SRH University of Applied Sciences Berlin International Business Administration - Focus on Renewable Energy

Bachelor’s Thesis on Change of the current car fleet to e- cars and hybrids on the example of selected institutions in North Rhine- Westphalia

submitted by Christopher Gerwin Matriculation No.: 3100798 Am Hüttenpfad 10, 58802 Balve Tel.: +49 (0)2375/1783 E-mail: [email protected] Institution: The Ministry for Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia

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First Supervisor: Professor Dr. Michael Hartmann Second Supervisor: Dipl. Geogr. Matthias Raab

Processing Time: eight weeks Date of Submission: 10.07.2017

Abstract

Climate change and the resulting global warming are some of the greatest challenging issues the world faces these days. High emissions are one of the causes of these problems and especially Germany as a highly developed country is responsible for the pollution. A large role plays the transportation sector because millions of cars pollute the environment every day. That is the reason why the EU and its member states set goals for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions for 2020 and 2030. One of the goals is to switch to e-mobility. Therefore, this bachelor thesis works on the change of current car fleets to e-cars and hybrids on the example of selected institutions in North Rhine-Westphalia in cooperation with the Ministry for Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia. The analyzed institutions with different data situations are the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz Nordrhein-Westfalen, the Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen and the Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf. It can be seen that the range of cars they use varies from street cars over SUVs to tractors, mostly driven by combustion engines and having different tasks to fulfill. All these factors are evaluated and recommendations for more environmental friendly car fleets are given.

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I. Table of Contents

Abstract ...... 2 Acknowledgement ...... 5 II. List of Tables ...... 6 III. List of Figures ...... 7 IV. Table of Abbreviations ...... 8 1.0 Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Need for sustainable development ...... 10 1.2 Carbon cycle ...... 11 1.3 Ecological footprint ...... 12 1.4 Consequences of a rising global temperature ...... 14 1.5 Comparison of emitted greenhouse gases in Europe ...... 16 1.6 Goals ...... 19 1.7 Regulations ...... 21 2. Need for e-cars and hybrids ...... 24 3. E-cars and hybrids ...... 28 3.1 Definition of e-cars and hybrids ...... 28 3.2 Current and future e-cars and hybrids ...... 39 4. Methodology of interviews ...... 45 5. The Projektgruppe Klimaneutrale Landesverwaltung ...... 47 6.0 Institutions of the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia analyzed in this thesis . 47 6.1 The Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz Nordrhein-Westfalen ...... 47 6.2 North Rhine-Westphalia State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection ...... 54 6.3 Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf ...... 57 7. Guideline for the purchase of new cars for the federal state North Rhine- Westphalia ...... 60 8. Calculation for the comparison of conventional cars with e-cars ...... 62 8.1 Theory ...... 62 8.2 Practice ...... 63 9. Scenarios for alternative cars ...... 65 10. Charging stations ...... 67 11. Conclusion ...... 72 12. Sources and Literature ...... 74

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12.1 Reference of Sources ...... 74 12.1.2 Unpublished Sources ...... 80 12.2 Reference of Literature ...... 81 13. Appendix ...... 84

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Acknowledgement

This thesis was only possible because of the support of the members of Projektgruppe Klimaneutrale Landesverwaltung, in particular Mr. Voelker who supervised the work. Furthermore, thanks go to Mr. Schlüter of the Ministerium der Finanzen des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, Mr. Gönner of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz, Mr. Jahnke of the Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen and Mr. Scherg of the Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf who offered their time and effort to provide important information for this thesis.

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II. List of Tables

Table 1 Electric cars 2017 ...... 41 Table 2 Electric cars 2017-2022 ...... 42 Table 3 Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz ...... 53 Table 4 LANUV ...... 56

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III. List of Figures

Figure 1 Interconnection ...... 11 Figure 2 Carbon cycle (NIACS no date) ...... 12 Figure 3 Ratio of demand and supply of the global biocapacity (National Footprint Accounts (NFA) 2017a) ...... 13 Figure 4 Biocapacity (NFA 2017b) ...... 14 Figure 5 Carbon dioxide level (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 2017) ...... 15 Figure 6 Global temperature increase (NASA´s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) 2017) ...... 15 Figure 7 Melting of the ice (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) 2017) ...... 15 Figure 8 Rise of the sea-level (National Geographic no date) ...... 16 Figure 9 Europe total greenhouse gas emissions (Eurostat approx. 2015) ...... 17 Figure 10 Emissions of the German federal states (Salb, C., et al. 2016) ...... 18 Figure 11 Sustainable Development Goals (UN no date b) ...... 20 Figure 12 Illustrative paths of energy from source to service (REN21 2017) ...... 22 Figure 13 Global power generation - development since 2003 (REN21 2017) ...... 23 Figure 14 Development of global transport supply by source, 2003-2015 (REN21 2017)...... 25 Figure 15 Main components of a conventional car (Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC) 2017) ...... 29 Figure 16 Cylinder (UtzOnBike 2017) ...... 30 Figure 17 Audi electric motor (Audi AG 2016) ...... 31 Figure 18 Components of a lithium battery (Fritz, D., et al. 2016) ...... 32 Figure 19 Battery weight of different car types (Fritz, D., et al. 2016) ...... 33 Figure 20 Total PM-emissions (Fritz, D., et al. 2016) ...... 34 Figure 21 Hybrid components (AFDC 2017) ...... 35 Figure 22 Plug-in Hybrid components (AFDC 2017) ...... 36 Figure 23 BEV components (AFDC 2017) ...... 37 Figure 24 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle components (AFDC 2017) ...... 38 Figure 25 Emissions of different engines (Fritz, D., et al. 2016)...... 38 Figure 26 Development of emissions (European Environment Agency 2016) ...... 43 Figure 27 Plug-in systems (EMNRW 2017) ...... 69 Figure 28 EU member states comparison (European Alternative Fuels Observatory 2017) ...... 70 Figure 29 Organizational structure of the Ministry (MCEANC 2017) ...... 84 Figure 30 Structure of the federal state administration (Government of North Rhine- Westphalia 2013) ...... 85 Figure 31 General map of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen 2017) ...... 86 Figure 32 Data Landgestüt (Scherg, J. 2017) ...... 87 Figure 33 Driver's logbook 1 (Ministry of Finance of North-Rine Westphalia (MFNRW) 2016) . 88 Figure 34 Driver's logbook 2 (MFNRW) 2016) ...... 89

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IV. Table of Abbreviations

€ Euro AC Alternating Current app. approximately approx. approximately BEV Battery Electric Vehicle CCS Combined Charging System CHAdeMO Charge for Moving

CO 2 carbon dioxide DC Direct Current DIWA Dienstwaldarbeiter e- electric- e.g. for example e.V. registered society EG European Community et al. and others EU European Union FBB Forstbetriebsbezirk FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle g gramme HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle ICE Internal Combustion Engine KFZ car (Kraftfahrzeug) kg kilogramme km kilometer kW kilowatt kWh kilowatt hour l litre lt. laut m meter M-Begleit Maschinenbegleitfahrzeug

8 mt million tons NEDC New European Driving Cycle no. number NOx nitrogen oxide NRW North Rhine-Westphalia

O2 oxygen dioxide PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle REEV Range Extended Electric Vehicle RFA Regionalforstamt SPWP Waldplanung SUV Sports Utility Vehicle VgV Vergabeverortnung VOL/A Allgemeine Bestimmungen für die Vergabe von Leistungen WLTP Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure WSM Waldschutzmanagement Z Zentrale Münster mittl. mittlerer

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1.0 Introduction

Industrial nations like Germany are developing more and more. Due to this progress people’s affluence is constantly growing but the Earth suffers from high emissions, especially greenhouse gases (e.g. CO 2), which are a side effect of this process. A big part of greenhouse gases results from transport. This thesis is about one method how Germany is working against the negative effects. In cooperation with the Ministry for Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia this paper shows, how a federal state is ambitious to change their car fleets in order to reduce CO 2 emissions. Since it is a very complex and new issue there are many aspects which have to be considered. In this thesis, a few of them were analyzed. At first it is important to explain why an institution has to change its car fleet under the aspects of the environment and the goals and regulations the EU, Germany and North Rhine-Westphalia set for 2020 and 2030. Secondly, the concept of electric cars which are an alternative to conventional cars and their advantages will be explained. Furthermore it is interesting to see which models are already available. After that the car fleets of three institutions of NRW are analyzed. Calculations show patterns of the usage of different vehicle types and how the costs between a conventional and an e-car differ. In the end, a recommendation about alternative cars and charging stations is given.

1.1 Need for sustainable development

Sustainability is an essential movement of the 21 st century. It is promoted by political and economic agendas and summits like e.g. the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) as the future oriented and responsible alternative to the current lifestyle. This means that not only the behavior of companies changes but also the behavior of people in their private life. As shown in Figure 1 the society, the environment and the economy are

10 interconnected. One component influences in most of the cases at least one other. In order to protect all three components, one has to act environmentally friendly, profitable and one must keep the social justice. By doing this all components are supported and the action is sustainable (Engelfried, J. 2011).

Figure 1 Interconnection 1

The reason why sustainability is demanded is that the current lifestyle of the biggest part of the population on earth cannot be continued in the long-term. Over 7 billion people live on this planet and they all consume natural resources, they need food and drinking water and an area they can live in. The problem is that the earth cannot provide infinite resources and space.

1.2 Carbon cycle

In order to understand the context of this scientific work and its relationship to sustainability, it is essential to understand the basics of the carbon cycle. It explains the fundamental problem that causes the global warming and the climate change. Carbon is one of the most important elements needed for life on Earth. The carbon cycle explains the exchange of carbon with all components existing on this planet. The basis for the cycle are respiration and photosynthesis. Plants

1 Own creation 11 bind CO 2 during the photosynthesis and produce O 2. The problem of the cycle is that due to the human behavior too much CO 2 is emitted. By e.g. burning fossil fuels high amounts of CO 2 are emitted. Plants cannot absorb this much

CO 2 and the result is an increasing amount in the atmosphere. There it leads to a climate change and the global warming (Nothern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS) 2017).

Figure 2 Carbon cycle (NIACS no date)

One measurement tool for carbon is the ecological footprint.

1.3 Ecological footprint

The so called “ecological footprint” is a tool which can help to illustrate the relationship of environment and humanity by using microeconomic and

12 macroeconomic systems. Different footprint accounts exist but in most cases, they try to determine information about carbon, water, materials, biodiversity, natural resources or nitrogen. The latest data provided by the Global Footprint Network shows that humanity demands more from the earth than it can supply. Since the beginning of the 1970’s the demand is higher than the supply (Figure 3). In 2012 humanity required already a biocapacity of 1.6 Earths in order to provide all services and natural resources humanity consumed over the year (World Wide Fund International (WWF) 2016). The tendency is an increasing demand.

Figure 3 Ratio of demand and supply of the global biocapacity (National Footprint Accounts (NFA) 2017a)

As can be seen in the following figure, the global bio capacity per person decreases. In 50 years, it has sunk by approximately one third. For humans, this means that the needs for every person can be fulfilled less every year. The

13 number of people grows but the demand does not change. The treatment of the environment needs to change in order to exploit the Earth less.

Figure 4 Biocapacity (NFA 2017b)

1.4 Consequences of a rising global temperature

Another aspect is threatened by the climate change through CO 2. If a temperature increase of more than two degrees happened it would lead to e.g. a melting of the ice and the overflowing of flat islands as well as areas which are not far above sea-level. Many people would lose their homes. Thousands would have to move. As can be seen in figures 5-8 as global carbon dioxide values increase the global average temperature rises as well, the amount of ice decreases because it melts and leads to a higher sea-level.

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Figure 5 Carbon dioxide level (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 2017)

Figure 6 Global temperature increase (NASA´s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) 2017)

Figure 7 Melting of the ice (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) 2017)

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Figure 8 Rise of the sea-level (National Geographic no date)

In 20 years, the sea-level has risen about eight centimeters. For Louisiana (USA) every year a sea-level rise means a loss of about 65 square kilometers of wetlands. This shows the drastic consequences the expanding melting of the ice causes (Augustin, J. Dr., et al. 2017 and Glick, D. no date). For local measurements in the Baltic and the North Sea several simulations were made giving several outlooks. All use different parameters for their prediction. Therefore, the results are very different. Church for example comes to the conclusion that a sea-level rise of 30-80 cm until 2100 could be possible (Augustin, J. Dr., et al. 2017).

There is a need for change if the next generations should be able to discover a world which can provide them with their basic needs. Since the environment consist of many ecosystems which are all connected by e.g. the global carbon dioxide level, every country has to improve its behavior.

CO 2 is a greenhouse gas and it is important to make a comparison between countries in order to see how much improvement is still necessary.

1.5 Comparison of emitted greenhouse gases in Europe

Focusing on Europe the situation of emitted greenhouse gases looks as follows (Figure 9).

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Figure 9 Europe total greenhouse gas emissions (Eurostat approx. 2015)

Germany is responsible for the highest greenhouse gas emission value in Europe. It has many inhabitants and a strong economy, in particular the car and the manufacturing branch. Between the years 1990 and 2014 it has been responsible for almost 22 percent of the total emissions of Europe. Since this scientific work focuses on North Rhine-Westphalia it is important to know how the ratio of the federal states to each other looks like (Figure 10).

