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The Manga Boom: The Recent Fairy-Tale Transculturation Between Germany and East Asia

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Authors Gagum, Kyung Lee

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THE MANGA BOOM: THE RECENT FAIRY-TALE TRANSCULTURATION BETWEEN GERMANY AND EAST ASIA

Kyung Lee Gagum

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF GERMAN STUDIES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WITH A MAJOR IN TRANSCULTURAL GERMAN STUDIES

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2017

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Kyung Lee Gagum, titled The Manga Boom: The Recent Fairy-Tale Transculturation between Germany and East Asia and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

______Date: (April 26, 2017) David Gramling

______Date: (April 26, 2017) Barbara Kosta

______Date: (April 26, 2017) Chantelle Reynwar

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

______Date: (April 26, 2017) Dissertation Director: David Gramling

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that an accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED: Kyung Lee Gagum

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members, Professor David Gramling, Professor Barbara Kosta, and Professor Chantelle Warner.

To my chair, my Doktorvater, Professor David Gramling, who always guided me to a new direction and encouraged me to go beyond my horizon. And always knew, when I needed words of encouragement to continue.

To Professor Barbara Kosta, who made me the offer to continue my research, and this I simply could not refuse. And the one who made me realize that my research is not just interesting but also matters in the realm of Transcultural German Studies.

To Professor Chantelle Warner, who made me realize that I can in fact do and be both, a researcher and a teacher. Who gave me the confidence to apply my research in teaching and directed me to the pedagogical application that is not only relevant and applicable to my research but also to me as a teacher.

My gratitude also extends to the faculty of Department of German Studies at the University of Arizona, who were always a fountain of information, resources, and insights.

And last, many thanks to my future research colleagues, encounters, and endeavors. Who and what may inspire me to continue my research and I hope to inspire to do the same.

DEDICATION

I like to dedicate my dissertation to my husband, Alford Gagum, my two daughters, Yvette and Audrey Gagum, and my son, Alphonse Gagum. And to my unni, Hyang-Lee Perron/Moon, who gave motivation only a dear sister, could give.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………….……….…………………………….………..…8 INTRODUCTION …………………………….…………………………….………..…10 1. Transculturation revisited …………………………….…………………………....11 2. Transculturation applied ……….………….…………………………….………....17 3. A Note on Terminology ……………………………………………..…….………18 4. Description of Chapters …………………………………….………………...……20 5. Literature Review…………………………………………….……………………..24 CHAPTER ONE Grimms’ Fairy Tales and Manga ………………………………………………………. 29 The Reception of Grimms’ Fairy Tales in Japan ...... 29 Grimms’ Boom in Japan and Manga Boom in Germany ...... …35 Manga as a Global Transcultural Product in the Context of Comics ...... …42 Analysis of Grimms Manga ...... …50 1. The Transcultural Beginning of Grimms Manga………………………….………..51 2. Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding Hood…………………………………….…………..56 3. The Narrative Component of Rotkäppchen …………………………….…….……59 4. Reflections of Moral Education in Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding Hood …………..68 5. The Challenge of Assigned Gender Roles in Isyhama’s Retellings ………………70 CHAPTER TWO Yoko Tawada’s engagement with the Early German Romanticism……………………..76 1. Yoko Tawada……………………………………………………………………….78 2. Friedrich Schlegel: “Fragments and Progressive Universal Poetry”.……………....78 3. Friedrich Schlegel and Yoko Tawada’s Works…………………………………….80 4. Novalis and His Concept of Romanticism ………………………………...……….87 5. Novalis and Yoko Tawada’s Works………………………………………………..88 6. Kunstmärchen and Yoko Tawada…………………………………………………..91 7. E.T.A. Hoffmann and Yoko Tawada’s Works ………………………….…………91 8. Till Eulenspiegel and Yoko Tawada’s Works…………………………………...…96 CHAPTER THREE Wagnerian Ideology in Kouhei Kadono’s Boogiepop………………………………….104

1. Richard Wagner in Meiji Japan…………………………………………………...105 2. The Boogiepop Series …………………………………………………………….109 3. Boogiepop and Others…………………………………………………………….110 4. The Intertextuality between Kadono and Wagner ………………………………..118

5. Boogiepop’s Relationship with Keiji …………... ………………………………..121

6. Farewell between Boogiepop and Keiji …………………………………………..123

7. Relationship between Boogiepop and Niitoki…………………………………….125

CHAPTER FOUR The Goethe’s Faust transculturation in a South Korean Manhwa The Tarot Café ...... 133 1. The Reception of Goethe’s Faust in South Korea………………………………...136 2. Park’s Critique of a Neo-Confucian View of Women…………………………….140 3. Park’s Critical Feminist Project through Goethe’s Faust…………………………142 4. Gustav Klimt’s Paintings reimagined in The Tarot Café…………………...……..147 5. Kkonminam and Modern Korean Masculinity ………………………………...…148 6. Transculturation in The Tarot Café ……………………………………………….151 CHAPTER FIVE Manga in a German Language Curriculum……………………………………..……...155 1. Brief Overview of Multiliteracies Pedagogy ...... 156 2. Multiliteracies within the Foreign Language Curriculum ...... 158 3. Manga in a German Classroom …………………….…………………………….161 4. Manga in Action ………………………………………………………………….166 4. Conclusion .……………………………………………………………………….173 WORKS CITED ...... 175

ABSTRACT:

This dissertation critically investigates how German culture is transculturated in

Japan and in South Korea and then reproduced in a new form of manga/manhwa. These visual representations are evidence of a long history of German literary transculturation amid Japanese and Korean reading culture. Beginning with moral education materials in the 1880s, I trace the widespread reception of Grimms’ fairy tales in East Asia and argue that the success of the translations of the tales was due to the particularly successful fusion of Confucian values with the Western story form. German literature first entered the Japanese reading culture through the Grimms’ fairytales as a moral education tool.

The reading reception shifted from educational space to private space and Japanese reader began to enjoy the Grimms’ fairytales outside of the classroom, which contributed to the spread of German literature. This led to a veritable Grimm boom at the end of the twentieth century, including a corpus of critical analysis by Asian scholars and fairy tale retellings from feminist perspectives that creatively fuse ideas of East and West. The globalization of manga, in turn, contributed to the scholarly discourse in the West, which nourished a rethinking and redeployment of complex borrowing practices between Asian and German literatures. From the impact of Grimms’ fairy tales, I trace the reception of the German literature in the Japanese pop literature medium manga and analyze Grimms

Manga by the Japanese manga artist Kei Isiyama. Grimms’ fairy tales paved the way for the entry of German literature and I investigate Yoko Tawada’s works, who writes in

Japanese and in German and incorporates fairy tale tropes and the legacy of German romanticism in the age of transnational globalization through her visual descriptive writing. I examine the Japanese author Kouhei Kadono, whose works, I claim, display the

romantic themes of the German Romantics and Richard Wagner’s nationalistic ideological views of societal changes. I then shift from German literature’ influence in

Japan to South Korea and I juxtapose the manhwa The Tarot Café with Goethe’s Faust to investigate gender roles. After displaying German transculturation in the selected works,

I argue that manga contributes to the German classroom as part of a multiliteracies framework in a collegiate language classroom.

INTRODUCTION

Since their first publication of the Kinder-und Hausmärchen in 1812, abbreviated hereafter as KHM, the Brothers Grimm became a household name. The first translation of KHM appeared as early as in 1816 and according to UNESCO (United Nations

Organization for Education, Science and Culture) translation index, “[n]o German book has been translated into so many languages”1. In Germany, KHM ranks as the second most widely circulated book in Germany; it is “second only to the Bible”2. On the international scale, the reception and current status of the Grimm’s tales are that of a global children’s classic, which entered various languages and countries through very diverse routes.

The goal of this dissertation is to investigate German classical and Romantic literary influences in Japanese and Korean popular literature, with a particular focus on graphic novels as a paragon of the transculturation of Western literature in so-called

Eastern works. Drawing on the influences of works by the Grimm brothers and Richard

Wagner among others in Japan, I investigate the Western mesh of transcultural effects in

Japanese and Korean popular culture. Due to the recent vogue of Grimms’ fairy tales in

Japan at the end of the twentieth century, the reception of the Grimms’ fairy tales, beginning in 1873 with the translation of “The Nail” is the point of departure for the investigation. How has Western literature shaped the popular reading culture of Japan in the intervening 150 years? How were the Grimms’ fairy tales distributed and what resulted due to their reception? Joosen and Lathey state in their introduction “that the

1 Vanessa Joosen and Gillian Lathey, Grimms' Tales Around the Globe: The Dynamics of their International Reception (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014), I. 2 Jack Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion: The Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization (New York: Wildman Press, 1983), 55.

Grimm tales were [not] immediately welcomed in all the countries where they were introduced [and] the inclusion of fantasy and cruel events often made them the topic of debate and they frequently required adaptation” (Joosen and Lathey I). What adaptations, then, were undertaken to make the KHM suitable for Japan and its readers?

After the analysis of the Grimms’ fairy tales reception, I investigate the works of

Yoko Tawada from the corpus of research materials based on her bilingual writing styles of German and Japanese. I selected Tawada’s works to establish a link in her works with the main theme of the German Romanticism of progressive Universalpoesie. How do the themes of the German Romanticism themes permeated in Tawada’s works and how are they represented? Based on the reception of Wagner’s works in Japan, I claim that the influence of Richard Wagner’s Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg gave rise the mythical character in the light novel and manga Boogiepop. Western literature also entered South

Korea at the beginning of the nineteenth century and after presenting the reception of

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s works in South Korea, I investigate the manhwa The

Tarot Café for permeation of Goethe’s influence. After displaying the German transculturation in the selected works, I argue to use manga/manhwa in the German classroom as part of multimodal literacies in the language classroom.

1. Transculturation revisited

Transculturation is the concept most central promising conceptual approach to my dissertation because it refers to the result of a transformation and creation of cultural artifacts at the contact zone of two or more cultures. In order to situate the term, which itself underwent a transformation in its history of development, a brief summary of key contribution to the progress of transculturation follows. The concept of transculturation

originates from the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, who coined this term in 1940 in his discussion when he analyzed the transcultural aspects of tobacco in the Cuban economy. He used the term transculturation in Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar, originally published in Spanish in 1940, to “express the highly varied phenomena that have come about in Cuba as a result of the extremely complex transmutations of cultures”3. Ortiz explains that acculturation “is used to describe the process of transition from one culture to another, and its manifold social repercussions” (Ortiz 98). In this sense, the term appears only to apply to the acquiring of another culture, but is broadly invested the different phases and layers of the process of transition from one culture to another. Ortiz states that the process “necessarily involves the loss or uprooting of a previous culture” which leads to a creation of new cultural phenomena (Ortiz 103). He also claims that “the result of every union of cultures is similar to that of the reproductive process between individuals: the offspring always has something of both parents but is always different from each of them” (Ortiz 103). Accordingly, Ortiz applies the term to understand the history of Cuba, where transculturation occurred repeatedly by various cultures entering the mainstream culture.

Ortiz found the term acculturation limited, since it refers to a translation of cultural materials into the terms of another. Ortiz first uses the term transculturation “to replace overly reductive concepts of acculturation and assimilation to characterize culture under conquest” (Ortiz 103), but Mary Louis Pratt approaches transculturation as “a

3 Fernando Ortiz. Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 98.

phenomenon of the contact zone”4 to lay out her thoughts about writing and literacy. She popularized this term in the English-speaking academic world in 1992 in her investigation of cultural exchange in the “contact zones”. She uses the term contact zone

“to refer to social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power, such as colonialism, slavery, or their aftermaths as they are lived out in many parts of the world today” (Pratt 35). As an early example of the contact zone, Pratt presents an Andean text, The First New Chronicle and

Good Government, written by Guama Poma in 1613. This was a letter composed of twelve hundred pages and written in two languages, Spanish and Quechua, and contained two parts. Pratt points to the importance of Poma’s title. According to Pratt, the Spanish represented their American conquests as a chronicle and by titling his own writing with the same genre as his conqueror; Poma utilized their own genre to critique them. His text is what Pratt calls an autoethnographic text, which is a response text to ethnographic texts. Autoethnographic texts involve cultural knowledge of the conqueror infiltrating the local culture “to create a self-representations intended to intervene in metropolitan modes of understanding” (Pratt 35). Pratt uses quotes from Poma’s text to display his parodies of the Spanish conqueror, as the dynamics of languages and writing represented in the contact zone. Lastly, she places transculturation, along with “autoethnography… critique, collaboration, bilingualism, mediation, parody, denunciation, imaginary dialogue, vernacular expression,” in the literate arts of the contact zone to call forth for the search of a pedagogical arts of contact zone (Pratt 37).

4 Mary Louise Pratt. "Arts of the Contact Zone." Profession (1991): 36.

Ortiz coined the term transculturation to display the impact of colonialism in

Cuba, but Diana Taylor stated the following when she referred to transculturation:

My intention is to examine the changing use of the term transculturation in

relation to theatrical activity to illustrate not only how theories travel and

how they change their meaning and function in different context, but also

how the socio-economic and political power of one culture also impacts

on, without altogether determining, another.5

According to Taylor, transculturation modifies collective and individual identity but affects the entire culture where the verbal and symbolic discourse change. In 2005, David

Attwell used transculturation in his book Rewriting Modernity: Studies in Black South

African Literary History to describe a process of cultural contact, where violence of any kind, destroys and reconstructs a transfer to renew the promises of modernity.6 According to Attwell, transculturation “suggests multiple processes, a dialogue in both directions and, most importantly, process of cultural destruction followed by reconstruction on entirely new terms”(18). Alan West-Duràn (2005) recognized the limitation of transculturation as a term to describe the Caribbean or Cuban cultural complexity in his article “Nancy Morejón: Transculturation, Translation, and the Poetics of the

Caribbean”7. Despite its limitations, he points to the four vital advantages in the term transculturation, which are vital to my dissertation. According to West-Duràn, transculturation:

5 Diana Taylor "Transculturating Transculturation." Performing Arts Journal 13.2 (1991): 90. 6 David Attwell Rewriting Modernity: Studies in Black South African Literary History. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006) 21. 7 Alan West-Duran 2005. "Nancy Morejon: Transculturation, translation, and the poetics of the Caribbean". Callaloo 28 (4): 967- 976.

1) allows for (and even demands that) different perspectives be brought

into play to explain transculturation, such as class, race, gender, politics,

economics, religion; because it is an ensemble of heterogeneous elements,

transculturation requires an interdisciplinary approach to understand its

full richness;

2) urges a historical approach because transculturation takes place over

time- often long stretches of time-and in specific contexts of border

experience (that is, where two or more cultures meet peacefully or

violently);

3) assumes that transcultured identities are something constantly evolving,

continuously negotiated, and nonessentialist;

4) does not abolish difference; it is syncretic. The different components do

not lose their individuality; they maintain their particular identity and

flavor. The elements exist in a dynamic, evolving, and sometimes uneasy

tension. (West-Duran 971-972)

In reference to transculturation, West-Duràn points to the cultural interactions of an individual in historical dimension whose interaction continues to develop and contribute to ones identity, Kōichi Iwabuchi, however, refers to cultural commodities. In 2006,

Iwabuchi referred to transculturation in his book Recentering Globalization : Popular

Culture and Japanese Transnationalism during his discussion of Japanese commodities in perspectives of globalization.

The term transculturation refers to this process of globalization, in which

the asymmetrical encounter of various cultures results in the

transformation of an existing cultural artifact and the creation of a new

style. 8

The term transculturation continues to develop and in 2014, in the introduction of their book Transculturation and Aesthetics: Ambivalence, Power, and Literature, Erick Falk and Joel Kuortti claim that “[t]ransculturation stands in relation -and in opposition- to a number of other terms.”9 They present a table with seven concepts for discussion cultural contact.

Table 1 Concepts for discussing cultural contact

As presented in Table 1, the dimensions are not equal and categories can be expanded and further developed and despite recognizing its restraint, Falk and Kuortti present their working definition of transculturation as follows. “[T]ransculturation stems from the history of globalization; in its orientation towards (new) aesthetics; it seeks new cultural

8 Kōichi Iwabuchi Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 41. 9 Eric Falk and Joel Kuortti. Transculturation and Aesthetics. (The Netherlands: Brill: 2015), x.

formations; it covers heterogeneous authorship and audiences; and it calls for active participation on the part of the individual” (Falk and Kuortti xi).

Taking account that transculturation originated in colonial studies and underwent a transculturation of its own, this dissertation explores a recent manifestation of this process of a new contemporary context, mainly in East Asian literature. My point of departure is Falk and Kuortti’s working definition of transculturation and in cooperating previous descriptions, I situate my definition of transculturation in my argument as a continued process of cultural exchange in the age of globalization where the result of the contact zone is an emergence of a “new” cultural product: a transcultural product.

2. Transculturation applied

To situate my argument of transculturation of German literature in Japan, I begin with the Grimms’ fairy tales reception in Japan. Westernization in Japan paved the way for German literature permeation, which began with the moral educational tool using

Grimms’ fairytales. Grimms’ fairy tales may have began as an educational device but soon infiltrated the popular reading genre through magazines, which were widespread due to the journal’s lower cost to the books. By selecting supporting evidence from the vast corpus of literature about the post-educational phase of Grimms’ fairytales, I argue that the Grimms’ fairytales contributed to the development of Japanese children’s literature. Both the reception history and the development of Japanese children’s literature provide the support to this dissertation’s foundation and present the literary evidence of the transculturation of German literature in Japanese reading culture.

Solidifying my claim is the Grimms Boom in Japan in the late nineteenth century, where the fairytale landscape in Japan was flooded with new translations of Grimms’ fairytales

thus providing new perspectives on old tales. The cruel nature of the Grimms’ fairytales, which were omitted in previous translations, were translated and treated as new inspiration for vast retellings in the form of books but also images. The results of the

Grimms Boom were newly interpreted retellings with critical analysis and renewed interest in Grimms’ works. In the sections on the reception history of the Grimms’ fairytales, I have laid the historical background of German influence in Japan. Continued in the first chapter is a discussion of the Grimms Manga, the cultural artifact that was created in the contact zone of German literature and Japan’s readership. In the chapters that follow, I investigate the transculturation of new cultural literary products, which show tropes of German literature and German literary themes in Japanese and South

Korean works, which are the embodiment of my thesis. In my discussion of Yoko

Tawada’s work in Chapter 2, I look at Tawada’s active engagement of cross-cultural exchanges that prevail in her writings, and her use of tropes from the German Romantics.

The protagonists in her works travel between cultures, and experience in-between spaces.

Tawada’s protagonists assume a transcultured identity, which constantly evolves and is renegotiated due to traveling and global exchanges. The metaphorical result of the transculturation resides in the chapter 3, where Boogiepop embodies the German literary impact. After presenting the literary space that Wagner’s work has occupied in Japanese literature, I explore the impact of his work on Kanodo’s work.

3. A Note on Terminology

Due to the transcultural nature of this research, terminology from Japan, Korea, and

Germany are present in this dissertation. Loanwords, such as manga, entered the popular mainstream; nevertheless, I provide a brief definition of how I have applied the term in

my argument. Key terms reappear in the context of a specific analysis in various chapters but below are the concise elucidations of mainly Japanese terms.

Manga itself means “whimsical drawings” and in 1798, the first use of manga appeared in the work of artist Santa Kyoden followed by the publication of Aikawa Minwa’s collected sketchbooks in 1814 (McCarthy 6).

Shōjo manga refers to manga for adolescent girls, where male love is “one of the most thematic elements” (Angel 1). To appeal to a young, female readership, flowery image and poetic expressions of love and passion are presented in shōjo manga.

Kawaii translated into English means “cute”, but socialist Sharon Kinsella defines the term as “essentially mean[ing] childlike; it celebrates sweet, adorable, innocent, pure, simple, genuine, gentle, vulnerable, weak, and inexperienced social behavior and physical appearances” (220).

Bishōnen are beautiful adolescent men or beautiful boys with feminine features

Manhwa are comics originating from Korea. They are commonly shelved with manga at bookstores and libraries. The drawing styles of manhwa is more realistic than manga but one of the leading differences is that “[l]ike English works, manhwa [is] read left to right” (Kalen 125).

Cosplay is a compound word from the abbreviation of costume and play. The term refers to costumed role-playing, which “is a prevalent element of manga culture both in Japan and elsewhere” (Sell 95).

Otaku refers to a person obsessed with manga and/or anime and is “a word actually not free from negative connotations in Japan” (Jüngst, “Japanese Comics in Germany” 99).

Comic, as defined by Scott McCloud, composed of “juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer” (Understanding Comics 9).

Will Eisner, a legendary American comic artist and first comic analyst, coined the term graphic novel in 1998 for promoting his comic trilogy A Contract with God. Graphic novels refer to a medium that “include characters, setting, descriptive language, dialogues or monologues and a plot” and, like comics, include sequenced images but are longer than comics (60).

4. Description of Chapters

Chapter 1 begins with the reception of the Grimm tales in Japan. I investigate how the Grimms’ fairy tales entered Japan and how they were received. What were the results of this Western reception? The most influential source of evidence for this investigation is the work of the Japanese scholar Yoshiko Noguchi. She wrote her dissertation

“Rezeption der Kinder-und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm in Japan” in 1977 and it contains the most detailed analysis of the reception of the Grimms’ fairy tales in Japan.

After analyzing the Grimms’ fairy tales reception and the aftermath of it, I will probe into contemporary works and reinterpretations. A vital source of evidence for this research is the article “Before and after the ‘Grimm Boom’: Reinterpretations of the Grimms Tales in Contemporary Japan” by Mayako Murai. Following a brief summary of Grimms’ fairy tales reception in the late nineteenth century, Murai presents the various Japanese works that resulted in a phenomenon often referred to as the Grimm Boom in Japan at the end of the twentieth century. Sparked by the collection of commercially successful retellings of the Grimms’ tales by Misao Kiryū titled Grimms’ Tales Really Are Horrific, multiple

reinterpretations of Grimms’ fairy tales with similar emphases on the cruelty and sexual aspects were published. Alongside of retellings in text were also visual inspirations and manga with Grimms’ fairy tale themes. To present one of the visual retellings, I analyze the Grimms Manga by Kei Ishiyama. Important to note is that manga in Germany had a late start compared to other European countries but manga soon achieved a popular status in Germany, which resulted in a Manga Boom in the late 1990s. Contributing to the

Manga Boom in Germany was the publication process, where the reading style of original manga, from right to left, remained as the same as in Japan. This process was not only effective for reducing the publication costs of the translations but also expedited popular manga to be published soon after the publication of the originals in Japan. Another contribution to the Manga Boom was the book fairs. Annual contests for new manga talents at the famous book fairs, such as the Frankfurter Buchmesse or Leipziger

Buchmesse, were successful for discovering new talents, who were granted publication contracts and for promoting manga. The inception of Ishiyama’s Grimms Manga series has its own transcultural beginning. Ishiyama was temporarily living in Germany when she encountered the Tokyopop of Germany. Ishiyama Grimms’ fairy tales retellings using various different modes with contemporary visual styles, such as a gender reversal, where

Rapunzel is a beautiful young male. Or she uses more commercialized and domesticated notions of kawaii and bishōnen, which are very common in shojo manga. Even a narcissistic Hänsel is juxtaposed to Gretel, who attempts to save his life even though he has discarded her. Due to the success of Grimms Manga Volume 1 and 2, a Grimms

Manga Sonderband (special volume) was published, which contains retellings from

German and Japanese manga artists. These retellings not only celebrate the success of

Ishiyama but reflects the important influence of German literature and its prevalence still today.

Chapter 2 investigates Yoko Tawada’s work in light of German Romanticism.

Her writing is not a manga but due to her unique stand as a writer, who writes in Japanese and in German, her travel essay is a vital component of my discussion of transculturation.

Her writing illustrates the own personal story and presents a pictorial narrative addressing her experiences but also challenges the cross-cultural German and Japanese exchange. I claim that Tawada’s work is influenced by Friedrich Schlegel’s work and displays not only her admiration for the German Romanticism but also the literary impact, in particular the use of fragment and the concept of the progressive Universalpoesie. I analyze Tawada’s “Biskoop der Nacht” with Novalis “Hymnen an die Nacht” to link the tropes of longing for the night and the mysteriousness of the night of the German

Romantics. I also argue that fairy tales play a pivotal role in Tawada’s writings. Her first

German publication Wo Europa anfängt contains poems, prose, and various types of fairy tales. The Japanese scholar Mayako Murai, who also explores the role of fairy tales in

Tawada’s writings, comments that Tawada’s works call “for the dissolution of difference usually fulfilled at the end of the fairy tale” (37). I claim that Tawada’s work takes the

Kunstmärchen conceptualized by E.T.A. Hoffmann as the point of departure and utilizes

Kunstmärchen to display the encounter in the contact zones. It is in the contact zone, where cultures clash and languages become entangled thus creating a third space for transculturation. At this point the untranslatable words are negotiated for a meaning or become visual representations of the signified. By assuming the role of a non-native speaker, Tawada’s protagonists lack the grammatical restriction of the native-speakers’

rules and therefore, they are free to deconstruct foreign words to re-assign signifiers as they see fit or play with the meanings of the words. Tawada also takes the medieval trickster Till Eulenspiegel and places him in a contemporary setting, where he plays tricks on Japanese tourists.

