There is little fishing done on the open ocean.

Trochus, green snail and pearlshell are taken by divers for export. Be­ fore the war large quantities of shrimps were caught on the south coast .and pro­ cessed into shrimp paste (Trassie) for export to the then Netherlands East Indies. Later political changes have closed this market. Simple fish pre­ servation is practised, chiefly by smoking and drying.

A fish market has recently been opened in Hollandia, In the other centres fish is sold in the general markets.

In inland waters, large fixed traps and barrage traps are used to catch fish; liftnets, dipnets and bottom traps are used for fresh-water crayfish.

Lakes and swamps give some scope for inland fisheries. Generally speak­ ing, the fauna of the rivers is poor although the population improves in the lower (brackish) reaches and in the estuarine areas. Fresh-water crawfish are found in significant quantities in the Wissell LaKes and in the Ajanaroe Lake. In the mountain areas there is very little fish except in the vicinity of some lakes. In the south, the populations of the interior can obtain fish from the rivers and swamps. However, this area is not densely populated. 36.

The work of the Government Sea Fisheries Division is likely to result in a general inproveaeut of sea fisheries through the introduction of snail aotor fishing boats, improved fishing gear, and nore advanced fish preservation methods. As for the Inland Fisheries Division, its work will probably be slowed down to a narked extent, as penetration into the interior1 is still difficult.

In general, it can be said that the sea and inland fisheries are already showing inprovenent although a certain quantity of fish is still inported. The reconnendations made by- the South Pacific Commission have .already been imple­ mented in part.

Fiji Islands

There is much fishing activity in the Fijian group, concentrated chiefly along the coast, on the reef and lagoon areas, and at the mouth of rivers. Ocean fishing is limited to a little trolling by inter-island boats. Although there are some full-tine fishermen, nost of the fishing is a part-tine activity for subsistence purposes carried out by individuals or by connunity groups which nay include women.

Caiioes, punts, and snail boats powered with inboard or outboard engines are used.

The main types of gear used are spear, pole and line, handlino, trolling line, seine, gillnet, surrounding net, verandah net, barrage net, prawn net, crab net, dip net, scare line with or without a net bag, bottom ti-ap, stone trap, fixed fish fence. Nets and lines nay be nade of local fibres, cotton, or nylon. Stakes and wove;'; reeds, banboo, vines, and coconut leaves are used in the construction of fish traps, vrhile wooden floats and shell sinkers are still used on many nets.

Modern sport fishing gear is used by numerous sport fishermen. Fijian waters offer very good opportunities for big-game fishing.

A fish market has been installed in the Suva market-place, but in other centres fish is sold on the general markets. In addition, fish, turtles, crabs, 27.

spiny lobsters, shrimps, squid, octopus, sea urchins and a number of edible shells are taken and eaten, or sold on the market. Fresh-water shells de­ serve special mention as a certain type of bivalve (Genus Batissa) is marketed in large quantities and features prominently in the diet of the Fijian population.

Particular mention should also be made of the "paiolo", which appears around November in each year. This is scooped in great quantities and con­ sidered a delicacy by the population.

The fresh-water fauna includes several species of Kuhliidae, introduced Tilapia niossambica, and a number of less important indigenous fishes, as well as fresh-water prawns. At certain seasons great quantities of whitebait enter the Sigatoka and Rewa rivers. Tilapia and milkfish are raised in small fish ponds. The murrel (Ophicephalus strictus) has been introduced in one stream.

Exports of trochus shell were of significant importance until it became

necessary recently to prohibit trochus fishina to avoid the exhaustion of the reefs. A variety of shells as well as fairly large quantities of tortoise shell and cat's eyes (the operculum of Turbo petholatus) are used in the manu­ facture of curios and fancy jewellery.

Salting and drying, and hot smoking are the main preservation methods. Ice and cold storage are used sometimes, The quantity of fish imported is considerable.

British Solomon Islands Protectorate

Fishing in the Solomon Islands is chiefly a subsistence activity although some fish is bartered for other produce and small quantities are sometimes sold. While coastal villages generally have a reasonable supply of fish; the capital, Honiaraj must depend mostly on imported fish.

Most of the fishing craft used are canoes. A number of these are dugouts^ but many are built from the keel up with planks laced edge to edge with split vines. From three to five ribs are usually fitted inside the canoe for streng­ thening and all parts are tied; sewn or laced together. The seams are caulked. with a paste prepared from a local fruit. Some canoes are decorated with pearlshell inlays. Most of the canoes are paddled, but some also have sails. 38.

Soma sailing boats are also used8 mostly for trochus fishing. A local boat­ building industry exists in the Langa Langa Lagoon of Malaita. The boats built there include some motorboats, but these are chiefly intended for trans­ porting cargo and passengers.

The main types of gear are spear, hand harpoon, pole and line, handlinej trolling line, liftnets scareline equipped with a net bag, surrounding net, turtle net, gillnet, dipnet, and barrage fence. Nets are made of local material or of cotton, and lines may be made of local fibres, cotton or nylon.

Nearly everybody living on or near the coast is involved in some type of fishing activity, chiefly as a part-time occupation. Trochus and green snail were formerly in the second place among the Protectorate's exports. The price of trochus has now fallen considerably while that of green snail has increased. Porpoise teeth and shells are used for money.

Most of the fishing is done near the coast and on the reef. Flying fish, yellowfin tuna, little tuna, Spanish mackerel, barracuda, trevally, bonito and dolphin have been observed offshore as well as porpoises and whales.

Kuhlia and Mugil are the predominant genera in the rivers. There are also crocodiles. Some ponds have been stocked with Tilapia mossambica.

The fish preservation methods used in the Protectorate are simple and consist mostly of roasting and, in recent years; of smoking.

Western Samoa Fishing in Western Samoa is chiefly a subsistence activity, although there is some commercial fishing, at the local market level.

Fishing activities are mostly concentrated on the fringing reefs and lagoons but ocean fishings mainly for bonito, is also practised in good wea­ ther. Any edible organism is taken irrespective of size. This includes shells, crustaceans, turtles, beche-de-aer, squid, octopus and sea urchins as well as large quantities of "palolo" in season.