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Figure 10 Emissions of the German federal states (Salb, C., et al. 2016)

The average of the emission of greenhouse gases per head in Germany is 11.5 tons. With 16.7 tons NRW had the fifth highest value in 2012. This results from the local brown coal reservoirs. The coal mining is connected to high emission values which have a great share of the total emissions of NRW.

When scientists and politicians found out about the consequences of the irresponsible behavior of the 20th century, they realized that change was necessary. Incidences like the oil crisis of the 1970s scared people and made

18 them realize that non-renewable resources can be finite (Engelfried, J. 2011). Especially technologies had to become more environmental friendly. This negative outlook for the future made people decide to use alternative technologies like e.g. renewable energy power plants to generate electricity and to avoid unnecessary emissions coming from e.g. the traffic sector. Sustainable solutions were and are needed on a global level as well as on a local level in North Rhine-Westphalia. These necessary solutions can be found in political goals and regulations.

1.6 Goals

In order to shape the world into a place where everyone can be happy and in which the Earth is treated the best way, global goals have been set over the years. In the 20 th century with the UN conference on the Human Environment from 1972 the first step towards a sustainable world was made. People started to talk on a global level about the problematic results of the human behavior of that time (United Nations (UN) no date a). Over the years many other important conferences and summits have occurred and the goals have been expanded. For 2020, the European Commission set the goals in 2010. These goals imply a “[s]ustainable growth – promoting a more resource efficient, greener and more competitive economy.” (European Commission (EC) 2010a, p.5). In detail, this means that compared to 1990 the level of greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by 20 percent at minimum. Furthermore, the share of renewable energy sources should be increased by 20 percent as well as an increase of the energy efficiency of 20 percent.

In 2015 the United Nations adopted the global goals as the new goals for 2030. They are 17 goals which include 169 targets which 193 countries want to achieve. One can see below in Figure 11 that these goals address many aspects of the human life. Clean water and sanitation, clean energy, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption, protect the planet, life below water, and life on land

19 refer to our planet which has to be protected. Some are directly connected to greenhouse gases.

Figure 11 Sustainable Development Goals (UN no date b)

The framework for the environmental and the energy sector in Europe for 2030 consist of three broad targets. The first one is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 percent. The second one is to reach a share of renewable energy of 27 percent minimum and the last one is to improve the energy efficiency by at least 27 percent. Values of 1990 are taken as a reference (EC 2010b). Out of the Paris conference NRW created an own climate protection schedule. Parts of this are included in several chapters.

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1.7 Regulations

In order to approach big goals (2020 goals, 2030 goals) step by step regulations or targets were set. This essay focuses on e-cars and hybrids. Therefore, this topic will focus on the process of reaching the 2020 and 2030 goals and which targets should be reached. Only those aspects of sustainability which can be related to environmental and energetic aspects will be considered. Energy in form of electricity is necessary for many industrial processes and private activities. It will a big problem if the generation of electricity is not environmental friendly. A good example for an unsustainable type of electricity generation is brown coal which emits a lot of CO 2. Nuclear power plants are also a bad alternative since there is no sustainable recycling process for the nuclear waste and the process necessary to gain highly pure uranium is emitting many CO 2 emissions. Therefore, sustainable alternatives had to be found. These alternatives are renewable energy power plants which reduce

CO 2 emissions. They are important because electric cars must consume electricity coming from renewables if emissions should be decreased significantly. Renewable power plants emit almost zero emissions in the generation of electricity.

First of all, it is important to know which types of technology exist on the market and what they can be used for. The following figure explains the main types of energy and how they are gained. Nuclear fuels, fossil fuels, bioenergy, geothermal energy, direct solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy and ocean energy supply human needs in the form of different heat energy types, electrical energy and mechanical energy.

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Figure 12 Illustrative paths of energy from source to service (REN21 2017)

Different energy types can be gained from different sources. Bioenergy, geothermal energy and direct solar energy could for example replace fossil fuels and nuclear fuels when heat is needed. All types of renewables can be used in order to generate electricity and they all can offer mechanical energy services. Theoretically it is possible to avoid fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. By 2050 the energy generation shall be 100 percent renewable. In order to reach this level, the 2020 and 2030 goals were set. The issue is that a realization of these goals is not easy. Several countries allow more daily hours of direct solar irradiation than others. In some countries, there is more wind than in others etc. According to the difference of the climate and many other aspects each country has different conditions which are advantageous for some types of renewables and disadvantageous for others. Therefore, it is important to adapt to the environment and to implement fitting solutions which can cover the needs of the country.

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In 2014 19.2 percent of the global final energy consumption was provided by renewable energy. 8.9. percent of the energy needed for cooking and heating was provided by biomass. Renewables (excluding biomass) increased to a total of 10.3 percent. Hydropower reached a share of about 3.9 percent of the final energy consumption in 2014, others contributed 1.4 percent. Heat energy coming from renewables contributed 4.2 percent and biofuels for transport provided about 0.8 percent (REN21 2017). The huge difference between the energy power generation and the change between 2003 and 2015 can be seen in the following figure.

Figure 13 Global power generation - development since 2003 (REN21 2017)

The difference of the share of renewables between 2003 and 2015 did not change much because the amount of energy needed increased in total. Not only renewables but also fossil energy sources increased. Europe reached a share of 16.4 percent of renewables in the final energy consumption in 2015. The 2020 goals seem to be reachable. The same year renewables reached 27.5 percent of the EU’s electricity generation (EC 2017).

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Germany reduced the greenhouse gas emissions in the energy sector between 1990 and 2012 by about 18 percent which is a reduction from 458 million tons to 377 million tons (Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure 2016a). Until 2020 the remaining value should decrease about 306 million tons. Measures like increasing the amount of renewable power plants etc. are supposed to enable this change (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety 2014). The energy sector is strongly connected to the transport sector because of the change from conventional cars to e-cars which depend on electricity.

2. Need for e-cars and hybrids

Every day people around the Earth are mobile. Billions go e.g. to their job or buy groceries. Most of them do not do it by feet but by car or public transport etc. Early 2015 worldwide about 1.05 billion cars were registered. In Europe, it were 250 million and in Germany about 45 million cars. In 85 percent of the case people use their car in order to go somewhere. In 2014 this led to 929 billion driven kilometers (Dudenhöffer, F. 2016).Traffic is responsible for high emission values around the globe. Billions use a sort of motorized vehicles to cover distances. Currently this results in a total of 27 percent of the global emissions. About 60 percent of this value result from passenger transport. For Germany, the prognosis is that the passenger transport (public transport excluded) will increase between 2010 and 2030 by 9.9 percent (Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure 2016a). The transport of people on roads is responsible for 67 percent of the freight transport emissions while shipping is responsible for 23 percent, and the rail transports for 4 percent. In 2013 92.7 percent of the emissions came from oil products while bio fuels made a share of 2.5 percent and electricity was responsible for 1 percent (REN21 2017). In 2015, it was already 4 percent. The number of electric cars has increased from 200,000 in 2013 to 1,200,000 in 2015. This shows that people understand the urgent need of changing their behavior. Sustainable solutions are supported but still have to be adapted in a bigger dimension.

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Figure 14 shows very clearly that economic alternatives to the traditional transport with oil are not widely spread yet.

Figure 14 Development of global transport supply by source, 2003-2015 (REN21 2017)

The trend for a more environmental friendly transportation is a big topic for the EU. Huge sums are invested in order to invent new solutions for the public transport of the future. More than 6€ billion are invested in the transport sector. In 2016 3.4 million new cars were registered. This is about 4.5 percent more than the in the year before. 47.996 hybrids, 13,744 plug-in hybrids and 11,410 battery electric vehicles were registered. Gasoline cars had a share of 52.1 percent and 45.9 percent were diesel driven cars. The amount of new diesel cars decreased by approximately two percent. The average of emitted CO 2 decreased by 1.4 g/km until 127.4 g/km. More private people used to buy a car. The share grew from 34.2 to 35 percent (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt no date).

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A binding target for the EU member states is to reach a minimum share of 10 percent of biofuels in the overall EU transport sector by 2020. By applying this target second-generation biofuels should become acquirable (Council of the European Union 2007). Furthermore, the share of energy in the form of renewable sources in the transport sector of the community energy consumption should be at least 10 percent.

In Germany, the number of electric cars is supposed to rise until 1 million cars in 2020 and 6 million cars in 2030. Between 2009 and 2011 the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure has invested 150€ million in 220 projects dealing with the support of electromobility (Federal Government 2017). On April 2017 91,070 new electric cars were registered (Verband der Automobilindustrie e.V. (VDA) 2017). In North Rhine-Westphalia the goal for 2020 is to reach a number of 250,000 electric cars on the road. For the car fleet of the federal state 10 percent of electric cars should be reached (Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN (EMNRW) no date b). It is very likely that the number of electric cars will rise, not only because oil is used in order to produce gasoline and diesel but also because how engines work with these liquids. Oil deposits are getting smaller. Therefore, many people used to buy a diesel. A diesel allows the driver to save some liters on the road. The VW scandal shocked many people when it became public that many diesel engines of different car companies were manipulated. The NOx and often also the CO 2 values exhausted by a car were faked on a test block. This was possible due to a software which recognized that the car was tested on a test block and then showed the tester fake numbers. The tester then accepted the car as a “clean” car. In the USA people found out about this software and not only there but worldwide people bought cars with the cheating software. Only VW alone was responsible for a recall of 2.3 million cars (Viehmann, S. 2017). The consequences for people who bought a diesel were different. A loss of value, no permission at TÜV Nord if no update has been undertaken and starting in 2018 diesel driven cars of a lower environmental standard than level 6 are not allowed to drive in parts of Stuttgart (Stuttgarter- Zeitung.de 2017). Customers of companies like for example VW, Audi, BMW,

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Mercedes and Porsche used to buy in approximately 80 percent of the cases a car with a diesel engine but now the faith in diesel engines is unsettled.

In 2015 CO 2 emissions were not allowed to be greater than 130 g/km. This means a diesel was not allowed to consume more than 4.71 liters of diesel or 5.36 liters of gasoline. Car associations were against this regulation. They said that many people would lose their jobs. The opposite was the case. Due to inventions emission values of 120 g/km were reached and the economy in many cases grew (Dudenhöffer, F. 2016). Starting 2020, 95 g/km will be the maximum emission value for the average of sold new cars, or 3.5 liters of diesel and 4.0 liters of gasoline. On one new limousine two small vehicles would have to follow in order to observe limits. This increases the pressure of car manufacturers, especially since diesel engines are no longer the favorite engines on the market. Furthermore, the standard NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) which measures cars under ideal conditions in a laboratory will be replaced by the WLTP (Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure) which tests a car under realistic conditions. This test will be applied on September 01 in 2018 (Federal Ministry of Finance 2017). Test results of the NEDC method were usually only a value a person looking for a new car could use as an orientation. Usually about 20 percent could be added onto the results of such a test for the consumption. The easiest alternative would be an electric car. It will basically be free of emissions if the electricity is generated in a renewable power plant. The plan for 2020 promotes electric cars and makes it difficult for car companies to find another solution than e-motors. In order to build a car with a combustion engine that has realistic test results in the acceptable area the efficiency of all components would have to be increased. Especially new engines would have to be developed. The efficiency of an electric motor and of a combustion engine differ a lot. A combustion engine has an efficiency of 20 percent and an e-motor of 50 percent. The efficiency of an electric car is 2.5 times bigger. Scientists will have to invest a lot in new combustion engines or they focus on e-motors. The advantage for the 95 g/km limit has the electric car since only local emissions will be counted. That means the emissions resulting from the electricity generations do not count and only

27 the exhausted emissions during the movement of a car are measured (Petters, A., Rusetzki, Chr., Reise, S. 2017). Knowing this it is interesting to see how different car types function. This is explained in the following chapter.

3. E-cars and hybrids

3.1 Definition of e-cars and hybrids

The general definition of an electric car is that it is powered by an electrical motor and not a conventional engine. On the market exist so called micro- hybrids which are cars that have a stop and go technology on board. When standing for a longer time the engine is switched off and on automatically. In this thesis, micro-hybrids will not be considered but had to be mentioned for the sake of completeness.

In order to understand how the cars of this chapter look and work like, it is important to understand how a conventional car does. Conventional cars are also called ICE which stands for Internal Combustion Engine. In the following figure, the main components of a conventional car can be seen.

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Figure 15 Main components of a conventional car (Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC) 2017)

The functional principal of a car is that the engine uses fuel from the fuel tank in order to convert energy. The result is that the engine moves the tires. An important part of the engine is the cylinder (Figure 16). Each engine consists of several cylinders which convert chemical energy into mechanical energy. In detail, this means that fuel reaches the combustion chamber, is burned and moves the cylinder. This leads to the movement of the tires. The disadvantage of this type of car is the use of oil which is the biggest compound of the fuel. Oil is a resource which is categorized as a fossil fuel since the timespan needed to create new oil is long. Between 10,000 and millions of years are necessary for the natural process.