In chapter 3 I argue that the fictional character Boogiepop in Kouhei Kodono’s work is the mythical embodiment of the concept of Hans Sachs, a Meistersinger, evoked in Richard Wagner’s overture from the Meistersinger von Nürnberg. A brief reception of

Richard Wagner’s work in Japanese literature illuminates the traces of the influence of

German literature during a critical time where Japan rejected individualism and enforced national morality to build Japan into a world power. The reception of Richard Wagner’s work in Japan began during the last decade of the nineteenth century, when young emerging Japanese scholars regarded the German Romantics as heroes and Germany as the ideal Western country to emulate. Taking the reception of Wagner’s work in Japan as my point of departure, I show how the mythical concept gave rise to an urban legend known as the death spirit, who is the Boogiepop in Kodono’s work. While whistling

Richard Wagner’s overture from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Boogiepop arises to defend human kind from its enemies. I claim that Wagner’s overture intensifies the mystification of Boogiepop. My investigation displays how this character Boogiepop is the embodiment of a Meistersinger, despite the fact that Kadono never mentions or concludes that Boogiepop is a manifestation of a Meistersinger.

In chapter 4 I claim that the Tarot Café series manhwa by Park is a transcultural product, which not only displays the Western literary influence but also mentions

Goethe’s Faust and its main protagonists Faust and Gretchen. Due to the strong presence

of Goethe and his literature in Korea, the interpretation of Goethe’s Faust in the manhwa

Tarot Cafe fuses Western ideology with Eastern tradition. In this reinterpretation of

Goethe’s Faust, Faust is even presented as an emancipated female who signs a contract with the devil to be reunited with her lover.

5. Literature Review:

Manga studies is a new field of research that emerged as the result of the globalization of manga. It is dominated by media-historical research and analyses of visual language and manga literacy. Diverging from this norm is Manga’s Cultural

Crossroads edited by Jaqueline Berndt and Bettina Kümmerling-Meibauer (2013). In this edited volume, scholars address manga’s cultural crossroads with respect to the intercultural and transcultural across cultures. This book, however, neglects any literature that views manga resulting from a transcultural transformation process. My dissertation focuses on this transcultural transformation and acknowledges the permeation of German literature in manga and in the Korean graphic novel, manhwa, as the catalyst of the transculturation.

The global proliferation of manga is presented in the rising sales of manga in the

American market growing from 60 million in 2002 to $210 million in 2007 (Brienza

“Manga is for girls” 42). In Germany, manga even entered the canon of popular culture and becoming a manga artist is for some a dream job, which is promoted through extremely popular competitions such as “Manga-Talente” held annually at the Leipzig

Bookfair (Jüngst 2004). Manga-Talente, since its inception in 2002, received over eleven years a total of 18,000 entries and in 2011 alone, over 1300 entries. The rising number of entries is a direct reflection of the popularity of Manga in Germany. In 1993, where a

comic reader interviewed still had to explain to the German reporter the term manga, in

1997, a rise in the number of manga in translation occurred (Jüngst 2004). Due to the popularity and the rise of manga and anime, manhwa have also joined the gaining demand. Manhwa are comics from South Korea, though, most of the time they are shelved and placed in the same category as manga, the difference lies not only in its origin. Manhwa, unlike its counterpart manga, are written from front to back and read from left to right, resembling western comics. Manga, however, is translated using the original format, which is from back to front and read from right to left.

As mentioned above, scholars discuss the globalization of manga or the impact of the distribution of manga in Japan and worldwide. Books published discussing the literacy of manga, such as, John E. Ingulsrud, and Kate Allen “Reading Japan Cool:

Patterns of Manga Literacy and Discourse” focus on the “multi-literacy” potentials function of manga and the composition of the Japanese Visual Language but are limited in discussion on the presence of Western Literature in manga. In his book Drawing on

Tradition- Manga, Anime, and Religion in Contemporary Japan, Jolyon Thomas argues that the religious ideas and ideals that entered the content of manga contribute to the religious reception among the readers, where the audience is not limited just to children and teens, but serves the interest of all ages. He also claims that the aesthetics of manga can serve as analogical tools for envisioning how manga influence audiences’ religious lives (7). If manga with religious content does in fact influence the reception of religion among its readers, does the same apply to manga, which draws on German literature? To answer this question, my dissertation analyzes the impact of German literature in manga/manhwa in the context of readership of German literature in Japan. Select German

literary works, such as Goethe’s writings, are present in the Japanese canon and they shape the landscape of manga’s cultural crossroads that are saturated with German

Christian ideology. My dissertation goes beyond the juxtaposition of Japan and German literature to trace the history of German literature known to a Japanese readership. The

Westernization of Japan gave rise to the discourse of manga thus contributing to the complex, intricate intertwining of manga and German literature. My dissertation claims to play an active role as the negotiator of transcultural meaning.

In her article “Grimms Manga oder Hänsel als Narziss,” Helge Weinrebe claims that the retelling of Hänsel und Gretel did not translate over to the medium form of a manga and neither did the storyline. In her article, she begins with a brief summary of manga as a medium then continues with a claim that manga causes its own

Befremdungseffekt by including a warning on the first page. This is a warning that instructs how to read the manga in the Japanese reading directions, which is from right to left. She actually corrects the warning by stating that the panels are to be read from right to left and that the book is read from back to front. After a brief analysis of Hänsel und

Gretel, Weinrebe concludes that the characters are underdeveloped and the plot not fully translated into the manga. She claims that the same applies to the rest of the Grimms’ fairy tale retellings in Grimms Manga. I argue that Weinrebe neglects the language of manga, where the main dialogue is in the non-written text or visuals. She oversimplifies the importance on the image and places the importance on the dialogue, which she claims were reduced by the author into empty words (Worthülsen). Bernd Dolle-Weinkauff also contradicts Weinrebe’s claim. In his article “Wenn Rotkäppchen den Wolf heiratet,” he

emphasizes on the importance of manga-specific language in a manga that needs to be decoded, and precisely this interaction is contributed to manga’s success (46).

In her article “The Limits of Travel: Yoko Tawada’s Fictional Travelogues”,

Christina Kraenzele argues that many of Yoko Tawada’s writings are best understood as forms of travel writing and with three works from Tawada, Talisman, Wo Europa anfängt, and Überseezungen, Kraenzele demonstrates how they explore diverse encounters experienced during travels. Kraenzele states that “travel often functions as a plot device or organizing principle for so many of Tawada’s writings” (244). Kraenzele’s claims that Wo Europa anfängt can be categorized as a fictional travelogue. But this categorization would be rather limited since this work does not only contain fictional travelogues. It contains fragmented prose, poems, and most importantly, fairy tales.

Kraenzele concludes that the genre of travel writing seems more productive for an analysis of Tawada’s writing. I argue that the genre of travel writing opens up the possibilities and the limits of travel but it also restricts the analysis of Tawada’s writing.

Taking into consideration that the travel genre should include skepticism about the power of mobility and border-crossing to facilitate cross-cultural awareness, it neglects the poetry and the playfulness of language in Tawada’s work. The genre, which Karl

Esselborn adapts from Sturm-Trigonakis, “Neue Weltliteratur”, is more categorization of her work (240). Esselborn states in his article “ ‘Übersetzungen aus der Sprache, die es nicht gibt.’ Interkulturalität, Globalisierung und Postmoderne in den Texten Yoko

Tawadas”, that Neue Weltliteratur does include “ ‘das ästhetische und analytische

Potential kultureller Differenz’, die ‘strategische Funktion’ der ‘verfremdenden

Inszenierung kultureller Phänomene’ oder die ‘poetische Freisetzung einer Ästhetik der

Migration’ ” but does not address the complex diversity of Tawada’s works (Esselborn

262).

In his article "Nachtzug nach Nirgendwohin: Das Japanischsprachige Prosawerk

Yoko Tawadas”, Matthew Königsberg argues that Tawada’s Japanese works that have not been translated into English nor German, display a state of being at home and being nowhere at home. He also mentions the notion of “Unbehaust-Sein” and “Unterwegs-

Sein” (99). Königsberg does not, however, include Überseezungen to illustrate his main point, since Überseezungen was translated into German. But Tawada’s Überseezungen precisely addresses his main argument of being at home and being nowhere at home, which I argue are the influences of German romanticism in Tawada’s works. I claim that

Überseezungen embodies the main points addressed by Königsberg and by excluding

Überseezungen, he neglects the main supporting evidence of his argument.

CHAPTER ONE

Grimms’ Fairy Tales and Manga

The Reception of Grimms’ Fairy Tales in Japan

The Grimms’ fairy tales have been read in Japan since the end of nineteenth century with the first English translation of The Nail in 1873. The most frequently translated fairy tale, “Der Wolf und die sieben Geißlein,” first published in Tokyo in

1887, marks the beginning of German literature’s encounter with the East. The 129-year reception history of the Grimms’ fairy tales has contributed to the development of children’s literature in Japan and influenced the translation of Western literature there.

The first appearance of the Grimms’ fairy tales is a direct result of historical developments in Japan at the beginning of the nineteenth century, namely when Japan opened its borders to the West. A further development is the relationship that was developing between Japan and Germany once the border opened. Due to their German origin and popularity in Germany, the Grimms’ fairy tales were used to teach morality in

Japanese primary schools. The Grimms’ fairy tales had been used in a new pedagogical discipline movement in Germany and, “[t]his new movement distributed the first didactic curriculum for the fairy tale.”10 Johann Friedrich Herbart, a German philosopher and the founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline, developed the educational practice that now carries his last name. Herbart’s educational theories were gaining popularity and importance during the nineteenth century in the educational systems in Germany and

Austria, which resulted in the widespread practice of his theories in Japan. Herbart emphasized moral and intellectual development through literature, and as such he used

10 Dolle-Weinkauff , "Nineteenth-Century Fairy Tale Debates and the Development of Children's Literature Criticism in Germany", Children's Literature Association Quarterly. 24 (4): (1999) 169.

the Grimms’ tales as practical examples for a moral education. Two German educators from the Herbart school, Tuiskon Ziller and Wilhelm Rein, played a key role in promoting Grimms’ fairy tales in Germany. Like Herbart, they promoted fairy tales as important moral educational tools and introduced the Grimms’ fairy tales in the

“Jahrbuch des Vereins für wissenschaftlich Pädagogik” in 1876.

Professor Emil Hausknecht, who was invited to teach German and pedagogy in

Japan using Herbartian educational practices and introduced the Grimms’ fairy tales. His use of the tales led to their widespread legacy in Japan. The tales’ influence was successful most importantly because the Japanese government took Germany as a model for its political endeavors and educational guidelines during the country’s political reformation. The Grimms’ fairy tales were introduced during the reformation period despite harsh censorship in Japan, largely because Japanese educators wanted to catch up with the modernity of the West. Furthermore, Herbert’s key concepts mapped onto

Confucian ideas, which were considered suitable for a nationalistic moral education— thus defusing the loss of national identity that accompanied the process of modernization.11 In fact, it is vital to note that in 1861, when thirty-six Japanese delegates were sent to Europe, some even went to Berlin, where they met with Jacob Grimm.12 The first Grimms’ fairy tale translated into Japanese was “The Nail,” translated in 1873 from an English textbook, the Sargent Standard Reader. The first example of a Japanese educator using Herbart’s method was the translation of Der Wolf und die sieben Geißlein in 1887, which appeared in a colored, wood-block illustrated translation. This translation

11 Murai, "Before and After the 'Grimm Boom': Reinterpretations of the Grimms' Tales in Contemporary Japan.", 2014, 154. 12, Yoshiko, Noguchi ,“Rezeption der Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm in Japan.” PhD diss., Marburg, 1977, 22.

marks the beginning of the Grimms’ fairy tales’ position in Japanese children’s literature as material for a pedagogically inclined moral education, and contributed to the widespread reading of the Grimms’ tales. Continued popularity of the Grimms’ fairy tales was helped by the emperor’s censorship efforts to control educational textbooks in the

1890s. Furthermore, as I mentioned above, the use of the Grimms’ fairy tales in educational settings reflected Japan’s desire to catch up to the modernity in Germany, as the tales gained broad support by German educators.

The first collection of Grimms’ fairy tales was translated by Ryōhō Suga, who studied at the Keio University—founded by Yukichi Fukuzawa, who was an expert in western literature and philosophy. Ryōhō’s first translations were published in 1887 and were drastically changed and domesticated with Japanese flair and Buddhist and

Confucian ideologies, but still contained a western element. His translation also mirrored the ideal Confucian leadership role, thus contributing to the book’s publication without any harsh censorship delays. The second translation was written in the same year by

Bunsō Kure, who translated “Der Wolf und die sieben jungen Geißlein.” These two translations were not popular at the time of their publication and were not widely known until today. The reason for this may be the cost of the translations, which at the time was unaffordable for most citizens. The third translation, by Mannen Ueda, who had also translated “Der Wolf und die sieben Geißlein,” is not only well-known, but is considered to be the oldest and the most reliable translation. Mannen was a well-known professor, who went to Germany to study linguistics in Leipzig. Upon his return from studying in

Germany and in France, he worked as a translator and as a professor while holding several key positions in education.

The contributions of the translations of the Grimms’ fairy tales were at first limited to wealthy Japanese citizens who were able to afford the books and who were interested in westernization. The average citizens were scarcely able to afford a living, let alone afford a book, and resented the westernization forced upon them by the government, as it meant higher taxes for things such as mandatory school attendance. The exact numbers of the translations of the published Grimms’ fairy tales are unknown and many of the publishing companies no longer exist, but the extended spread of the

Grimms’ fairy tales can be seen in children’s magazines: Yōnen zasshi (Magazine for the

Youth) and Shō kokumin (Small Folk). Both magazines published various Grimms’ fairy tales, thus distributing the stories to a larger audience.

Yet, a shift in the reception of Grimms’ fairy tales, from children’s moral education to entertainment and reading for pleasure occurred for two reasons. First was the continuation of children as the fairytales’ main readership through children’s magazines, even outside of mandated readings in the classroom. This suggested the pleasure of reading the Grimms’ fairy tales during leisure time. Second was the translation by the pioneer of children’s literature, Iwaya Sazanami, who in the 1890s translated the tales from German into Japanese for children’s magazines. Iwaya played a leading role in establishing a new genre of literary fairy tales for children by being the first to coin the term otogibanashi (banashi meaning “a tale”), thus laying the foundation for the concept of a children’s literature. In fact, Judy Wakabayashi (2008) argues that it was the translated Western children’s literature, such as the Grimms’ fairy tales, that

“paved the way for the production of the first original works of modern Japanese children’s literature” (227). Thus ideas and values were introduced, which “played a

formative role in shaping future generations of adults and socializing them in new ways”

(227). In fact, “scholar Torigoe Shin dates the beginning of Japanese children’s literature to Sazanami Iwaya’s 1891 story, Koganemaru” (Henry 218). The close relationship and familiarity Iwaya had with children is displayed in that he is referred to as “Uncle Iwaya” and “Uncle Fairy Tale,” even today. He is best remembered for his 1894 retelling of

Japan’s most famous folktale, Momotaro, where he, like the Brothers Grimm, choses “to adapt folktales as the basis for many of his earlier works …as a means of reworking the cultural past in order to construct a useable present” (Henry 218). Iwaya not only translated Grimms’ tales, but also began to adapt them. For example, in his 1896 retelling of Snow White, “Koyukihime,” he transports the characters, plot, and settings to Japan.

Others began to translate the Grimms’ tales, with Iwaya’s versions remaining the most widely read. The translations all shared one common theme: the violence in the Grimms’ tales was often omitted or altered and good conduct was rewarded, thus displaying a fusion of Japanese Confucian values with the Western stories (Murai 155). Any elements suggesting sexuality were erased altogether. Iwaya liberated his translations and adaptations from the rigorous Herbart school’s pedagogy combined with feudalistic ideology, and offered an alternative non-educational literature for children that began to dominate alongside a more western-influenced liberal theory of education.

In the 1910s and 1920s, a wave of westernization brought drastic changes to the concept of childhood itself in Japan, and to children’s education. In light of these new changes, the Grimms’ tales were reinterpreted within the framework of European

Romanticism and became incorporated into a newly defined genre of fairy tale called dõwa (children’s stories). In 1918, a major redefinition of children’s literature was

presented by Akai tori “The Red Bird”, a children’s magazine that reflected western romantic notions of children as pure and at one with nature. Akai tori was established by

Miekichi Suzuki and featured the Grimms’ tales along with those by major Japanese literary figures of the time. Consequently, Grimms’ fairy tales played a central role in the

Golden Age of children’s literature in early twentieth-century Japan (Murai 159).

A folkloristic approach to translation of the Grimms’ tales further supported the central role of the tales in Japanese children’s literature. This tradition was developed in the 1920s by Kiichi Kaneda, a scholar and translator of German literature. In 1924 and

1927, Kiichi published the translation of the Grimms’ Die Kinder-und Hausmärchen in two volumes as part of Seki dõwa taikei (An Anthology of World Children’s Literature).

The entire anthology included translations of 248 tales, including the twenty-two tales excluded by the Grimms after their own first edition. Kiichi was the first to translate from the original German Grimms’ fairy tales into Japanese. All of the translations before

Kiichi’s were based on the English versions of the Grimms’ fairy tales, which were altered already from German into English, then again altered and suited for Japanese.

Kiichi’s faithful translations were also enhanced by the inclusion of the original illustrations by Otto Ubbelohde. The translations that appeared before Kiichi’s contained

Japanese illustrations or no illustrations. Kiichi’s groundbreaking work strove to remain faithful to the original texts and made no attempt to omit or to alter violence or sexual elements, because his intention was to translate for the enjoyment of both children and adults. His approach to translation was influenced by the rise in scholarship that began to incorporate a folkloristic perspective. Kiichi’s efforts were followed by those of other translators. For example, in 1954, Genkuro Yazaki translated a version of the seventh

edition of the Grimms’ tales. In it, Genkuro did not change the commonly modified punishment of the wicked queen in “Snow White” dancing in red-hot iron slippers.

Revised translations of the older edition of the Grimms’ tales began to appear in the latter half of the twentieth century, and translators continued to follow Kiichi’s translation approach. His approach became popular for translating the older Grimms’ editions, and new translators claimed that their translations were the originals or were unaltered versions of the Grimms’ tales. Thus the foundation for the so-called Grimm boom in

Japan was established (Murai 151).

Grimms’ Boom in Japan and Manga Boom in Germany

Jacob Grimm’s bicentenary anniversary was celebrated in 1985, and the Grimm boom began with the publications of new and complete translations of the Grimms’ collection intended for adult readership. Yumiko Kurahashi published Otona no tame no zankoku dowa (Cruel Fairy Tales for Adults); her publication initiated the Grimm boom in Japan. The book was a Japanese equivalent of Angela Carter’s influential feminist fairytale revisions in The Bloody Chamber and Other Stories. Kurahashi’s rewritings of fairy tales and folktales emphasize sex and violence. Her playful irony and black humor criticize male and female stereotypes and are constructed paradoxically to break free from the culturally constructed nature of the sexist ideas underlying traditional tales. A significant role in making the public aware of new approaches to the Grimms’ tales was played by the translation of Heiz Rölleke’s seminal essay, “The ‘Utterly Hessian Fairy

Tales by ‘Old Marie’: The End of a Myth” in a 1985 collection of scholarly essays titled

Gendai ni ikiry Gurimu (The Grimms Still Living Today). Also appearing in this collection were five Japanese scholars’ different critical analytical approaches—except

feminist criticism—to the Grimms’ tales. Yoshiko Noguchi’s critical works on the

Grimms’ tales from a feminist perspective, which she wrote in the late 1970s, were published on the eve of the Grimm boom in 1994. Yoshiko’s collection embodied the female-centered Grimm boom.

The year 1996 officially marks the beginning of the Grimm boom with the publication of Yuko Matsumoto’s rewritings accompanied by the illustrations of Kumiko

Higami. This collection of retelling the Grimms’ (and also Andersen’s) tales embody one characteristic of the Grimm boom’s: a hypertext format, in which illustrations come together with the text to enhance or support the female-centered protagonist of the fairy tale, as well as the inclusion of a moral at the end of each tale and information about recent fairy-tale criticism by key Western scholars. Matsumoto’s titles foreshadow the feminist perspective; for example, “Shinderera to ōashi no anetachi” (Cinderella and Her

Big-Footed Sisters). Continuing this hypertexual manner with a feminist perspective are two female authors, Sachiko Tsutsumi and Kayoko Ueda, writing together under one pseudonym, Misao Kiryu. They coauthored more than forty books in which female characters played the leading part by recreating a vivid and graphic version in romanticized European settings with shōjo manga-style illustrations. Kiryu’s reimagining of European fairy tales in the Japanese visual language of large eyes and disproportionately delicate female bodies reflects the shōjo manga style established by

Riyoko Ikeda. And Ikeda’s Occidentalism in her own manga is applied to Kiryu’s retelling of the Grimms’ tales. This reflects the other side of Japan’s longing admiration for the imagined West. These retellings gave rise directly to the Grimm boom’s continuation in 1998 because of the commercial success of Kiryu’s collection, Hontō wa

oroshii Gurimu dōwa (Grimms’ Tales really are Horrific), which along with its sequel sold more than 2.5 million copies (Murai 31). These newly revised tales continue the educational tradition of their forbearers because, “each tale is followed by a synopsis of psychoanalytical, folkloristic, socio-historical and literary interpretations by such scholars as Bruno Bettelheim, Maria Tatar, and Carl-Heintz Mallet” (Murai 151). Continuing the

Grimms’ boom was the approach of retelling the fairytales in light of postmodern criticism.13 Even after the Grimm boom faded after the end of the twentieth century, the boom’s impact resonated in publications in which the boundaries between visual and narrative texts were blurred and new visual retellings of the Grimms’ fairytales flourished. In fact, the Grimm boom propagated a new interpretation of traditional fairy tales in light of Western literary scholarship on fairy tales. This reflects the inception of the Grimms’ fairy tales in Japan, starting when the Grimms’ fairy tales were first introduced as educational materials and a model of Westernization.

The aftermath of the Grimm boom brought about an increased development in visual retellings of the Grimms’ fairytales in diverse fields that include the written narrative with a focus on graphics, such as costume design, graphic art, rock music, flower arrangement, and manga. This resulted in a vast corpus of visual retellings in the post-Grimm-boom phase. Among them, Yoko Ogawa’s retellings are of particular interest to this dissertation. Ogawa is an established author who in 2006 published a collection of fairy tales with illustrations by Kumiko Higami. Ogawa’s retellings are set to contrast Higami’s illustrations while also enhancing the protagonist in the story. In

13 Another contributing factor was a focus on the horror part of the Grimms’ fairytales; for example, in 1999, titles appeared such as Grimms’ Fairy Tales We Did Not Really Want to Know and The Grimms’ First Edition That Would Frighten Even Adults.

fact, in her analysis of Ogawa’s recent retelling of the fairy tale “The Little Mermaid,”

Lucy Fraser concludes that, “Ogawa composed the text in response to Higami’s pictures, whereas it is more common for illustrators to respond to a writer’s text” (189). Thus the illustrations are the center of the story and the text enhances the plot—a relationship which also applies to manga. Ogawa’s retellings are the point of departure leading to the retellings of manga, which resonate with the influence not only of Grimms’ fairytales but also display a postmodern perspective. I argue that it is retellings such as Ogawa’s, which enhance the graphics through text that gave rise to manga interpretations of the Grimms’ fairytales. In 2011, there was a manga version of the Grimm boom through publications such as Grimms Monster by Ayumi Kanou; Dictatorial Grimoire / Dokusai Grimoire by

Ayumi, Grimm Douwa Rondo from Hako Tomoko, and most significant to this dissertation, Grimms Manga Sonderband by Anike Hage with other German manga artists.

The success of Ishiyama Kei’s 2008 Grimms Manga series was part of the aftermath of the manga boom in Germany. The manga craze arrived rather late to

Germany, with mainstream manga arriving in 1995. According to Nitta Seigo (2008), there were two phases of the manga boom in Germany.14 The first phase took place within the time frame of 1997 to 2003. Akira Toriyama initiated this phase through the publication of the manga series “Dragonball Z” in October 1997. The world-famous manga “Akira” by Katsushiro Otomo was published in Germany in 1991, but because it was in the western reading directions from left to right, it was not received as

14 Nitta Seigo, Manga-Boom in Deutschland- Ein Dialog mit der japanischen Popkultur?, ed. Maeda, Ryozo. Transkulturalität - Identitäten in neuem Licht: Asiatische Germanistentagung in Kanazawa 2008. München: Iudicium, 2012, 536-569.

authentically Japanese. “Dragonball Z,” however, was published in the original Japanese reading form, which was seen to represent an authentic Japanese product. This perception resulted in great commercial success. It was the idea of having to read “backwards” of the traditional western reading direction that captured attention in Germany and became a part of manga’s identity. This hot-seller paved the way for the manga boom in Germany.

Following increased sales and the popularity of manga was the success of the anime series “Sailor Moon,” which led to the establishment of several fan clubs and associations. The manga boom spread through these fan organizations. The goal of those establishments, beyond sharing their passion for manga and anime, was the deepening of knowledge about Japanese culture, which many of the fan clubs included in their club constitutions. Since 1998, anime conventions take place all over Germany, many of them including cosplay (abbreviation of costume and play). Only in Germany do fans clubs or associations organize and host events. Also unique during this first phase was the shared belief among German fan members that manga was a product only from Japan and anything from anywhere or anyone else was a cheap copy. Since Japan was considered the home of manga, interest in it increased to include not only Japanese culture, but also the Japanese language. Manga-specific words were introduced and adopted into the language of German manga club members; for example: manga-ka (manga artist), cosplay, kawaii (cute), and otaku (a person obsessed with manga and/or anime).