Most of the fishing craft are outrigger canoes. The special bonito canoes are partly decked fore and aft to go through the surf in the reef passages. 59.

A few canoes are equipped with outboard engines. There are also some sport fishing boats powered with outboards.

Many types of fishing gear are used, including fixed fish traps made of galvanized wire netting supported by stakes, large movable wire netting traps used in conjunction with surrounding nets or net wingsj eel traps, spears, primitive underwater spearguns, pole and line, trolling line, handline, surrounding net, and castnet.

The fishing pressure on the permanent reef and lagoon fauna is much too high. Fortunately, shoals of scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) from the ocean enter the lagoons. Schools of bonito are often observed not far from shore. Sharks are numerous and are appreciated as food by Samoans. Shark liver is often eaten raw and is considered a delicacy. Many shellfish and especially- giant clams are often eaten raw.

The fauna of natural inland waters includes several species of Kuhliidae as well as mullet, crabs, shrimps, and a fish introduced for mosquito control, ^^e Gafitbusia. Tilapia mossambica has been successfully introduced in both natural and artificial bodies of inland water.

The fish supply is still insufficient and the population is fast increas­ ing. The introduction of motor fishing boats and the mechanization of canoes with a view to the improvement of ocean fishing would be the logical solution for this problem. Facilities are available for the construction and main­ tenance of small mechanized craft.

French Polynesia Fisheries are of great importance in this territory, which includes a large number of islands and atolls,

The population is concentrated on the seaside in high islands and lives on the narrow belt of land between lagoon and ocean in the atolls. A large proportion of the population takes part in some form of fishing activity, al­ though the number of full-time commercial fishermen is comparatively small. Most fishing is done near the shore on reefs and in lagoons, but there is also some ocean fishing in sight of land. Fishing in streams and estuaries is prac­ tised on a much smaller scale. 40,

Dugout outrigger canoes are used in many types of fishing. They are pro­ pelled by paddles, sails, or outboard motors. planked canoes with outboard motors are chiefly used in the Tuamotu Islands for pearlshell diving. Motor fishing boats are used mainly for bonito fishing.

The main types of fishing gear used are fixed traps made of rocks or wire netting- wire and bamboo bottom traps; handline, trolling line, pole and line with lure, pole and line with baited hook, scareline, crab net, gillnet, castnet, dipnet, surrounding net,, underwater speargunj and handspear,

Bonito and small tuna are generally caught with pole and line using a lure of mother-of-pearl shell. This method is used with small motor-boats or pad­ dling canoes on the open sea.

Two small species of pelagic fishs scad (Selar sp.) and mackerel (Decapterus sp.), are caught near passes with huge surrounding nets, or in fixed traps.

In Tahiti, practically all the fish which is not directly used for family consumption is sold fresh on the Papeete market,

The scad and mackerel which are not intended for immediate sale are kept alive in pounds improvised from old fish nets or from chickenwire and stakes. In certain places rock or bamboo enclosures are used to keep other fish alive and live boxes made of bamboo are found everywhere and used either to keep live bait or to hold fish for the market. Chilled or frozen fish is not popular.

The Papeete market is the only one in the Commission area where statistics of fish sales are kept- It is also the largest and best organized in the area.

Sea foods other than fish, such as turtles, lobsterSj crabs5 octopus and shell­ fish, are also marketed there.

The main fishing industry of French Polynesia is pearlshell diving. Black- lip pearlshell (pinctada margaritifera) i3 taken by skin divers in the lagoons of many atolls and of one or two of the high islands.

Some lagoons or sectors of lagoons are open each year for shell diving during a limited season. As a gei.eral rule each lagoon or sector is open once 41. every four years. A minimum size of shell is also enforced. Each lagoon includes a reserved area in which no diving is permitted. This protection is necessary to avoid the depletion of pearlshell beds.

Most of the shell is exported and the main buyers are; Prance; Germany, the United States. the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Italy. Some pearlshell is used locally by a thriving curio industry.

'tfhile shellfish are gathered extensively for subsistence or marketing purposes, some species of particular ornamental value are gathered in huge quantities for the curio industry.

The small rivers and streams contain few fish. The fresh-water fauna is composed mainly of various Kuhliidae, aullet and fresh-water prawns. Only the latter are being caught to any noticeable extent as they are considered a delicacy. Fish culture is not practised.

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Subsistence fishing is an important daily activity for most of the inhabi­ tants.

Fish and other sea foocs provide the chief source of animal protein for the local diet. There are some sales of fish between islands.

Most of the fishing takes place on the reefs and in the lagoons. Trolling for predatory fish and dipnet fishing by torchlight for flying fish takes place on the ocean in the immediate vicinity of land. In Saipan, motorboats are used for live-bait tuna fishing'.

The aquatic fauna of coastal waters is, generally speaking, reasonably abundant. There are good tuna fishing grounds outside the- reefs. Before the war Japanese and Okinawan fishermen had developed an important tuna fish­ ing industry in these waters.

Trochus and blacklip pearlshell are present in this territory. While trochus was originally found only in the Palau Islands> successful transplan­ tations were carried out by Japanese fisheries technicians as far back as 1936 and trochus are now established on Truk and Jaluit in particular. 42.

While large numbers of canoes and quantities of fishing gear were des­ troyed during the war, the recovery is now complete. Canoes with and with­ out outriggers are now numerous. Many are equipped with sails and some with outboard motors. There are also a few motor fishing boats.

The main types of gear are handlino, trolling line, pole and line, beach seine, surrounding net, gillnet, dipnet, castnet> scareline, speari fixed traps made of rocks or wire fencing, and bottom traps. Local materials are used in the construction of many types of fishing gear, but cotton nets are also useds as well as cotton and nylon lines.

Fish preservation methods of a simple character are known and in some islands small quantities of fish are frozen. The best examples of fish freezing were observed at Koror and Ponape. Small quantities of fish are exported from there to other islands in the Trust Territory and also to Guam.