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Figure 16 Cylinder (UtzOnBike 2017)

In Germany, the first electric car was built in 1888. It was the so called “Flocken Elektrowagen”. The first fast electric car was manufactured in 1899 and had the name “La Jamais Contente”. The car was already able to reach a speed of 100 km/h. In the 1920s the range of the first cars was already about 100 km. The reason why people chose to buy fuel driven cars was that electricity cost more than fuel (Quicumque Zeitschrift für autarkes Leben 2016). This changed over time since oil reservoirs will get smaller and therefore, the price will automatically rise.

Today electric cars are mostly powered by an electric motor which is powered by a lithium battery. The third component is the electronic control unit. The basic difference to a conventional engine is that an e-motor consists of a permanent magnet which is called stator and a rotor which is placed inside the magnetic field of the stator. Once the rotor receives electricity via the contacts a magnetic field emerges that interacts with the field of the stator. The attraction and repulsion of rotor and stator leads to a rotation of the rotor. The commutator permanently changes the direction of the electric flow in order to guarantee a continuous rotation of the rotor. The electric adjustment regulates the electricity reaching the e-motor in order to control its power (RWE AG 2010).

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An example for an e-motor is the motor of the Audi Q5 hybrid which can be seen in the following graphic.

Figure 17 Audi electric motor (Audi AG 2016)

One aspect of the battery must be mentioned at this point but cannot be considered further. Batteries of electric cars are lithium batteries. At the moment, they are the best option for e-cars and hybrids but are not environmental friendly and not unproblematic to use (Federal Environment Agency 2012). Lithium is necessary for the production but global lithium deposits are shrinking and the production of lithium batteries is not ecological. Lithium is gained through the evaporation of brine. By doing this in several steps a high pureness of lithium is achieved. The consequence is the evaporation of the surroundings. How much lithium is needed on average for a car in comparison to other materials can be seen below.

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Figure 18 Components of a lithium battery (Fritz, D., et al. 2016)

About 30 percent of a battery is LiMn04 (Explanations of HEV, PHEV and BEV can be found below). The cathode material Lithium-manganese oxide consists to 60 percent of manganese. About 40 percent of the oxide is lithium. This is a lot when one looks at the weight of a battery for an electric car or a hybrid (following figure).

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Figure 19 Battery weight of different car types (Fritz, D., et al. 2016)

Between 27 and 33 percent of a battery constitute of lithium-manganese oxide. Approximately 40 percent of that is lithium. If the battery of a BEV weights 200kg and 66kg come from LiMn204 then 26.4 kg are only lithium.

66 kg * 0.4= 26.4 kg

The amount of lithium needed for a battery is very big. Lithium is also used for batteries which fit into notebooks and mobile phones. Therefore, the global demand for this light resource is tremendous. The problem of this will be explained in the following step. In the next graphic, the share of particle emissions for different car types can be seen. It shows that the manufacturing process of the battery is responsible for about 50 percent of all emissions of an electric car (Fritz, D., et al. 2016). The difference between the total particle emissions of all mentioned car types is very small. The emissions which are saved during the movement of a car are replaced by the emissions from the battery. Therefore, it is important to find an alternative more ecological way to produce batteries.

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Figure 20 Total PM-emissions (Fritz, D., et al. 2016)

In the following step, different e-car types using lithium batteries will be explained. The main alternative car types are e-cars, hybrids, plug-in-hybrids and fuel cell electric vehicles. A hybrid or HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle) uses a combustion engine and an electric motor. The next car type is the PHEV which is a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle. It uses a combustion engine in combination with an e-motor that is driven by a plug-in to recharge battery. This concept is also available as a REEV which stands for a Range Extended Electric Vehicle. This type is useable like a PHEV but also available with a fuel cell in combination with an ICE (Internal Combustion Engine). The classic e-car is the BEV the Battery Electric Vehicle. The car is driven only by an e-motor and the energy is stored in a battery. The last type is the FCEV. The Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle uses an e-motor which is fed by the energy stored in hydrogen (Amsterdam Round Table Foundation and McKinsey & Company The Netherlands 2014).

Starting with the HEV there are two aspects which are interesting for this paper, in particular the regenerative braking and the combination of the engine and the

34 e-motor. Regenerative breaking means that the e-motor applies a resistance to the drivetrain which is strong enough to slow down the car. The positive effect of this is that the energy coming from the movement of the tires turns the motor which works then as a generator in this situation and turns the gained energy in electricity. It is stored in the battery which delivers it to the e-motor when needed.

The electric motor in HEVs is supposed to support the normal engine in order to reduce the consumption of gasoline. In situations like e.g. climbing hills or when the car has to accelerate, the e-motor helps to reduce the energy the conventional engine has to supply. In some vehicles, the electric motor is able to solely cover small distances at low speed.

Figure 21 Hybrid components (AFDC 2017)

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles have both the electric motor and the conventional engine connected to the wheels. Both work together under most conditions. Here the battery can be charged at for example a charging station. The car is also able to cover small distances only using the electric motor. Distances of approximately 50 km are possible with several models.

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Figure 22 Plug-in Hybrid components (AFDC 2017)

Range Extended Electric Vehicles use an e-motor to propel the tires. The gasoline engine here has a supporting role. It is responsible for charging the battery of the e-motor. The BMW i3 with the range extender package is able to cover about 170 km solely with the e-motor.

Battery Electric Vehicles propel their wheels with an electric motor which receives electricity from batteries. No other energy source is needed but since the e-motor covers 100 percent of the needed energy it has to be recharged at a charging station or a socket. Since there are no tailpipe pollutants the only emissions come from the electricity generation and construction of the car. Therefore, it is very important to use electricity coming from renewable energy power plants. An e-car can cover several hundred kilometers before it has to be recharged. Car manufacturers like Tesla advertise with a range of 613 km already.

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Figure 23 BEV components (AFDC 2017)

Charging the battery needs a lot of time if one has no access to a supercharger which can recharge the battery at high voltage. Here one can recharge the battery to about 80 percent in 30 minutes. At a socket at home one needs in most cases about four to 8 hours (International Energy Agency (IEA) no date).

The last type is the Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle which is powered by an electric motor. The interesting aspect is that the car has a fuel cell stack which converts hydrogen gas from the fuel tank with oxygen from the air into electricity which drives the e-motor.

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Figure 24 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle components (AFDC 2017)

The following figure shows a comparison of these engine types and their related emissions.

Figure 25 Emissions of different engines (Fritz, D., et al. 2016)

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The bigger the battery is the lower are the emitted greenhouse gas emissions. This can be seen in the graphic which shows all greenhouse gas emissions of a car in combination. Furthermore, also the provided electricity type is important, in particular for BEVs. The more environmental friendly and efficient the electricity is generated the lower are the emissions. “UZ-46 Strom” is a very green electricity tariff from Austria that has stricter conditions than other tariffs and therefore, it is much more environmental friendly. All of the mentioned car types exist on the current market.

3.2 Current and future e-cars and hybrids

The current e-cars and hybrids are manufactured by many different companies all over the world leading to a big variety. Since this scientific paper focuses on low emission cars for some institutions, not every car is a fitting choice. Only cars of good quality, a range of at least 200 km and an option for quick charging make sense. Some cars also should be SUVs or all-terrain vehicles. Few vehicles are very special and not part of standard lists. These can only be considered after a proper analysis of the current car-fleet of the institutions. Focusing on normal cars which are needed in order to make a business trip and which can be replaced by a hybrid, a plug-in hybrid, a BEV or a FCEV, the problem is the price. FCEV cars are usually very expensive and only very few models are available. Therefore, this type of cars is not considered in this scientific work. This technology will be cheaper if the customer segment grows and the mass production begins.

The following list of cars will focus on the top sellers of the last years or on new cars which will enter the market in 2017 (July 2017). The data is collected from the homepage of each car manufacturer.

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Vehicle Vehicl Rang Range Cost of Environment Emission model e type e combined purchase al bonus (in s (in electri (in km) by (in Euro) Euro) g/km) c (in car km) manufactur er BMW i3 REEV 170 300 39,450.0 4,000 13 (60 AH) 0 Range Extender Nissan BEV 250 39,450.0 5,000 0.00 Leaf 0 VW e- BEV 300 35,900.0 4,000 0.00 Golf 0

Mitsubish PHEV 54 800 39,990 6,000 41 i Outlande r Hybrid Toyota HEV 5 835 33,340.0 116 RAV4 0 Hybrid Renault BEV 300 24,291.4 5,000 0.00 ZOE 4 Toyota HEV 23 800 19,340.0 79 Yaris 0 Kia Niro HEV 2-5 1065 24,990.0 88 Hybrid 0 Crossove r Ford BEV 225 34,900.0 4,000 0.00 Focus 0

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Electric Opel BEV 520 39,330.0 4,000 0.00 Ampera- 0 E KIA Soul BEV 212 29,490 4,000 0.00 EV Audi A3 PHEV 50 800 38,590.0 3,000 36-40 e-tron 0 Toyota HEV 2 900 25,580.0 81 Auris 0 Touring Sports

*the table does not guarantee completeness

Table 1 Electric cars 2017 2

Depending on the model and the usage of the car some cars are replaced earlier than others. Especially electric cars which cost more in the purchase are resold later than most conventional cars. Therefore, it makes sense to have a look at cars that will enter the market in the near future (2017-2022).

Vehicle model Vehicle type Cost of purchase (in Euro) Audi Q5 e-tron (2017) PHEV App. 45,000 Lynk & Co SUV 01 (2017) PHEV/BEV Tesla Model 3 (2017) BEV Tesla Model C (2018) BEV Audi Q3 e-tron (2018) PHEV Ford Model E PHEV/HEV VW Golf 8 (2018) HEV VW SUVe (2019) BEV VW CUVe (2019) BEV

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Audi EQ4 (2020) PHEV/HEV Tesla Model Y (2019) BEV Mercedes EQA (2020) BEV App. 40,000 VW I.D. (2020) BEV VW NUVe (2020) BEV Mercedes ELA BEV App. 40,000 VW Aero-e (2020) BEV Skoda E-SUV (Study Vision BEV S) (2020) Apple iCar (2020) BEV Seat Sedric, Skoda Sedric BEV (2021) Skoda E-Coupe (2021) BEV > 30,000 VW I.D. Buzz (2022) BEV

*the table does not guarantee completeness Table 2 Electric cars 2017-2022 3

Several of the cars mentioned were presented as an autonomous car. This means that the car will be able to drive alone. Therefore, some of these studies were presented without a steering wheel or like in the VW I.D. Buzz a steering wheel which can be pushed in the dash board. Then the car drives autonomous and the driver can turn around his seat and communicate with other people in the car from face to face (AutoBild 2017). These cars could be an even better environmental friendly alternative than electric cars today because of an increasing efficiency of batteries which will result in a faster recharging process and a bigger range, a bigger infrastructure for charging stations (see chapter “Charging stations”) and a more comfortable way to travel because of the increasing amount of autonomous functions or the full autonomous driving option itself.

Until 2050 the distribution of emissions in the traffic sector will change. As can be seen in the following chart the emissions from the power sector from 2030 to

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2050 as well as the avoided emissions from the transport sector will increase. The emissions coming from the power sector which generates the electricity needed for the transport sector (electric cars) will increase by a factor of almost two. The avoided emissions by using electric cars instead of conventional cars will be almost three times bigger in 2030 than they were in 2015. This shows that increasing emission values coming from the power sector are an advantage if they lead to a bigger avoidance of emissions in another sector. In total, an amount of about 250 mt of CO 2 can be avoided by using renewable energy technologies for the generation of electricity and the usage of electric cars on European roads, if they are powered with it.

Figure 26 Development of emissions (European Environment Agency 2016)

At the moment, electric cars are cost intensive. Therefore, the German government decided to support the economy with the environmental bonus but electric cars are still expensive. E-cars are having some advantages like e.g. lower taxes, the environmental bonus and low costs for the electricity (0.23€/kWh Interview LANUV) and low or zero local emissions.

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The disadvantages are usually a higher price of the car, it is not easy to find a parking place with a charging station, they still do not have a high electric range, a disadvantageous network of charging stations and the grid provides a mixture of electricity that is not necessarily environmental friendly. For the price of diesel statista is taken as a source which says that the price for one liter of diesel in Germany in May 2017 was 113.74 cents (Statista GmbH 2017a). The average gasoline price is 1.3599 cents per liter (Statista GmbH 2017b). Green electricity is much cheaper. Advantages of conventional cars are a lower purchasing cost, gas stations are easy to find and a high range is possible. The big disadvantages are the costs of the fuel and that they are not environmental friendly. From a logical stand point it would make sense to buy an electric car if one had to drive many kilometers every year in order to save large amounts of money over many driven kilometers. The ADAC made a comparison in 2017 of diesel, gasoline, plug-in hybrid and electric cars. They compared the costs per driven kilometer for 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 30,000 kilometers. Cars of an equal class were compared. For the calculation prices for the different types of gasoline and electricity, indemnity and comprehensive insurance 50% and car tax (April 2017) were used. All privileges for these values were included. In the end, the results showed that in most cases plug-in hybrids, diesel and gasoline cars won the comparison. BEVs won very rarely (ADAC e.V. 2017). Since they save the most money on the road their purchasing costs are that high at the moment that they still cost more than their competitors on the market. What also matters for the decision of buying a car is the faith people have or do not have in the technology. An analysis by McKinsey & Company, Inc. (2017) showed that about 30 to 45 percent of the people in Germany and the US who want to buy a car consider buying an e-car. In Germany only three percent decide to buy an electric car in the end. In the US, it is four percent. In comparison to Norway where 22 percent buy an electric car, this is few. 44 percent consider a BEV or PHEV while 30 percent of the people consider a BEV only. Since the rest of the people do not consider buying an electric car they either do not want one or are not familiar with them (McKinsey & Company, Inc. 2017). This paper is also a guide which should help the reader to understand the need for an electric car and how it might make sense for him or

44 her to buy one. Car companies and the government here have the opportunity to increase the knowledge about electric cars with fitting marketing campaigns. One of the recommendations McKinsey gives in order to change the marketing techniques of car manufacturing companies in order to raise the demand for e- cars is similar to a plan of the federal state. It is the idea to promote concepts like e.g. car sharing (Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (MCEANC) 2015). Depending on where people of the institutes analyzed in this paper are working and where they have to go an electric car in form of car sharing would be a possible alternative. It allows people to use a car without buying it. Only for the time the car is used the driver must pay.