The result of this initial manga boom was the adaptation of two strategies by the leading publishers in Germany. The first strategy was the uninterrupted publication of various manga magazines, in which the German publishing companies adopted the same principle as those in Japan. This was done starting in 2001 in cooperation with a Japanese

publisher and by adopting Japanese publishing style. In Japan, readers vote on which manga is considered good or bad, and the publication of manga titles is based on reader votes. This empowers the readers and also ensures sales for the magazines. Also based on these readers’ votes, selected manga from the magazines are compiled into paper books.

The second strategy was to discover new manga talent in Germany through drawing contests. In 2001, a collaboration of several publishing companies led to the pursuit of

“Manga Talente” at the Leipzig book fair. Following the trend was the “Comic-Campus” in 2005 at the world-famous Frankfurt book fair. These drawing contests served two purposes: one, new talents in Germany were discovered—among them were Christina

Plaka and Anike Hage; and two, initial perceptions among German manga and anime fan members who believed that Germans could and should not draw manga—and that manga or anime from outside of Japan was just a cheap imitation—were banished. The manga boom reached its second phase with the acceptance of manga made in Germany. This also paved the entry point for manhwa, the Korean version of manga, and manhua from

China into the pop culture of Germany.

In sum, manga became part of the canon of popular literature in Germany following the manga boom. This created a new form of entertainment, thus awakening intensive interest in Japan, its culture and its language, but furthermore, in a new form of expressionism. Manga is a member of the comic culture, but differentiates itself from western comics due to its unique and characteristic style. This style was used by up-and coming German manga artists to express topics that ranged from the everyday to the socially taboo.

To conclude the discussion of the influence of the Grimms’ fairytales in Japanese

children’s literature, it must be mentioned that it is the translation of the Grimms’ fairy tales that gave birth to the genre of children’s literature in Japan. In fact, a new term was coined in order to reflect this new genre for children. Since its inception in 1873 with the first translation of The Nail, the Grimms’ fairy tales have deepened their roots in the children’s literature of Japan. It is through the positive reception of the Grimms’ fairy tales in Japan that the influence of the Grimms’ fairy tales is evident, a phenomenon that had been written about already in 1924. In his book Sekai dōwa kenkyū (Research of

Fairy Tales from Around the World), Shigetsune Ashiya writes that the Grimms’ fairy tales, along with Andersen’s fairy tales, are received with great interest among Japanese readers—unlike fairy tales from Africa—thus displaying cultural differences which appear to be greater between Japan and Africa than Japan and Europe. The interest of the

Grimms’ fairy tales may be due to enforced westernization by the Japanese government, which influenced Japanese society. But in Japanese fairy tale research, the Grimms’ fairy tales played a vital role and influenced the development of the research. As in reference to the development of fairy tale research in the west, Vladimir Propp discovered that fairy tales have the architecture of a macrostructure consisting of smaller microstructures. And since the structure of the fairy tale is a complex system in which the elements are interchanging but also connecting as a whole to complete a story, the components of the fairy tale are changed depending on their social terms and settings. Precisely these changes are the cultural representations of the fairy tales from which they originated or even where they were adopted. These changes are the transcultural artifacts that live on today in the adapted and translated Grimms’ fairy tales in Japan.

The Grimms’ fairy tales entered Japan’s reading culture as a moral-educational tool, then moved to filling the role of a language-learning tool, and nevertheless created a genre of children’s literature in Japan that entered into the canon of children’s literature as well as that of mainstream literature. This children’s literature thus influenced the reading culture of future generations, who read and enjoyed the translated Grimms’ fairytales from their childhood and adolescent years. It is due to the influence of the

Grimms’ fairy tales that a Grimm boom occurred in Japan in the late nineteenth century.

The resulting increase in new retellings with the influence of Western literary criticism led to a vast serialization of Grimm interpretations of Manga. In hand with this phenomenon, a manga boom occurred in Germany, which paved an intense interest in

Japan and provided a new form of literary expression.

Manga as a Global Transcultural Product in the Context of Comics

“I’m not drawing, I’m writing a story with a unique type of symbol” (Osamu Tezuka, as quoted in Schodt 1983, 25).

Manga has a long-standing history, and there are debates about when exactly the history of manga begins. Manga does have a lengthy history of being used for satire-- especially political satire used to spread antigovernment messages. A series of cartoons on scrolls by a high-ranking Buddhist priest named Toba Sojo in the 1100s marks the beginning of the development of manga. On these scrolls, Toba depicts caricatured animals taking part in daily activities as a parody of the decadent lifestyles of the

Japanese upper class of his time. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) was a famous ukiyoe artist and the first to coin the term manga (Ito 460). The term manga itself means

“whimsical drawings.” In 1798, the first use of the word appeared in the work of artist

Santa Kyoden, followed by the publication of Aikawa Minwa’s collected sketchbooks in

1814 (McCarthy 6). Giga Ukiyoe, or “funny-picture ukiyoe,” began to permeate everyday life. In 1867, the Japanese government even displayed Hokusai Manga at the World

Exposition in Paris.

Manga as it is known globally today did not exist until later. During its development, research shows that the transcultural flow from the west, in particular with

American comics, blended into manga at the end of the nineteenth century. Western influence began with British expatriate Charles Wirgman, who started, among other business ventures, the satirical magazine Japan Punch, which was modeled after the

London magazine Punch. This marks the beginning of western influence on the development of contemporary manga. Wirgman’s Japanese Punch was very successful and was sold across Asia for 25 years. Japanese Punch even reached audiences outside of

Japan, and according to Helen McCarthy, “Wirgman was regarded by Japanese pupils and colleagues as their mentor in Western fine art and cartooning techniques” (8).

Wirgman’s western influence is displayed by his position as a, “forefather of both manga and Western-style Japanese art, and the artist, who introduces the word balloons to

Japanese comics” (McCarthy 8).

Following British influence and the introduction of word balloons came the

French-style of humor led by Georges Bigot, who arrived in Yokohama in 1882

(McCarthy 8). His magazine Toba-e lasted only three years, but his narrative patterns in sequence influenced the development of visual narration in Japan. The visual narration of satire about authority was one of the most important functions of Japanese manga, and its popularity grew due to political events. When the Japanese government censored and controlled speech and journalism, Fumio Nomura began publishing the weekly satire

magazine Maru Maru Chimbun in 1877. Due to the magazine’s low cost compared to that of Toba-e, Maru Maru Chimbun reached the masses more widely.

Following the French influence came the impact of American comics. During the blossoming years of manga in the 1920s and 1930s, Kitazawa and Okamoto traveled to the United States, the leader in comics of the early twentieth century. Once Kitazawa returned from the United States, he started a Japanese version of serialized comic strips in a newspaper titled “Yellow Kid.” When Japan went to war in 1941 with the United

States, so did manga. Manga artists were drafted and, “created reports for the public back home, propaganda leaflets for the local populace, and leaflets to be dropped over enemy lines” (Schodt 57). After the war, the population was left destitute and in need of distractions. Manga, in the form of affordable magazines, provided entertainment and satire for the masses.

By the 1950s, the manga industry was flourishing and had grown to include children’s manga. Osamu Tezuka, also known as the godfather of manga, is considered the founder of modern manga as it is known today. Contemporary manga offers a large range of genres, from contemporary issues and technical manuals to pornography. Some popular categories include Seinen manga created by and for men, with texts ranging from horror to war histories; Shonen manga geared toward young teenage boys; and most important for this dissertation, Shojo manga targeting young females with its beautiful but feminized appearance, bishōnen characters, and romantic themes.

Due to its western influences, as outlined above, manga shares many similarities with comics. In fact, research such as that showing Japanese manga artists applying

American comic styles to their work after visiting the United States, present traces of

American comic influences flowing into Japan at the end of the nineteenth century. When manga is viewed alongside comics, similarities to comics, as well as transcultural cross- sections, are brought to light.

There are several definitions of the word “comics.” Scott McCloud (1993) in

Understanding Comics defines the word as, “Juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer” (9). Will Eisner (2008) refers to the comic as a valid form of reading and “[t]he reading of comic books is an act of both aesthetic perception and intellectual pursuit” (Comics and Sequential Art 2). Dale Jacobs (2013) explains comics as merely sequential art forms, and that comics, “are a media that use a combination of sequential art and text in order to create narrative meaning for the audience…this combination of words and images -multimodality- works to create meaning in very particular and distinctive ways” (5). McCloud (2000) states that comics are their own language, and their vocabulary is the full range of symbols. Manga, like comics, also contains structured sequential images arranged to narrate a story and is the structured sequential art multimodality in Japanese visual language. The concept of multimodality by Gunther Kress (2010) in which “writing names and image shows, while colour frames and highlights; each to maximum effect and benefit” also applies to comics

(Multimodality a Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication 1). Kress’ approach to multimodality is a materialist approach to visual signs, but I also apply multimodality to manga because each panel has one or multiple signs that contain writings in the form of text to name the situation, and an image to show the action of the characters followed by the color of the panel being used to highlight the situation. In

manga, the color consists of black or white, and it is the shading of the color black—or the use of empty space—that gives rise to highlights. Furthermore, manga’s “focus on visuals at the expense of the verbal is consistent with other research in multimodality, which suggest that the less the verbal form dominates meaning, the more complex the nature of other modalities becomes” (“JVL” 199).

According to Neil Cohn, visual language refers to the idea of filling a gap in the cultural category regarding the channel of graphic expression, which leads to the creation of the modality of graphic representation. He presents the three modalities used for communication: first is to make sounds, second is to move one’s body, and third is to draw images. Cohn’s theory is that any of the three modalities of communication

(sounds, movement, and image) take a structure governed by grammar, transform it into a language, and thus structured sequential sounds become spoken languages. In turn, structured sequential gestures with grammar become sign languages. And structured sequential images become visual language. Comics are then written in visual languages of sequential images, and manga are written in the Japanese Visual Language.

Japanese Visual Language, or JVL, refers to the graphic system of communication that appears in manga. The term manga outside of Japan is associated by the publishing industry, readers, and the community surrounding them with graphic novels or comics from Japan. Manga is also used to designate a sociocultural artifact, and it is even loosely considered an aesthetic style. As a sociocultural artifact, manga relies on symbols understood in the reading community of manga, and readers become members of the visual language community. The readers “speak” JVL and understand the standard styles and structures. For instance, manga pages begin in the “back” of the book

and are read from right to left. There is a standard JVL just as other comics have a standard Visual Language or VL. When analyzing a comic’s VL and manga’s JVL, intersections of encounters mark contact zones.

The Visual Language of comics de-emphasizes the appearance of the physical world to favor the idea of form placing itself in the world of concepts. And the less realistic and more cartoon-like the imagery of the pictorial icons are, the more they describe. It is due to the unrealistic resembles of the cartoon character that readers identify with themselves rather than seeing the face of another. And in reference to JVL, the characters have exaggerated, unrealistic big eyes with pointy chins, which are iconic of manga. The backgrounds of comics are more realistic, since readers would not identify themselves with them—and here there appears a contact zone. The Belgian cartoonist

Georges Remi, known under his pen name Hergé, places his iconic character Tintin in a realistic background to allow readers to enter the world of the characters with whom they identify themselves. This combination of an unrealistic character in a realistic background is also found in other popular European comics, such as in the Asterix and

Obelix series. American comics use this style far less frequently, with the exception of diverse artists. But in manga, this is a standard JVL, which stems from Osamu Tezuka.

The realistic background of the comics marks a contact zone where western comics meet manga, and the result of this encounter is that some manga artists realize the objectifying power of realistic arts and use them to objectify characters as a means for emphasizing their otherness from the reader.

Another contact zone of comic and manga is in the storytelling arranged by panels, which came to Japan through American comics. The panels in manga are

arranged in the reading so that, “Comic panels fracture both time and space, offering a jagged staccato rhythm of unconnected moments. But closure allows us to connect these moments and mentally construct a continuous, unified reality” (McCloud, Understanding

Comics 67). McCloud identifies six types of panel-to-panel transitions in comics: 1. moment-to-moment; 2. action-to-action; 3. subject-to-subject; 4. scene-to-scene; 5. aspect-to-aspect; and 6. non-sequitur (McCloud, Understanding Comics 70-72). Most mainstream comics in America employ a storytelling technique introduced by Jack Kirby, who uses action-to-action transitions, followed by subject-to-subject, and then by scene- to-scene. The same storytelling techniques apply to other European comics, such as

Hergé’s Tintin. In Osamu’s storytelling techniques, and in those of other manga artists, subject-to-subject transitions are used so that the reader’s involvement is necessary to render the story. The narrating technique represents an East-and-West split in storytelling. McCloud explains this split based on the fact that, “traditional Western art and literature don’t wander much. On the whole, we’re a pretty goal-oriented culture. But in the East, there’s a rich tradition of cyclical and labyrinthine works of art” (McCloud,

Understanding Comics 81). Manga artists influenced by this traditional art employ and emphasize it in their storytelling in terms of “being there” rather than “getting there.”

This is achieved through subject-to-subject panels and by omitting elements of images.

Japanese artists omit elements in works of art and utilize the negative space and fragmentation, which has been a specialty of the East for centuries. Manga, being an art form in Japan, also utilizes this technique to emphasize a particular event. When western culture permeated the East, eastern art influenced the West. As a result, western artists began to employ fragmentation and negative space in their art.

Comics present a montage of word and image, and the reader utilizes both visual and verbal interpretative skills—a task which also applies to manga. Like comics, manga relies on signs that are iconic. However in the case of manga, the size of panels also emphasizes the situation of the subject. Additionally, the speech balloons in manga are vertically oblong to suit the top-to-bottom writing style, whereas the speech balloons in comics are flat and horizontally oblong. It is not the point in this chapter to place comics and manga in the same analytic context, but rather to show that the similarities and the differences between the two media point toward their common goal: to narrate a story.

The storytelling techniques in manga vary from those in comics, in that manga focuses attention on individual characters by emphasizing being present in a scene with icons, emission, or fragmentation, which explains the publications of multiple volumes of manga series. But when manga is analyzed in the context of comics, the similarities and differences together make visible the contact zones of West and East.

Analysis of Grimms Manga

I state that Grimms Manga by Kei Ishiyama, published in 2007, is a product of the

German literary influence on the Japanese pop-cultural medium of manga. I am focusing on this manga due to its success and the effect of its success, but also because of the transnational circumstances in which Kei wrote and illustrated the book. Those circumstances will be analyzed at length below. The German division of the Tokyopop publishing company, which headquarters in Los Angeles, first published Grimms Manga

1 and Grimms Manga 2 in 2007 in Hamburg, Germany. Due to those manga’s success in

Germany, a second edition was published as both a perfect edition and as a hardcover in

2010. Inside the hardcover edition, the first title cover gives credit to the Grimm brothers by stating that the text is prepared “nach Vorlagen der Gebrüder Grimm,” which immediately presents the inspiration of the manga as rooted in German literature.

Following the success of Grimms Manga 1 and Grimms Manga 2, a special edition was published in 2011, in which various upcoming manga artists from Germany and one from

Japan collaborated in order to celebrate the Kei and her Grimms Manga series. In 2012, a

Grimms Manga Fanbuch was published, in which the details of the development of the

Grimms Manga series are revealed, as well as continuation of the previous fairy tales in the Grimms Manga series. The success of Grimms Manga is part of the manga boom in

Germany, which began in 1997 with the publishing of Dragonball Z as discussed earlier in this chapter. In the first phase of the manga boom, dated roughly as 1997 to 2002, the active readers and followers of manga grew steadily, and manga sales rose from under one million Euros in 1997 to twenty million Euros in 2002. In the second phase of the manga boom, which began around 2003, manga from other Asian countries, such as

manhwa from Korea, Taiwan, and Hongkong, followed a growth in sales. Overall sales of manga also increased through the publication of German manga, which was promoted by the Leipzig Book Fair’s drawing contest, “Manga-Talente.”

1. The Transcultural Beginning of Grimms Manga

Kei Ishiyama had been living temporarily outside Düsseldorf, Germany, with her husband, who had transferred from Japan to Germany with his firm. She went to visit the world-renowned Frankfurter Buchmesse in 2004. Her sister, Misaho Kujiradou, is a manga artist who came from Japan to attend the signing of her manga, Princess Ai, at that same book fair. It was there that Ishiyama met a translator and the marketer from

Tokyopop of Germany. Meeting the translator was vital, since Kei admits in her Grimms

Manga Fanbuch that she couldn’t speak German. After expressing her interest in working with Tokyopop, Kei was invited to submit her application and a manuscript upon the condition that the content must be accessible to a German audience. Thus the result of the 2004 Frankfurter Buchmesse was that both of the sisters would be working for the Tokyopop publishing company. Misaho had already begun working for the

American division of Tokyopop in 2004, but continued to reside in Japan. Both sisters do not speak the language of the companies they work for, but communicate through translators and also through their manga. Kei decided to illustrate a variation of the

Grimms’ fairy tales based on two reasons. One was the fact that she was residing in

Germany, working for the Germany division of Tokyopop, and had to illustrate a manga for the German readership. She already knew the Grimms’ fairy tales from Japan, thus she herself had access to the fairy tales before illustrating her own version of them in a manga. The second reason she chose to revisit the fairy tales was that the readership

precedes the storytelling, because it is a fundamental concern of delivery.

Eisner (2008) claims that, “[t]he reader’s profile – his experience and cultural characteristics- must be reckoned with before the storyteller can successfully narrate the tale. Successful communication depends on the storyteller’s own memory of experience and visual vocabulary” (Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative 47). Eisner mentions the visual vocabulary in comics and in reference to manga; Kei would have to apply the

Japanese Visual Language to communicate her narration to the readers. To establish communication with her German audience, and to deliver a story that was comprehensible in the German-speaking community, Kei read a manga given to her by her publisher. That manga, written by German manga artist Christina Plaka who had won the Manga Talente contest in 2002. Kei studied Plaka’s manga to learn the visual language the contemporary German manga artists were using to tell their stories. To her surprise, she discovered that the German manga, illustrated by Plaka, was set in Japan.

German manga readers wanted authentic Japanese manga, and even though Plaka was a successful manga artist for the German division of Tokyopop, her manga belonged to what Heike Jüngst (2007) called the “fake Japanese” group.15

At this cross-section of culture, the dominating culture is Kei’s own Japanese culture, which is regarded as authentic. The culture she wants to suppress is the very one desired by her readership. Her future employer at Tokyopop assigned Isiyama to read one of the most successful German manga because its success was due to manga-specific

15 In her article “Manga in Germany- From Translation to Simulacrum”, Heike Jüngst claims that the German Manga artist were received as a “fake Japanese group” in Germany despite their success in Germany and in Japan. The upcoming German manga artists were mimicking a cheap copy of the original Japanese drawings. This view dominated during the first phase of the Manga boom in Germany, which dissipated during the second phase.

symbols. This cultural crossing points to the soft power of Japan. According to Joseph

Nye (2004), “Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preference of other” (Soft Power

5). He goes on to add that soft power is, “an intangible attraction that persuades us to go along with others’ purposes without any explicit threat or exchange taking place” (Soft

Power 6-7). At this contact zone, there where no exchange but rather knowledge and acknowledgement. Knowing that German readers were interested in Japanese settings and plots, Kei incorporated Japanese cultural elements into her manga, along with the language of manga, to fulfill the contract of a storyteller to her readers by presenting a tale that the readers would be interested in and understand.

In her Grimms Manga Fanbuch, Kei reveals that she knew several popular

Grimms’ fairy tales that are well-known in Japan. This supports the popularity of the

Grimms’ fairy tale already discussed in my earlier discussion of the Grimms’ reception history. Kei could have adopted the popular and well-known Grimms’ fairy tales into her own retelling, but she decided to select fairy tales that were less known. She nevertheless followed the trend of the Grimms’ boom’s by retelling original and unknown fairy tales.

Thus already in the preparation of illustrating Grimms Manga, she knew that she wanted to create a retelling that was original in her manga narrative voice. Kei spent Easter vacation traveling the Märchenstraße in order to personally experience the fairy tale route. This German fairy tale road is a tourist attraction that connects numerous sights closely associated with the folk stories collected by the brothers Grimm. Kei did exactly what Goethe called for when he wrote that, "Wer das Dichten will verstehen / Muss ins

Land der Dichter gehen, / Wer den Dichter will verstehen / Muss in Dichters Lande gehen" (Fieguth 72). She traveled the Märchenstraße to encounter the fairy tales in the

respective cities in which they were supposed to have originated. She thus participated in literary tourism and travelled the road the Grimms had journeyed in order to also experience what they experienced. She intensively researched Germany, from its landscape and castles to its historical artifacts of the middle ages. She also visually documented all of her research.

In a comic, control of the readers is a part of the storytelling and this control is attained through attention and retention. Attention is accomplished through the use of provocative and attractive images, and retention is achieved by the logical and intelligible arrangement of images. But ultimately, the reader’s interest must be contained with the content of the story. Kei’s manga captures the reader’s interest with the content of the fairy tales that she has personally researched and experienced in Germany, as already mentioned, by travelling the popular fairy-tale road, Märchenstraße.

There were previous manga publications in Japan that adapted Grimms’ fairy tales before Grimms Manga. The earlier fairytale-themed manga were published in Japan for Japanese audiences, and then were later translated into other languages depending on their popularity. Kei’s manga was intended for German audiences, but was also published in Japan for a Japanese audience. The question of readership is specifically addressed in the preface to the Grimms Manga Sonderband. It states that Kei’s style of retelling the

Grimms’ fairy tales through the narrative voice of manga is in fact universal, whereas the origin of the tales is questionable as to them coming from Germany when they have also been contributed to by Kei’s origin of experiencing them in Japan. By addressing the readership in advance, the German readers are directed to the Japanese Visual Language of manga that is intended for them. The purpose of the preface is two-fold, in that it first

informs the reader that the retellings are in Japanese Visual Language but are retold by a

German manga artist—except for one retelling by a Japanese artist—to o honor and celebrate the worldwide success of Kei, who wrote the first two volumes of Grimms

Manga. This is an attempt to eliminate what Jüngst (2007) identified in her research on

German manga as having the status of simulacra or pseudo-translation. Secondly, the preface identifies the cultural crossing of German literature and the German manga artist of retelling the Grimms’ fairy tales using a Japanese Visual Language in manga, a

Japanese comic format, to point to the tales’ transculturation.

Kei is a passionate dog enthusiast and her second dream job—after her first dream of becoming a manga artist—was to become a dog trainer. This passion is represented in

Grimms Manga. In her selection of fairy tales, Kei preferred the tales that included animals she loves, or in which animals were presented as the villains. In the latter set, she took the opportunity to retell the story of the animal villain from a different perspective.

This approach may be due to her love for animals, but also as a result of her desire to create an original retelling of the Grimms’ fairy tales through her perspective as a

Japanese manga artist who had travelled Germany’s fairy tale route. Kei retells nine of the Grimms’ fairy tales in the Grimms Manga series. In the Grimms Manga Fanbuch, she creates a continuation of Rotkäppchen and ends her retelling of the Grimms’ fairy tales with the first fairy tale to be translated in Japan, Der Wolf und die sieben Geißlein. It is not a coincidence that she would begin her retelling with that very first translation, and I argue that it was done to complete a circle of translating the Grimms’ fairy tales. Kei’s retelling of the Grimms’ fairy tales is also a beginning of translating the Grimms’ tales into the Japanese Visual Language of manga by a Japanese artist in Germany.

2. Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding Hood

In his article “Wenn Rotkäppchen den Wolf heiratet,” Bernd Dolle-Weinkauff

(2012), a leading comic researcher in Germany, argues that Japanese manga contain multicultural influences. Dolle-Weinkauff, presents Grimms Manga as an exemplum for this. He also claims that manga mirrors the influences on Japan that came from Europe and the United States. His claim is validated as contemporary manga developed through western influence to include the American comics styles. Dolle-Weinkauff and other researchers attribute the global success of manga to characteristics that can only be found in manga, notably the reading direction from right-to-left and the decoding of the illustration style. At first glance, it may appear that Grimms Manga is simply another manga that is westernized with western names, however, the following close textual analyses reveal that it is not just a product with multicultural influences. Rather, it is a transcultural product, influenced German literature infused with contemporary topics. It is also a transcultural product that reflects back on the topics from the beginning of the reception of the Grimms’ fairy tales during Japan’s Meiji period. In this dissertation, I argue that Grimms Manga is both a product of a contact zone and an artifact of transculturation.

The first fairy tale from Grimms Manga that I will analyze is Rotkäppchen. Since the original French version of The Little Red Riding Hood was adapted by the Grimms into their Kinder- und Hausmärchen collection, other various international versions of

Little Red Riding Hood have appeared. Even a recent cinematic adaptation of Little Red

Riding Hood, the American romance and horror movie Red Riding Hood (2011), has contributed to the continued popularity of Little Red Riding Hood as a pop cultural icon.