Tilapia mossambica have been introduced in some islands and are now caught by hook and line in the lakes and ponds of Saipan District. A few milkfish are raised in one brackish water fishpond on Peleliu. Some experi­ mental turtle raising has been undertaken in the Palau Islands.

The Territory exports trochus shell and ornamental shells.

New Caledonia and Dependencies

Although this territory hasj ir comparison with other South Pacific terri­ tories, a small population and a relatively high income, fishing still takes an important place in its economy. Full-time commercial fishermen, part-time fishermen (both for subsistence and commercial purposes) and sport fishermen are found there. Europeans, Indo-Chinese> Indonesians and Polynesians as well as local Melanesians, engage in all forms of fishing.

In the South Pacific Commission area; this is probably the territory with the highest intake of locally produced protein, as it also has a comparatively important cattle production.

Commercial fishing craft are, ge-srally speaking, cutters equipped with an inboard engine a~id auxiliary sail and fitted with a live-well. They do not 43. exceed 30' in length. A few of the recent additions to the fleet are of a different type, larger (up to 40'), fully decked and equipped with refrigerated holds instead of live-wells. Some small sailing boats are still used for trochus fishing and large numbers of pleasure craft ranging from flat-bottomed punts to cabin cruisers are powered with outboard motors. Outrigger canoes made from a dugout log built up with planks and fitted with a wide platform are still in use in some of the outer islands.

Fishing activities take place entirely inside the lagoon and on the reefs in the case of the main island, while some ocean fishing occurs in the neighbouring Loyalty Islands. The bulk of catches includes snappers, sweet- li^vs, rock cods,, mullet„ Spanish mackerel and surgeon-fish.

The main types of gear used in this territory are handline, trolling line (some boats are equipped with outriggers for multiple trolling), surrounding- net, gillnet, seine, barrage net, c.^st net, handspear, underwater speargun and bottom trap.

Recent investigations have shown that the surrounding waters are rich in tuna and could be profitably exploited by longliners. This, however, would mean considerable investments, bigger boats and well-trained crews. An out­ let would also have to be found in some other country.

Facilities such as boatbuilding yards, engine repair shops, ice factories and cold storage facilities are available and the coast offers many natural harbours. The present fishing industry is however limited by the lack of marketing organization. It seems that the local fishermen may be oh their way to remedy this at the tine of writing.

The indigenous fauna of the inland waters is not rich and includes mainly

Kuhliidaes Mugilidae Anguillidae and fresh-water prawns. Tilapia mossambica has been introduced in some natural and artificial ponds and in a few streams, as weii as in the lake formed bv the Yatd hydro-electric dam. Black bass (Mieropterus salmoides) and Sepat Siam (Trichogaster pectoralis) have also been introduced in the same lake, but no results have been observed yet. 44.

Tonga Although the Kingdom of Ton^a is not included in the South Pacific Com­ mission area, this territory was visited by the Fisheries Officer in 1955-

Most of the fishing in this group takes place near the shore, on the reefs, in the lagoons or near the beaches. One exception is the whaling activity which was at one stage carried out by one family only, but is now gradually spreading in the group. The fishing- craft used are either canoes or sailing boats.

Although there are some sales of fresh fish in Tongatapu, where most of the population is concentrated, fishing- is largely a subsistence activity.

The main types of fishing gear used in Tonga are handline, trolling line, pole and line, spear, scareline, fixed traps made of stakes and wire netting, bottom traps, turtle net, gillnet, barrage net; castnet; shark noose, and whale harpoon.

Tilapia mossambica has been introduced to Ton^a from Fiji.

New Hebrides

With tiie exception of trochus and green snail diving, which was completely closed early in 1958, the islanders in this territory have never practised any form of commercial fishing. There is however an important export of frozen tuna from Espiritu Santo, where a company formed by American, Japanese and local interests has set up a freezing plant, and has contracted with Japanese fishing organizations for the supply of fish.

Subsistence absorbs most of the fish production, and small quantities of fish and crustaceans are sold in Port Vila and Luganville, the two main centres.

Canoes are the most commonly used fishing craft, but sailing boats and motor boats are also used.

The main types of gear used are spear, handline,, trolling line, castnet and bottom trap. Small seines and small fixed traps are also used to some extent. 45-

Gilbert and Ellice Islands Although the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony include a number of outlying islands, only the Gilbert Group has been partially surveyed by the Commission. The Gilbert Islands, with very few exceptions, are atolls.

Fishing is practised in three distinct zones: ocean, outer reef flat, and lagoon. Subsistence fishing is active and represents almost the totality of activities in this field. Some commercial fishing- takes place rather irregularly in Tarawa, the administrative headquarters of the Colony, which offers the only opportunity for a small market fishery.

The fishing craft used throughout the group are outrigger canoes built of small planks. These canoes are sailed or paddled. Facilities exist at Tarawa for boatbuilding and repairing-, as well as for engine maintenance and installation. However, there is very little timber in the group.

Trolling, deep handlining and dipnet fishing by torchlight are the three techniques used on the ocean.

Trolling with handlines is in general use throughout the group, and catches include tuna, bonito, swordfishes, trevallies and barracuda. Pole and line trolling for bonito, with a peoi'lshell lure and barbless hook seexis to be restricted to the Southern Gilberts. Deep handlining is a method used to catch large tuna, swordfishes and castor-oil fish; also occasionally sharks. This type of fishing is mostly carried out at night. Dipnet fishing by torch­ light is a technique exclusively used for flying fish.

On the outer reef-flat, the methods used vary widely from hand gathering of shellfish, octopus, crayfish, crabs and small fish, either at night or in the daytimej to trapping in large stone traps. Apart from these traps, the only types of fishing gear used in this zone are pole and line for small fish living at the edge of the reef, small dipnet, and hand spear. The traditional torch of coconut leaves is often replaced with a pressure lamp. Occasionally, large catches of bonefish (illbula vulpes) are maue in the stone traps.