4. Methodology of interviews

After giving theoretical information in previous chapters in chapter six three institutions in NRW should be analyzed on their current car fleets. After that calculations will be made in order to find solutions for alternative car fleets to meet the goals of the government of NRW mentioned above. Information about the institutions will be collected during expert interviews. One person from every institution that has background information and an understanding about the own car fleet should answer questions during a meeting. The analysis will try to answer the following main questions employees of the government are interested in: 1. Are there electric cars on the market which can do the jobs the current cars are doing? 2. Are those cars affordable?

Several parameters have to be analyzed. In this paper, the following parameters were chosen because they are aspects which are most likely to be answered by all three institutions. All of them might have different standards for their driver’s logbooks and therefore, it is not possible to analyze every aspect. This would also be too much for a bachelor thesis. Based on the provided

45 information the car fleet will be analyzed on tasks, driven annually distances, daily driven distance and models (especially models which are used in big numbers). This should explain the usage of vehicles and might show patterns which then can be used in order to give recommendations for improvements. The questions which will be asked are the following: 1. Which car models and how many are in the possession of the institution? 2. How many kilometers are driven per year? 3. How big are the smallest and the biggest distances that have to be covered? 4. On which terrains is the car used? 5. Which tasks has the car to fulfill? 6. How high was the purchasing price? 7. How high are the refueling costs? 8. How many years is the car used? 9. Where is the base of the car?

10. How high are the CO 2 emissions per kilometer? 11. In the case of purchasing an electric car how much time is available between two jobs to charge the car? 12. Is it possible to install a charging station or a wall box?

Working together with other institutions of the government is not an easy task and connected to many regulations and bureaucracy. Therefore, these three institutes were chosen by the Ministry. Furthermore, it is difficult to make an appointment during the time when this bachelor thesis is written, since the ministers are replaced and a lot has to be organized by every institution.

Before the analysis the Projektgruppe which works on the matter of this thesis is introduced.

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5. The Projektgruppe Klimaneutrale Landesverwaltung

This paper is written in cooperation with the Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, in particular with the project group which deals with the climate neutral state administration. It belongs to department 8 which is called “Cross Sectoral Environmental matters, Sustainable Development”. In Figure 30 in the appendix, the organizational structure of the Ministry can be seen. The topic of this paper is strongly related to the fields the project group is working on. These fields are buildings, renewable energies, mobility, purchase, events, user behavior, CO 2 compensation, CO 2 balance, communication and public relations work in the climate neutral state administration. The structure of the federal state administration of North Rhine-Westphalia is an interesting aspect. Since information about the guideline for purchasing new cars are given in this paper it is helpful to see where the ministry and the project group are located (figure 29 in the appendix). As the structure explains the ministries are the highest located institutions and therefore, receive the information regarding new car purchases of lower ranked institutions.

6.0 Institutions of the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia analyzed in this thesis

6.1 The Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz Nordrhein-Westfalen

The Landesbetrieb consists of 14 Regional Forestry Offices, the Training and Test Forestry Office in Arnsberg and the Eifel National Park Forestry Office. In total 300 forest management units ward the forest.

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The covered area by the Landesbetrieb can be seen in figure 31 in the appendix. There are several main tasks which are “to sustainably maintain and develop the roles that forests play, to manage the state forest and to provide forestry services – e.g. assisting forest owners in the management of their forests” (Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen no date). Other tasks are for example fire protection, the promotion of the energetic and non- energetic use of wood. The federal state covers an area of 3.4 million hectares. 915,800 hectares are covered by forests which is about 27 percent of the whole German forest area. With 67 percent NRW has the highest percentage of private forests in Germany. Concrete this means that there are 150,000 private forest owners in the federal state. Forests are of high importance in NRW because they are a contrast to the industry and provide a habitat to plants and animals. More than 70 percent of the forest of the federal state are nature conservation areas, bird sanctuaries or fauna-flora habitats. Especially for the supply of drinking water forests are important. In NRW many drinking water reservoirs are closely located to wooded regions where many trees grow. Furthermore, 250,000 jobs and more than €30 billion are connected to forestry and industries that depend on wood. Tourists come to North Rhine-Westphalia in order to do sports in forests of the federal state. The forest is used by different types of vehicles. Some of them are normal cars, or all-terrain vehicles and some are special machines. All of them emit emissions in the forest. The emissions are high since engines need to be supplied with more energy when work is placed on difficult terrain. Emissions are exhausted locally and directly affect the forest. Therefore, a local reduction of emissions by changing the car fleet towards ecological engines is a reasonable move.

In the case of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz there is no interview possible in the time span in which this paper has to be written. Instead Mr. Gönner who is responsible for the car fleet sent an excel document which contains information about the car fleet of the year 2014 (LWH 2014). A total of 542 cars are in the

48 document of which all vehicles are diesel (except for one car that runs on natural gas, two e-cars and a few machines). The cars will be summed up by their model and then all values will be listed as an average in order to use them in the following steps. Only models of high numbers, electric cars or cars with a special task will be analyzed (due to the time available not all cars can be analyzed). There are many car types and for this paper it is especially interesting to replace bigger groups of the same model. Such a car would be important for the work of the institution. An environmental friendly alternative to this car would be much more helpful than the replacement of a single car. The provided data shows that there are several models which are dominant. For example, the Skoda Yeti models. They are 121 cars in total which is 22 percent. The Suzuki Grand Vitara models are responsible for app. 12 percent of the fleet. It is interesting to see how big the distances are to cover and if there are rough patterns that can be recognized from the given data. Since the minimum and maximum ranges or even the daily distances are not given, only speculations can be made. The average yearly and daily driven distances will be calculated. The calculation looks as follows total distance/number of working days (251) =daily driven distance.

The first difference is the number of car districts used. Depending on the size of the forest area the number changes. The forestry commission office of Siegen- Wittgenstein is responsible for 80,000 hectares of forest while the office of the Märkisches Sauerland only takes care of 56,000 hectares. The difference here results in a difference in the car fleet of 35 in Siegen to 18 cars in the Märkisches Sauerland. The distances driven are almost the same here. In Siegen, the average is 11,842 km while the average in the Sauerland is 11,245 km. The tendency here is a slightly bigger distance covered in 2014. Looking at the office in Münsterland where an area of 88,000 hectares has to be taken care of the number of cars is already 44 and the average driven distance is 19,053 km. It is not possible to say that the difference in size of a district means a big difference in the size of the car fleet or the annually driven distance. The difference is not linear.

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Focusing on the usage of vehicles there are many different tasks which might give some indication of the distances covered by cars. If there is a scheme behind several tasks that means if the distances are very similar then it is possible to say that the probability that a new car has to be able to drive similar distances is very high. In order to compare the different distances covered for every task the average will be built and then the daily distances will be compared. The first task is DIWA (Dienstwaldarbeiter) which is basically referring to workers in the forest. The smallest annual distance is app. 7,500 and the biggest is 30,000 km. The average is 14,337 km which leads to a distance of 57.21km/day in the forest. At the moment batteries are easily able to cover such a distance even if the terrain is difficult and the consumption of the car is higher. A yearly driven distance of 30,000 km would lead to a daily distance of 119.5 km which still is possible. The second task is called FBB (Forstbetriebsbezirk) which means that work in the district of a forestry is done. The maximum distance covered in 2014 was 41,000 km and the minimum distance was 2,300km. The average distance is 12,961 km and the daily distance to be covered would be about 51.64km. The following task is M-Begleit (Maschinenbegleitfahrzeug) where the task is to pull a machine. Here the distances vary from 11,000 over 12,000 to 18,000km. A daily distance of 71.7 kilometers would be needed to cover for the highest case. This would be more difficult to handle for an electric car especially if a machine has to be pulled. There a BEV might be not the best solution but a hybrid could do the job since the consumption will be very high. A machine can weight several tons. In the car POOL vehicles are shared. Here the distances and jobs differ a lot from each other. Distances from 750km to 40,200km are driven per year. The reason behind this is that the cars are used for completely different purposes. They can be used for basically any possible task and are not used for the same purpose every day. The small distance of 750km belongs to a Renault Zoé. Mr. Gönner said that people do not trust the Zoé because the car is used to drive from Münster to Arnsberg and only under good conditions it is guaranteed that the car can cover the distance. If it is too warm or too cold and the AC or heating has to be switched on it is possible that the driver cannot reach his

50 destination. Therefore, the car is used rarely. An average daily distance for the POOL purpose is 54.42km/day. For the maximum distance, it would be 160.16km/day. The ranger task seems to have the most difficult terrain in peto. Only cars that are able to drive off the road are used in this category. The distances covered are also quite similar. Most of them are between 12,000 and 16,000km. Only one car with 8,000km drove less. The average covered distance is 50.01km/day. Since the terrain is making the movement of the car more difficult the consumption will be higher but an electric car could still cover this distance.

The next task is the RFA (Regionalforstamt) which is also a term that includes many different jobs. Some are focused on more difficult jobs in the forest and some are more related to administrative work. Therefore, different car models are used like e.g. the Skoda Yeti 4x4 and the Opel Corsa which are very different. One car is predestinated for the forest and one for the road. A total of 16,665 km in 2014 and a daily route of 66.93 km had to be driven on average. In the following category SPWP (Waldplanung) the task is to organize and plan the forest. Two cars were used for this job. Both are Skoda Yeti. Therefore, one can assume that they are used also inside the forest on terrain where normal cars are no longer useable. In 2014 the cars drove about 12,000 and 23,000km. Daily a distance of 47.8km or 91.6km had to be covered. The next task is a very big one. It is the transportation of people and gadgets. Here 79 vehicles were used. Most of them were T4 or T5 from VW but also pickups and other cars which can be used on a more difficult terrain exist. Due to different transportation jobs the driven distance varies from 5,000 to almost 24,000km. Daily the longest driven distance was 95.6km. The average is 39.7km per day. The second last task is WSM (Waldschutzmanagement) which is the protection of the forest. One Focus C307 Turnier does the job and drove in 2014 about 14,000km. Daily this would be 55.8km.

The last task is Z (Zentrale Münster) which is referring to all jobs that have to be done at the headquarter in Münster. Here many different cars are used but the tendency goes towards normal street cars. From an electric car that drives only

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550 km towards a car of a covered distance of 35,000 km a variety of distances exists. The daily average driven distance is 19.82 km. This means that there are close spots which have to be reached daily. Small distances could be easily reached with an electric car.

Six categories are considered: The official CO 2 emissions of the vehicle registration (CO 2 g/km lt. V7 KFZ-Schein), the total driven kilometers of the year 2014 in km (km-Fahrleistung gesamt 2014), the amount of fuel consumed in liters in 2014 (Kraftstoff in Liter gesamt 2014), the medium consumption in l/100 km (mittl. Verbrauch l/100km), the CO 2-Output 2014 in kg and the real CO 2 emissions in g/km (echter CO 2 g/km). The calculation for the last category is from Mr. Gönner who calculated the value as follows: The consumption of the vehicle per 100 km converted to the CO 2 emission/unit x number of units. The RFA cars are moved 66.93km on an average daily basis which is more than what was required for the previous tasks.

The arithmetic average of every category that is analyzed is built with excel.