Retellings are not only of global interest, but scholarly research and criticism of Little

Red Riding Hood is abundant. In her book, Red Riding Hood and the Wolf in Bed:

Modernism’s Fairy Tales, Ann Martin (2007) argues that Red and the wolf are conspiring secretly together. This becomes a fact if one considers that in a fairy tale, there must be a villain; countering the represented evil power, there must also be a hero. Martin contends that there is a place, which she claims is a bed, where Red and the wolf coexist. They represent the power and the powerlessness, and when they meet and the powerless Red learns from the wolf how superficial items such as outer appearance, through clothing, can be controlled (power) to produce desired reactions in the beholder. In sum, Red learns that the outer appearance of a body can be manipulated to create new meaning.

The same applies to a text, which can be written over with new meanings. Martin explains that the foregrounding of children’s responses to a fairy tale points to the ability of the individual to use narrative in unscripted ways and interact with the discourse of his or her society. Kei makes use of this and retells the story of Little Red Riding Hood in such a way as to allow readers to arrive at a new meaning. It is a fact that the many adaptations of Rotkäppchen have made it one of the best-known fairy tales worldwide.

Rotkäppchen is also first in the list of fairy tales that Kei compiled when she wrote the fairy tales that were known to her. She chose this fairy tale because the wolf resembles her favorite animal, the dog, as she mentioned in her Grimms Manga Fanbuch, and also because the wolf is the villain and it is her preference to retell fairy tales using their villains. Also, during her research, Kei discovered that in Rotkäppchen, the wolf was originally a kidnapper, meaning he is not only a villain but also a criminal. It becomes apparent that Rotkäppchen plays a significant role in the corpus of Kei’s manga.

In Kei’s Grimms Manga Fanbuch (2013), Red Riding Hood and the wolf continue their original adventure in 1000 Blumen, which is an original fairy tale by Kei.

In this fairy tale, the wolf travels into the worlds of other fairy tales. Before he begins his journey, he feels misplaced in the human world of Red, and he travels to the worlds of other fairy tales in search of a place he belongs. The feelings of disconnect occurred when the two worlds of wolf and Red collide. She strips the wolf of his own comfort zone and he is assigned a role with which he struggles—that of a lover of a human and a protector of the weak. This struggle also applies to cultures as each grapples with and struggles for order. Kei points to this struggle through the world of the wolf and Red.

This presents the phenomenon in transculturation in which cultures clash with each other and different phases of the process of transition from one culture to another occurs. The consequent creation of new cultural phenomena is—in the case of Rotkäppchen—that wolf and Red stand united to pave their own way in their worlds. Kei thus presents the outcome of transculturation as a process of trial and transitions, and ultimately of retuning to one’s place of origin. Having gained experience and knowledge outside of his own safety zone, the wolf, in this case, is strengthened by this journey and is equipped to accept his new role.

In Grimms Manga Fanbuch, Red Riding Hood and the wolf demonstrate a recipe called Apfelkuchenrezept. Introducing a recipe at the end of the manga is common in this genre when food is a central trope. Although this is not the case in Kei’s manga, it reflects how her book is rooted in a manga-specific style and targets readers who are part of the manga reading community, which is identified in this dissertation as the Japanese

Visual Language community of manga.

3. The Narrative Component of Rotkäppchen

In the original Grimmsian version of Little Red Riding Hood, the wolf is presented as the villain, and he is punished for his evil deed. In fact, there are two wolves in the Grimms’ version, and both die for their deceptive acts. In Kei’s version, there are also two wolves. One is the older wolf father, who is instructing his young pup on how to become a real wolf, which is by eating a virgin. This is the opening, which Cohn (2016) identifies as an “Establisher” setting up the situation. In a traditional fairy tale, this is the beginning of the quest the hero must undergo. The young pup, unaware of the meaning of the word “virgin,” sets off to discuss this matter with his friends, who are little goats. The villain aspect is already put into question since the wolf as a predator is friends with his prey. This also presents the otherness of the wolf and how he does not fit into the stereotypical profile of a bad wolf. The kids advise him against finding a virgin, since they believe that attacking a human will lead to his death. Kei juxtaposes visual innocence in the baby animals with the worldly awareness of death and adult reasoning.

The kids’ discouraging of the cub from hunting down a human empowers him to search for an alternative solution, which comes when he encounters Little Red Riding Hood.

What distinguishes Kei’s narrative from its Grimms source is that the pup falls in love with Little Red Riding Hood. His heart literally jumps out of his chest in the visual narration of this experience. Furthermore, when Red meets the pup, she is not scared of him because of his humanized appearance with a little boy’s overalls and hat that distract from his ears and tail, which are still evident as a pup.

A further commonly used device to display extreme emotions is the background use of lace or flowers. Red’s huge eyes and oversized head display her innocence, and

her emotion is emphasized by the non-narrative sign of lace in the background of the panel surrounding her. This is a sign used to display emotion that is unique to shōjo manga. The oversized head and huge circular eyes are commonly used visual symbols in manga that represent the innocence of a child--which is also presented as a chibi form, which displays cuteness but also purity. Kei uses this manga-specific imagery of innocence to emphasize Little Red Riding Hood’s character without using text because certain human characteristics, such as Red’s innocence, are recognizable by physical appearance. According to Eisner (2008), “ [t]he art of creating a stereotypical image for the purpose of storytelling requires a familiarity with the audience and a recognition that each society has its own ingrained set of accepted stereotypes” (Graphic Storytelling and

Visual Narrative 13). The chibi form is an accepted communicative tool in the manga genre, and Kei displays her ability to converse with what is universally valid in the manga community, ergo displaying her ability to employ manga-specific images to retell a fairy tale that is influenced by German literature. Kei makes use of the stereotypical images from shōjo manga in her retelling since, “in graphic storytelling there is little time or space for character development [so the] use of stereotypes … speeds the reader into the plot and helps the storyteller gain the reader’s acceptance for the action of his characters” (Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative 14).

Like many manga artists, she also avoids using gutters, which are spaces between panels that are commonly found in western comics. According to McCloud (1994), the gutter, “plays host to much of the magic and mystery that are the very heart of comic”

(Understanding Comics 66). It is in the gutter that the two images from the panels are combined into one idea. By eliminating the gutter, Kei has full control of the reader’s

idea and directs the reader to her version of a closure. McCloud also states that, “comic panels fracture both time and space, offering a jagged, staccato rhythm of unconnected moments. But closure allows us to connect these moments and mentally construct a continuous, unified reality” (Understanding Comics 67). By directing the closure, Kei stays in the tradition of manga style to allow the flow of the story to continue without the reader having to connect two or more panels to create a meaning.

Little Red Riding Hood is presented visually in a very childlike and innocent fashion, and this is intensified by her curiosity since she notices that the wolf is different than other human. She asks about his ears, which she notices as soon as she faces him.

But she is still not scared of him, nor does she distance herself from him; rather, she approaches him to take a closer look at his ears. She answers all of his questions honestly, like a child would, and tells the wolf exactly what her plan is, which is to visit her sick grandmother with her mother’s apple pie and some wine to make her feel better. She even tells him where her grandmother lives. The use of soft lines and oversized facial features cites the global canon of manga kitsch. Kei’s visual depictions participate in a deliberately child-oriented genre that prizes innocence and purity. According to Martin

(2007), that innocence, here presented in a pictorial image, asks the readers to recall their childhoods. This innocence also becomes a tool that circulates ad infinitum in popular culture. Kei’s Little Red Riding Hood has the same innocence as the Little Red Riding

Hood in the Grimms’ version. Both Little Red Riding Hoods’ key characteristic is their innocence, as well as their ignorance of the danger in the forest. Like the Little Red

Riding Hood in the Grimms’ version, Kei’s Little Red Riding Hood also tells the wolf about her journey and the location of her grandmother’s house. The characteristics of

Little Red Riding Hood in both versions are the same, but the characteristics of the wolf are very different. Kei’s wolf is still a pup and is considered as such by others, although he is perceived by the hunter to be a deceptive wolf, whereas the wolf in the Grimms’ version is in fact deceptive and wants to eat both the grandmother and Little Red Riding

Hood. In the Grimms’ version, Little Red Riding Hood kills the wolf by placing rocks into his stomach once she is freed by the hunter; in Kei’s version, Little Red Riding Hood saves the wolf. The hunter points his gun at the young wolf and the wolf reacts by changing from the human form into that of a full-fledged wolf. The hunter perceives this as the wolf revealing his true face, but Little Red Riding Hood jumps in front of the gun to stop the hunter from shooting the wolf. She diffuses the hostile situation by explaining to the hunter that the wolf hasn’t done anything, and that the hunter is scaring the wolf.

After she reveals his fear, even to the wolf himself, the wolf’s facial expression changes from a hostile expression to a tame expression. Little Red Riding Hood also explains that a pointed gun would frighten anyone. Little Red Riding Hood becomes the mediator between the hunter and the wolf. This is crucial, since Little Red Riding Hood is deciding the fate of the wolf. Such is the case in the Grimms’ version, since it is Little Red Riding

Hood who reacts quickly and retrieves the rocks that ultimately kill the (first) wolf.

In Kei’s version, Little Red Riding Hood’s kind words move the wolf, and he returns to his human form. Her words also save the wolf from the hunter, and he responds to her kindness with a marriage proposal and a promise that from now on, he will protect her. She replies with a smile and laughter, as well as a proposal to begin their relationship as friends first. This foreshadows the ending, since in the next panel, a girl is sitting in the meadow and two evil-looking men are planning to attack her. Just then, the wolf, now

older but still a youth, scares the two evildoers off with a roar in his wolf form. The wolf doesn’t attack the humans and only scares them off because they were planning to do evil to Little Red Riding Hood. Unintentionally, he also scares a little goat and his mother comes to protect him. The mother goat recognizes the young wolf and asks him if he did in fact become a full-fledged wolf, to which he responds that he is not sure, but he now has someone who he wants to protect. Thus, the little wolf realizes that what makes a

“real” wolf is the desire to protect someone it loves.

Kei sheds a different light on the wolf’s character, and he is the main protagonist, whereas in the Grimms’ version the wolf is the antagonist. Kei also involves the readers by allowing them to see the kindness of the wolf, which is a side not even Little Red

Riding Hood is able to see. Going back to the beginning of the story, when the young wolf is told that he needs to eat a virgin to become a full-fledged wolf and he discusses his situation with his seven little goat friends, one of the goats reveals during that conversation that a wolf had once wanted to eat them. Another goat replies that it was a horrible experience, and another chimes in that it was a good thing that the little wolf was there to help them during the danger. In this scene, Kei presents the wolf as a friend to the little goats. He also questions his own identity, since he asks himself if he would one of these days also eat his friends. His internal question is presented in a thought speech bubble, visible only to the reader. The goats advise the wolf against eating a human, since the result would be that a hunter would kill him. It is also the goats who question the condition for becoming a full-fledged wolf of eating a virgin and encourage the wolf to think of an alternative way, since he is determined to become a full-fledged wolf. In the next panel, the wolf is sitting high up in a tree and looking down at the village. He

questions the injustice of being killed by the humans when wolves or foxes devour sheep and cows, but the humans themselves eat sheep and cows.

Another scene in which his kindness is shown comes immediately after the first encounter with Little Red Riding Hood. Once she tells the little wolf where her grandmother’s house is, he takes off to find the house. Once he arrives there, the simply stands outside until the grandmother hears him and invites him to come inside, since she thinks he is Little Red Riding Hood’s friend. Before entering the house, he does hide his ears by wearing a bucket, which she finds amusing. After waiting a while for Little Red

Riding Hood’s arrival, the grandmother explains that her back is hurt, so she is unable take care of firewood for the fireplace. The wolf immediately notices that the fire in the fireplace has died out, and without being asked, he starts to chop the wood for the fireplace, carries it in, and attempts to light the fire. He even has to carry in water, since the fire grows too large and sets the bucket on his head on fire. All of the wolf’s actions are drawn very small, in a one large panel, and this causes the readers to read his actions quickly, just as the wolf is doing the acts. The grandmother, who takes his hands and notices their roughness from the hard labor, notices his devotion as a dedicated worker.

She praises his hard work and even calls him “guter Junge.” She also thanks him and says, “Du hast mir sehr geholfen, mein Lieber” (Grimms Manga 18). The endearment for him, a little boy she just met, is shown to the reader because he took it upon himself to help her without being asked. This also shows that the wolf, who thinks it is unjust that humans kill wolves and foxes for the same deeds that they themselves do, would not hesitate to help a helpless person.

The second wolf, the young wolf’s father, appears at the beginning of the story and at the end. Unlike the little wolf, who appears only in wolf form when he shows emotion, Kei draws the father in his wolf form for two reasons. One reason is to show that the father is a full-fledged wolf, and second to show the evil, true nature of the wolf.

The two wolves are set in contrast to one another. In the first scene, the father in his gigantic full wolf form is sitting on a throne looking down at his son, who he is lecturing on how to become a full-fledged wolf. The way his figure is composed displays full confidence, as he sits with his legs crossed and leans back in his seat, in his domain.

Juxtaposed to this poised ruler is the pup that simply looks tiny and insignificant in his almost-human appearance, in human clothing with his wolf’s ears and tail. When the little wolf asks his father what a “Jungfrau” is, he replies, “Ach, schnapp dir einfach ein junges Mädchen” which shows that the almighty wolf father himself does not know what he demands of his son (Grimms Manga 11). This opening scene is intimidating, with the enormous wolf looking down from his throne at the little wolf, but the scene changes in mood when the little wolf asks his father for the definition of a “Jungfrau.” The little wolf is presented in his super-deformation form, or chibi form. This form is used to display the cuteness of a character, but also its helplessness and innocence. The father remains in his form, and only his frustrations and anger are shown through the “anger” symbol. The father returns at the end of the story in the final panel. He is looking out of his cave with a sigh of relief. His sigh is intensified by him actually stating “Puh!” with a cloud shown exiting his mouth. This is the visual sign for sighing relief.

Maria Tatar states in her book, Hard Facts of the Grimms’ Fairy Tales, that the tale of Little Red Riding Hood has “suffered more interpretive trials and tribulations than

any other fairy tales” (39). Tatar begins her analysis of the Grimms’ fairy tales with Little

Red Riding Hood as her first example. Kei also begins with Little Red Riding Hood as her first retelling. It is due to the simplicity of the plot of Little Red Riding Hood that the fairy tale lends itself to analysis, such as in the case of Tatar, but also in reinterpretations.

Little Red Riding Hood has a basic fairy tale structure, which, according to Tatar, is the confrontation between weakness (Little Red Riding Hood) and strength (wolf) that can be replaced with any other figure. This is presented in Kei’s Little Red Riding Hood when the roles are reversed. The weakness in Kei’s retelling is the wolf when confronted by the strength of the hunter, but also of Little Red Riding Hood, since it is she who saves the wolf from the hunter. Kei’s retelling challenges the stock character of a fairy tale figure.

The wolf is not the villain; instead, the villain is the hunter who frightens the wolf with his gun, thus assuming the role of the villain from Little Red Riding Hood’s standpoint and also from that of the reader. The grandmother remains in the role of the weak, and the wolf, when interacting with her, is the strong—however this is only in reference to physical aspect. The wolf accomplishes the physical labor the grandmother is unable to perform due to her back injury. In terms of the lived experience, she is superior due to her ability to recognize the wolf’s key characteristics. Kei reverses the roles of weak and strong in her fairy tale structure and places them in binary oppositions.

Kei deconstructs the common characteristics of the fairy tale figures, which are rooted in their roles by the original Grimms’ fairy tales, and she challenges to reposition those roles. Based on the Grimms’ version of Little Red Riding Hood, the wolf is a cunning, savage creature whose aim is to devour not only Little Red Riding Hood, but also the grandmother. Due to the wolf’s evil nature, the fairy tale ends with a happy

ending when the wolf receives his punishment. In Kei’s fairy tale, the wolf remains a savage beast since it is his given task to devour a human virgin in order to become a full- fledged wolf. But he is softened by his humanlike appearance: he stands like a human and wears clothing. What remains of his wolf’s appearance are his ears and tail. The father of the wolf, a full-grown wolf, remains in his savage, beast form, and his size overshadows the little wolf. This displays the hierarchy of the position the father wolf holds in regard to his son. The father’s position and his size overwhelms, and he is massive in contrast to his son, thus displaying the authority he holds over the cub. According to Noguchi, it was a common practice during the early phase of translating the Grimms’ fairy tales into

Japanese to display the authoritative position of the father, which is presented in Kei’s retelling. By returning to the roots of this early phase of the Grimms’ fairy tales in Japan, which Kei does only at the beginning of her retelling, she sets the stage for the birth of her very own retelling that is rooted in tradition but also questions the archetypal form with modern thinking.

According to Italo Calvino, every tale, regardless of its origin, “tends to absorb something of the place where it is narrated,” thus attaining a flavor of its locality (18).

The locality in Kei’s retelling is the return to the original function of the Grimms’ fairy tales. As already mentioned, the purpose of the Grimms’ fairy tales, in the beginning of the nineteenth century in Japan, was to support the Confucian teachings and traditional role of the authoritative father figure, which in Japan referred not only to the father as the head of the family, but also to the members of the monarchy with the emperor as the father of all Japanese citizens. Thus in returning to the origin of the Grimms’ fairy tales,

Kei’s retelling of Little Red Riding Hood challenges the role of the father and places his

role in opposition to the younger generation, represented by the young wolf. By challenging the role of the father, Kei also presents a contemporary issue in her retelling: the role of the father figure. In the Grimms’ fairy tale, Little Red Riding Hood’s mother sends her off to the woods to deliver the cake and wine to her sick grandmother. In Kei’s version, the father sends the wolf out into the woods. Like the mother in the Grimms’ fairy tale, the father in Ishiyama’s tale only gives him directions for the task but fails to explain the danger—which in this case is the definition of a virgin. In the Grimms’ fairy tale, the mother only warns Little Red Riding Hood not to stray away from the path, because she may break her grandmother’s wine bottle, but she does not warn her daughter about the danger hiding in the woods.

4. Reflections of Moral Education in Kei’s Little Red Riding Hood

Zoya Street states that, “ [t]he home as a narrative structure in moral education textbooks is the scene for introspection and regaining one’s innate qualities, while the world outside the home is where the protagonists learn how to become a different sort of person” (102). Kei takes the content topic from the moral educational textbook and represents it in her retelling of Little Red Riding Hood. The opening scene of her retelling begins with the young wolf at home facing his father. The father prepares his son for departure—which is a metaphor for learning to live in society—by giving him guidelines on how to become a full-fledged wolf. The young pup leaves his home and enters the outside world, but he is filled with doubt. This results in his search for comfort, which he finds among his friends.

The daunting outside space that the wolf enters is a place where he will be shot because of his true nature—a hunting beast that devours sheep and cows. The challenge

of hunting a virgin in order to become a full-fledged wolf is a task he has to face in order to be accepted into the wolf society. In the space outside the home, the wolf undergoes a moral change. He is confronted with his morals that are rooted in his home, and those of the outside world. In the outside world, it is deadly to devour a human; but in his home, it is a requirement to become a member of the wolf society. The young pup must enter the outside world in order to face his challenge, thus leaving the comfort zone of home to undergo a transformation. Kei’s representations of the human world and the wolf world are mirror-images of past events during the translation of the first Grimms’ fairy tale.

During that phase, Confucian ideas were at odds with liberal western ideas, but the

Grimms’ fairy tales were well-suited for adaptation to Confucian ideas as westernization was gaining popularity among Japanese citizens. The father in Kei’s Red Riding Hood stands in for Confucian ideology, because Confucian ideology placed the father figure— the Japanese emperor—in the highest position as the supreme ruler. The pup, like the

Japanese citizen, is faced with a task given by his superior and challenged to follow a tradition that goes against the social norms of the human world, which represents eastern ideology.

This confrontation reflects the debate about moral education during the Meiji period. Expressed in this debate is the ongoing struggle of the need to westernize

Japanese society and its citizens with the need to also maintain traditional Confucian morality. A compromise was made and a “government-sanctioned syllabus was created in order to limit the perceived harm caused by the influence of liberal ideas and educate children on Confucian morality.”16 The struggle of this debate is displayed in Kei’s

16 Street,0.

manga when the cub is confronted with the challenge of obeying his superior and he turns to his goat friends for advice. The goats are harmless and non-threatening to wolf society.

The authority of the father-figure displays the pup’s strong focus on reverence, which was a desired outcome of moral education during the Meiji period. The individual liberal thinking and modern individualism was resolved by a focus on the self as an imperial subject and a member of Japanese society. In Kei’s retelling, the pup is the self challenged to obey the ruling law by the father to become a part of the society. At the end, the pup must decide on his own which path he will follow, which is ultimately decided by the female protagonist.

5. The Challenge of Assigned Gender Roles in Ishiyama’s Retellings

Kei utilizes retellings of fairy tale to reflect contemporary issues in Japanese society. In her retelling of Rapunzel, Kei presents Rapunzel as a bishōnen, a beautiful young male. A bishōnen is a typical character in shōjo manga. By presenting Rapunzel as a bishōnen, Kei identifies the changing gender roles of contemporary society in modern

Japan. Kei’s retelling of Rapunzel is very close to the original version, and includes the pregnancy of Eva, who visits Rapunzel in the tower. By staying close to the original

Grimms’ fairy tale, Kei remains faithful to the German literary influence but adapts the retelling to manga-specific characteristics. She also utilizes an element commonly used in storytelling, which is the element of surprise. In graphic storytelling, surprise requires stagecraft. In film, surprise is achieved by a sudden, usually unforeseen, and unexpected happening or appearance. But in a comic, the reader is in control of the acquisition. In manga, the storyteller can direct the control of the acquisition. In her retelling, Kei first introduces only a glimpse of Rapunzel’s face. The reader’s gaze falls to the closed eyes

with long eyelashes, and only sparingly revealing parts of his body so as to hide his gender. The reader’s view is choreographed and the reader is involved by the reaction of the character, since only after Eva climbs up the tower is the beautiful Rapunzel revealed to be a bishōnen, displayed in a ruffled shirt with an exposed, bare chest. He literally shines compared to Eva, who has a simple look with short, wavy hair and freckles.

Rapunzel’s surrounding is adorned with sparkle, which enhances his worldly beauty.

Eva’s surprise is displayed on her blushed face and wide-open mouth. Her oversized eyes with white pupils intensify her surprise at Rapunzel’s beauty. A dialogue of this surprise is absent, but that absence only intensifies the image, since readers are not distracted by the written reaction and are thus forced to focus on her visual expression. Thus, Eva’s surprise is felt by the readers and creates empathy, which is the most basic of human characteristics used as a tool in storytelling.

Kei includes the stereotypical damsel in distress in her retellings, which resonates with the criticism from the Grimms’ boom in Japan and reverses the gender role. It is now the male Rapunzel who awaits his rescue from the tower. Kei packages her retelling into a shōnen manga, thus targeting the audience of adolescent females to challenge the traditional role of a female, but also to address the current discourse on the role of young

Japanese men in contemporary society. In “Herbivore Boys and the Performance of

Masculinity in Contemporary Japan,” Chris Deacon (2012) argues that a societal shift of masculine performance has begun to occur in young males in Japan. Young Japanese men are labeled as sōshokukei danshi (meaning “herbivore men”), which is a phrase first coined by Fukasawa Maki in October 2006 to describe young heterosexual men who are not assertive in pursuing women. Now, the term is associated as a lifestyle and represents

the type of man who prefers his favorite cocktail drinks over beer, is slim and doesn’t eat much, loves desserts and sweets, is fashion-conscious, is enthusiastic about ecology, has a good relationship with his parents, is inseparable from his phone, and even splits the bill for [love] hotels.

In sum, sōshokukei danshi have many characteristics that fit traditional female stereotypes. They are also blamed for the low birth rates in Japan, since it is claimed that they do not have an interest in sex. These men are also assigned other societal problems in Japan. Kei’s Rapunzel is a representation of a sōshokukei danshi, since he follows the pattern of one. He is fashion-conscious and has a great relationship with his parents, even though this parental relationship is in a form with a witch who kidnapped him. Later, he is shown holding his baby with his father-in-law. Rapunzel also enjoys sweets, which he consumes with Eva in leisure; he does not work, and his appearance is presented as that of someone who would use beauty and other aesthetic treatments and products. Kei assigns her Rapunzel these stereotypical images of sōshokukei danshi and challenges this view by having him impregnate Eva. Kei follows the Grimms’ fairy tale closely by including the pregnancy, which is commonly excluded, but I argue that she purposely incorporates the pregnancy to challenge the common view of sōshokukei danshi as contributing to Japan’s falling birth rate. Kei reverses the gender of Rapunzel, since it is expected that Rapunzel is a beautiful woman. This is part of the element of surprise used to attain the reader’s interest. Then Kei assigns the role of sōshokukei danshi to Rapunzel and even ensures that many of the characteristics of sōshokukei danshi were visually represented, thus fulfilling the reader’s expectations for the portrayal of sōshokukei

danshi. She then negates the accusation and the blame for low birthrates with Eva’s pregnancy.

Using the element of surprise to keep the reader’s interest, Kei also presents

Hänsel as a bishōnen, in her retelling of Hänsel and Gretel. Kei stays close to the

Grimms’ fairy tale, and Hänsel becomes the sacrifice for the survival of the siblings.

Hänsel spends his time admiring himself in the reflection of the lake so as to display his nature as a narcissist. He is then to be sexually devoured by a rich, middle-aged woman.