Underwater spearfishing, handlining, driving fish into a net, or surrounding 46.

schools of fish, are reserved for the lagoon area. Catches include mainly parrot fishes, mullet, a few groupers and snappers. Castnets are used chiefly in the Northern Gilberts, to catch sardines which apparently are not found in the southern islands of the Group. Eel traps are still in use in some of the lagoons.

Most of the fishing gear, with the exception of the bonito pearlshell lures and the eel traps, is now of European origin. The lines are mostly of cotton, but quite a few nets are made of nylon.

Fishponds were formerly kept in many islands to raise milkfish. At the time of the survey, however, they had been either completely abandoned or at least visibly neglected over a period of years.

Guaa The presence of the United States Navy in Guam and the resulting avail­ ability of lucrative employment for most of the population tend to relegate fisheries to the background. There is, however, a large number of part- time fishermen.

A narrow reef fringes the island, except for the northern half of the east coast. It reaches its greater width in the south, near Herizo. Parts of this reef are uncovered at low tide. Many species of fish are present on the reef, but only in small numbers, due to overfishing. The most common are: goatfish, parrot-fish, snapper, mullet, surgeon-fish, spinefeet, leather- jacket, eel, wrasse, trevally, reef cod, pike, garfish, wolf herring, anchovy, ra,, and scad. Squid and turtles are also present, and edible shellfish are gathered at low tide.

The types of gear most commonly used on the reef are; fixed fish tra^ or weir, castnet, set-net, surrounding net, hook and line, and spear. Light attraction is also used at night.

The weirs constitute the most important reef fishery. In 1S58, 46 per­ mits were issued for the operation of a total of 146 weirs. In the year ended June 30, 1958, out of a total of 376,556 lbs of fish landed, 84,816 lbs came from the weirs. 47.

Rather limited fishing activities take place just off the fringing reef, where handlining and netting, sometimes with light attraction, produce catches consisting mainly of pelagic fish. Some sport fishing, mainly trolling, is carried out from motorboats.

A commercial live-bait bonito and tuna fishing venture was started in 1954« using Anchoviella purpurea for bait. This venture has apparently been unsuccessful.

Fisheries in Guam are under the supervision of a recently appointed Fish­ eries Biologist and of a Fish Warden.

American Samoa Most of the fishing takes place on the fringing reef; however, small-scale trolling with pole, line and lure, or handline, is practised in good weather outside the reef, using special half-decked canoes known locally as bonito boats. The main types of gear used on the reef are: handspear, spear gun, pole and line, dipnet, castnet, scareline and fixed trap.

Most of the population is involved in part-time fishing activities and some part-time fishermen commercialize tueir catches on the Pago Pago market.

"Palolo" is taken here as in Western Samoa and Fiji. Edible shellfish and small fish are gathered on the reef at low tide.

Apart from this local fishery at the subsistence level, the activities of the fleet of tuna longliners supplying the Van Camp cannery are extremely important. In 1958, % vessels, mostly Japanese (a few Korean vessels were fishing for the cannery for a few years), delivered 12,688 tons of tuna, in­ cluding 8j964 tons of albacore, 2,150 tons of yellowfin tunaj and 476 tons of bigeye tuna. The waste is processed into fish meal. The finished pro­ ducts are exported to the United States.

Fish other than tuna, such as marlin, sailfish, etc., are sold locally, fresh, frozen or canned. The cannery einploys about 400 Samoans of both sexes.

From the beginning of cannery operations by the Van Camp Company, Samoan fishermen have received training aboard the Japanese, and later aboard the

Korean ships. In addition, a small-scale long-lining training scheue has been sponsored by the Government and the Van Camp Company, using a Governnent launch.

In the field of inland fisheries, Tilapia mossanbica has been successfully introduced from Western Samoa and released in a swamp on the island of Auriuu, and in a small river on Tutuila.

Cook Islands

The territory of the Cock Islands comprises two areas: the Northern Group, which is composed only of atolls, and the Southern Group, where high islands of volcanic origin predominate.

A large proportion of the population takes part in fisheries activities. Pishing is only a part-time occupation in most cases and women and children also take a hand in it. Such activities cover sea and reef areas, lagoons, brackish water ponds, creeks and swaiips.

The fishing craft used include canoes with or without outriggers and sailing boats, the latter mainly for pearling. With the exception of pearl- shell diving, which is important in Manihiki and Penrhyn, there is no actual commercial fishing in the whole territory. Pish and other sea foods are used for family consumption or Gifts to friends and relations.

Some ocean fishing is carried out in the immediate vicinity of land, trolling, deep handlining and dipnet fishing by torchlight being the methods generally used. Catches made by trolling include yellowfin tuna., Spanish mackerel, barracuda and trevally, while a special trolling technique with pole and lure is used for bonito. Deep handlines are used for castor-oil fish; dipnets and torches for flying fish.

Most of the fishing takes place on the reefs and inside the lagoons. Pole and line, hand spear, surrounding net and fixed trap are the main typos of gear used in the lagoon and reef areas. A number of shells are gathered for food.

The blacklip pearl shell., taken from Manihiki and Penrhyn, is an important 49. export item in the territory. Pearlshell is taken by naked divers or by "half dress" divers^ locally known as "machine divers". The fishery is regulated.

In 1955> "the author and Mr. R. Powell, Fisheries Officer. Cook Islands, transplanted blacklip pearlshell to Rakahanga. Later Mr. Powell transplanted blacklip into Pukapuka. The survival and subsequent growth of the shell planted was observed in both cases.

Trochus niloticus was introduced in February 1957 from Fiji, and liberated on a reef in the island of Aitutaki. Evidence of reproduction has been found in 1960.

The fauna of inland waters in the Cook Islands includes mostly eels and. shrimps. Tilapia mossambica lias been introduced successfully,

Wallis Islands

This territory has not been surveyed by the South Pacific Commission, it is, however, known from reliable informants that the supply of fish is inade­ quate in relation to local needs. A small quantity of trochus shell is exported. Tilapia mossambica was introduced in 1959, but no further obser­ vations have been made.