Manufa Mo Num Officia Type Total Total Mediu CO 2- Reali cturer del ber l CO 2 of distan consu m outp stic

of emissi fuel* ce mption consu ut in CO 2 cars ons* 2014* in mption 2014 emiss 2014* in in ions l/100k kg* in m* g/km* Skoda Yet 18 154 diese 8,036 524.71 7.99 1,32 212 i l .56 4.57 Skoda Yet 10 159 diese 11,17 736.01 6.62 1,76 175.5 i l 4 1.26 Skoda Yet 93 159 diese 16,54 1,158.2 7.01 2,88 186 i l 7.77 5 0.14 4x4

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Renault Zo 2 00.00 electr 648 00.00 15.70 58.7 91 é icity 6 Suzuki Gra 15 179 diese 13,14 1,082.9 8.13 2,80 216 nd l 8.27 2 1.19 Vit ara Suzuki Gra 32 190 diese 10,98 975.34 9.05 2,58 240 nd l 2.41 4.65 Vit ara Suzuki Gra 11 195 diese 14,81 1,360.5 9.17 3,47 243 nd l 6.36 4 6.39 Vit ara Suzuki Gra 7 205 diese 9,279 858.31 11.86 2,27 314 nd l .71 4.51 Vit ara John Gat 1 diese 2,630 295.84 11.25 783. 298 Deere or l .00 98 4x2

*The given value only shows the arithmetic average Table 3 Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz 4

The next parameter is the difference between dominant models. Here all different editions of a model are combined and considered as one model. The dominant models are the Skoda Yeti (121 cars), the Suzuki Grand Vitara (65 cars), the Renault Zoé as a representative for e-cars (2 cars) and the John Deere Gator as a special vehicle (1 car). The average driven distances per year and per day in the order the models were mentioned for 2014 were: 14,186 km/2014, 56.52 km/day; 11,947 km/2014, 47.6 km/day; 648 km/2014, 2.48 km/day; 2,630 km/2014, 10.48 km/day

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In the last step, a comparison of the different analyzed parameter is necessary in order to find out if there are clear connections between them. The first analysis shows that the size of the district gives hints about the average distances that have to be driven and the number of cars needed for a car fleet. The bigger a district the more cars are needed and the higher is the annual driven distance is. Therefore, also the daily driven distance increases on average. The average daily driven distance of all tasks is about 50 km on average. The maximum and minimum driven distances vary strongly depending on the task. POOL, DIWA, M-Begleit and SPWP are the tasks with the biggest daily max distances that have to be driven by cars. Furthermore, their averages are the highest and e.g. M-Begleit is a very difficult job. The car will have to pull a machine every time. Another aspect is that cars must be able to handle difficult terrain. In almost every category the Skoda Yeti and the Suzuki Grand Vitara are present. Here a clear preference for two models can be seen. Both were bought in big numbers and are used for a variety of jobs. Electric cars are not often used. It would be very helpful to replace the Yeti and the Grand Vitara with electric cars which can do the job and are consuming electricity coming from renewable power plants. This would reduce the costs and the CO 2 emissions during the time they are used.

6.2 North Rhine-Westphalia State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection

The state agency had its foundation on January 01, 2007 as the technical and scientific specialist authority of the state of its three departments. It is subordinated to the Ministry for Climate Protection, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia. The agency advises the ministry. Also courts and law enforcement agencies of the districts in NRW as well as the district governments are supported by the agency. Inhabitants in North Rhine-Westphalia are informed about interesting new

54 aspects or dangerous changes. More than 1,200 employees work in the headquarters which are located in Dusseldorf, Recklinghausen and Essen. The basis of the state agency is a network of measuring points for the local ground, water and air quality. For the consumer protection measurements are also taken. A range of duties can be found at the state agency, such as nature protection, fishing ecology, landscape conservation, water pollution control, air pollution control, soil conservation and inherited waste assessment, sound emissions and tremor, waste management and system safety, environmental analysis, environmental medicine, food inspection and animal feed inspection, animal protection and animal disease control (Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen (LANUV) 2017).

Mr. Jahnke the leader of the car fleet of the LANUV was available for an interview (June 30,2017). Since there are about 180 cars which have to be organized a person is directly responsible for the car fleet. The car fleet varies over the year since there is a high fluctuation. Furthermore, many different models and tasks have to be managed. The interesting aspect of the fleet is that there is a high electric share. The models of the car fleet of the year 2017 and their number can be seen in the following table.

Vehicle model Number BMW i3 Range Extender 7 Ford Caddy 8 Ford Focus Kombi 36 Hyundai ix35 fuel cell 1 IVECO Lumbricus 2 Mercedes Econic 1 Mercedes Sprinter several Renault Fluence 1 Renault Megane 5 Renault Zoé 3 Toyota Land Cruiser 1

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VW Crafter 1 VW eGolf 3 VW Golf Variant 4 VW T4 1 VW T5 67 VW T6 22 VW Tiguan 3 Table 4 LANUV 5

14 cars of about 180 cars are having an alternative motor on board. This leads to a share of 12.86 percent of cars with an alternative engine. The transportation segment is building the biggest share with 90 T models which are 50%. These cars are required to take samples and make measurements of air and water. There a special interior is needed like for example a small desk and space for measurement devices. Especially cars which have to reach measurement stations are used for large tours. Distances of up to 400 km have to be driven daily. If a car is used directly for taking measurements still 200 km are to be covered. Cars of the pool have to cover a daily distance of about 90 km which can easily be driven with the BMW i3. All types of terrain are reached. Cars that need to take measurements close to a river are usually four-wheel drive vehicles. The agency has a contract which allows them to use 100 percent ecological electricity. The price for 1 kWh is 23 cents. At the three headquarters, there are 7 AC charging stations with two charging points of each 22 kW and one DC station which can do AC 22 kW, CCS 50 kW and CHAdeMO 50 kW. The average consumption of the electric cars is between 25.5 and 17 kWh per 100 kilometers.

Normal cars are used for two years, special cars with special interior are used until they do not function anymore (8-10 years) and electric cars are used for 8 years.

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Since the Renault Zoé is used so much it is worth to invest 3,00€ in a battery upgrade which allows the car to expand the range from 140 to almost 300 km. Electric cars are only used to drive from one headquarter to the next. These distances are easily covered. Other jobs are not a routine yet. The statement of the interviewed person was that BMW and Renault have a better car computer inside and therefore are much more reliable on the road. That is the reason why employees trust and drive them more often. Here a clear preference between models can be seen.

6.3 Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf

The stud farm had its foundation in 1826. The breeder of Westphalia and the Rhine Province were the funders and also the first ones on Prussian territory. After the war, the federal state became the owner of the stud farm and now it is assigned to the minister for climate protection, environment, agriculture, conservation and consumer protection of the federal state. The purpose of the facility is still to provide horse breeders with “high-quality and genetically interesting studs for an adequate stud fee” (Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf (NWLW) no date). The focus is on the progress of the breeding. About 115 horses are living in Warendorf. Approximately 65 employees and 21 apprentices are working with these horses. The German riding school belongs to the stud farm. It is a center for different education and advanced education in the riding branch. Since not all people riding there have a horse the school owns approximately 50 horses. Warendorf is an international spot for the breeding of horses (NWLW no date). This institution needs cars which can pull trailers or truck for the transport of horses. Since a healthy environment is better for the breeding of strong and healthy horses the institute should be interested in supporting the protection of the environment. This includes an ecological update of the car fleet, if possible. Furthermore, a transport in most cases is stressful for an animal. Factors like an increasing heart rate or a rise in the cortisol level are a proof for the stress that occurs during the transportation of animals. It is unclear if movement or sound

57 emissions are the reason for stress but less sound emissions could be an advantage for the transport. Therefore, an electric car or transporter could lead to a decreasing stress level since the sound emissions of the engine would get lower. Especially driving against the wind leads to a much higher demand of energy for the car. Here a forward-looking solution for the engine would lead to much lower costs on the road. A hybrid SUV or a bigger electric car with space for riding utensils and a trailer would be a fitting combination. The other one is a truck which can also provide space for horses and the equipment.

In the case of the Landgestüt an interview was not possible due to time issues but Mr. Scherg who is responsible for the car fleet provided information about the car fleet of 2017 which can be seen in figure 32 in the appendix. The Landgestüt owns one small tractor (Fendt 180 1998 model) which is yearly used on a 300 hour basis mainly for the transport of water and hay. One medium sized tractor (Claas 410 Arion 2014 model) is used on a 400h basis for heavy labour like e.g. transporting dung. A lawn tractor is used for taking care of riding halls and grounds (John Deere). Furthermore, one truck (Mercedes Atego 1999 model) is used for covering distances on different terrains in order to transport horses to e.g. competitions or a veterinary surgeon. A distance of 7,000 km is covered this way every year. The Mercedes horse transporter is used for covering distances of 20,000 km every year for the same kind of jobs. The transporter is smaller and therefore, easier to use. It is not possible to tell which distances are exactly covered by all of these vehicles. The only data given about kilometers is for the truck and the transporter but there are no alternatives engines available yet. Since these types of cars are very special no company offers a hybrid or BEV version at the moment. Therefore, one could only replace such a car with a new combustion engine driven vehicle. Research and a higher adaption of electric motors in the every-day life have to be adapted until such a technology reaches this branch. Here a lot of research is necessary since animals are transported. These animals weight a lot and it is not senseful to recharge a car very often because usually animals are having a high stress level in a vehicle. Therefore, big batteries would be necessary in order to allow the vehicle to cover long

58 distances. A normal battery would probably not even make sense if an electric car would pull a trailer. The battery would be empty too early on a highway. A transport of more than a few hundred kilometers would be too exhausting for a horse that has to participate in a competition. Therefore, calculations are unnecessary at this point.

Another topic are the tractors. In this branch, there are already tests going on. John Deere tests the SESAM which is a tractor with a 400PS electric motor. The tractor works very silently and the immediate availability of the turning moment are big advantages for the work on fields. Furthermore, the additional weight of batteries are not a big issue for tractors (Auto Motor und Sport 2016). The project GridCON, which is also by John Deere and builds on the SESAM project, allows a tractor to become a plug-in hybrid. A 30-kWh battery can be connected at the front instead of a weight. This way several batteries can be used after another and one does not need to wait until a battery is recharged. The main advantages of this project are that not only emissions are saved and the power is increased but also the environmental friendly generated electricity of the farm can be used very easily. In the next step, bidirectional charging and discharging should be possible. This way batteries can be used in order to stabilize the grid of the farm (Bönninghausen, D. 2017). Here one might find an alternative to the current tractors at the Landgestüt during the next five to ten years. In the beginning, electric tractors might be very expensive. There are several electric lawn tractors on the market (e.g. Recharge Mower, Hydro 80 Bahia Electric) but none of them is offered with the fitting equipment which is needed for taking care of the ground on which horses are moving. This car fleet is very interesting because the vehicles used by the stud are all used for very special tasks.

When new vehicles have to be bought an institution cannot simply have a look at the market and choose a new one but one must look at the existing guidelines. The related aspects of these guidelines are explained in the next chapter.

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7. Guideline for the purchase of new cars for the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia

Cars are purchased by the Ministry of Finance of NRW which receives a list of cars needed from the highest federal state authorities. Cars are either leased, bought or rented depending on the most economic situation (except all-terrain vehicles which are always bought). The details of this decision are defined by the Ministry of Finance. Only new cars with low emissions can be purchased.

For the demand from January 1, 2018 on new cars of the category I and II will be bought (details about the car types can be found below). Therefore, new contracts must be made. Current contracts are valid until December 31, 2017. Until May 31, 2017 the list of new cars for the tender of the year 2018 had to be handed in, according to section 4, paragraph 1 sentence 2 EG VOL/A or section 21 paragraph 1 VgV. It is important that a precise specification for tenders is made by the demanding authority. According to this the Ministry of Finance decides if a car can be bought because only if there is no economic alternative to cover the need for a car. Then it must be clear if the car is a compensatory purchase or a first purchase. Compensatory purchase means that a car has to be replaced because another car is more economic or a car has been destroyed in an accident. Since the list of cars will be given to tenderer it will provide them with a possibility to calculate for the best price they can offer. Therefore, if a statement has been made it is binding if the budget is sufficient. Usually cars will be bought for two years depending on the number of kilometers they will cover over that time and the number of accidents they have. Cars of the year 2016 should be replaced in 2018. Electric cars are not included in this rhythm because there are different guarantees on different models (e.g. VW Golf e 5 years guarantee on the car and 8 years on the battery, BMW i3 2 years guarantee on the car and 8 years on the battery). All cars have to be of the norm Euro 6. For type I models for big cities with a gasoline engine will be

60 bought. Cars of type II should be chosen in a way that diesel or gasoline can be used. Here as well the tendency for cities is to buy a car which uses gasoline and not diesel. Another aspect is that electric cars should receive a license plate for e-cars in order to be able to use all related advantages (Schlüter, J. 2016).

In detail, the different car types are defined as follows. Car type I is a small car running with diesel or gasoline or an estate or compact car. It is mainly used for short distances. Car type II is referring to electric car types. Either a small BEV limousine with a range of minimum 200 km or a PHEV with a range of minimum 700 km. A BEV must not have to cover a daily route of more than 200 km. Car type II will either be used for similar distances or bigger distances under more difficult conditions. Both car types must cover distances that sum up to more than 15,000 km annually. Important is that for every purchase of this type it must be guaranteed that it is possible to create a charging option for the car which is constantly useable. Furthermore, a constant parking place has to be available and if a wall box for one or more cars should be installed, the energy output must be sufficient in order to charge all cars. Also, the distance between the car and the wall where the box will be installed has to be considered. Type III is for people who belong to the salary groups 2-4 and whose district includes more than administrative district. Furthermore, if the vehicle has to be used for heavy-duty as well as for educational purposes which are regulated by paragraph 1 sentence 2 of the art college law. Type IV is referring to agencies which is leaded by people of the salary group B 5 or R 5. Usually only two cars of the categories III and IV can bet bought per agency. Type V is the category for the presidents of the highest courts of the federal state, district presidents and the directors of public prosecutions. If a person decides to drive himself or herself, a car of the categories I or II are appropriate. These cars also have to be able to cover distances of more than 12,000 km every year. The price for every level in the state administration is regulated by section 3 paragraph 4. of the purchasing list. The budget is supported by a so-called central “Verstärkungsansatz” which is listed in the detailed plan 20 in order to cover possible differences occurring

61 when a car is bought that does not have a gasoline enginge. That means an electric car is more expensive and if someone chooses an electric car instead of a cheaper gasoline or diesel car the purchase will be supported with the “Verstärkungsansatz” of the budget commitee. Every new e-car must replace one conventional car. Yet it is not clear if cars will be leased or bought (Schlüter, J. 2017). Some cars might be used for different authorities depending on the situation and the task the car is used for. When a person decides to use a car he or she has to make notes into driver’s logbook. A form of an entry can be seen in the figures 33 and 34 in the appendix. The driver’s logbook will then be handed over to the office responsible for collecting all entries.