Gretel’s ignorance is displayed through her misunderstanding that the woman, who she calls a witch, wants to eat her brother. The middle-aged woman wants to be surrounded by young, beautiful men, which is the reason for her royal treatment of Hänsel. She clothes him with tailor-made clothing and presents him with gourmet dishes.

In her article “Female tricksters as double agents,” Tatar (2014) claims that Gretel is in fact a female trickster who learns not only survival, but how to operate in the adult world by spying, imitating, telling lies, and challenging property boundaries. Tatar claims that the female trickster can be found in nearly every cultural landscape and that:

She has performed her most devious prank by pulling the wool over our

eyes for so long, by giving herself a cloak of invisibility, even as she

prowls around both at the margins and right in the center of our cultural

entertainments, doing her work as double agent, to save herself and to

rescue others. (58)

I claim that the Gretel in Kei’s retelling is in fact this trickster. She is presented as a small-figured girl, who stands in the shadow of her beautiful and narcissistic brother,

Hänsel. She is not only plain looking, which makes her almost genderless, but she is also

invisible. She lacks knowledge about the world and life experience. Gretel relies only on her brother, but when she realizes that her brother is in danger of being devoured by

Hildegard, who she assumes is a witch, she rises to the challenge and utilizes her skills as a female trickster. When Hänsel is confronted by Hildegard to discard Gretel and stay with her, Gretel comes to his aid. Even though she thinks that he is in danger of being eaten, he is in fact struggling with making a choice. It is in this inner struggle when Kei returns to the topic of moral education in Japan. Hänsel has to make his own choice, either by thinking only of his wellbeing and abandoning Gretel as his father has done, or, as he chooses in the end, to stay with his sister and return home to their father, who regrets having abandoned them. The ending is the same as in the Grimms’ fairy tale, and they are happily reunited.

By using fairy tales to address the current gender shift in Japan, Kei returns to the original function of the fairy tales as educational tools during the inception of the

Grimms’ fairy tales’s circulation in early nineteenth-century Japan. I have analyzed three retellings with twisted plots, such as the wolf falling in love with Little Red Riding Hood, and changing genders, such as Rapunzel and Hänsel appearing as bishōnen and Gretel as a trickster. These are the tools Kei applies to keep the reader’s interest and to give the

Grimms’ fairy tales a new birth in the narrative form of manga. Kei stayed close to the original Grimms’ fairy tales, but focused on the visual language of manga and manga- specific forms. By also adding contemporary Japanese issues to her retellings, she has produced not simply a manga version of the Grimms’ fairy tales, but a transcultural product that transcends cultural boundaries of literary genres and permeates globally recognized visual icons.

In this chapter, I showed the long-standing reception of German literature in

Japan, beginning with the Grimms’ fairy tales in the Meiji period. Grimms’ fairy tales entered Japanese literature via moral educational device when Japan adopted German educational system during the height when Japan desired anything German. Thus

Grimms’ fairy tales were well received even beyond the classroom, leading to the development of children’s literature genre in Japan. The Grimms’ fairy tales reception continued and at the end of the twentieth century, a Grimm Boom occurred in Japan. This sparked new retellings of Grimms’ fairy tales, to include visual retellings. And to analyze one of corpus of visual retellings of Grimms’ fairy tales, I turned to Ishyama’s manga

“Grimms Manga”. I selected Ishyama’s retelling based on the status of manga in

Germany, where in late 1990s, a manga boom occurred. Furthermore, Ishyama’s manga is a transcultural product, since a Japanese author, who had read Grimms’ fairy tales as a child in Japan and wrote the manga after she experienced the famous Märchenstrasse, writes it. Her manga was also written to target the German audience and produced by an

American manga publisher located in Germany.

CHAPTER TWO

Yoko Tawada’s Engagement with Early German Romanticism

Yoko Tawada is a Japanese born author who writes in Japanese and in German.

Her texts are composed of her experiences with linguistic encounters. In this dissertation,

I argue that within her contact zone of German and Japanese literary spaces, Tawada’s stories continue to develop the concept of progressive Universalpoesie through her own versions of prose and poetry. Tawada takes the privilege of being a nonnative speaker, as described by Claire Kramsch (1997), and deconstructs the German language only to reconstruct it in order to display the literary influences of German Romanticism. I claim that transculturation is visible when reading Tawada’s texts with an eye to the past works of German Romantic writers. It is not that one language or identity is more dominant, nor that one language or identity is suppressed, but rather there is a struggle between

Japanese and German; through Tawada’s writing, she finds an outlet. Her outlet takes the form of literary fragments, which represent the struggle – or even provide a celebration – of being able to navigate in one language and in another. I claim that early German

Romantic literary theory strongly influences Tawada’s work. In particular, Friedrich

Schlegel’s theory of fragments and Novalis’s Hymnen an die Nacht provide the framework around the fairy tale foundation of Yoko Tawada’s works.

1. Yoko Tawada

Yoko Tawada was born in Tokyo, Japan, in 1960. After studying Russian literature at Waseda University in Tokyo, Tawada came to Germany in 1979 with the

Trans-Siberian railroad. She has resided in Berlin since 1982. Tawada studied German literature in Hamburg and in Zürich, and she wrote her Doctorial thesis in Germany in

1998. In 1991, she published Wo Europa anfängt (Where Europe begins), her first book written entirely in German and published in Germany. That same year, her book

Sanninkankei (Three-Way Relationship) was published in Japan. Writing in Japanese and in German, Tawada is known for her characteristic playfulness when addressing cultural encounters and experiences in her writing. She has received several literary prizes for her work in both countries.

Due to her success, Tawada’s works have been categorized as travel literature, and she has been placed alongside authors of migrant or even guest-worker literature. Yet it is difficult to place her simply into the category of migrant literature. Tawada’s works take the form of fictional stories, which reflect on her encounters with cultural and linguistic concepts – but like scholarly essays, they openly refer to intellectuals such as

Jacques Derrida. Thus she “presents her work to a more academically oriented audience that spans several continents” (Maier-Katkin and Roberts 249). Critics have characterized her “writings as surreal or situated it more generally within an avant-garde tradition”

(Yildiz 111). By taking Friedrich Schlegel’s work on fragments as a starting point,

Tawada’s reception with the German Romantics is displayed through the traces of

German Romantic literary influences that can be found in her works. She shares a common ground with Schlegel – both use fragments to serve their poetic needs. Many of her protagonists, who are traveling and experiencing similar incidents to those that

Tawada has experienced, interact with different cultural and language structures. I claim that those interactions are fragmented in the style of progressive Universalpoesie as described by Friedrich Schlegel, which I will discuss in the following section.

2. Friedrich Schlegel: “Fragment and Progressive Universal Poetry”

A fragment, like a miniature work of art, has to be entirely isolated from the surrounding world and be complete in itself like a porcupine. (Schlegel, Atheanaeum Fragments 206, 45)

According to Tanehisa Otabe, the guiding principle behind Schlegel’s thinking is that of the fragment, and namely that fragments represent the essence of romantic aesthetics (59). Schlegel (1772-1829) initiated the philosophical ideas of the German

Romantic movement through his works and set the fundamental foundation that erected the framework to amalgamate literature and linguistics. Considered the leader of early

German Romanticism, Schlegel and his brother August founded in 1798 the journal Das

Athenäum, which became a vital vehicle for articulating the new ideas of the early

Romantics. His journal was a place for experimental poetry, in which he developed the key literary form of the German Romantics: the use of fragment and dialogue. Schlegel did not explicitly develop a theory of the fragment, nor did the other Romantics, but he reflected on the very concept of the fragment. He also reflected on the very concept of the fragment through the lens of his time and the tensions that brought about early

Romanticism. Schlegel was obsessed with the genre of fragment and continued to publish more fragments in Das Athenäum despite hostility from other members of the Romantic literary group, including his brother (Gasché, Foreword viii). Schlegel defines a fragment as a complete, individual totality in itself, rather than a broken piece of a whole.

Furthermore, Schlegel states that “[m]any of the works of the ancients have become fragments. Many modern works are fragments as soon as they are written” (Schlegel,

Atheanaeum Fragments 24, 21). In other words, ancient texts are received as fragments

and modern contemporary texts become fragments as soon as they are written. Thus a fragment is complete as soon as it becomes a text:

A dialogue is a chain or garland of fragments. An exchange of letters is a

dialogue on a larger scale, and memoirs constitute a system of fragments.

But as yet no genre exists that is fragmentary both in form and content,

simultaneously completely subjective and individual, and completely

objective and like a necessary part in a system of all the sciences.

(Schlegel, Atheanaeum Fragments 77, 27)

Dialogue is an important component in Schlegel’s theory of the fragment, since he sees dialogue as connecting one fragment to another. He places further import on memoirs, not only as a system of fragments, but also as a structure to attach to and continue from one fragment to another. Since a theory of fragments was not yet developed before

Schlegel, dialogue and memoirs serve as a system of fragments.

Schlegel’s announcement in his famous Athenäum Fragment 116 that Romantic poetry is a progressive Universalpoesie became the founding text of the German Romantic movement:

Romantic poetry is a progressive, universal poetry. Its aim isn’t merely to

reunite all the separate species of poetry and put poetry in touch with

philosophy and rhetoric. It tries to and should mix and fuse poetry and

prose, inspiration and criticism, the poetry of art and the poetry of nature;

and make poetry lively and sociable, and live and society poetical;

poeticize wit and fill and saturate the forms of art with every kind of good,

solid matter for instruction, and animate them with the pulsations of

humor. (Schlegel, Atheanaeum Fragments 116, 31)

The place where Schlegel searched for Romanticism was in the “older moderns… in that age of knights, love, and fairy tales where the thing and the word originated” (Millán-

Zaibert 15). Thus for Schlegel, romanticism as he perceived it was present in the past during an earlier period, and must be made visible to the present. This belief supports his view that Romantic poetry is a progressive Universalpoesie, in that the themes of

Romanticism reside in the past but can progress when artists and researchers in the present engage in dialogue with them through various media. In this sense, poetry must be fragmented in order to progress – and is therefore also timeless.

3. Friedrich Schlegel and Yoko Tawada’s Works

Schlegel and Tawada are from different geographical places and time periods, but they meet at a cross road in their writings through the blending of language and fragmented poetry. According to Reiko Tachibana, Tawada is known as one of the transnational writers who gained prominence in both the Japanese and the German literary worlds. Tachibana calls Tawada a writer of “exophony,” a writer who steps out of his or her native tongue (“Tawada Yoko’s Quest for Exophony: Japan and Germany”

153). Chantal Wright explains exophony as follows:

Exophony describes the phenomenon where a writer adopts a literary

language other than his or her mother tongue, entirely replacing or

complementing his or her language as a vehicle of literary expression. The

adopted language is typically acquired as an adult; exophonic writers are

not bilingual in the sense that they grew up speaking two languages, and

indeed do not necessarily achieve the type of spoken fluency associated

with the term “bilingualism.” (Wright 2)

Tawada did not grow up speaking both Japanese and German; she acquired German as a young adult, thus she does not fit the profile of a bilingual and she is an exophonic writer as Wright describes. Tawada does use her adopted language, German, as a literary language; the basis of her writing is her encounters with the German language. She does not seek to produce an assimilated harmonious sound of “euphony,” but as Tachibana explains, Tawada composes her own fresh tunes with the new sounds (“Tawada Yoko’s

Quest for Exophony” 153). To achieve this effect, Tawada’s protagonist, in selected texts, deconstructs the German language, which is the commonality that Schlegel and

Tawada share. Schlegel deconstructs his own language linguistically and questions the origin of the language, whereas Tawada deconstructs language by stepping out of the comfort zone of her Japanese mother tongue and placing language and meaning through the point of view of an “other.” In the article “India and the Identity of Europe: The Case of Friedrich Schlegel,” Chen Tzoref-Ashkenazi states that Schlegel’s idea of language is presented in his book Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, in which he presents a dual classification of languages (714). The first classification is an organic structure with grammatical distinctions. In keeping with this classification, Schlegel argues that the

German language developed out of Sanskrit (Tzoref-Ashekenazi 732). The second classification, which Schlegel views as inferior to the first, is of language that uses external means, such as isolated particles or affixes that can stand independently of words, which he defines as mechanical.

Schlegel classifies German as having an organic structure and traces its roots.

Tawada follows suit when she is confronted with the German language. Her book

Überseezungen contains a collection of fragmented encounters inspired by her travels.

Tawada writes that her protagonist consumes language with her tongue, bringing language into her body. Such is the case in the chapter “Zungentanz” (Dance of

Tongues). The protagonist dreams that she becomes the organic structure of a tongue

(Tawada, Überseezungen 9). The tongue has to retrain itself to produce the German consonant sounds. For example, she writes that if a vowel does not follow the letter “n,” the tongue is not enticed to move to the front of the mouth to produce the sound (13). It is what she describes as not physically possible, thus the protagonist is not able to pronounce the word Wunsch (wish). Confronted with the German pronunciation, she invents her own way to conquer it and inserts what she wishes for, a vowel following the letter “n.” “Wunsch” becomes “Wunosch” and she pronounces the word effortlessly. This is a play on words: by fulfilling a wish through the word for “wish” in order to present the difficulty of producing sounds in German and to present the view of the German language from her perspective as a nonnative speaker. She deconstructs the word and then re-constructs it to attain a smooth, harmonious tone that she is physically able to produce, thus achieving exophony. Her goal is to compose her own fresh tune with the new sounds, and in the protagonist’s case, she must do this by reverting back to her language roots, to Japanese.

In “Von der Muttersprache zur Sprachmutter,” a chapter in Talisman, Tawada’s protagonist writes that her first language, Japanese, does not have grammatical gender assigned to nouns. But German nouns have a grammatical gender. For her, this is an

abstract concept that makes her feel rather foreign since she is not a native German speaker who knows by instinct the correct grammatical gender of every word. The protagonist finds herself at a point of departure between the Japanese and German languages. She then distances herself from the native German speakers and assumes what

Kramsch refers to as the privilege of a nonnative speaker. Kramsch questions the idealization of the native speaker who is accredited a prestige status by students of foreign language who are to emulate the communicative skills of the native speaker. She challenges this prestige status based on the fact that “native speakers do not always speak according to the rules of their standard national language” (359). Furthermore, students of foreign languages gain a:

multilingual perspective on the foreign language and on its culture [and

they discover how to] construct for themselves a linguistic and social

identity that enables them to resolve the anomalies and contradictions they

are to encounter when attempting to adopt someone else’s language. (360)

Tawada’s protagonist does what a foreign language learner does, as Kramsch describes, and she constructs her own meaning by manipulating the noun and assigning the desired grammatical gender to it because she is a foreign language learner. In “Von der

Mutterspache zur Sprachmutter,” Tawada rejects the notion of an original language and the privileging of the mother tongue:

In der Muttersprache sind die Worte den Menschen angeheftet, so dass

man selten spielerische Freude an der Sprache empfinden kann. Dort

klammern sich die Gedanken so fest an die Worte, dass weder die ersteren

noch die letzteren frei fliegen können. In einer Fremdsprache hat man aber

so etwas wie einen Heftklammerentferner: Er entfernt alles, was sich

aneinanderheftet und sich festklammert. (Tawada, Talisman 15)

Tawada’s imagination of the mother tongue and its native speakers is visualized by the mother tongue fastening the words onto people based on the feelings for correct grammar that native speakers are accredited to have. There again is the privilege of the non-native speaker; she is free to explore other possibilities that native speakers do not have. Thus, she does not take the mother tongue as a privilege of the native speakers, but rather as a shackle that ties them down. The role of the foreign language in this chapter is interesting, because it removes the shackles that tie the words to people. It is precisely through the experience of a foreign language that one learns freedom and is not only free to enjoy the playfulness of a foreign language, but also of his or her own language.

Tawada’s protagonist is not confined as a native speaker to abide by the rules of grammatical structure. She takes the German grammatical gender, the signifier, and assigns to it an iconic sign – in this case an image she can connect to. This results in the word being assigned an image to resemble the gender of the noun, so die

Schreibmaschine becomes a woman tattooed with the letters of the alphabet. The encounter of the foreignness of the German grammatical structure causes Tawada’s protagonist to explore the physiology of the German language and she dictates what is signified by the images she chooses to stand in for each of the words. Image is an important aspect of the Japanese language, since according to Mark McWilliams, much of Japan’s literacy is dominated by images (3). He quotes Susan Sontag, who refers to

Japan as an “image world” in which the Japanese mass media produces and consumes

images. Thus Tawada draws on her own literacy’s roots in her linguistic childhood and then assign images based on her earlier experiences (Talisman 13).

Schlegel’s theory of language continues to be developed in his most famous work,

Athenäums-Fragmente. As described earlier, he develops in this work the term progressive Universalpoesie, which becomes the foundation of the early Romantic movement. Progressive Universalpoesie describes a specific type of literature that brings together not only all literary genres, but also all forms of disconnected poetry, and connects them to philosophy, rhetoric, and art through science by addressing all of the senses. It is progressive because it is unfinished – still in the making and still developing.

This concept is reflected in Tawada’s work. She combines various poetic forms in her own poems. The senses melt into one in Tawada’s writing. In Talisman, in the chapter

“Das Tor des Übersetzers oder Celan liest Japanisch,” she connects Paul Celan’s poetry to language analysis and translation studies, thus coming to a linguistic discovery that

Celan’s German poems share common radicals or classifiers with the Japanese language

(125). According to Wright, “radicals are core units of meaning and are ideographic or pictorial in nature, which means that a reader can often decipher the meaning of an unknown jukugo or compound word from his or her familiarity with its constituent radicals” (Exophony and Literary Translation 34). In other words, radicals are essential in translating texts. In Tawada’s work, it appears as if the radicals are placed in the poem on purpose. The poet had to know Japanese when writing the poem in order to have the radical in place. With this discovery, she brings to light that Celan’s poems themselves were a part of the Japanese language before his poems would be translated in the future.

Tawada also uncovered that Celan’s poems are still in the making; they are progressive.

Tawada becomes Schlegel’s apprentice in showing this relationship, as she continues giving life to Schlegel’s philosophical ideas in her works. By discovering that Celan’s work is progressive and writing about it, she continues to develop Schlegel’s work through her discovery.

Tawada’s thoughts on translation are incorporated in another chapter in Talisman,

“Erzähler ohne Seelen”. Tawada’s narrative voice explains how individual German words tell a story. According to Susan Anderson, Tawada comes to favor the word Zelle.

With the help of this word, she can imagine small, lively rooms in her body. The narrative voice goes on to imagine the compound words that can be created with Zelle.

This one word can change its meaning depending on which other words it is combined with. The meaning of the word reflects that of another word: Zelle reflects to Raum

(room), and in rooms, many stories are told. This is an example of the fragmented thoughts that alone are disconnected, but as an ensemble show how Tawada’s narrator concludes that there are storytellers without souls. Tawada also makes explicit her understanding of the role of the translator: “Übersetzer machen durch das Übersetzen sichtbar, daß dieser Text gleichzeitig mehrere Texte ist” (Talisman 19). It is not a surprise that Tawada is against a naturalization approach to translating, since in “Erzähler ohne

Seelen” she writes that by translating a text, a translator makes it clear that one text could be multiple texts. In other words, a translator could not possibly be able to translate a single, original meaning, since one text is actually a palimpsest of multiple texts.

Tawada’s view on translation derives from progressive Universalpoesie in that poetry is progressive. If a text has one original meaning as a naturalization approach to translating suggests, then it cannot include all forms of the arts. Furthermore, a naturalization

translation would not be progressive because it is complete in terms of having only one meaning to convey. Since Tawada’s text is made of multiple texts, it is not finished, and by virtue of this continuous progress and multiplicity, it has the capacity to contain all forms of the arts.

Wright raises the question of, “whether there is a literary or cultural equivalent of first language interference, the phenomenon where a language learner’s mother tongue interferes in their production of the foreign language, affecting grammar, lexis and even pronunciation” (33). She argues against this phenomenon and supports her argument using examples from “Erzähler ohne Seelen.” While I agree with Wright, I would also add that those phenomena are visible in Tawada’s writings due to the influence of

German Romanticism. Tawada’s ability to write in two different languages opens up new possibilities. This allows her to fulfill the requirements for creating progressive

Universalpoesie and even allows her to reach a wider audience beyond the Japanese language as she includes a German audience.

4. Novalis and His Concept of Romanticism

Novalis’ greatest contribution to Early German Romanticism was Hymnen an die

Nacht, a set of six fragmented hymns composed of rhythmic prose, narrative, and passages of verse. The hymns progress from praising the daylight to longing the mysterious night to religious awaking to awaken new perspective, and lastly to transitioning from an imitate experience to address a broad audience. These hymns contain tropes that would make an impression on what followed of the German Romantic period. Another important trope for Novalis was the fairy tale. He writes that, “Das

Märchen ist gleichsam der Kanon der Poesie- alles muß märchenhaft sein” (Lüthi 106).

Novalis regards fairy tales as dream pictures: “[e]in Märchen ist eigentlich wie ein

Traumbild- ohne Zusammenhang-Ein Ensemble wunderbarer Dinge und Begebenheiten”

(Eikels 656). Novalis’ style of writing in Hymnen an die Nacht is dreamlike, conveying a sense of transcendence from reality to poetry:

Novalis’s project is to remove representation from the abstract plane

where it is embedded and place it in a poetic medium where it can be

expanded. Identity as a pure analytic proposition of sameness cannot be

represented, unless it is op-posited to something that it is not. (Seyhan 38)

Novalis’s representation is removed from reality and placed in an otherworldly space that is created through poetry by events and themes from his life presented as fragmented pieces. In Hymnen an die Nacht, Novalis creates a sense of poetic melancholy that is marked by attributes of the loneliness he feels during daylight. His own experiences are juxtaposed against those of his protagonist. I claim that traces of Novalis’ fragmented poetry can be found in Tawada’s Überseezungen as a result of transculturation and

Novalis’ influence on Tawada.

5. Novalis and Yoko Tawada’s Works

Tawada copies both Novalis’ mode of writing in fragmented pieces and the concept of the encounter with the loneliness felt from the “other.” The foreignness that makes her protagonist vastly different becomes the instrument of Tawada’s writing.

Überseezungen contains fragmented travel pieces and reports of encounters that her protagonist experiences. German Romanticism’s influence are openly displayed in

Überseezungen. That Romantic trope of the darkness of the night is displayed in both

Novalis’ and Tawada’s work. In the fragment “Biskoop der Nacht,” reality becomes

entangled with nighttime events. Tawada’s protagonist is asked in which language she dreams – a question that is always asked by the first monolingual Tawada’s protagonists meet. A husband of someone attending the party, after listening to the protagonist’s dream, states that the language she spoke in her dream is German but it is completely deformed. It is deformed because “Mutter-sprache,” the mother tongue, suppresses the

German language in the protagonist’s head. The speaker’s claim that the dream language is in deformed German produces the inclusion of a monolingual but simultaneously reinforces exclusion. The narrator dreads being asked this question, not because she does not know the answer, but rather because the focus is on her difference from the monolingual asking her. Tawada’s fragments take the elements of Romanticism and connect them to the protagonist’s contemporary challenges. As a speaker of two languages, the protagonist faces monolinguals’ critique not only in reality, but also, during the night while she dreams. During another party, the protagonist meets a white- haired psychoanalyst who tells her that she dreams in Afrikaans. She then makes a physical transition to Africa in order to learn that language. In Hymnen an die Nacht,

Novalis’ dead beloved awakens a similar transition:

The Hymnen an die Nacht present the successive apotheosis of the dead

beloved into a godlike intermediary who initiates the hymnal singer –via

the transcendental descent into the pre-conscious self- into the world of

divine night. This canonization of the beloved is at the same time a

canonization of the lyrical subject into an idealized self. (Malinowski

156).

In Tawada’s text, it is the critique of the male monolingual that initiates the protagonist’s transition, and the identification of the dream language by a female psychoanalyst that helps complete the transition. The protagonist’s journey to Africa to learn Afrikaans brings the dream state and reality together: “[d]ie Sprache, in der geträumt wird, muss besucht werden” (Tawada, Überseezungen 67). Her goal is to become the translator of her own language as spoken in her dream, which will lead to an understanding of herself in her dream world. Just like in Novalis’ Hymnen an die Nacht, in which the persona of the poet transitions to an idealized self, Tawada’s protagonist transitions from a bilingual to a trilingual through the night dreams.

Yasemin Yildiz claims in “Detaching from the Mother Tongue: Bilingualism and

Liberation in Yoko Tawada,” that “Biskoop der Nacht” establishes the link to Afrikaans through bilingual homonyms, since the language in which the protagonist dreams is not

Japanese or German but rather is decipherable as Afrikaans (137). The move to Africa, according to Yildidz, serves “to escape the imposed ethno-cultural, national and racialized forms of identity” (141). I argue that the use of dream in “Biskoop der Nacht” stems from Novalis and the reality of the imposed identity, as Yildidz calls it, is escaped in her dreams, where it becomes a rather poetic confrontation of languages and identities.

All her encounters with the “other” are different and do not connect to complete a story.

Yet as individual events, they come together to make up a dream-like picture – the very picture Novalis defines as fairy tale.