Nauru

While this island has not been surveyed by the South Pacific Commission, this organization has cooperated in the introduction of Tilapia mossambica. which has proved most successful.

Tokelau Islands

Fishing and related activities are of the utmost importance in the Tokelau Islands.

Fishing takes place on the reefs and inside the lagoon; and in good weather out3ide the lagoon, within a short distance from shore.

Outrigger canoes are the only fishing craft used. These are built of planks are propelled by paddle or sail. The planks are sewn together with 50. coconut cord and the seams caulked with a mixture of lime and oil. No ribs are used.

Ocean fishing is carried out in the daytime with handlines and the catches include tuna, Spanish mackerel, bonito, trevally, sharks and barracuda. Fly­ ing fish are taken at night, by torchlight, with a dipnet.

The outer reef provides fish and shellfish, and the islanders often fish at the edge of the reef with pole and line for scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) which are present outside the reef, practically at all times. In Fakaofo, the southernmost of the threw atolls comprising the group, schools of scad are some­ times caught in rock traps on the reef.

Communal fish drives commonly take place on the reef, and the catches, which are often considerable, are divided amongst the whole community.

In addition to fish drives, the lagoons are also fished by handlining or trolling and quantities of edible shellfish are gathered in these areas.

The blacklip pearlshell is not present in the Tokelaus, as far as could be ascertained, and recommendations were made for its introduction and for the introduction of trochus.

Norfolk Island

Norfolk is the only island in the South. Pacific Commission area which is not tropical. It is surrounded by rich fishing grounds. The most important species of fish is the sweetlip emperor (lothrinus chrysostomus); the fJ shing grounds also produce red bream, yellowtail kingfish, grouper, silver trevally, yellow-lined trevally, bonito and yellowfin tuna. Sharks are numerous.

Norfolk has no protected harbour, and as a consequence, there are only nine small open motorboats in use. These craft range from \y to 22' overall length. They have to be launched and landed with a crane .and fishing is possible only in fair weather.

The main type of fishing- gear used is a handline weighted with a heavy sinker and rigged with 2 to 4 hooks. The sinker is kept dragging on the bottom 51. while the boat is drifting. Fish, are so numerous that it is common to take four fish at one time, with as many hooks. Fishing from the rocky shore is also widespread.

A small export of frozen fish fillets is the only commercial activity originating with the local population. In spite of very low prices, this venture is beset with many difficulties, the main drawback being the lack of a harbour.

Whaling is an important activity of Norfolk Island. A quota of 1 50 humpback whales per season is taken by Australian chasers and processed at the shore station of the Norfolk Whaling Company, which exports the oil and whalemeal.

Fish Preservation

Quite a number of methods can be used to preserve fish, but not all are applicable in the area, for many reasons. Modem methods, such as deep freezing and canning, can only be used in places where large quantities of fish are landed and where plenty of fresh water is available. Such is the case of the freezing plant at Pallicolo point in Espiritu Santo; New Hebrides, and of the freezing and canning plant at Pago Pago in American Samoa. In both cases fishing and processing are in the hands of foreigners, although local labour is employed to a certain extent.

Some freezing and cold storage on a small scale takes place in the larger towns to preserve fish for local consumption. However, a small export of frozen fish takes place from Norfolk Island to Australia and from Ponape to Guam. Generally speaking, it can be said that cold storage of fish is not common in the area and in quite a few places it is even unpopular.

The preservation methods commonly used in the area are few and very sim­ ple. The most widely used technique is roasting, which the islanders generally call "smoking". The fish is put over a slow fire with or without being gutted, and is turned now and then. It is considered ready after about one hour. In some cases the fish is tied between two sticks to prevent splitting. Such roasted fi3h will keep for two to three days and, if it has not b^en consumed by that time, it is roasted again for a short while. 52.

Sun drying is also practised in some islands, often without treatment with salt. British Solomon Islanders claim that cooking small fish or crabs in closed bamboo containers until the bamboo itself is charred ensures con­ servation for a period of one week.

Cooking fish in the native earth or rock oven ensures preservation until the next day. Salting and drying, as well as wet salting, are practised in a few places and the resulting product is of fairly good quality. Artificial drying in copra dryers is becoming popular in some islands.

The preparation of shrimp paste for export to Indonesia, which was for­ merly a well-established industry on the South Coast of Netherlands New Guinea, has now ceased.

A system worth mentioning here is the preservation of fish, turtles and sometimes lobsters or crabs alive in live-boxes, in pounds, or in live-wells built in some fishing boats. This method usually gives fairly good results, although, under certain conditions, losses can be considerable in the live- wells of boats.

Fisheries Statistics

One of the main difficulties experienced during the Noumea Fisheries Con­ ference in May 1952 was that the complete lack of statistical information pre­ cluded a detailed assessment of fisheries in the area. The importance of statistical records was emphasized in Recommendation 2 of this Conference, which read:

"Periodical and regular compilation and assessment of quantitative and qualitative information on fishing industries should be recog­ nized as essential prerequisites to rational development."

Since then, the situation has improved slightly and statistics are now available for two local-market fisheries and two industrial tuna fisheries, as well as for a number of mother-of-pearl shell and trochus industries. 53-

Local Market Statistics The most elaborate statistical record of this type in the area is that kept at the Papeete fish-market. Yearly totals for the period 1954 to dato are set out below:

Fish Sales - Papeete Market (in kilograms) Year Bonito Tuna Scad Lagoon fish Total

1954 323,960 78,949 132,862 314,999 850,770 1955 278,852 61.558 153,026 302,863 796,299 1956 370,679 53,178 113,369 283,266 820,510 1957 252,368 43,842 35,128 235,676 567,014 1958 180,849 79,085 59,913 241,024 560,871 1959 267,476 73,387 46,765 331,443 714,101

In fact, the statistics kept at Papeete are much more elaborate than indi­ cated by this table, and a distinction is made between four different equalities of lagoon fish.