Knowing the guideline, it is interesting to see how a comparison between a conventional car and an electric car looks like on a financial basis based on the guidelines explained in this chapter.

8. Calculation for the comparison of conventional cars with e-cars

8.1 Theory

Calculations in this paper are needed in order to find out whether a vehicle can be replaced by another. The analyzed factors above based on the given data of each institution will build the frame for each calculation. Since, as mentioned before the CO 2 value is not an adequate factor in the calculation it is important to find out how high a new value would have to be in order to change the buying behavior of people towards electric cars. Basically, the following calculations will show how difficult the situation of purchasing cars for institutions of the government is and how much has to be changed in order to make them financially attractive.

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Since not only money but also other aspects are to be considered (the federal state as a role model for the promotion of electric cars, emissions, processing renewables, sound emissions etc.) the following calculations are not the only crucial aspect for recommending new cars for car fleets. Other aspects are also important. Since information about charging options etc. are not given all these aspects will be assumed as fulfilled when the recommendation for a new car will be given. It is not possible to compare the special contracts the government gets via its tenders. Therefore, this parameter will not be considered. Otherwise a conventional car will be bought for a price that is so low that the loss after selling it will be very small. At the moment, there are no comparable contracts for e-cars as Mr. Schlüter said in the interview (May 31, 2017).

8.2 Practice

For the price of 1 kWh of electricity the price of the LANUV (23 cents(kWh) will be used as a reference since it is a state agency using electricity coming from renewables. Therefore, this should, be applicable to other institutions of the federal state. In order to compare the costs for the purchase of a conventional car and the costs of a BEV it is important to compare similar cars. Here the purchasing costs, the costs for refueling or recharging the car and the costs for the emitted amounts of CO 2 will be considered. The condition for buying an electric car or a normal car is that it must cover a minimum of 15,000 km per year. This distance will be taken as a reference value for the annually driven distance. A good comparison is able with the VW Golf Trendline 1.0 TSI (Volkswagen AG 2017a) and the VW e-Golf. The Trendline 1.0 is the cheapest gasoline driven Golf and costs 17,850€. The e-Golf costs 35,900€. It is able to cover a distance of almost 300 km according to VW (Volkswagen AG 2017b).

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The Trendline consumes 4.8 l/100km the e-Golf 12.7 kWh/100km. The Golf

Trendline emits 108 g/km of CO 2. The e-Golf 0 g/km if it is powered with electricity coming from renewables. A direct comparison for 2 years for both was made. The function is: The purchasing price + the consumption for 2 years + CO2 pollution costs (3 cent/kg) Three cents is the value Mr. Schlüter uses in his calculations for the purchase of new cars (Schlüter interview May 31, 2017).

The Golf Trendline costs about 19,900 € for 2 years: 17,850 € + ((2 x 15,000 km)/100) x (1.3599 €/l x 4.8 l/100 km) + (30,000 km x 0.108 kg/km x 0.03 €/kg) = 19,905.45 € For 2 years the e-Golf costs about 36,700 €: 35,900 € + ((2 x 15,000 km/100) x 0.23 €/kWh x 12.7 kWh/100 km = 36,776.3 €

The costs for refueling for 2 year a conventional car and the costs for CO 2 emissions are already about 2,000€. An electric car saves about 1,200€ here. Over a longer period, the costs would make an even bigger difference.

The calculation of the break-even point for an adequate cost for 1 kg of CO 2 (July 2017) is: 17,850 € + ((2 x 15,000 km/100) x (1.3599 €/l x 4.8 l/100 km)) + (2 x 15,000 km x 0.108 kg/km x Y €/kg) = 35,900 € + ((2 x 15,000 km/100) x 0.23 €/kWh x 12.7 kWh/100 km) Y= 5.24 €/kg

One kilogram of CO 2 would have to cost 5.24 € if an electric car and a conventional car of equal quality should have to be able to compete on a 2-year basis. Since conventional cars would be much too expensive when this would be implemented and not all cars are available yet on an electric basis there must be other solutions.

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9. Scenarios for alternative cars

The determination of alternative cars for the public service in this paper is limited to the analyzed aspects of the previous chapters. The recommendation of alternative cars will focus on tasks, the daily driven distance, costs and the number of vehicles. Emissions are important but since green electricity can be used at charging stations of an institution of the state a conventional car has very low chances to be competitive in this category. All these aspects have to be combined in order to find an adequate solution for each car fleet. Starting with the car fleet of the Landesbetrieb the Yeti and the Grand Vitara are used for many tasks and are present in high numbers. They are used to cover smaller and bigger distances. The two electric cars are only used very rarely which shows that employees do not want to use them. Mr. Gönner said during a phone call (June 22, 2017) that they are not always able to manage the distance of the route they are used for. Mr. Jahnke said that the LANUV wants to make the battery upgrade. A battery upgrade should also solve the problem of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz since the range will be more than doubled with it. The Skoda was bought in several editions including a 4x4 version. The Mitsubishi Outlander plug-in hybrid is also a 4x4 car. It can cover up to 54 km using only the e-motor and up to 800 km combined. 54 km is a distance that is very similar to the average distances of most tasks. Here the car could be able to drive most of the routes without using the combustion engine. It might also be an alternative to the Suzuki Grand Vitara which resembles the Yeti. Both can be replaced by the Outlander. Since not all cars were bought in the same year the older ones could be replaced at first. The other alternative car that could replace some of the Yeti and the Vitara is the Toyota RAV4 hybrid. It is a front-wheel drive car which cannot replace cars that have to drive on difficult terrain but it can replace cars that have to cover easy terrain. There it is an interesting alternative.

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Cars used in the pool and for jobs that are simply connected to transporting people from one point to the next on normal roads can be replaced by electric cars. Here the BMW i3 Range Extender and the Renault Zoé with the bigger battery seem to be a wise choice, as the experience of the LANUV shows. Both are reliable cars and do their jobs without problems. Here one should trust the experience of another institution of the government.

Secondly, the LANUV is basically already doing a good job with the replacement of conventional cars with electric cars. They will transform their car fleet more and more since their experience with electric cars is positive. Over time not only routes between the headquarters and occasional business trips but more and more tasks can be done by electric cars. The number of tasks will increase with the expansion of the charging network and the improvement of batteries. If batteries enable cars to have ranges comparable to conventional cars even when they have to do jobs that consume lots of energy they can also be used. Tasks connected to taking samples and measurements are usually demanding high ranges. These ranges might be already realistic in the next five years. The VW I.D. BUZZ will enter the market in 2022. It is a vehicle which provides much space for the installation of a special interior. It could become a fitting BEV for these types of jobs. Transporters and trucks are a special topic since they have to move heavy items. There the battery has to work under different conditions. Until now there are only few options available in order to drive more ecologically. Since most cars of the car pool are used in order to cover distances of about 90 km one could replace a few transporters already with the StreetScooter Work which is a BEV transporter that can already cover a distance of 80 km (StreetScooter GmbH 2015). If some routes are small enough and have to be covered daily this might be an interesting alternative. The car should be reliable since it is developed by the Deutsche Post DHL and about 20,000 new ones will be implemented annually.

Thirdly, the Landgestüt has the most challenging car fleet since most of their vehicles are very special. Almost none of them can be replaced with an electric

66 car yet. In the future, there will be alternatives like for example a plug-in tractor or an e-tractor. At the moment, there might be one possible alternative for the John Deere. The TU Munich came up with the project aCar (Internationales Verkehrswesen 2016). It is a vehicle that reminds of a quad bike with a roof and space to store items. It is a BEV. It could be used in order to do the same tasks.

In the end, the Ministry for Finance has to decide about the purchase of new cars. Electric cars will always be more expensive if the demand does not rise until a point where cheap contracts are possible. Therefore, the government can only purchase electric cars if they want to behave as a role model and try to support the sustainable movement. The financial side is in favor of conventional cars but on the side of the environment and the task it is in favor of e-cars. The decision to buy electric cars has already been made several times as the LANUV and the Landesbetrieb prove. Therefore, more and more car segments can be replaced in the future if the resonance is positive.

The guideline for electric cars says that it is important to have a constant charging option for electric cars. It is therefore important to know some aspects about charging stations if an electric car should be bought.

10. Charging stations

Charging stations are essential for BEVs, PHEVs and Range Extender cars in order to allow the driver to charge his car on his way with e certain speed. In this chapter charging stations, their functionality, current charging stations in Germany and especially in North Rhine-Westphalia as well as recommendations for the future of the German charging network will be explained.

First of all, the main charging types for an electric car have to be explained. There are four basic charging types. In order to compare them BMW provides

67 the reader of their homepage with a calculator that shows how much time is needed in order to charge a BMW i3 (200 km range). The slowest charging type of this calculation is the socket (AC). It allows the driver to charge his car basically everywhere at a common 230 Volt socket. The time needed is 12 hours and 15 minutes. The second method is the wall box (AC). The wall box uses a three-phase charging system which allows the driver to charge his car with one or three AC voltages. This results in a complete recharge in 3.5 hours. The same goes for most of the charging stations on the street. The fastest solution is the DC charging station. It uses 50 kW instead of 11kW to charge the car in less than 40 minutes until 80 percent (BMW AG 2017). These superchargers exist in the EU with a capacity of up to 170 kW. This is the new standard for Europe which is called “Combined Charging System” (CCS). Another widely spread system is the CHAdeMO-standard which stands for “Charge for Moving” and has a maximum capacity of 150 kW (EMNRW no date a). The main difference between AC and DC is that the charging electronic of an AC station is placed in the electric car while DC systems have intern electronics in the charging stations (EMNRW 2017). In the following graphic on the left side there is an AC charger and on the right- hand side a DC charger. Below them the average charging output values for the common plugs in Germany are shown. The normal charging stations are listed here as “Typ-2”. Wall boxes are sold with a Typ-2 plug. Different companies sell different wall boxes where sometimes different variants are sold. Some wall boxes can reach higher charging outputs than others but cost more. The average price is 600€.

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Figure 27 Plug-in systems (EMNRW 2017)

Looking at the infrastructure of charging stations in Europe the following chart will give a comparison of EU member countries. The comparison here focuses on cities with more than 100 thousand inhabitants. It shows how many charging stations per 100 thousand city inhabitants existed in 2015 (Czech Republic, Slovenia and Luxembourg are excluded because of some standards).

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Figure 28 EU member states comparison (European Alternative Fuels Observatory 2017)

In relation to its urban situation Germany is placed in the lower half of this comparison. Other countries are far more advanced in their charging network. The first three countries in this comparison (Netherlands, Denmark and Austria) are outclassing the rest of the countries. Germany as a leader in the renewable energy and the car sector still has to improve a lot on this matter if it wants to lead here as well. Looking at the situation inside of Germany there was the inauguration of the 100 th supercharger at the beginning of 2017. On June 1th, 2017 there were 6,888 charging stations and 20,093 connections in Germany (Statista GmbH 2017c). The goal for 2017-2020 is to install 5,000 superchargers and 10,000 standard charging stations. In order to reach this goal 300€ million will be invested. This should allow Germany to become a leader of the industry 4.0.

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200€ million will be invested in superchargers which will be installed in cities and “Bundesfernstraßen”. These are streets that connect towns with each other and allow people to drive at higher speeds. One might refer to them as highways or the so-called German “Autobahn” which belongs to this category. The remaining 100€ million will be used in order to expand the normal charging station network. Private investors, municipalities and towns will be supported. The government prefers to install charging stations at spots that are reached by many people continuously like for instance airports, gas stations, bus stations, shopping malls, car-sharing stations, sports centers and exhibition centers (Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure 2016b). Until 2025 the goal is to increase the share of electricity provided by renewable energy power plants until 40 to 45 percent. Furthermore, the output of superchargers should reach 350 kW (Nationale Plattform Elektromobilität 2015). Coming to NRW the German Association of Energy and Water Industries found out that NRW was ranked on place three in Germany with 2,926 public and half- public charging stations. Half-public charging stations are e.g. placed on the ground of a company and offer different options for authorization and payment. Focusing on the density of the charging network NRW is ranked number one of the area states (city states are excluded). In this comparison, the amount of charging stations per 1,000 km2 were counted. One method that must be mentioned in this chapter is the inductive charging. That might become a serious alternative to charging stations. A car parks somewhere or drives slowly over a certain track and is charged. Over a magnetic field the wire in the car and one in the ground energy is transferred. At the moment, there are test running on buses in Berlin and Brandenburg. Currently an efficiency of 93-95 percent at low energy levels is possible (EMNRW no date a). Further research is necessary to make it applicable for the mass implementation. Installing a charging station or a wall box is only possible if the building and the area around the building fulfill the necessary conditions. It is important to have a connection to the grid which is able to deal with the power level that is required for the supply of the installed charging stations and wall boxes. Then there must be space for parking places and it is necessary to make a tender in order to get

71 the money. Since the installation of a charging station is connected to earthworks etc. extern people will have to do the job. The whole process is very complicated and not all institutions are able to fulfill the conditions for a charging station. If an electric car is demanded the first thing to do is the fulfillment of the conditions for a charging station or wall box. If it is possible to install a charging device the choice should be clever and the charging speed should fit the usage of the car.