6. Kunstmärchen and Yoko Tawada’s works

The unsettled nature of postmodern identity in the transcultural present is a recurrent theme in the work of Tawada Yoko, who, since moving to Germany in 1982, has written a number of plays and stories (in Japanese and German), that while contesting linguistic and physical borders, use motifs from the folktales and fairy tales of both her native and adoptive cultures. (Sebastian- Jones 177).

Tawada’s texts are composed of her experiences with linguistic encounters and of being caught in the encounters of different languages and cultures. I argue that the motifs from the folktales and fairy tales in Tawada’s works, as mentioned by Sebastian-Jones, represent the transculturation of the Grimms’ fairy tales through the ideology of the

German Romantics. In continuing to develop the concept of progressive Universalpoesie with her own versions of fairy tales, Tawada’s works reveal the literary encounters between West and East in the style of German Romanticism with the surreal tone of a fairytale narrative voice. An engagement of E.T.A. Hoffmann’s Der goldene Topf with

Tawada’s texts Wo Europa anfängt and The Man with Two Mouths reveal that she is enamored of Hoffmann’s work and carries on his Romantic tropes and his concept of the modern fairy tale (Märchen aus einer neuen Zeit) in her own writing. In order to show this, I will explore in the next section how Tawada’s writings represent progressive

Universalpoesie with her own interpretations of Kunstmärchen as the result of transculturation.

7. E. T. A. Hoffmann and Yoko Tawada’s Works

E. T. A. Hoffmann set the stage for a new genre of fairy tale, the Kunstmärchen, in his Der goldene Topf-Ein Märchen aus der neunen Zeit during the late Romantic period. Tawada’s Wo Europa anfängt (1995) carries that Kunstmärchen tradition on in the present period. The focus in this discussion is to define the fairy tale-like elements in

Wo Europa anfängt and use them to display the intertextual relationship between

Hoffmann’s work and Tawada’s fictional travel narrative.

Hoffmann combined the fantasy world with the real world of his protagonist

Anselmus. Hoffmann’s basic conception of the fairy tale narrative from a new time is the appearance of the fairy tale world in reality, where the concrete place and contemporary time are familiar to the reader and the fantasy world appears, intertwines, and interacts with the real world. A reader has to be able to identify the modern place, time, and people in the fairy tale. In most of the traditional fairy tales that were recounted by the Grimms, the stories are set in a faraway, unknown kingdom. As in Hoffmann’s fairy tale, Tawada breaks away from the setting in an unknown place. She informs the reader of the location and the time. Despite the information she provides to create a complete setting, Tawada’s fairy tale is fragmented, which reflects the influence of early German Romanticism.

Wo Europa anfängt beings with a short story narrative, “Das Leipzig des Lichts und der Gelatine,” and ends with a narrative having the same title as the book, “Wo

Europa anfängt.” Between the two narratives, and in them as well, are several poems about a Japanese woman on a journey. “Wo Europa anfängt” starts her various fairy tale types. The protagonist tells a fairy tale that was told by her Japanese grandmother. The story is in the form of a traditional German fairy tale, a Volksmärchen, since it is orated by a storyteller and contains stereotypical Grimmsian fairy tale elements. By beginning her own Kunstmärchen with a Volksmärchen, Tawada sets her work apart from traditional story telling. The Volksmärchen is then transformed through the fragmented prose of her travel into the Kunstmärchen which makes up the last fragment in Wo

Europa anfängt. Tawada separates the fragment “Wo Europa anfängt” into three major

sections. The first section contains the traditional Japanese fairy tale, told as a German

Volksmärchen, and marks the beginning of the protagonist’s travels; it is her origin. The second section contains fragmented encounters from the protagonist’s journey from Japan to Moscow, including a Tungusic fairy tale and a Samoyedic fairy tale; this shows her transitioning physically (moving away from Japan) and mentally (encountering people from various places and reading fairy tales from different countries). The third section tells of the protagonist’s arrival in Moscow; it is told in the form of a Kunstmärchen, in which the fantastic elements interact and intertwine within the protagonist’s reality.

The Volksmärchen would at first seem to subvert German Romanticism’s influence and to set the stage for German Romanticism’s influence in the narrative. This section contains “Spannung und Entspannung, Erwartung und Erfüllung,” crucial components of Volksmärchen (Lüthi 22). The fairy tale begins in the village of the narrator’s grandmother, with a girl who has a sick mother. In order to cure her mother’s sickness, the girl is told by a white snake to travel to the West, where a firebird lives. Her task is to retrieve a feather from the firebird that will heal the girl’s sick mother. Her fear of traveling to the West were monsters live creates the initial tension. Tawada represents the foreignness of the West with monsters. The white snake, acting like a godmother or a good fairy to the little girl, tells her not to fear the monsters, since all humans were also once monsters. This means that once upon a time, all human beings were once in a foreign place. The girl’s task comes with a warning from the white snake not to drink a single drop of water in the West. But once the girl reaches the West, she is overcome with such a thirst that she forgets the warning and drinks the water. At that moment, the girl becomes ninety-nine years old and her mother disappears. The narrator’s

grandmother believes that traveling means to drink foreign water, which, according to her could be dangerous. But Tawada does not believe that foreign water actually exists:

Ich, als kleines Mädchen, glaubte nicht daran, dass es fremde Wasser

gebe, denn ich dachte immer, der Globus sei eine Wasserkugel, auf der

viele kleine und große Inseln schwimmen, das Wasser müsse überall

gleich sein... Die Grenze, die die Insel umschloss, bestand auch aus

Wasser, das als Welle ununterbrochen ans Ufer schlug. Wie kann man

wissen, wo der Ort des fremden Wassers anfängt, wenn die Grenze selbst

aus Wasser besteht? (Where Europe Begins 67-68)

According to the narrator, the globe is a sphere of water with small and large islands swimming on its surface. The islands represent the different continents, but since the water surrounding the various islands constitutes their borders, foreign water cannot exist. The waves touching the islands’ shores permeate their borders and create connections among the islands. The waves are also constantly moving, pushing the cultural differences from one island to another, taking away their difference. Once those differences have melded on the shores, space opens up for a birth of transcultural understanding, influenced by both cultures. With this encounter, I argue, the protagonist gets to keep her own cultural identity. Yet through the fusion of two cultures, she gains an experience that influences and even challenges her established identity to create a transculturally constructed part of her identity. The water metaphor is used to blur the concrete line that separates each island from the next. As such, it redefines the limitations of the concept of borders.

The concept of borders is also blurred in Hoffmann’s Der goldene Topf.

Anselmus’ real world intertwines with the fictional fairy tale world, and he, like the girl in “Wo Europa anfängt,” is given a task to accomplish. He is assigned to copy an old manuscript, which is at first illegible. But through the magic of the metaphysical heroine

Serpentina, who has a human woman’s upper body and a snake’s lower body, Anselmus accomplishes his given task. He can do this only when he accepts Serpentina’s fantasy world . His identity as a philosophical scholar is challenged, and he is confronted with poetic apotheosis. But when he attempts to return to reality with the bourgeois heroine

Veronika, he is punished. He becomes trapped in a crystal bottle due to his rejection of the fantasy world and only succeeds in being freed to arrive in Atlantis through poetry.

During the protagonist’s journey in Tawada’s fragment “Wo Europa anfängt,” she encounters fairy tale-like characters and is reborn. Arriving in Moscow, she sees the firebird from her grandmother’s Volksmärchen sitting on a tower spitting out letters that spell out the name MOSKAU. In this foreign country, the letters metamorphose into something that is familiar to her. The letter “M” turns into a mother who re-births the protagonist. “O” becomes the fish she consumed in the train during her travels. “S” becomes a seahorse shaped like Japan. “K” turns into the sphere made of water (the

Kugel) that she claims to be earth. “U” becomes the Ungeheuer (monsters) to which her grandmother’s tale referred. Finally, the letter “A” is seen not as the final vowel in the city’s name (Москва), but as the beginning of the alphabet. The letter is metamorphosed as an apple (Apfel), a foreign fruit that the protagonist eats.

Unlike in a Volksmärchen, where for example the apple kills Snow White, the apple awakens Tawada’s protagonist. It is not until after she eats the apple that she

realizes she has arrived in Siberia. “Wo Europa anfängt” ends with an apple and an awakening. In Hoffmann’s Der goldene Topf, apples are the beginning of Anselmus’ misfortunes in the real world. It is only after he spills the witch’s apples and she curses him that he starts seeing the fairy tale elements of the story. Tawada’s Kunstmärchen ends with the realization that the protagonist has arrived at her destination, Moscow, which she describes as a utopia. As a child, she believed that Moscow was a Zauberwort

(magical word) – a place her parents were not able to arrive to no matter how hard they tried or desired As for Hoffmann’s protagonist Anselmus, he also arrives at a utopia as well as a locus amoenus), in Atlantis. Der goldene Topf ends by questioning whether anything but poetry can reveal itself as the sacred harmony of all beings, as the deepest secret of nature.

Tawada’s tale and Hoffmann’s tale both make references to Biblical topoi, such as the snake and the apple. In Tawada’s tale, the Christian themes maintain their role: the snake tempts the girl to set out to the foreign world, where she finds death. The apple reveals the truth and causes rebirth. In Hoffmann’s tale, the Christian themes are in opposition to one another and “the snake and the apple become sworn enemies”

(McGlathery 119).

8. Till Eulenspiegel and Yoko Tawada’s Works

The Romantics looked to the Middle Ages for themes. In keeping with this,

Tawada takes an unusual character from medieval German literature, Till Eulenspiegel, and places him into a contemporary setting to create a Kunstmärchen. The Man with Two

Mouths, published as Futakuchi otoko in Japan in 1998 and TILL: Theaterstück in

German also in 1998, is an example of the German literary influence on Tawada. The

multiple functions of language in The Man with Two Mouths are displayed by translators and scholars in how they identify this work and address its main themes. I argue that

Tawada’s The Man with Two Mouths shows that German Romanticism explicitly influenced this work.

Margaret Mitsutani, the translator of The Man with Two Mouths shows, states that

Tawada’s works “often deals with travel and the state of being caught between different languages and cultures …[and] the slipperiness of words and the fundamental untrustworthiness of language” are the aspects of her decision to stage an encounter between Till and Japanese tourists (321). As already stated, the German Romantics looked into medieval times for themes, and the picaresque character Till Eulenspiegel is a vital representative from the Middle Ages. Tawada uses the character from the medieval times, Till, which is the direct influence from the German romanticism, and places him in contemporary setting to address an issue from his time, which still prevails even today.

The issue Till addresses is stated in the introduction of Till Eulenspiegel by the medieval scholar Albrecht Classen and he states that “der Narr [Till] durch seine Streiche auf die

Probleme mit der Kommunikation in seiner Zeit hinweist.”17 Since the beginning, Till used his tricks to point to the challenges of communication of his time and in Tawada’s

TILL, he continues to do this. In fact, Tawada not only sheds light on the struggle of communication by relinquishing the translations of the dialogues but also creates a place where the audience can experience this. The actors speak either German or Japanese, depending on their roles, and the audiences in both countries generally understand only half of the dialogue.

17 Albrecht Classen, Till Eulenspiegel, Das deutsche Mittelalter in seinen Dichtungen, Greyden Press, Columbus, Ohio, 1994: 375.

Mitsutani labels the text as a short story. She writes that the fragment began as a play called TILL and has been performed in Germany and in Japan (322). It’s important to note that according to Mitsutani, only understanding half of the conversations did not prevent her from enjoying the play. Tawada’s intent was the enjoyment of the play disconnected from translations. The text plays on the notion of not being understood, due to the two very different spoken languages without hindering the pleasure of a play.

Tawada’s TILL sheds light on other communication methods beside language, since the opening specifically states the following.

Ich habe absichtlich auf die Übersetzungen der gesprochenen Teile

verzichtet. Es wäre wünschenswert, wenn die gemeinsame Theaterarbeit

und die Produktion ohne Übersetzungen der Dialoge gelingen würde.

Durch Gesten, Mimik, Sprachklang oder Choreographie muß eine

gemeinsame Welt auf der Bühne geschaffen werden. (Tawada TILL:

Theaterstück, 1998, 43-44)

First, Tawada wishes that the production of the play could take place without the translation of the dialogues, which she purposely relinquished but then she rather demands a common world on the stage to be created based on body language, mimic, and even speech sound. Thus a common world of German and Japanese language must be created not based on the translation but rather using the senses. Tawada displays the unreliability of translation by intentionally refusing translated dialogues and relies on senses to communicate between the actors and the audience. In Tawada’s story, Till and the Japanese tourists share a common space, despite their differences: origin and their

languages. The commonality between them is their travel, which is based on different reasons but shared based on the notion of transit and being outsiders.

Mayako Murai categorizes The Man with Two Mouths as the original title story of a collection that was published before it was adapted into a theatrical play. The spoken roles without translations juxtapose the Japanese and German languages in a way that is better suited to drama, where actors freely preform with rhythmic structure, than to prose, which are restricted to grammatical rules: “[T]he sounds of two languages clash and resonate with each other so that the members of the audience are encouraged to make their own interpretation of the sounds whose meanings they may or may not understand”

(Murai, “From Dog Bridegroom to Wolf Girl” 42). According to Murai, the spectators of the play, must create their own interpretation of it based on the sounds of words. This serves to create an experience similar to or even the same as the experience a non-speaker of German or Japanese might have while experiencing language conflicts and linguistic otherness. Tawada states in the stage directions, which I read as simply explanations and expectations of the play, the following created for the audience.

Für die Zuschauer, die nur eine der beide Sprachen verstehen, bleibt ein

Teil der Bühne ein Geheimnis, aber musikalische oder bildliche Zugänge

zu dem Geheimnis müssen möglich sein. (Tawada, TILL: Theaterstück 44)

The intended non-translated dialogues remain a secret but access to this secret must be conjured through musical or visual entry. This repeats the emphases on the senses and the play is interpreted using multiple of human senses.

Birgit Maier-Katkin and Lee M. Roberts label The Man with Two Mouths as a drama. In this drama, they point not only to the ambiguities of languages, “but also the

multiple ambiguities of languages, especially when certain words or idiomatic expressions have no clear counterparts in other languages.”18 Thus the focus of this drama “showcases what one gains even from ultimately inaccurate interactions with another culture” rather than the lack of communication due to language misunderstandings (Maier-Katkin and Roberts 255).

Mitsutani, Murai, and Maier-Katkin and Roberts all focus on the bilingual aspect of The Man with Two Mouths. The play’s dialogue directs attention not only to the ambiguities of the languages (or the multiple ambiguities of language) or the cultural encounters they accompany, but more importantly to “today’s oral storytelling culture, which has increasingly become more multilingual and multicultural as the world becomes more globally mobile” (Murai 42).

Tawada places the medieval German iconic trickster, Till Eulenspiegel, in a contemporary setting: in the late twentieth-century, in the lower part of Saxony, with modern street signs showing that this is a tourist destination. The shadow of Late German

Romanticism is visible in this work through the inclusion of the medieval character but also through central themes, such as shadow and darkness. Eulenspiegel tricks a modern group of Japanese tourists, who speak Japanese while Eulenspiegel speaks German. This duality is also in the title, “two mouths,” which stands for the two aspects of the drama.

First, they refer to the bilingual element of the story. Since the actors speak Japanese and

German without translation, the audience experiences the untranslatable qualities of

18 Brigit Maier-Katkin, Lee Roberts, “Transnational Communicability: German Japanese Literature by Yoko Tawada,” in Transnational Encounters between Germany and Japan: Perceptions of Partnership in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Joanne Miyang Cho, ed. Lee M. Roberts, ed. Christian W. Spang. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, 254.

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language and culture. Second, “the two mouths” suggests Eulenspiegel’s ability to speak with his mouth as well as his magical propensity to speak from his anus.

The first part of the fragment is titled, “In Which Eulenspiegel Escapes from One

Town and Encounters Some Japanese Tourists (7-12).” Upon Eulenspiegel’s entrance, the narrator provides a description of his physical attributes:

His hair streams around his head in green flames, catching the riotous

sunlight. Lower lip thrust out, his nose slightly upturned, he looks like a

tough kid, the leader of the gang. It’s impossible to tell how old he is.

(Murai 322)

Till is presented as a rather unearthly being with green flames for hair. Yet he is also human, as he is described as a tough kid and even a leader. Then the set switches from the Eulenspiegel fountain to its shadow, which becomes alive as a monster that must be slayed by a knight. Tawada readies the audience to expect a knight to appear who will exterminate the monster. But although the audience now looks for a hero to slay the monster, Tawada presents just the opposite –Eulenspiegel is neither a knight nor a hero.

In fact, after one look at Eulenspiegel, the monster yawns and goes away. The juxtaposition of what is expected versus what actually happens continues throughout the play.

Tawada fulfills the expectation for a beautiful fairy-tale hero in that Eulenspiegel is in fact as beautiful in appearance as one might expect: “While Till is nodding, his eyes cast down, he looks a completely different person from when his mouth is open. Silent, he’s so beautiful it gives you goose pimples (327). Eulenspiegel’s beauty disappears not just because his mouth is open, but as soon as he uses it to speak the truth. Tawada

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complies with the inclusion of the expectations for a stereotypical fairy tale character, but stops short of fulfilling the expectation. In doing so, she surprises the audience. The words Eulenspiegel produces make him unbearably ugly, thus language and appearance are juxtaposed so that language diminishes physical beauty.

In The Man with Two Mouths, the function of language is to counter

Eulenspiegel’s physical appearance. When he is silent, his physical appearance is beautiful, leading to the expectation that his words will match his looks. The voiding of this expectation accompanies the words not only as they make Eulenspiegel ugly, but also as he uses them to trick people. Since one of the characteristics of a Kunstmärchen is the appearance of magic in a contemporary setting, Tawada gives Eulenspiegel the ability to speak from his anus whenever he is in a pinch. But “the words he expels from his ass are his without really belonging to him, he needn’t take responsibility for them” (329). The words emerging from Eulenspiegel’s anus are so filthy that a knight who was chasing him exits the stage with haste. By including fairy tale tropes in a contemporary setting,

Tawada creates a Kunstmärchen with a legendary medieval German trickster who addresses modern issues in a global mobile society filled with traveling foreign tourists.

In chapter two, I continued to discuss the fairy tale reception and turn to the works by Yoko Tawada. I showed that she uses the concept developed by E.T.A Hoffmann’s

Kunstmärchen to narrate the encounters of contact zone. Her travel essays mirror her own voyages and her protagonists become entangled between different languages and cultures, where they create a space for transculturation. I continued to present her writings in light of German Romanticism, where she uses fragment to illustrate her narration. She also displays her admiration for the ideology of the German Romantics of

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taking themes from the Middle Ages, with the example of one of her protagonist. She uses the medieval trickster Till Eulenspiegel to play pranks on Japanese tourist in modern

Germany to create a Kunstmärchen.

In this chapter, I continued to discuss the fairy tale reception and turned to the works by Yoko Tawada. I showed that she uses the concept developed by E.T.A

Hoffmann’s Kunstmärchen to narrate the encounters of contact zone. Her travel essays mirror her own voyages and her protagonists become entangled between different languages and cultures, where they create a space for transculturation. I continued to present her writings in light of German Romanticism, where she uses fragment to illustrate her narration. She also displayed her admiration for the ideology of the German

Romantics of taking themes from the Middle Ages, with the example of one of her protagonist. She used the medieval trickster Till Eulenspiegel to play pranks on Japanese tourist in modern Germany to create a Kunstmärchen.

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CHAPTER THREE

Wagnerian Ideology in Kouhei Kadono’s Boogiepop

Everything we bring to Japan becomes diminished. It’s the same with Nietzsche. Mori Ōgai

Mori Ōgai, the leading Japanese translator of Western literature during the Meiji period, criticized the Japanese adaptation of Western ideas during the modernization era in Japan. His comment was published in his full-length novel Seinen (Youth), now regarded as a Bildungsroman, in 1911. His discontent proved to be a minority opinion and the circulation of Western literature in Japan did not diminish; in fact, it entered the mainstream of Japanese literature and even contemporary Japanese pop culture.

In this chapter, I argue that the influence of Richard Wagner’s works permeated

Kouhei Kadono’s Boogiepop series, in which Wagner’s work “could serve as an effective pedagogical tool to transmit contemporary national ideologies to young [Japanese] citizens” through popular literature (McCorkle xiv-xv). I claim that German Romanticism cross-pollinates with Wagnerism and I unpack the effect of transculturation in Kadono’s work to show how non-Western writing used the overture of Wagner’s opera as a means to point to the romanticized notion of the ideological-nationalistic role of adolescents of modern Japan. It is due to the impact of Wagner’s works during the inception of

Westernization in Japan that his influence resonates in Kadono’s Boogiepop series. And it is because Wagner’s work had such an impact, that his influence resonates even today.

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1. Richard Wagner in Meiji Japan

To shed light on the influence of Wagner’s work on Japanese reading culture, I begin with a look at Westernization in Japan. Westernization began when Japan finally opened its ports to allow foreigners to enter. The initial cause of the opening of the borders was American boats armed with cannons that forced Japan to allow foreigners in; but Japan soon realized the advanced modernization of the West.19 Thus Westernization began in Japan and the first delegates were sent to Europe in 1861 (Noguchi 22). And since Wagnerism was at its peak during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Europe, and any German artifacts, to include literature, were high in demand, this movement also reached Japan. As already mentioned in Chapter One, Japan viewed

Germany as an ideal Western model of society, especially its politics, the German language, and also German literary culture.

The foundation in Tokyo of a Japanese “Society for the Propagation of

German Science” (Gesellschaft für Verbreitung deutscher Wissenschaft)

in January 1882 came, apparently by chance, at the beginning of the

“German-phase” in Japan’s modernization. This phase culminated in the

area of government with the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution on 11

February 1889 and in ideology and education with the announcement of

the Imperial Edit on Education on 30 October 1890.20

The German educational system became a model after the Japanese government changed the highly centralized French model used in 1872 to the American style in 1879 and

19 American fleet with canons forced Japan to open their borders and even forced them to sign a treaty, which was only beneficial to the Americans, which caused uproar among the Japanese citizens. 20 Bernd Martin, The German Role in the Modernization of Japan- The Pitfall of Blind Acculturation, 77.

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finally in 1886, the Meiji government settled on “a hybrid European statist system which featured German influence” (Gluck 19). And, as stated above, with the announcement of the Imperial Edict on Education in 1890, the German education and ideology were integrated into the Japanese educational system. This also included the music academy, where the German influence prevailed to such extent that at the end of the Meiji period, no music styles other than German were permitted (Takenaka 19).

The modernization of a new Meiji state was an era of an intense Westernization period, which was also highly criticized. Bernd Martin claims:

The “German measles”, as the deposed paragons of modernity, the

English, were fond of cynically calling Japanese blind adoption of

everything German, was indeed a highly contagious and finally near fatal

disease. Germans transmitted to the Japanese an authoritarian system of

government and helped to create an ideological superstructure for it.21

Due to interwoven of modernization and westernization, Japan was in a state of social disenchantment and despite the critique criticism, that Japan was blindly adopting everything German, Japanese scholars saw German Romanticism and Wagner’s prose as a vehicle for channeling an ideological change. I draw the use of the term ideology from two researchers, Brooke McCorkle and Carol Gluck.22 Ideology is considered as an essential social element of producing a desired social order driven by individuals from different backgrounds with a shared sense of civic duty (Gluck 7 and McCorkle 19).

From here, I transition to a brief discussion on role of German Romanticism in Meiji

21 Bernd Martin, The German Role in the Modernization of Japan- The Pitfall of Blind Acculturation, 78. 22 Brooke McCorkle’s ideology is based on Carol Gluck’s work on ideology during the Meiji period.

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literary culture, since the ideology of the German Romantics reinforced the reception of

Wagner’s work and his ideology.

Romanticism was one of the main cultural and intellectual movements of the nineteenth century. According to scholars David C. Large and William Weber, it was during this time when Richard Wagner’s ideas, music, and his texts “stimulated a cultural movement that attracted adherents throughout the world.”23 Wagnerian ideas of the salvation of society through art,24 with the primary purpose as to reform operas as a serious art form, began to rise in 1849, though the Blütezeit of the Wagnerian movement occurred between 1872 and his death in 1883 (Large and Weber 26). Since Romanticism was in fashion when Westernization began, Japanese intellectuals and scholars consumed

German Romanticism literature. They filled journals with discussions of Goethe and

Novalis, and translations of Schlegel.25 This only fueled the interest in German

Romanticism, leading to the formation of the Japan Romantic School in 1934.26 The founding members of the Japan Romantic School were students of German language and culture, and even studied in Germany.27 They encountered the Romanticism movement in

Germany and returned to Japan with the Romanticism, but also Wagnerism. The aim of

23 David C. Large and William Weber “Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics”, 7. 24 Scholar Jens Fischer claims that the anti-Semitic work from Richard Wagner titled “Das Judentum in der Musik” first published in 1850 and then again in 1869, is “ ein zentraler Text des europäischen Antisemitismus” (121). He does not state that this European view is shared with the East. In this chapter, the anti-Semitics views of Wagner are not central to my argument and the reception of Wagner’s ideology in Japan did not include his anti-Semitics views and thus, will not be part of this discussion. More discussion on Wagner’s anti-Semitics views can be found in Richard Wagners “Das Judentum in der Musik” by Jens Malte Fischer or Richard Wagner und die Juden by Dieter Borchmeyer, Ami Maayani and Susamme Vill. 25 Friedrich Schlegel and Novalis are known to the leading German Romantics, whereas Goethe is before the German Romanticism period, but in the Japanese and South Korean literature, Goethe is regarded also as a member of the German Romantics. 26 Doak, Kevin Michael. Dreams of Difference: The Japan Romantic School and the Crisis of Modernity. Univ of California Press, 1994, xxxiv. 27 The founding members of the Japan Romantic School were Yojuro Yasuda, Katsuichiro Kamei, Takao Nakatani, Eijiro Nakajima, Jinbo Kotaro, and Takashi Ogata.