Records of fish landings by professional fishermen at Noumea have beau kept since August 1960, and the monthly figures available to date are shown in the following table.

Fish Landings - Noumea - August 1960 to December 1960 (in Metric tons)

Aug.I1/ Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 10.6 18.8 21.0 18.9 17-9 (1) Last 15 days only.

Industrial Fisheries Tuna Fisheries In 1958, 56 longliners, most of them Japanese, landed 12,688 tons of fish, which were processed by the Van Camp cannery at Pago Pago, American Samoa. The totals for the three main species were: Albacore 8,964 tons Yellowfin 2,150 " Bi^eye 476 " 54.

The South Pacific Pishing Company, based on Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, exported in 1959 5,709-960 tons of frozen tuna, valued at £359,571, and 8.4 tons of smoked fish valued at £982. Whaling

One industrial whaling station operates seasonally at Norfolk. Its quota, which was of 120 whales before 1959, has since been increased to 150 whales.

Pearlshell, Trochus and Green Snail - Export of Shell French Oceania

Year Blacklip in Kgs. Value in Francs 1955 685,600 1956 451 ,600 1957 406,224

1958 510,000 49;165sOOO 1959 611,000 67,424,000

Cook Islands Year Blacklip in Tons Value in £ 1954 290 74,203 1955 242 91,888 1956 149 101,490 1957 222 176,248 1958 97* 49,580 * Manihiki Lagoon closed

Territory of New Guinea

1955-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 Green Snail Tons 203.0 177.0 178.0 104-2 24.1 Value £ 39,310 46,048 72,819 45,807 8,. 481 Trochus

Tons 547.0 521.0 481.0 345.1 304.7 Value £ 131,011 172,908 230,200 174,519 59,044 Shell, other

Value £ 563* 591 1,033 Includes re-export of 4 cwt. of mother-of-pearl shell valued at £311 55.

Territory of Papua

1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 Green Snail Tons 10 12 20 9 6 Value £ 1,747 3,006 7,824 3,930 2,067 Trochus

Tons 145 320 273 187 111 Value £ 37,022 107,868 128,027 94,739 34,151 Shell, other Tons 0.2 3 H 7 20 Value £ 34 788 2,093 3,279 7,063 Fiji 1956 V957 1958 gantity Value £ Quantity Value £ Quantity Value £ Trochus Shell ~ Unit Ton 245 91,819 149 74,397 235 73,643 British Solomon Islands 1955 1956 Quantity Value £ Quantity Value £ Unit Trochus Shell Ton 607.2 181,927.2 33.5 149,603.5 Green Snail » 83-9 18,797.0 131.0 49,856.9 Netherlands Ne\? Guinea

1954 J1955 1956 Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Unit Trochus Shell 1000 Kg 203.7 340.8 197-3 393-3 195.7 652.4 Other Shell » -- 28.6 66.4 30.3 64.1 36.3 114.2 Value X thousand guilders New Caledonia 1957 1958 Quantity Value Quantity Value Unit Trochus Shell Ton 143-9 4.502 258-7 17,434 Value X 1,000 CPP Francs 56,

New Hebrides 1955 1956 1957 1958 Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Green Snail 52 13,120 40 12,889 35 10,487 8 2,233

Trochus 122 29,902 121 38>276 74 22,807 26 7,444 Quantities in Metric Tons. Value in £ Stg. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 1957 1958 Quantity Value $ Quantity Value $ Unit Trochus lb. 376,500 398,988 144.347

Rough Estimates of Territorial Landings

Detailed knowledge of the quantities of fish, shellfish and crustaceans landed in the various territories would be extremely valuable. The subsistence character of the great majority of fisheries activities in the area unfortunately precludes the collection of such statistics. The best that can be done, after five years of surveying the fisheries of the area, is a rough estimate of global landings for each territory, which is submitted below with all due reservations as to the accuracy of the figures. All landings in connection with industrial fisheries are excluded from this table.

Territory Population Estimated landings in metric tons Fish Other aquatic fauna Papua and New Guinea 1,728,000 8,000 3,000

Netherlands New Guinea 700,000 3,i.00 2,800 Fiji 374,000 3,740 1,870

British Solomon Islands 114s000 1,140 570

Western Samoa 103>000 1,545 515 French Polynesia 79,000 1,975 790

U.S. Trust Territory 0f the Pacific Islands 71,000 1,775 710 New Caledonia and Dependencies 69,000 1,380 345 Tonga 57,000 570 285 C/Fwd 3,295,000 23,625 10,885 57.

Territory Population Estimated landings in metric tons Fish Other aquatic fauna

B/Fwd 3,295,000 23,625 10,885 New Hebrides 53>400 374 160 Gilbert & Ellice Islands 44,000 1J0 0 440 Guam 40,000 171 80 American Samoa 22,000 110 110 Cook Islands 17,000 340 170 Wallis and Futuna 9,300 116 38 Niue 5,000 50 25 Nauru 4,000 40 8 Tokelau Islands 2,000 60 60 Norfolk Island 1,000 25 2 Total 3,492,700 26 ,011 11 ;978

PRESENT TRENDS IN FISHERIES

In the greatest part of the area, there is no tendency at the present time to bring fisheries out of the subsistence category and into the local market or indus­ trial classes. ilpart from the adoption, for the sake of convenience, of steel hooksj cotton twines and synthetic materials, no great change has been effected and traditional methods are still the only ones practised in a majority of cases.

In a few instances, the presence of towns has given rise to local market fisheries, but even there it cannot be said that truly great advances have been made over the traditional subsistence activities; the same activities are raerely intensified. This intensification may be achieved in many different ways; full- time fishin^ instead of part-time, adoption of European type of gear, similar to the traditional item but superior in strength, easier to manage or to replace-, adoption of boats of European design, more roomy than the canoe and also more sea-worthy. Very few new fishing techniques have been tried and fish marketing is still in its infancy. Industrial fishing is limited to the activities of Japanese tuna fishermen 58. and the production of mother-of-pearl shells by South Pacific Islanders. Some attempts at tuna fishing on a small scale are, however, made in American Samoa.