11. Conclusion

The implementation of e-mobility in the everyday life of Germanys inhabitants is still in the early stage. The infrastructure of charging stations, the environmental unfriendly electricity mixture, the price of electric cars, the un-eco production of batteries and the range are problems people have to think a lot about when they decide to buy a car. If people buy an electric car today it is clear that most of them want to protect the environment and try to avoid emissions. They invest more money in the purchase of their car than a person that buys a car of a comparable quality with a combustion engine inside. This is also difficult for an institution which tries to change its car fleet according to the goals of the EU for 2020 and 2030. It will not be easy to reach the goals set for NRW if the government does not behave as a role model and uses electric cars. Since the government must not waste money it has to be very efficient. Therefore, it buys cars at the lowest price. Too few electric cars are bought to make special contracts possible which help the government to save money. The future will show if the society demands more e-cars, if the charging infrastructure improves, if batteries guarantee a bigger range, can be produced more environmentally friendly and recycled, prices shrink and the share of renewables in the German electricity mixture increases. According to the plans of Germany the probability is high that this all will happen. It is necessary that other segments than just normal street cars are focused on by the manufacturers and are offered as electric cars as well. Only this in combination

72 with charging stations which provide electricity coming from 100 percent renewables will help to decrease the emissions on the road drastically. In order to make car fleets of governmental institutions more ecofriendly every institution must receive more information about possible alternative cars. It is necessary to find out how many cars are really necessary, how they can be used in the most efficient way and how charging stations and wall boxes can be installed at their buildings. Here an electronic driver’s logbook for every institution would be helpful because it gives lots of important information. This information might help to find completely different concepts which could lead to e.g. a car pool for several ministries or state agencies. It could be possible that in a few years an e-tractor is bought which is likely to be very expensive. It could be shared by different ministries and state agencies. Many ideas are developed in order to find more ecological concepts for car fleets. E-mobility can be the first step towards a sustainable future in the transportation sector.

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12. Sources and Literature 12.1 Reference of Sources 12.1.1 Published Sources

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Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC), 2017. How do Gasoline Cars Work? Washington: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Available from: https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/how-do-gasoline- cars-work (June 1, 2017).

Audi AG, 2016. Audi Technology Portal – Elektromotoren . Ingolstadt: Audi AG. Available from: https://www.audi-technology-portal.de/de/mobilitaet-der- zukunft/technikbausteine/elektromotoren (June 20, 2017).

Auto Motor und Sport, 2016. John Deere Sesam E-Traktor-Konzept – E-Antrieb für die Landwirtschaft. Stuttgart: auto-motor-und-sport.de. Available from: http://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/news/john-deere-sesam-elektro-traktor- konzept-4517434.html (June 26, 2017).

AutoBild, 2017. Der VW e-Bulli für 2022. Hamburg: AutoBild. Available from: http://www.autobild.de/artikel/vw-i.d.-buzz-2017-vorstellung-und-sitzprobe- 11159313.html (June 12, 2017).

BMW AG, 2017. Ziel in Reichweite. Energie in Reserve. Absolut alltagstauglich – Reichweite & Laden mit dem BMW i3. München: Bayerische Motoren Werke Aktiengesellschaft. Available from: http://www.bmw.de/de/neufahrzeuge/bmw- i/i3/2015/reichweite-laden.html (June 17, 2017).

Bönninghausen, D., 2017. Plug-in-Traktor von John Deere auf der Grünen Woche . Berlin: Rabbit Publishing GmbH. Available from: https://www.electrive.net/2017/01/23/gridcon-traktor-von-john-deere-mit- elektrischer-unterstuetzung/ (June 26, 2017).

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Council of the European Union, 2007. Presidency Conclusions . Brussels: Council of the European Union. Available from: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/93135 .pdf (May 29, 2017).

Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN (EMNRW), no date a. Laden - Über Ladezeiten, Ladeleistung, Steckdosen und Schnellladen. Jülich: Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN. Available from: http://www.elektromobilitaet.nrw.de/elektromobilitaet/laden-ladeinfrastruktur/ (June 19, 2017).

European Alternative Fuels Observatory, 2017. Electric vehicle charging points . Brussels: European Commission DG Mobility and Transport. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/facts-fundings/scoreboard/compare/energy- union-innovation/ev-charging-points_en (June 18, 2017).

European Commission (EC), 2010a. EUROPE 2020 - A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth . Brussels: European Commission. Available from: http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:2020:FIN:EN:PDF (May 24, 2017).

European Commission (EC), 2010b. Climate Action - 2030 climate & energy framework . Brussels: European Commission. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2030_en (May 18, 2017).

European Commission (EC), 2017. European Commission – Fact Sheet, Renewables: Europe on track to reach its 20% target by 2020. Brussel: European Commission. Available from: http://europa.eu/rapid/press- release_MEMO-17-163_en.htm (May 29, 2017).

European Environment Agency, 2016: Future changes in CO 2 emissions in the energy and road transport sectors. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency. Available from: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/co2- impact-of-electric-vehicles#tab-chart_1 (June 16, 2017).

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Eurostat European Environment Agency, approx. 2015. Total greenhouse gas emissions (including international aviation and indirect CO 2, excluding LULUCF), by country, 1990–2014 . Eurostat European Environment Agency. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics- explained/images/8/86/Total_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_countries_%28in cluding_international_aviation_and_indirect_CO2%2C_excluding_LULUCF%29 %2C_1990_-_2014_%28million_tonnes_of_CO2_equivalents%29_updated.png (May 18, 2017).

Federal Government, 2017. Neue Kraftstoffe und Antriebe – sauber und kostengünstig . Berlin: Federal Government. Available from: http://www.bundesregierung.de/Webs/Breg/DE/Themen/Energiewende/Mobilita et/mobilitaet_zukunft/_node.html (May 31, 2017).

Federal Ministry of Finance, 2017. Gesetzesentwurf der Bundesregierung, Entwurf eines Sechsten Gesetzes zur Änderung des Kraftfahrzeugsteuergesetzes. Köln: Bundesanzeiger Verlag GmbH. Available from: http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/18/112/1811234.pdf (June 14, 2017).

Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, 2016b. BMVI erstellt Förderrichtlinie zur Ladeinfrastruktur Elektrofahrzeuge - Dobrindt: Startschuss für die Ladesäulen-Offensive . Berlin: Federal Ministry of Transport and digital Infrastructure. Available from: http://www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2016/069-dobrindt- kabinettbeschluss-elektromobilitaet.html (June 18, 2017).

Glick, D., no date. The Big Thaw . Washington: National Geographic. Available from: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/big-thaw/ (May 18, 2017).

Government of North Rhine-Westphalia, 2013. Aufbau der Landesverwaltung Nordrhein-Westfalen . Düsseldorf: Government of North Rhine-Westphalia. Available from: https://www.google.de/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja& uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjdu4el- s7UAhUCYVAKHU6VDqAQFggtMAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.land.nrw%2

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Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fasset%2Fdocument%2Fnrw- landesverwaltung.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHLM3YOBSWrPCGyHAQihKe3H43BRw (June 21, 2017).

International Energy Agency, no date. Electric Vehicles (EVs) . International Energy Agency. Available from: http://www.ieahev.org/about-the- technologies/electric-vehicles/ (June 1, 2017).

Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, no date. Jahresbilanz der Neuzulassungen 2016. Flensburg: Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt. Available from: http://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/n_jahresbilanz.html ?nn=644522 (June 21, 2017).

Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen (LANUV), 2017. LANUV stellt sich vor . Recklinghausen: Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen (LANUV). Available from: https://www.lanuv.nrw.de/landesamt/lanuv-stellt-sich-vor/ (June 6, 2017).

Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2017. Übersichtskarte Wald und Holz NRW 2017 . Münster: Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen. Available from: https://www.wald-und- holz.nrw.de/fileadmin/Ueber_uns/Dokumente/Uebersichtskarte_Wald_und_Holz _NRW_2017_web.pdf (June 13, 2017).

Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen, no date. About us - Structure and tasks of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz NRW . Münster: Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen. Available from: https://www.wald-und-holz.nrw.de/ueber-uns/en/about-us/ (June 12, 2017).

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), 2017. Sea Level . NASA GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE- Vital Signs of the Planet, https://climate.nasa.gov/vital- signs/sea-level/ (May 17, 2017).

NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), 2017. Global Temperature . NASA GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE - Vital Signs of the Planet. Available from: https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temperature/ (May 17, 2017).

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National Footprint Accounts (NFA), 2017a. Reserve/Deficit Trends . Global Footprint Network. Available from: http://data.footprintnetwork.org/countryTrends.html (May 18, 2017).

National Footprint Accounts (NFA), 2017b. Analyze by Land Types . Global Footprint Network. Available from: http://data.footprintnetwork.org/analyzeTrends.html?cn=5001&type=BCpc (May 22, 2017).

National Geographic, no date. Sea Level Rise . Washington: National Geographic. Available from: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/sea-level-rise/ (May 17, 2017).

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. Department of Commerce, 2017. Carbon Dioxide. NASA GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE - Vital Signs of the Planet. Available from: https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/ (May 17, 2017).

Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf (NWLW), no date. Index. Warendorf: Nordrhein-Westfälisches Landgestüt Warendorf. Available from: http://www.landgestuet.nrw.de/index.html (June 6, 2017).

Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), 2017. Carbon Cycle . Pennsylvania: Northern Research Station of the United States Department of Agriculture. Available from: https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/carbon/forests/carbon_cycle (May 23,2017).

Nothern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), no date. Carbon Cycle . Pennsylvania: Northern Research Station of the United States Department of Agriculture. Available from: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/local- resources/images/carbon_cycle_big.jpg (May 23, 2017).

RWE AG, 2010. Wie funktioniert eigentlich ein E-Motor? Essen: RWE AG . Available from: http://www.rwe.de/web/cms/de/363310/magazin/2010/ausgabe- 1/e-mobility/wie-funktioniert-eigentlich-ein-e-motor/ (June 08, 2017).

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Statista GmbH, 2017a. Durchschnittlicher Preis für einen Liter Diesel in Deutschland in den Monaten Mai 2016 bis Mai 2017 (in Cent). Hamburg: Statista GmbH. Available from: https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1691/umfrage/preis-fuer-einen-liter- diesel-monatsdurchschnittswerte/ (June 28,2017).

Statista GmbH, 2017b. Durchschnittlicher Preis für einen Liter Superbenzin in Deutschland von Mai 2016 bis Mai 2017 (in Cent). Hamburg: Statista GmbH. Available from: https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1690/umfrage/preis- fuer-einen-liter-superbenzin-monatsdurchschnittswerte/ (June 28, 2017).

Statista GmbH, 2017c. Anzahl der Ladestationen und der Anschlüsse für Elektrofahrzeuge in Deutschland im Zeitraum 4. Quartal 2015 bis 3. Quartal 2017 (Stand: 3. Juli 2017). Hamburg: Statista GmbH. Available from: https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/460234/umfrage/ladestationen-fuer- elektroautos-in-deutschland-monatlich/ (June 18, 2017).

StreetScooter GmbH, 2015. Elektrisch. Die Zukunft der Transporter. Aachen: StreetScooter GmbH. Available from: http://www.streetscooter.eu/modelle/work (July 04, 2017).

Stuttgarter-Zeitung.de, 2017. Fahrverbot in Stuttgart - Für viele Diesel-Fahrer wird es ernst . Stuttgart: Stuttgarter Zeitung Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Available from: http://www.stuttgarter-zeitung.de/inhalt.fahrverbot-in-stuttgart-fuer-viele- diesel-fahrer-wird-es-ernst.e6191057-a9fe-48c8-8b5c-417136c089fb.html (June 7, 2017).

United Nations (UN), no date a. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Developmen: Our Common Future . United Nations. Available from: http://un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf (May 23, 2017).

United Nations (UN), no date b. Sustainable Development Goals - 17 Goals to Transform our World. United Nations. Available from: http://un.org./sustainabledevelopment/news/communications-material/ (May 24, 2017).

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UtzOnBike, 2017. 4-Stroke-Engine . Wikimedia.org. Available from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=294641 (May 20, 2017).

Verband der Automobilindustrie e.V. (VDA), 2017. Elektromobilität . Berlin: Verband der Automobilindustrie e.V.. Available from: https://www.vda.de/de/themen/innovation-und- technik/elektromobilitaet/elektromobilitaet-elektrofahrzeuge-der-deutschen- hersteller-und-ausblick-npe.html (June 19, 2017).