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the Japan Romantic School was to outline “an agenda for ‘plundering’ history in order to produce a cultural difference based in a large part on the argument of the German romantics” (Doak xxxv). The Japanese romantics viewed the German romantics as heroic fighters, who fought against foreign cultural domination, and strove to attain new heights of artistic and cultural achievement. Wagner gained supporters by “building his own theater in Bayreuth [,] … took the Romantic idea of genius –of the artist as a culture hero- further than any other artist in the nineteenth century.”28 His support also rose

“partly from his idea of the union of arts, or the Gesamtkunstwerk (Large and Weber 22).

To continue the reception of Wagnerism, it is vital to point that unlike its

European counterparts, Wagnerism did not enter Japan with the accompanying musical experiences, which were not fully realized until early 1940s. But in 1887 and 1893, military bands did play excerpts from Tannhäuser and Lohengrin at the Japanese music- training pavilion (Doak 26). Thus, Japanese Wagnerism, like in Europe, was entangled in the philosophies of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. The influence of the latter began in

Japan with essays written and disseminated while Nietzsche was still alive during the last decade of the nineteenth century. The widespread influence of Wagnerism was powered through the works from Anesaki Chōfū29, who was a translator of Schopenhauer and

Nietzsche. At the age of only 24, Anesaki was the first scholar to expose Wagner to

Japanese readers with his article “Gakugerikiron über Musikdramen Wagners” in 1897 for the leading Japanese literature magazine Taiyõ (Sun). In 1902, under his literary name

28 Edited by David Large and William Weber, Introduction in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics,15. 29 In the article title “Wagner-Boom in Meiji-Japan”, Toru Takenaka identifies Anesaki Chofu as a leading Wagnerian and states that Chofu asserted that Japanese intellectuals, feverish enthusiastic of Richard Wagner during the fin-de-siècle, were primarily concerned with Wagner’s ideology and his political critique.

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Chōfū, he wrote an open letter on the relationship among the thoughts of Schopenhauer,

Wagner and Nietzsche regarding the topic of will. Anesaki made it clear that he considered the early Wagnerian Nietzsche to be the best one of the three thinkers.

Wagnerism arrived predominantly through Wagner’s prose works and writings about Wagner from Nietzsche. In fact, historian scholar Toru Takenaka states that during the turn of the last century, there was a Wagner-Boom, impacting Japanese intellectual elite, which was “ein Phänomen, dessen Bedeutung kaum direkt musikalische Ursachen besaß ” (14). Thus the absence of Wagner’s opera during the inception of Wagnerism in

Japan did not limit the impact of Wagner’s works. His ideas were used to invoke a nationalistic ideology, which during the Meiji period was deconstructed by

Westernization and modernity. The Wagner-Boom even became a “Werkzeug emanzipatorischer Bestrebungen” (Takenaka 29). The social disenchantment during the

Meiji period is resembled in Kadono’s work, and Kadono draws from the German

Romanticism via Richard Wagner to guide adolescence in search of their role in contemporary Japanese society.

2. The Boogiepop Series

What began as a “light novel,” Kouhei Kadono’s Boogiepop soon became a series of successful novels, manga, anime, and even a live action film due to its popularity. A

“light novel” is a genre of book that is growing in popularity not only in Japan, but also in the USA. A firm definition of “light novel” does not exist, although in general the term refers to a new form of prose fiction geared toward teens, young adults, and avid manga readers. The light novel is manga-like in form and its content is typically easy to follow.

Light novels are pocket-sized and are short, containing approximately 200-300 pages

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each. They are low-priced paperbacks, which contributes in part to their high sales. The

Boogiepop series is credited with having single-handedly contributed to the popularity of the light novels in Japanese Literature.30 Since 2006, there have been 14 novels printed in the series. In the next section, I will focus on two of the Boogiepop series in form of light novels, Boogiepop and Others, the first novel from the Series, published in English translation in 2006, and Boogiepop at Dawn, published in English translation in 2008.

3. Boogiepop and Others

In Kadono’s Boogiepop and Others, the theme of social disenchantment is the backdrop of the story’s events. Set in modern Japan, the characters in Kadono’s novel are either social outcasts or feel disconnected from society. The main protagonist Boogiepop appears as a hero in Boogiepop and Others, attempting to save characters in need or who need to be rescued. They either have to be rescued from their lack of belonging to society or from the enemy of society, in this case, an entity planning to destroy mankind.

Boogiepop is an “Angel of Death,” referred to in Japanese as a Shinigami—an urban legend known among children and teenagers. In the novel, Boogiepop’s stories are mysterious in nature and are kept secret from boys. Boogiepop is a myth known mostly to teenage girls, who, according to the novel, tend to romanticize the concept of the being

Boogiepop. The narrative structure of this novel is nonlinear in time and only fragmented narratives complete the stories. These fragmented narratives are fundamentally transcultural and display the German Romanticism by harmonizing to complete the story.

30 “With over 2 million books in print, Boogiepop first made headlines in 1997 when Kouhei Kadono's Boogiepop and Others won first place in the Media Works-sponsored Dengeki Game Novel Contest. With the novel's official release in February 1998, the book single-handedly ignited the "light novel" trend in Japanese literature.”

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Events and the experiences through several characters’ eyes make up the story of

Boogiepop and Others.

The author Kadono uses teenagers as narrators to illustrate the social disconnection of members in a society. For example, the first experience with Boogiepop is told through Keiji Takeda. He is a student in his final year of high school, who feels disconnected from his peers due to his career choice. Unlike his classmates and his girlfriend Touka Miyashita, who are planning to attend college, he decides to pursue a career in trade school and thus will enter the work force sooner than his peers. Kadono uses Keiji to begin the story because Keiji embodies the state of confusion young adolescents encounter before entering adulthood. Kadono also displays the stage of confusion because it resembles the state during the Meiji period in Japan, when the reception of Wagner’s works began. The transculturation begins with Keiji narration to set the backdrop of Wagner’s work Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, since it is Keiji who first recounts about Boogiepop. Kadono establishes the relationship between Boogiepop and Keiji by having Boogiepop31 take over Touka’s body and he only appears as

Boogiepop when danger arises or threat to human demands his presents. Having a dual purpose for Touka shapes the story. If Boogiepop would appear as an additional and unknown character, the relationship between Boogiepop and the other protagonists would be not personal. Since Boogiepop appears in the body of Touka, whom the protagonist knows or is at least familiar with, the personal relationship bonds their experiences while they grapple to meet societal demands.

31 Boogiepop appears in a female body but it is repeatedly stated that the gender of Boogiepop is unclear. For the purpose of my discussion, I use the English masculine pronoun when referring to Boogiepop, which corresponds to the English translation of the Boogiepop Series.

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Even though Keiji is socially disconnected to his peers, Kadono did establish a relationship between him and the character Boogiepop. And it is due to his personal relationship with Touka, that Keiji becomes acquainted with Boogiepop. This relationship is necessary to connect the story between Keiji and Boogiepop’s first meeting. Keiji was waiting for his girlfriend when he encountered Boogiepop for the first time. Boogiepop is helping a desperate being in need, Echo, an alien from outer space who has the appearance of a human. Kadono points to the drastic changes in modern

Japanese society, which are not apparent to its members. Kadono introduces an outsider, an alien, to judge whether Earth needs to be destroyed or is worth saving. Echo’s appearance mirrors an outcast, whose face is covered in blood and wears torn clothing.

His behavior is disoriented and he mumbles nonsense, which resembled “a crazy drug addict” (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others 28). Keiji is confused since he sees his girlfriend, Touka, dressed in a rather unusual outfit, speaking with Echo. Kadono uses her appearance to distinguish between Touka and Boogiepop. The outfit is out of her normal character and suits to a person who is mysterious, dark, and rebellious: she is wearing a black cape with a collar that wraps around like a coat and a black hat that looks like a shrunken pipe. On the hat and cape are bits of metal, resembling rivets, which give off the impression of armor (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others 28). With Boogiepop’s outfit,

Kadono makes an initial connection with Boogiepop and Hans Sachs from the

Meistersinger von Nürnberg. The cape resembles the overcoat worn by the character

Hans Sachs in the first Bayreuth cast. Theodor Reichman as Hans Sachs wore a black overcoat with bits of metal resembling rivets.32 Kadono ensures that there is a clear visual

32 Opera Guide Series Editor: Nicholas John, The Meistersingers of Nuremberg Die Meistersinger von

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differentiation between Touka and Boogiepop. Touka’s face is pale white and her black lipstick matches her outfit. Echo and Touka make up an image of outsiders directing their gaze on society. Since Touka is Keiji’s girlfriend, he recognizes her, but she is in

Boogiepop-mode while she shouts to the onlookers who did nothing to help Echo, despite his apparent need of help. She has a boyish voice, hence the gender of Boogiepop becomes obscure. Kadono’s Boogiepop is genderless, although Boogiepop takes form in a female body. This scene is rather intriguing, since Boogiepop is lecturing in front of a mass of people.

The cloaked figure’s face snapped up and glared around at us. It was clear

that he was seething with anger. “Do you think to do nothing when you

see a fellow human crying?!” he suddenly shouted, loud and angry, in a

clear, boyish soprano voice. “Is this what the advancement of civilization

has lead to?! Urban life weeding out and killing the weak?! It’s

appalling!” The crowd concluded that he was simply another loony and

avoided eye contact and quickly dispersing. (Kadono, Boogiepop and

Others 29).

Boogiepop criticizes mankind for being rather “inhumane” and not helping people in need, despite their advancement. By pointing to “urban life” and “weeding out and killing weak,” he points to the results of industrialization and how the evolution has desensitized people. The questions Boogiepop asks to the surrounding people about what they have done for humanity, and if civilization has led to ignoring the needs of the underprivileged, I argue, are directed to the readers. The scene quoted above is narrated

Nürenberg, 1983, 8.

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in first person by Keiji, but the pronoun “us” includes not just Keiji but also the readers.

As an effective pedagogical tool to address contemporary national ideologies to young

Japanese citizens, the text has to directly address them but also connect to their environment. Thus this scene is set in their current environment to link the readers but also reveals an opera stage aspect, where Boogiepop, as the main actor screams out not just in a “highest” voice, but rather in a “soprano”, a voice of a classical female highest vocal range which is also “boyish”. Boogiepop is being ignored by the masses and they even avoid eye contact to for two reasons: one, in order to avoid feeling guilty for not helping the needy and two to avoid being asked to help. The mass displays the typical and even acceptable societal behavior, which is to assemble around to satisfy their voyeuristic curiosity and then quickly disband to distance themselves from the situation.

Kadono uses Boogiepop to critique this acceptable behavior by first drawing attention to this situation and then using Boogiepop to react compassionately to help the one in need and to lead by example.

This first encounter of Boogiepop with Keiji is the beginning of Kadono pointing to the advancement of civilization and the result of it. This is also the first time where

Boogiepop acts as Hans Sachs, who is “the subtlest and most complicated character”33 of

Wagner’s work. He uses Boogiepop to guide the protagonist and along the readers to critically evaluate the current state of their society. Thus he initiates the stage for his work to be used an effective pedagogical tool. For example, Boogiepop reprimanded the mass for their lack of compassion and their unwillingness to help one in need. This dialogue resembles where Wagner’s Sachs where he “makes Sachs argue wryly about the

33 John Warrack, Richard Wagner Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, 1994, 7.

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coming decline of poetry” just as Kadono makes Boogiepop argue with the mass about the decline of society (Warrack 7). Kadono continues to use Boogiepop in the role of

Hans Sachs in Wagner’s Meistersinger in the following meetings between Boogiepop and

Keiji. The next day, Keiji and Touka agree to meet up after school. But instead of Touka,

Keiji encounters Touka in Boogiepop-mode. Keiji confronts him to inquire who he really is. Boogiepop simply explains that he is a form of a split personality, which confirms my claim that he acts as Hans Sachs. Boogiepop has surfaced due to a need of a master, whose duty it is to educate young adolescent, but also to protect them. Only when

Boogiepop detects adversity approaching threating the adolescent, does he float up out of

Touka. Boogiepop has manifested in a teenage female body and it has to be a female body for his surfacing, because only a female body can give birth---thus allowing such a being to become possible. Keiji rejects the existence, or the role of Boogiepop, since admitting or acknowledging Boogiepop means a further disconnect from members in his world. He, unlike his classmates, is not in preparation of taking the college entrance exam, and feels already left out. This feeling would only deepen to separate him from society if Keiji would in fact believe in the existence of Boogiepop. He holds to the one connection that gives him stability: his girlfriend Touka. He even suggests that Touka has multiple personalities, which Boogiepop rejects, since he has no autonomy, only the duty to save humankind. Boogiepop appears genderless, even though, it is occupying a female body. Japanese male pronouns are usually used to refer to Boogiepop, but it is revealed repeatedly that Boogiepop has Touka’s female face and the voice and behavior of a male.

It is important to point out that this type of gender confusion is a common convention in

Japanese literature throughout history, but in this story, I regard the genderless as a key

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feature of Boogiepop. As already mentioned, Boogiepop acts as Hans Sachs and being genderless frees him/her to assume any gender specific role.

Kadono creates a development of a close relationship between Keiji and

Boogiepop during routine meetings, when Keiji joins Boogiepop on the school rooftop to

“keep watch” over the school and city. During the meetings, they discuss different topics, and in one of those meetings, Boogiepop also reveals the role of Keiji in society. Just as

Kadono uses Boogiepop to embody Hans Sachs, he uses Keiji to symbolize the romantic, as the title of this chapter, where Keiji appears, validates this: “Chapter One: The

Romantic Warrior” Boogiepop, as the guide then identifies Keiji’s role and also states the defect of the society (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others Contents).

When you have no dream, when you can’t imagine a future, that means

something in this world is flawed. Unfortunately, it is not I who will battle

that flaw, but you and Miyashita Touka. (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others

53)

Just after revealing that Keiji is a romantic, Boogiepop also assigns the future task to him and by admitting that he is not the one who will battle that flaw, but rather Keiji and

Touka, thus he acknowledges his own limitation as a teacher. In the plasmatic stage,

Boogiepop has only the will to fight enemies; his time is rather limited. But he has the chance to teach to Keiji about the flaw in the world that the future generation can overcome. Kadono creates an ideal leader in Boogiepop, who inspires Keiji and makes him want to follow him, even though Keiji finds it impossible to think of this self- described defender of the world as anything but a clown, when considered only based on his outer appearance. Kadono critiques the societal view of judging one based on outer

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appearance, such as clothing, and allows space for reevaluation of the reader’s view with

Boogiepop as an example. Kadono provides also a reevaluation and societal view of

Boogiepop becomes irrelevant to Keiji and his deep admiration for Boogiepop’s words and even desire of wanting to be like him connects Keiji to his own believes. This reveals that Keiji was disconnected to the society he wanted to belong but also disconnect to his own believe. Boogiepop thus inspires Takeda to evaluate aspects of society and gives him the confidence that Takeda, as a romantic with a dream, can fix the flaw of the world.

The romantic notion is a vital component in this dialogue since Boogiepop as Wagner’s

Sachs is the embodiment of German Romanticism.

Grimm’s book, his first published work, contributed an idealized version

of Mastersong, Nuremberg and Hans Sachs to the newly aroused delight in

the German past shared by the first generation of Romantics. Among them

was E.T.A. Hoffmann, whose works Wagner read eagerly. (Warrack 19)

Kadono uses the meetings between Keiji and Boogiepop to display the fragmented pieces of the romantic ideology of Wagner. His romantic ideology was impacted by musical idealism, which during the time when Wagner launched his musical career in 1830s, was established. Wagner’s idealism gained support partly from his idea of the union of the arts Gesamtkustwerk, which echoed the German Romantic ideals. Wagner’s ideology for a change originated from the opera but a need of change also reflected on the society, after all, society played a vital role in opera and social activities and gatherings frequently were an essential part of the opera scenes.34 Thus Wagnerism “came to be taken seriously

34 According to William Weber, during the eighteenth-century, upper-class citizens went to opera to socialize for political purpose, for updated social events or for courting, but also to escape their own residence.

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as a basis upon which to reform not only art but the entire social order.”35 The conversations and interactions between Keiji and Boogiepop are glimpses of social activities in need of changes. This began with their first encounter, when Boogiepop shouts and criticizes the crowd for ignoring one in need, and continues in their tête-à- têtes.

4. The Intertextuality between Kadono and Wagner

In one of such meeting, Kadono clearly establishes a direct connection between

Wagner’s Meistersinger von Nürnberg and his work. In the presence of Keiji, Boogiepop whistles a song. After Boogiepop finishes whistling, Keiji asks him the name of the song.

He finished whistling and I applauded.

[Keiji]“You’re good. What song is that?”

[Boogiepop]“Overture to the first act of ‘Die Meistersinger von

Nürnberg”’

[Keiji] “Of what?”

[Boogiepop] “The most flamboyant piece this noisily, romantic, old

composer Wagner ever wrote.”

[Keiji]“Classical? Hunh. Thought it was rock...”

[Boogiepop]“You’d have preferred ‘Atom Heart Mother’? I tend to like

the old music,” he [Boogiepop] said, narrowing one eye.36

This is the first time Boogiepop whistles the overture to Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg which reflects the impact of Wagner in Kadono’s work. Boogiepop performs this song in

35 David C. Large, “Wagner’s Bayreuth Disciples”, in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics, edited by David C. Large and William Weber (1984), 72. 36 Kadono, Boogiepop and Others, 56. Names in brackets were added to separate the speakers, which were not in the original text.

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front of an audience to draw attention and is rewarded for his performance with applause.

The Keiji’s inquiry following the announcement of the name of the song is the purpose of this performance and reason for stating the German title and the German composer.

Throughout Kadono’s work, strands of Wagnerian thoughts maintain their potency and with the performance of Wagner’s Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, the influence of

Wagnerism is confirmed. And I claim the reason why particularly the overture of Die

Meistersinger von Nürnberg was performed is based on scholar Kevin Karnes’ suggestion. He states that Wagner’s influence emanated primarily from his works as a composer, such as those late music dramas—particularly Die Meistersinger von

Nürnberg—which “embodied and even literally enacted essential facets of his unique and largely coherent philosophical worldview.”37 Kadono uses Boogiepop to share Wagner’s worldview; hence he whistles one of Wagner’s most influential musical dramas.

According to Karnes, “it is now common, in the literature on Die Meistersinger, to identify the character of Hans Sachs as an ideal Schopenhauerian man;” therefore, I claim that Boogiepop represents Hans Sachs, especially when considering Sachs’ “…conviction that self-sacrifice for the benefit of others lies at the heart of the truly ethical act” (Karnes

668). Boogiepop performs self-sacrificial act when he disappears despite his desire to maintain his presence, since his very existence means that humanity is in danger.

The fact that Boogiepop states specifically that he whistled the “overture to the first act of the Meistersinger von Nürnberg” is not only vital to this analysis but clearly establishes the connection to the central theme of the opera and Kadono’s work (Kadono

56).

37 Kevin C. Karnes, "Wagner, Klimt, and the Metaphysics of Creativity in Fin-de-siècle Vienna." Journal of the American Musicological Society 62, no. 3 (2009): 648.

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The Prelude represents an elaborate and comprehensive musical summary

of the entire opera: it introduces a perfectly proportioned detail of all the

opera’s ideas, as well as its initial dramatic and philosophic conceptions; it

a flood of richly melodic music of structural complexity. Almost a century

and a half after its first performance, the Prelude to The Mastersingers

remains a glorious and unique wonder of the musical world. It represents a

triumph of the Romantic school of composition, as well as Wagner’s

particular “music of the future,” which highlights the narrative and

descriptive power of the musical language. (Fischer 5)

The melodic musical of structural complexity in the prelude is referred to the musical arrangement, which during its inception was a new concept: it begins with a traditional arrangement of conflict and moves to diffuse this conflict with a modernized musical arrangement. This musical themed notion of conflict and resolution is reenacted in the verbal exchange of dialogues between Boogiepop and Keiji and this theme reappears again in the following chapters, when Boogiepop encounters other protagonists. It is not by chance that Boogiepop whistles this “triumph of the Romantic school of composition” written over one hundred years ago (Fischer 5). His act of whistling the prelude brings forth the importance of Wagner’s music but also questioning why Wagner was chosen.

Keiji’s reply answers this question, since he thought that this melody was modern. This validates that Wagner’s music was and is the music of the future. Wagner’s prelude is in itself is the prelude of the occurrence in the later chapter, when Niitoki Kei is running for her life towards this music.

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5. Boogiepop’s Relationship with Keiji

Having established a relationship with Keiji and even finding another purpose for his being besides eliminating enemies of human threat, were the catalysis for

Boogiepop’s longing to remain in the world. Regardless of his own wishes, Boogiepop not only knew that he had to leave but did this as an act of self-sacrifice for the greater good for humanity.

“That’s the way I’m made. When the danger is gone, I disappear. Like

bubbles.” “The danger...weren’t you going to save the world? It hasn’t

been saved at all.” “But my job is finished. What you mean by ‘save’ is

not my job,” he said, shaking his head quietly. “But you said you were

going to fight the devil that lives in this school!” “I did. I’m not the one

that killed it, though...” My mouth flapped wordlessly. I couldn’t think of

anything else to say. (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others 60)

As Boogiepop told Keiji before, he is like a bubble. Now that his job is over, he will vanish, meaning that society does not need him anymore. The author uses Keiji as a spokesperson to interject that the world has not been saved; although Boogiepop insists that his job has been completed which points to the differences of the definition of

“save”. Kadono uses Boogiepop as a phantasmal being to get rid of the danger that threatens the humankind, like the man-eater, and it is the job of a human like Keiji to make his contribution to “save” this world. By assigning Boogiepop the role of an old master Hans Sachs, who provides the education and guidance the adolescents need to change society, Kadono points to the ideology as an essential social element of producing a desired social order. Boogiepop has multiple function and he can rid of any danger that

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might hinder the development of shared sense of civic duty, just as he can lecture people about how humanity has not progressed, as he did while helping Echo. Kadono also ensure that Boogiepop’s role is that of a teacher or aid by mentioning that he is not the one who killed the devil; in fact, it was a skilled human who killed it. Boogiepop does provide the means to eliminate the threat and keeps the world safe from its enemies but it is up to members of the next generation to induce their desired social change.

Kadono emphasis the relationship between Keiji and Boogiepop and makes Keiji realize that he has developed feelings for Boogiepop, not just because Boogiepop was in his girlfriend’s body, but also because he could talk to and connect to him. Keiji even pleads with him not to go, because he wants to keep meeting him and claims that

Boogiepop is the only friend he has.

“You are simply not connecting with the world around you right now.” I

stopped breathing. “Miyashita Touka’s worried about you too. Don’t let

yourself think you’re the only one who’s worried.” “But...but what about

you? If you vanished without anyone wiser, doesn’t that make you sad?”

“You’re wiser, aren’t you?” “But I’m ...” “I’m afraid you and Miyashita

Touka have your job to do, just as I have my duty. You two have to make

your own world. You don’t have time to waste belittling yourself,”

Boogiepop said curtly. (Kadono, Boogiepop and Others 61)

Boogiepop is again the spokesperson to explain to Keiji that he is not connecting with the world or his society at the moment; hence Keiji feels that Boogiepop is his only friend.

And once again, Boogiepop lectures Keiji to remind him that he has also a job to do. This lecture provides Keiji the confidence to believe in himself. Furthermore, Boogiepop

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replies to the question about nobody having become wiser by pointing out that Keiji has become wiser. This implies that Boogiepop has made a difference and will not vanish without having made one person wiser. Boogiepop also includes Touka, adding that she and Keiji have to make their own world together, a world to which they have contributed their dreams and in which they can begin to fix the flaws of the world. With Boogiepop’s explanation, Kadono draws the lines and divides the roles: Boogiepop has the role to fight against foreign domination, such as the man-eater; Keiji and Touka are to strive to attain new heights of artistic and cultural achievement. It is Boogiepop’s parting direction to Keiji to connect with Touka, that suggests both of them are at a higher level and would create “biological children of a couple of ‘creative’ individuals, therefore, would constitute not merely another, but even a ‘superior’, generation”( Jovanoski 75). After providing words of instruction, Boogiepop vanishes like a bubble popped by the wind.

6. Farewell between Boogiepop and Keiji

To ensure that Boogiepop has in fact disappeared and thus the danger, the author has Keiji meet up with Touka immediately after his parting words. There were no visual indications of Boogiepop nor did Touka display any mannerism of Boogiepop even as

Keiji desperately searched for ways to find Boogiepop in her. The disappearance of

Boogiepop is of importance because in Keiji’s narration, Kadono ensured that he never encountered the man-eater, thus never revealing to Keiji who or what the danger of humankind was or even if there was one. The author keeps Keiji in the dark but informs the readers thus the readers become the all-known participant of the story. Since Keiji is not informed, he is freed to speculate about the danger. So after Touka admits to having

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feelings of anxiety about her future, Keiji conjectures whether the threat was in fact the source of her anxiety, and if that anxiety also caused Boogiepop to manifest himself in her. Keiji contemplates even the suggestions that he is the one who defeated the devil, since Boogiepop admitted that he himself did not kill it, but rather a human. Keiji’s speculation invites the readers to engage and also dispute his assumption, since Kadono revealed to the readers who and what the threat was.