It might be argued that traditional methods, or traditional gear, may be quite sufficient to satisfy the needs of most of the area. Two factors, however, weigh against this view: the change from a subsistence economy to a cash economy through the production of copra, coffee or other commodities, such as phosphate or nickel, and the urbanization of certain areas. In the first case, the islander engaged in producing copra or in mining cannot devote as much time to fishing as his grandfather did; in the second, town dwellers engaged in stead,, occupations on the European pattern are generally unable to go fishing- at all.

The copra producer still fishes at a subsistence level. Slight improvements of gear and possibly the introduction of small motors may be quite sufficient to allow him a maximum of time for his plantation work without depriving him and his family of the fish they need. Unfortunately, outboard motors are costly and even new gear may represent quite a sum. At the moment, very few territories are giving assistance to subsistence fishermen for the purchase of motors or of gear. The plight of town dwellers is quite different. Ideally, they should be able to buy fish at reasonable prices whenever they want it. This entails improvement and progress in more than just fishing.

As for the labourers working in various types cf mines, they are sometimes provided, as part of their remuneration, with food rations which often include fish or meat. In other cases, their salary enables them to buy tinned meat and tinned fish, or occasionally the fresh products. Considerable progress could still be made in many instances.

In quite a number of places, a fish market has been organized to some extent. However, there is seldom any connection between the organization of the market itself and that of the fishermen.

The trend in many areas of dense population is to adopt modern methods of conservation, especially cold storage. However, these methods are not always popular with the consumers and faulty organization of marketing has on occasion increased this attitude of mistrust. 59.

THE FUTURE OF FISHERIES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC

A distinction has been made in the preceding chapters between subsistence fisheries, local-market fisheries and industrial fisheries. These three broad categories will again form some of the subdivisions in this chapter. They represent natural steps in development and, at least for the first two, it is often difficult to state precisely when one turned into the other.

Subsistence Fisheries

Subsistence fishing will probably persist under one form or another long after the physical need for it has disappeared. This is nothing new and the many types of "recreational fishing" practised in Europe have exactly the same origin. Meanwhile, a high proportion of the populations in the area still depend on their own fishing skills to provide much of their daily food.

Improvements in this field should tend to increase the efficiency of fishing rather than its intensity. The problem, in effect, is to enable each fisherman to catch the same quantity of fish in a shorter time. The saving in time may be effected in two ways;

(a) by speeding up fishing operations, (b) by reducing the time spent in reaching and returning from the fishing grounds.

(a) Speeding up fishing operations A general improvement could be made in the flying fish catch in practically all low islands and atolls where this fish is traditionally taken with dipnets, merely by introducing nylon driftnets. Suitable nets are already used in many places as tanglenets, and would only require the addition of a certain numbei' of floats. Recent trials made in Rarotonga have shown that the rate of catch per man/hour is greatly increased.

The same improvement could be made in the case of all small pelagic fish, such as scad and mackerels, which provide a large part of subsistence catches in some pacific Islands.

Small-scale longlining could replace the single-line method of tuna tishing 60. with some advantage, and the abovementioned use of driftnets would ensure fairly regular supplies of bait.

In the case of high islands, especially in tne Melanesian area, bottom gillnets could be introduced in many places where the spear and the handline are practically the only gear known. Shark damage may however restrict the use of such nets. wing-traps, either fixed or mobile, would also serve to improve the rate of catch per man/hour. In such islands, much depends on whether the coastal people are traditionally sea-minded or not. In the New Hebrides, for instance, very few of the indigenous people are capable of manag­ ing small craft at sea; canoes are comparatively few and not very seaworthy. In such a place, shore traps would be the obvious answer, at least for the present. In many other Melanesian islands, however, large and very manoeuver- able canoes are available and some form of net fishing is practised; there, the bottom gillnets and the driftnets would provide an adequate solution.

(b) Reducing time to and from fishing grounds There are islands where the subsistence fishing methods used at present are already quite efficient, or where local resources would not lend themselves to improvement of gear alone. In such cases, the time spent sailing or paddling to and from the fishing grounds is sometimes considerable and can be shortened by the introduction of small outboard motors if the craft used are canoes, or of inboard motors if the boats are of European design.

Such elementary mechanization may improve fishing in other ways, such as making it possible to reach a school of tuna or bonito in a dead calm, or giv­ ing access to hitherto rarely exploited areas. In some cases, improvement of the craft themselves is justified.

In contemplating such a step, however, it should be remembered that a motor represents a big outlay for indigenous fishermen. Mechanization should b& resorted to when the demand for fish far exceeds the supply and, if possible, where a local-market fishery is likely to develop in the near future.

Financial assistance in the form of short-term hire purchase, tax or Customs exemption, or loans for the purchase of motors is definitely indicated whenever mechanization is envisaged. 61.

Local-Market Fisheries

Local-market fisheries have developed spontaneously wherever groups of people with a steady income were unable to do their own fishing. It cannot be said that they are extablished on modern lines anywhere in the South Pacific.

Ideally, a local-market fishery should provide fresh fish in sufficient quantities at all times. Periods of bad weather should not prevent a buyer from eating fish, and this supposes not only a fairly efficient fishery, but also an efficient marketing system.

In practice, two possibilities may be found: (a) a potentially efficient fishery slowed down by inadequate storage and marketing facilities,

(b) a fishery that is unable to cope even with the immediate demand, not to speak of accumulating enough reserves to tide the consumers over periods of bad weather or unproductive fishing.

(a) Efficient fishery, inadequate marketing In comparatively small communities, the adoption of the live-well and live- box system may be sufficient to ensure a supply of fresh fish under practically all circumstances.

In larger communities where a small group of fishermen is trying to deal at the same time with the supply and the marketing of fish, some sort of sales organization (a co-operative, for instance) equipped with the necessary cold storage facilities, would liberate the fishermen and enable them to practice fishing, to the exclusion of any marketing activities.