Viehmann, S., 2017. Ratgeber zum VW Abgas-Skandal - Verbrauch, Motorhaltbarkeit, Leistung: Die Wahrheit über die VW-Schummelsoftware. Focus Online, http://www.focus.de/auto/news/abgas-skandal/vw-abgas- skandal-software-update-audi-kunden-berichten-ueber-zwangs- umruestung_id_5703624.html (June 7, 2017).

Volkswagen AG, 2017a. Der Golf Trendline . Wolfsburg: Volkswagen AG. Available from: https://www.volkswagen.de/app/konfigurator/vw-de/de/der- golf/30315/38150/trendline/BQ12AA/2018/1/F14%205K5K/F56%20%20%20%2 0%20TW/+?page=summary (July 08, 17).

12.1.2 Unpublished Sources

Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2014. Daten Fahrtenbuch 2014 . Münster. Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein- Westfalen.

Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Nature Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (MCEANC), 2017. Organisationsplan MKULNV des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen . Düsseldorf: Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Nature Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Ministry of Finance of North Rhine-Westphalia (MFNRW), 2016. Richtlinien über die Haltung und Benutzung von Dienstfahrzeugen im Lande Nordrhein- Westfalen (Kraftfahrzeugrichtlinien-KfzR). Düsseldorf: Ministry of Finance of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Schlüter, J., 2016. Richtlinien über die Haltung und Benutzung von Dienstfahrzeugen im Lande Nordrhein-Westfalen (Kraftfahrzeugrichtlinien –

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KfzR) vom 5. März 1999 (SMBI.NW.20024); Rahmenverträge für Kauffahrzeuge der Stufen 1 und 2 (§4 Abs. 2 KfzR) einschl. Elektrofahrzeuge. Düsseldorf: Ministry of Finance of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Schlüter, J., 2017. Richtlinien über die Haltung und Benutzung von Dienstkraftfahrzeugen im Lande Nordrhein-Westfalen (Kraftfahrzeugrichtlinien- KfzR) vom 5. März 1999 (SMBI.NW.20024); Bedarfsabfrage für die Beschaffung von Selbstfahrerfahrzeugen der Stufen I und II. Düsseldorf: Ministry of Finance of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Scherg, J., 2017. whatsapp fotography . Warendorf: Landgestüt NRW (NWLW) (June 24, 2017).

12.2 Reference of Literature

Amsterdam Roundtable Foundation and McKinsey & Company The Netherlands, 2014. Evolution Electric vehicles in Europe: gearing up for a new phase? Amsterdam: Amsterdam Roundtable Foundation.

Augustin, J. Dr., et al., 2017. Klimawandel in Deutschland- Entwicklung, Folgen, Risiken und Perspektiven . Hamburg: Springer Open.

Dudenhöffer F., 2016. Wer kriegt die Kurve? Zeitenwende in der Autoindustrie. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag.

Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN (EMNRW), no date b. Mehr bewegen. Mit Strom. Der Masterplan Elektromobilität NRW 2014 . Jülich: Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH.

Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN (EMNRW), 2017. Lade-Infrastruktur – kurz erklärt – Nordrhein-Westfalen. Jülich: Elektromobilität NRW Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Projektträger ETN.

Engelfried, J., 2011. Nachhaltiges Umweltmanagement . 2nd edition. Munich; Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag GmbH.

Federal Environment Agency, 2012. Batterien und Akkus, Ihre Fragen – unsere Antworten zu Batterien, Akkus und Umwelt. Dessau: Federal Environment Agency.

Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety, 2014. Aktionsprogramm Klimaschutz 2020 . Berlin: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety.

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Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, 2016a. Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030 – Entwurf März 2016 . Berlin: Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. Available from: https://www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/DE/Anlage/VerkehrUndMobilitaet/BVWP/bvw p-2030-gesamtplan.pdf?__blob=publicationFile (June 1, 2017).

Fritz, D., et al., 2016. Ökobilanz alternativer Antriebe - Fokus Elektrofahrzeuge. Wien: Federal Environment Agency.

Internationales Verkehrswesen, 2016. Auszeichnung für aCar-Projekt. Internationales Verkehrswesen , Vol. 68 (4), p. 10.

McKinsey & Company, Inc., 2017. Electrifying insights: How automakers can drive electrified vehicle sales and profitability . Düsseldorf: McKinsey & Company, Inc..

Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Nature Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (MCEANC), 2015. Klimaschutzplan Nordrhein-Westfalen - Klimaschutz und Klimafolgenanpassung. Düsseldorf: Ministry for Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, Nature Conservation and Consumer Protection of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Nationale Plattform Elektromobilität, 2015. Ladeinfrastruktur für Elektrofahrzeuge in Deutschland - Statusbericht und Handlungsempfehlungen 2015 . Berlin: Gemeinsame Geschäftsstelle Elektromobilität der Bundesregierung (GGEMO).

Petters, A., Rusetzki, Chr., Reise, S., 2017. Elektrische und konventionelle Antriebskonzepte - Ein ökologischer und ökonomischer Vergleich. Internationales Verkehrswesen , Vol. 69 (1), p.69-71.

Quicumque Zeitschrift für autarkes Leben, 2016. Flocken und unzufriedene Rennpferdchen. Quicumque Zeitschrift für autarkes Leben, no volume, p. 31.

REN21, 2017. Renewables Global Futures Report . Paris: REN21 Secretariat. Available from: http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/GFR-Full- Report-2017.pdf (May 29, 2017).

Salb, C., et al., 2016. Klimaschutz in Zahlen, Fakten, Trends und Impulse deutscher Klimapolitik . Berlin: Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit.

Volkswagen AG, 2017b. Der neue e-Golf . Wolfsburg: Volkswagen AG. Available from: https://www.volkswagen.de/content/dam/vw- ngw/vw_pkw/importers/de/dialogcenter/brochures/golf-bq/golf-e- katalog.pdf/_jcr_content/renditions/original./golf-e-katalog.pdf (July 03, 17).

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World Wide Fund International (WWF), 2016. Living Planet Report 2016 - Summary . Gland: World Wide Fund For Nature.

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13. Appendix

Figure 29 Organizational structure of the Ministry (MCEANC 2017)

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Figure 30 Structure of the federal state administration (Government of North Rhine-Westphalia 2013)

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Figure 31 General map of the Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz (LWH) Nordrhein- Westfalen 2017)

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Figure 32 Data Landgestüt (Scherg, J. 2017)

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Figure 33 Driver's logbook 1 (Ministry of Finance of North-Rine Westphalia (MFNRW) 2016)

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Figure 34 Driver's logbook 2 (MFNRW) 2016)

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Mr. Schlüter interview May 31, 2017

Me: Mr. Schlüter thank you for your time. Can you give me a statement about the purchase of conventional cars, e-cars and the costs connected to CO 2, please?

Schlüter: For conventional cars, we are having a tender which allows us to make cheap contracts. These contracts are so cheap that we can sell the cars 2 years later and make almost no losses. For electric cars, there are no such contracts yet because they are too expensive. The costs for CO 2 are 3 cents/kg of CO 2. This value exists since 2007 and has not been changed since then. This value is not relevant for the purchase of a car because it is too small. Me: Thank you Mr. Schlüter.

Gönner phone call June 22, 2017

CG: Mr. Gönner can you give me some information about the usage of your Renault Zoés please? Gönner: Our Renault Zoés are used to cover a distance between two houses in Münster and Arnsberg. The problem is that theses cars are not always able to cover this distance. If the conditions are ideal it is possible but if it is too cold or warm outside and the AC or heating has to be switched on the situation is different. It happened to some colleagues that they could not reach the other house. Therefore, many of our employees do not trust the Zoé and choose another car.

CG: Thank you Mr. Gönner.

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LANUV interview June 30, 2017

CG: Hello Mr. Jahnke, you are responsible for the car fleet of the LANUV. Thank you for your time and the invitation to this interview. Let us begin with the first question.

Jahnke: We have a big mixed car fleet. In total, there are 180 vehicles and a high fluctuation. We have 8 Ford Caddy, 3 e-Golf, 7 BMW i3 range Extender, 3 Renault Zoé, 1 Renault Fluence, 1 Hyundai ix35 fuel cell, 36 Ford Focus Kombi, 4 Golf Variant, 5 Renault Megane, 1 VW T4, 67 T5, 22 T6, 3 VW Tiguan. In the sum, this is less then 180 because there are some special cars which I did not list up since they are reconstructed or are trucks. They are used for several special jobs. They are 1 Mercedes Econic, several Mercedes Sprinter, 2 Iveco Lumbricus, 1 Crafter, 1 Toyota Land Crusier.

The annually driven distance per car I cannot say because we don’t have an electronical driver’s logbook. We still do everything per paper, therefore an evaluation is impossible. I can say that the total annual distance is about 3.5 million kilometers.

CG: What about the daily driven distance?

Jahnke: Do you mean per day? CG: Yes, it would be interesting to see if a car has to cover 50 or 100 kilometers per day. Jahnke: Ok we have different distances. The special departments have cars which do special tasks and we have a car pool. One department for example has to take care of all measurement stations in NRW. There are distances of about 400 kilometers possible. Cars used for taking measurements cover usually a daily distance of 200 kilometers per day. In the car pool, we have a high electric car share. They drive on an average 90 kilometers.

CG: And that works?

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Jahnke: We have the BMW i3 with the range extender and that works fine without any problems.

Coming to the terrains: All terrains are covered. The hydro part is connected to more difficult terrain. Some drive on highways and the street.

There are many tasks our cars are used for. For example, sampling cars have a special interior which allows the driver to analyze the taken samplings. These cars usually are four wheel driven. The hydrological service is also having a special interior like a small desk and space for the measurement devices they need.

Pool cars are different. For example, the air measurement cars which are also part of the pool are usually kombi cars. Important is the range. Since most of the routes are not bigger than 100 kilometers electric cars are a proper solution.

I am not allowed to name the costs of our cars. Cars of the level 1 and 2 are usually bought. Very expensive is the reconstruction which usually costs between 8-19,000€. It is very difficult to find people who can do them.

CG: The most interesting information about the refueling part would be how much a kilowatt hour at your own charging stations costs.

Jahnke: We have special contracts. We are using eco-electricity. That means we really charge electricity that comes to 100% from renewable energy. We pay 23 cents per kWh. It is not much cheaper than the average price for households. I pay 27 cents.

The average consumption of our e-cars is 15.5 to 17 kWh per 100 kilometers.

CG: How about the lifespan of your cars?

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Jahnke: Normal cars of level II are replaced every year. All other cars we drive until they burst. There we usually have cars for 8-10 years. This makes sense since their reconstruction is very expensive. Some cars have a very high mileage and there it happens that they are replaced after 5 years already. Electric cars are used for 8 years. The demand is good, the resonance is good and people like them. Some of the ranges are expandable. Renault offers us a battery upgrade. For3,000 one can get the bigger battery which allows a realistic range of almost 300 kilometers. The current one allows us to drive about 140 kilometers. This sounds like a good investment. So, we will definitely do it. The Zoé is a good car that makes no problems.

Our cars are split over 21 spots. The e-cars are based at the headquarters.

CG: What can you tell me about your emissions? Jahnke: We don’t look at that. Our climate protectors do that. They calculate the emissions. We cannot look at that without an electronical driver’s logbook. That is too much for 180 cars. Since the electric cars are charged with electricity coming from renewables the emissions are zero but the emissions from the manufacturing are not included.

At the headquarters, we have 7 AC charging stations with two charging points each 22 kW. In Essen, there is a DC station which can do AC 22 kW, CCS 50 kW and CHAdeMO 50 kW.

Me: Is there enough time to charge an electric car between two tasks? Jahnke: E-cars are usually only used between the headquarters where one charge is enough. We are not that advanced to give an electric car to more people daily. The eGolf would be a difficult project but with a DC station it would be possible. In 30 minutes, it would be fully charged. The Golf can only charge AC single phased and it is not efficient. After a few meters only the display jumps from 200 to 150 km range which is a problem. With the Zoé I can cover bigger distances and the car computer is better. Also, the BMW is better. They calculate the range linear with the distance I already drove. The range in the Golf is not changing according to the distance I already drove. The more

93 efficient one drives the better is the range in the Zoé and that can be seen in the range.

The planning of the charging infrastructure is a very very special topic. The effort that must be undertaken is huge. It is much and it is very expensive. Including earthworks, one has to pay about 12,000€. For the charging stations about 150,000€ were already invested in total but we are not done yet. We also have wall boxes but they are not good enough. More triple chargers and AC stations are needed. The big question is where the needed electricity should come from. 200 ampere capacity AC necessary and is the connection of the house even dimensioned for this size? It is difficult.

When I have to go on a business trip I only do it with an electric car. Some employees are so good on the road that they can reach electric ranges of 240 km with the i3.

CG: Is it possible to install charging stations or wall boxes? Jahnke: As I mentioned before it is very difficult. The own infrastructure has to be known. It is not always the case that people have the knowledge. We had big cable shafts and the main electrical connection in the right place. If that is not given the costs rise due to earthworks. External people are necessary in order to do the work. For a charging station, a tender is also needed and that makes the whole process even more complicated and complex. Me: Thank you very much for this interview.

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