The absorption of surplus fish may cause problems in some cases. Most of these could, however, be solved by salting or smoking the fish and marketing- it in inland centres.

(b) Inefficient fishery The adoption of mechanized fishing craft of European design, and of modern methods and gear, is practically a necessity whenever a fishery cannot cope with the immediate demand. A rational marketing system must be adopted at the 62. same time. The adoption of serai-industrial fishing methods is often necessary and the changes involved always require the attention of a suitably staffed Fisheries Service.

In developing either the marketing, organization or the actual fishing in­ dustry, sone form of assistance is often useful. Such assistance may take the forn of tax and customs exemptions, help in establishing cooperative organiza­ tions, provision of training facilities, etc..

Industrial Fisheries

Two types of industrial fisheries nay be distinguished in the pacific: tuna fishing for canneries> and trochus and pearlshell fishing. The former will un­ doubtedly develop in many islands, with or without Japanese participation. The present fluctuations of the world market, however; make it imperative that pro­ duction costs be kept down to a minimum, while; the production itself must be steady and abundant. In addition, tuna fishing requires skilled crews. ex­ pensive boats and no less expensive gear.

The latter type of industrial fishing, the production of mother-of-pearl, is now the subject of intensive applied research in the Cook Islands and in French Polynesia, Nothing much need be said about it here, except that it is more a regulated harvesting than a fishery. In this field, some improve­ ment may be effected by applying strict grading and marketing policies, which should preferably be standardized over the whole of the area. The mother-of- pearl trade provides a luxury item and further advances in the commercial pro­ duction of high quality plastics will inevitably reduce the number of outlets still open in this field.

A third type of industrial fishing has been left unmentioned sc far. This is whaling. A single shore station exists at the moment in the area, at Norfolk Island. Some small-scale whaling is carried out for subsistence purposes in Tonga. Potentially the area is quite promising. Large migrations of whales are observed in a number of territories and could be exploited, by land sta­ tions only, since the International Convention for the regulation of whaling' prohibits the use of factory ships for most of the South Pacific Commission area. 63.

It is reasonable to think that eventually the raising of choice items such as lobsters, sea turtles and some types of shellfish, especially oysters, may become a profitable industry in the area.

Fish Preservation and the Future of Fisheries

At the subsistence level, very little preservation is needed in most of the Pacific Islands, the fish being caught more or less as needed for the family's next meal. In some of the larger islands, traditional forms of barter between coastal and inland populations have led to the development of crude, but often, effective preservation rnethods, by hot smoking (roasting), salting and drying.

In the small markets of the area, cold storage, and sometimes freezing, have been used for quite a few years now with various degrees of success. The industrial freezing plants of Espiritu Santo cms! Pago Pago are far ahead of the rest, but are only mentioned here in passing, as they do not serve the area directly.

With the development of transport facilities of all types, and the general adoption of modern fishing craft, freezing and cold storage will eveiitually be­ come the most widely used methods of preservation in the area. However, many years will elapse before these methods provide complete coverage for the area.

It is to be expected that an increase in the production of fish in any territory will create problems of preservation. It will become necessary to spread the production more evenly in time, using frozen, smoked or salted fish to maintain the continuity of supply during periods of bad weather or, in the case of certain species, during parts of the year when they cannot be caught in sufficient quantities. It will also become necessary to spread the produc­ tion over a larger area, wherever possible, in order to make fish available at reasonable prices to populations who have no access to the sea or to productive inland waters. Here again, application of one or more of the three methods mentioned above will prove essential.

I 64.

Improvement in the traditional preservation methods of smoking and salt­ ing is necessary, for the products prepared now have rather poor keeping qualities, seldom exceeding a week. The introduction of cold smoking, which has already begun in some territories, is highly advisable, since the products can, with reasonable care in preparation, be kept for long periods even under humid climates, and are generally well accepted by the populations.

Salting and drying, preferably hot-air drying, can give a product of very good appearance and taste, which keeps well under most conditions. Here again, the population seem to like salted fish.

New methods, or at least methods new for the area, should be considex-ed whenever preservation becomes necessary. pish flakes, fish pastes and fish solubles are easy enough to prepare and can give rise to flourishing small in­ dustries supplying local markets or even whole regions. However, these may not be acceptable to inland populations, in spite of their great nutritive value under a small volume. It is possible, in some areas where inland peo­ ple have a craving for salt, that fish solubles or fish pastes, which are very salty, might be introduced more easily by insisting on that quality, rathex" than on their value as foods.

Fish flakes, which had for a time been considered as the near ideal pro­ duct for the supply of fish to inland areas, require preparation (soaking and boiling or frying) of a type quite foreign to most inland cultures in the larger islands of the Pacific, a characteristic which considerably reduces their value, although their keeping qualities are among the highest for any- fish preparations.

Conservation of Resources

In all cases where the expansion of fisheries must take place in the reef and lagoon areas adjacent to islands, the problem of overfishing will appear, sooner or later. Such environments have indeed a very precarious biological balance, and while they can support a subsistence fishery for long periods, deterioration becomes apparent very quickly once the fishing pressure is increased beyond that level. 65.

Reef and lagoon fishes are essentially sedentary. Once the fauna of a particular patch of reef has yielded the equivalent of its normal biological increasej it becomes extremely sensitive and any further reduction in numbers actually constitutes overfishing.

Care must therefore be taken to limit the fishing pressure in sensitive areas, and one of the most effective ways of achieving such protection is to turn the fishing activities on to pelagic species. Pelagic fish, contrary to reef and lagoon species, are migratory, at least to a certain extent, and their habitat, in comparison, is unlimited. Their occasional presence in lagoons and reef areas suffering from overfishing has been sufficient in many cases to maintain a large part of the local subsistence fishery.

The introduction of suitable deep-sea fishing craft and methods is probably the best means of avoiding the exhaustion of reef and lagoon resources. Regu­ lations may be effective in reducing overfishing, but only where sufficient enforcement personnel is available and where, first of all, the population can be Bade to see the danger of destroying natural resources. 66.

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