I claim that the absence of Keiji’s meeting with the man-eater was done due for the following reason. One, the narration is from one point of view; that of Keiji’s and is a fragmented narrative that displays the connection to the German Romanticism of fragmented poesy. Furthermore, fragmented narratives from protagonists make up the story and since there are fragmented pieces, they can disclose or withhold information, thus allowing the readers to actively engage in the discourse. Two, since Keiji never met the threat to humankind, he can speculate and assume that it can be anything to include the doubts and fear of the future. Kadono does, however, exercise authorial intrusion by allowing Keiji to resolve his speculation by directing him to his purpose. When Keiji does not find his answers, he realizes that Touka’s smile is not something that Boogiepop was able to produce. He then admits that it was his and Touka’s job to smile—a smile that Boogiepop was incapable of producing because he was a phantasm, fleeting like a bubble, and also because it was not Boogiepop’s job to eliminate the flaws of this world.

Boogiepop had the role of Hans Sachs—to educate Keiji about the world’s flaw.

Boogiepop also had the role of being the Hans Sachs in order to protect the world from the enemies, thus creating a space for Keiji to consider his role in the society.

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7. Relationship between Boogiepop and Niitoki

Kadono ends the story with the narration through the eyes of Kei Niitoki, and it contains the detailed battle in which Boogiepop fights against a man-eater, called

Manticore. Kadono uses the creature Manticore that was cloned from the alien Echo as the danger of humankind. I claim that this is a reflection of Meiji period, when American fleets threatened Japan to open its borders. Furthermore, this displays the Westernization period of Japan, when Japan blindly adopted everything German, which was “highly contagious and finally near fatal disease,”38 especially since Kadono mentions that the

Manticore is considered a failed experiment due to its dependency on eating humans for survival. Kadono uses Manticore, a cloned version of an alien, created by human that becomes a threat to human, thus displaying that humankind themselves created its own threat. In Kadono’s story, the Japanese, who blindly cloned an alien and failed, thus creating their own danger, were just like the Japanese, who created their own threat during the Meiji period when blindly acculturating anything German.

Kadono continues to use teenagers, who are outsiders of society to narrate the fragmented story. Kei Niitoki is the president of the high school’s Discipline Committee and has the role to report to the teacher when disciplinary actions are required, which distances her from her peers. She becomes involved in the battle due to her position as the president, but also because of her natural drive to solve puzzles. Kadono also assigns an accomplice to Manticore, named Saotome Masami, a male high school student.

Masami is also an outsider and is willing to help Manticore to consume human for their ideology, which is to take control of the world. To connect Manticore to society, Kadono

38 Bernd Martin, “The German Role in the Modernization of Japan- The Pitfall of Blind Acculturation”, 1990, 78.

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assigns the creature not only to consume humans as a food source, but also to devour the victims and takes over their bodies. By having the Manticore assume the body of its latest victim, Manticore is able to interact with its surroundings and remain incognito. This is effective, since not everyone is aware of the threat and only selected ones know of its existence.

Kadono also uses the teenagers to symbolize the aftermath of being disconnected from society. Saotome, who is not only an accomplice but is also in love with Manticore, provides victims. His love for Manticore extends to offering human as a food source and he is easily able to commit such an act because he has no connection to social ideals.

After school, Saotome and Tanaka Shiro are looking for Tanaka’s missing girlfriend,

Kamikishiro Naoko, when Niitoki offers to help them. Saotome and Tanaka want to question Kirima Nagi, known as the Fire Witch, a nickname given her due to her fearlessness and fighting skills. The coming battle involves Kirima, since she was getting close to capturing Manticore. Saotome sets a trap for her, and since she was originally working with Echo to hunt down Manticore, the trap was also meant for Echo.

Earlier, Echo was wounded by Saotome and by Manticore, and was unable to fight back. Kirima, who has been protecting Echo and fellow students from Manticore, was also fatally wounded and assumed dead by her would-be killer. Kiitoki was holding onto Echo when she was shouting that even if she and Echo were to die then, there would be others who would hunt for Manticore and Saotome—others whom she called not human but devils, a distinction that Kirima also makes. Echo, still barely conscious, was listening to Kiitoki and reflected on the humans he had encountered. As already mentioned, his mission was to judge whether the human race had to be destroyed or

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saved. Echo met humans who captured him and vigorously studied him because he was different. This caused him to be studied and examined. It was those humans who cloned his cells to create a superior human who ended up creating Manticore. Echo was protected by Kirima and Kamikishiro, and he was saved by the words of Boogiepop. He had to make a choice and judge the human race, and once he reached a conclusion, he turned into a light that beamed up to the sky. As he turned into a light message, he aimed himself toward Manticore, so that he would destroy her, but in the last minute, Saotome pushed Manticore aside, killing himself and only wounding Manticore. Furious about losing her accomplice and looking for revenge, Manticore became filled with murderous intent toward Kiitoki. Kiitoki started to run away when she heard a melody.

I could hear a melody coming through the bushes in front of me-an

impossible, unnatural melody. Someone was whistling. Whistling a tune

that should never be whistled, Wagner’s “Die Meistersinger von

Nurnberg.” Unnatural or not, at that moment I had no other straws to grasp

at. I ran for my life towards that sound.... The whistling stopped. (Kadono

Boogiepop and Others 210)

Before entering the last battle scene, Boogiepop’s whistle makes his arrival known. He enters the battle while whistling the overture from Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. The majestic entrance scene of the Meistersingers becomes visible as Boogiepop appears. I argue that he must set the scene by whistling Wagner’s overture in order to appear not only as Boogiepop, but also as Hans Sachs. There can be no other underlining reason for this than the preparation and setting of the scene for the arrival of the grand master or hero. Kiitoki states that this is a tune that should never be whistled, but she does not state

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why. In fact, Wagner never intended his music to be whistled, but instead be played on a stage as a Gesamtkunstwerk. The fact that Kiitoki recognized the music and identified it while her life was in danger reveals the significance of Wagner’s music in this scene. It is questionable why Kiitoki claims that the music is impossible and unnatural, but given the circumstance she faces—running away from Manticore, who just announced Kiitoki’s death and was enraged with a need for revenge—one explanation would be that she was trying to solve a puzzle. Kiitoki’s nature is to resolve puzzles, which is the reason why she becomes involved in the battle in the first place. Therefore, the rational explanation is that it was simply impossible for Kiitoki to hear that tune whistled at night, which would be the answer to the puzzle. The unnatural part of this scene is the appearance of Hans

Sachs whistling an epic German overture. Once she “solves” the puzzle, Kiitoki realizes that it did not matter how unusual the whistling was; she ran toward the sound, but she knew the composer and the title of the work, meaning that she knew or was aquatinted with the content of Wagner’s story. This leads to the conclusion that she had nothing to fear; she was running for her life toward the Meistersinger, the above-average singers above- average human and she ended up in front of Boogiepop. Boogiepop had set a trap for Manticore, and Kiitoki was leading Manticore into the trap as she ran toward the music. Kiitoki was shocked to see Boogiepop’s figure, dressed in a cape with a pipe hat.

She recognized the face as that of her classmate Miyashita. When she calls out to

Miyashita by name, Miyashita replies in a boy’s voice, “Currently, I am Boogiepop”

(212). While fighting Manticore, Boogiepop reveals something interesting:

“You call yourself the Manticore?” Boogiepop said quietly. “You are

much stronger than a human, but I can make free use of the strength that

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humans unconsciously keep in reserve to avoid exceeding the limits of

their flesh. Since I am only borrowing this body.”(Kadono Boogiepop and

Others 212)

Boogiepop discloses that Manticore is stronger than a human, but he also reveals that

Boogiepop is much stronger than Manticore due to his ability to tap into reserved human strength. This displays Boogiepop’s knowledge of human bodies and his full awareness of the extent of human strength. Boogiepop may access that strength based on the fact that he is only ‘“borrowing” the body in which he manifests. The question then is, how he is able to access that strength unconsciously reserved in a human. Boogiepop exposed to

Takeda that Miyashita does not remember the times when Boogiepop borrows her body, hence her consciousness is unaware of the use of strength. Her unconsciousness is also unaware of the strength being used, otherwise her unconsciousness would limit the strength used by Boogiepop to avoid him exceeding the limits of the flesh. Boogiepop is able to make use of all the strength in Miyashita’s body and even uses abilities of which she is not aware she has, such as whistling. This leads to the conclusion that when

Boogiepop awakens in an average human body, he can not only take over the body, but use it to maximum capability and step over average human boundaries.

After the battle is over and Manticore had been killed by Tanaka with the help of

Boogiepop, without whom the battle would not have been successful, Boogiepop carries on a conversation with Nagi. The conversation makes it sound as if they had known each other for years. Boogiepop states that it was Nagi’s action that allowed him to uncover the nature of the danger, hence it was due to Nagi that Boogiepop was able to appear and make clear his duty to eliminate the danger. This explains the nature of Boogiepop’s

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appearance in Miyashita and why he automatically floats to the surface to complete his duty.

Boogiepop said the following to Niitoki before disappearing like the wind.

“Niitoki Kei - you certainly do have a strong will. It’s because of people

like you that the world manages to remain a halfway decent place. In the

world’s stead, I thank you.” It was like a speech from a play. I had no idea

what it meant. (Kadono Boogiepop and Others 215)

Once again, Boogiepop steps into the role of Hans Sachs. And like Hans Sachs,

Boogiepop preaches to Niitoki and explains that it is because of people like her that the world is still a decent place; he even thanks her on behalf of the world. In the style of

Hans Sachs, Boogiepop gives Niitoki a gift—the gift of an appreciation for having a strong will. Boogiepop acknowledges Niitoki’s will, a will to power, which is what Hans

Sachs wanted to teach the humans. Niitoki says that she does not know what he means, but that she just survived an attack from her classmate and Manticore. She displays bravery and a strong will for survival. She even stands up for mankind when her life is in danger and claims that others like Nagi will hunt down Manticore. Niitoki is also the one who leads Manticore to Boogiepop’s trap. Intriguingly, Boogiepop does not thank the archer who helped kill Manticore, only Niitoki, who displays not only bravery but also determination to stand up for humanity amid the will to survive. Boogiepop’s reward, his thanks, is limited to only those who can demonstrate accomplishments of great and enduring worth, such as those that Niitoki demonstrated.

Wagner’s reception in Japan began during the turn of the century, when Japan was in the state of Westernization and Modernity. In this discourse between Kadono’s

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Boogiepop and Wagner’s Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, I presented Boogiepop as representative of Hans Sachs. Boogiepop teaches by leading as an example of a

Meistersinger and as Hans Sachs not only teaches social values, such as the meaning of human kindness, but he himself is actually a manifestation of that teaching. Boogiepop chooses the students who are best suited for his teachings. For example, Boogiepop chooses to teach Keiji on the rooftop while he is watching for the enemy. On the rooftop, one has a clear view of the city and the world. Boogiepop reveals Takeda’s own character that he himself is not aware of. Takeda is a romantic being with a dream, who has the task of being the chosen one who will fix the world. Boogiepop gives him the courage he needs in order to fulfill his duty. Later on, with Niitoki, Boogiepop simply acknowledges her strong will and thanks her on behalf of the world. Boogiepop appears at the overture of Wagner’s Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg; just like the mastersingers entering the scene in Wagner’s text, so appears Boogiepop. The literary influence of Wagner’s Die

Meistersinger von Nürnberg in Kouhei’s Boogiepop is evident in the characteristics of

Boogiepop presenting himself as Hans Sachs while appearing with the overture or whistling the overture. The teaching of ideology to produce essential social elements is same to each of his pupil, but the relationship among the pupil is different depending on the person Boogiepop is teaching. In the case of Hans Sachs, he only teaches one pupil, the young Werther, but Sachs does teach him the ideology of the tradition of

Meistersinger, thus the numbers of the pupils differ from Boogiepop, the teaching remains the same.

According to a long standing tradition of literary of Euro-American criticism, text are not bounded by authorial intent, especially since Kadono never explicitly refers to or

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draws parallels to Hans Sachs the meaning of Boogiepop lies beyond its author’s intent and is “to be constituted by an active reading” (Ansell-Perason, 313) The impact and the influence of German literature and music are mirrored in Kadono’s work to display a transculturation. Throughout the fragmented narrations, the relationship between Meiji period and contemporary settings are displayed and Kadono uses authorial intervention when needed to guide the readers but also allowing them to reevaluate social conventions.

To continue the influence of German Romanticism in Japan, I juxtaposed

Wagner’s works to Kadono’s light novel. I argued that Wagner’s reception influenced

Kadono’s fictional character Boogiepop, who resembles the Meistersinger Hans Sachs.

Kadono quotes Wagner’s title “Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg” to connect to the Meiji period, when Japanese scholars admired Wagner’s national ideology. He also establishes clear connection between the scholars during the Meiji period with the teenagers today by using manga in text form, the light novel. Furthermore, by using a light novel, which is also a transitional genre that transitions readers from manga to literature, Kadono effectively creates an educational medium to reintroduce Wagner’s national ideology in contemporary Japan. The reception of Wagner’s work during the Meiji period continued and even in modern Japan, the influence of his work is undisputable. Kadono’s protagonist Boogiepop whistles the overture to the Meistersinger von Nürnberg to announce his arrival before defeating enemies of mankind, thus keeping young adolescents safe to create a world with a common desired social order. The exploration of

German literature in East Asian literature continues in the next chapter, where Goethe’s

Faust meets a South Korean version of a female Faustine.

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CHAPTER FOUR

The Goethe’s Faust transculturation in a South Korean Manhwa The Tarot Café

With a reception history of more than ninety years in Korea, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Faust I has been the focus of a great deal of academic research, which has led to a corpus of research and to the founding of two major institutes, the Koreanische

Gesellschaft für Germanistik (1960) and the Koreanische Goethe-Gesellschaft (1982).

Goethe’s Faust I is regarded in South Korea as one of the greatest Western literary works, and passion for his works among the general reading public is highly visible, displayed as it is for instance in the prevalence of the name Lotte in South Korean commercial life.39 The Lotte Group, to take one example, is one of the top ten business conglomerates in South Korea, and its chairman, Kyuck-Ho Shin, decided to channel his admiration for Goethe into the branding of his merchandise, supermarket chain, and hotels.40 Since its opening in 1979, Hotel Lotte has not only become the largest and most sophisticated hotel in Seoul, but its name promotes a feeling of affectionate intimacy among its regular customers, who regard it as a home away from home (Home Away from Home 8). Even in recent years, Goethe’s Faust I has dominated German studies in

South Korea and has even been called the Bible of German literature,41 thus leading to a unidirectional export-import model of German cultural influence in Korea.

In the popular-culture sphere, however, the Korean graphic novel, manhwa, by

Sang-Sun Park, The Tarot Café,42 is indicative of a more complex intercultural encounter

39Wee-Gong Koh. Intermedialität und Kulturkomparatistik: Beiträge zur vergleichenden ost-westlichen Literatur- und Kunstforschung (Bern: Peter Lang, 2007), 125. 40 Business Korea, "Home Away from Home (Hotel Lotte in Seoul, Korea) (Special Report)”,1993, 8. 41 Hsia Adrian, Zur Rezeption von Goethes "Faust" in Ostasien (Bern: New York,1993), 1. 42Sang-Sun Park, The Tarot Café, Volume 7, trans. Soo-Kyung Kim (Los Angeles: Tokyopop, 2008).

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between a German text and South Korean reading culture in which the transcultural significance of Goethe is renegotiated.43 Sang-Sun Park is a South Korean manhwa artist, who “made her manga debut in 1997 with the prize-winning Broken Toy… she is also the incredibly accomplished illustrator of the popular TOKYOPOP manga series, Les

Bijoux” (Park, The Tarot Café, Vol 7 Cover). This chapter provides an analysis of how the ninety years of Goethe’s Faust I reception has penetrated Korean culture and how this reception became a vessel for the manhwa artist Sang-Sun Park to create a culturally mugukjeok44 (odorless space). This is a term referred to by the scholar Sun Jung and Park utilizes this less culturally-saturated domain to provide a discourse field removed from the hegemonic gender role discussion. In this close reading of Sang-Sun Park’s The Tarot

Café, I analyze a South Korean female representation of the Faust figure in light of transculturation while deconstructing the feminine norms in South Korea through her female protagonist Pamela.

According to the scholar Jonghyun Lee (2009), women’s social standing in South

Korea was confined by the neo-Confucian patriarchy to male authority beginning with their obedience to their husband’s family and kin members since the Chosun Dynasty

(1392-1910 C.E.).45 She states that women in contemporary South Korean society still have limited privileges, but Korean women learned how to resist the patriarchal norms of

43Durrani Osman, Faust: Icon of Modern Culture (Mountfield, East Sussex: Helm Information Ltd, 2004). The influence of Goethe’s Faust in the Japanese Manga has been explored in Yoko Riley’s article, “Faust through the Eyes of a Japanese Cartoonist”, which discusses the three Faust-based cartoon series published by Osamu Tezuka, was the most important and most influential artist of the Japanese Manga community 44 Jung Sun, Korean Masculinities and Transcultural Consumption Yonsama, Rain, Oldboy, K-Pop Idols (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2011), 3. He refers to mugukjeok as how popular cultural flows enable the mixing of particular cultural elements with globally popular cultural elements, which causes those particular cultural elements to become less culturally specific, thus displaying the transcultural hybridity. The term itself translates to “cultural odorlessness.” 45 Jonghyun Lee. "Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women," Affilia. 24, no. 2 (2009): 187.

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neo-Confucian ideology. Park’s protagonist Pamela embodies this resistance and displays the consequences of struggle to survive a world of male dominance. As an anthropologist of Korea, Laurel Kendall (2002) explains that contemporary Korean culture is undergoing a broad reorientation in gender identities as a process of Korean modernization. In Park’s manhwa, the traditional gender roles of males and females are placed in binary opposition to question their position in a globalizing Korean environment.

In this chapter, I will first present a brief reception history of Goethe’s work in

Korea to address the German literary impact of academic discussions dominated by male scholars. The second part analyzes Park’s critique of the traditional view of women in her text with the beginning of the neo-Confucian ideology during the Chosun Dynasty. In order to critique the established feminine norms in South Korea, the third part discusses how Park places Pamela in a transcultured space created through Goethe’s Faust I and re- designed paintings from Gustav Klimt. The last part investigates the male characters in

Park’s manhwa, who represent South Korean masculinity in the light of the concept kkonminam and modern Korean masculinity of seonbi. Kkonminam refers to the contemporary Korean masculinity, which is softened, but also feminized, in appearance and behavior. The term seonbi refers to a Confucian scholar-official of Choson period

(1392-1910) dedicated studying Confucian texts in order to obtain wisdom.46 I will compare and contrast Park’s Faust character with Goethe’s, while discussing Park’s critique of established gender roles.

46 Seungsook Moon, “The Production and Subversion of Hegemonic Masculinity: Reconfiguring Gender Hierarchy in Contemporary South Korea,” in Under Construction The Gendering of Modernity, Class, and Consumption in the Republic of Korea, ed. Laurel Kendall (Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press, 2002), 99.

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1. The Reception of Goethe’s Faust in South Korea

Goethe's reception in Korea first took hold in the twentieth century, in the course of Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, during which Japanese educators brought

German literature to Korean readers. During this mediated introduction of Goethe’s work via the Japanese intelligentsia, there were no direct translations of his works into Korean.

Since Korean readers could read his work only in Japanese, the texts were removed from the original. At that time, Goethe’s writings available in Korea were limited to two main works: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sorrows of Young Werther) and Faust I. In the sphere of scholarly research, the first essay on Goethe's Faust in Korean was written in 1919 by the well-known literary author, Yung-Taeck Chun (pseudonym Ho Choo). His critical essay “Goethe, ein Dichter” (“Goethe, a Poet”) was published in German in the first Korean literary magazine, Changjochangjo, which was the only Korean magazine at the time that was solely dedicated to literature (Koh, Intermedialität und

Kulturkomparatistik 199). Chun’s essay surveys Goethe's biographic and educational trajectory, but also includes original Korean translations, for the first time, of two of

Goethe’s early poems, “Willkommen und Abschied” (Welcome and Farewell) and “Mit einem gemalten Band” (With a painted Ribbon). In the afterword, Chun analyzed

Goethe's problematic dual-character presentation of good and evil in Faust figure but he did not analyze any topics in reference to gender.

The 1930s were a period of significant development in Faust reception in Korea, predominated by four pioneers: the aforementioned Cho, Jin-Sup Kim, Yong-Chul Park and the acclaimed Germanist and theater director, Hang-Suck Suh (1900-1985). These

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forerunners were working simultaneously at different universities in Tokyo (Japan), studying German studies and translating the works of Heine, Mörike, Eichendorff,

Uhland, Hesse and, most significantly, Goethe into Korean. A pivotal point in the reception of Goethe in Korea was the year 1932, which marked the centennial anniversary of Goethe's death. For the celebration, Suh, summarized Goethe's work, including Faust, in the leading newspaper Dongalbo. In his two-part essay in German,

“Goethes Lebensbahn” and “Werk als Weltdichter” (“Goethe’s Course of Life” and

“Works as a World Poet”), Suh perceived in Goethe’s major work an example of das

Ewig-Menschliche (The Eternal Human). On the basis of Suh’s reading of Faust, Hee-

Soon Cho further concludes in “Der politisch-soziale Gedanke in Goethes Dramen”

(“The Political-social Thoughts in Goethe’s Dramas”) that Goethe was the founder of the modern bourgeoisie (Koh 142). These two articles are the first Korean exegeses of

Goethe's classical work, Faust, with the focus on the male characteristics of the protagonist Faust.

The successful reception of Western literature during the 1930s came to an abrupt halt in the mid 1940s, as the Japanese military government’s strict censorship of foreign literature brought the research development of German literature to a halt in Korea.47 The censorship was part of the formal assimilation program, where Japanese became the language of all instructions and in 1942, Korean language study was formally removed.48

47 Wee-Kong Koh, “Faust-Rezeption in Korea”,in Zur Rezeption von Goethes Faust in Ostasien, ed. Adrian Hsia (Bern: Lang, 1993),144. 48 Michael Edson Robinson. Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey: A Short History. (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2007), 95.

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Even the use of Korean language, outside of work or school, was prohibited.49 Japanese became the national language but only about 12 percent of the Korean population had functional Japanese.50 After the end of World War II, German literary studies in Korea deviated from classical to modern literature, and works from Thomas Mann and Rainer

Maria Rilke came into the foreground. The literary mainstream consisted of realism, naturalism and expressionism, which were reflections of the contemporary audience’s mentality. After the division of Korea, a new reception era for German literature began.

In many South Korean universities, German classical studies were offered as a major. In

1946, the Seoul National University established a German Studies Department and the main text used in the lectures for classical German literature was Faust (Koh, “Faust-

Rezeption in Korea”,207). In order to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Goethe’s birth on August 28, 1949, Suh and Kim published contributions titled Der literarische

Charakter Goethes (The literary character of Goethe) and Faust im Aufriss (Faust in

Vertical Plan). In the following years, more contributions to the reception of Goethe were made, especially in the translation of his works. The three most significant Faust translations are from the scholars Dal-Ho Kim (1963), Tou-Shik Kang (1965), and Jung-

Jin Kim (1986). Aside from the extant translation of Goethe’s works, then including seven different completed translations of Faust, many Korean professors of German

Studies contributed to the reception with research essays, translations, and analysis that entailed introductions to understanding Goethe's Faust.

49 Robert John Myers. Korea in the Cross Currents: A Century of Struggle and the Crisis of Reunification. (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 40. 50 Michael Edson Robinson. Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey, 96

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The Koreanische Gesellschaft für Gemanistik (KGG) was founded in 1960, which introduced the professional journal, Dogilmunhak (German Literature). Between 1959 and 1978, four dissertations on Goethe’s Faust were published in Dogilmumhak, most of which concentrated on the topics and themes in Goethe's Faust I, but did not address the second part of the work. Through the initiative of the KGG, the Koreanische Goethe-

Gesellschaft was founded on March 22, 1982, in the year of the 150th anniversary of

Goethe’s death. It was around this time that Korean media began to show great interest in

Goethe. The leading newspapers published specials in his honor, announcing how

Goethe’s works had opened the Western intellectual world to the Eastern world (Koh,

Intermedialität und Kulturkomparatistik, 133). In a 1987 bibliography of research literature in Korean German Studies, the German professor Choong-Sup Lee compiled seventy-five essays of research articles on Faust that had appeared between 1945 and

1986, of which only sixteen were researches about Die Leiden des jungen Werthers.

Thus, Korean researchers were clearly interested in the topics surrounding Goethe’s

Faust.

The history of the reception of Goethe's Faust in Korea now dates back almost ninety years. This reception has begun with translations from Japanese into Korean and a direct translation from the original German into Korean did not become available until in

1958, when Man-Sung Lee translated Faust I. And only finally in 1963 did Dal-Ho Kim translate Faust I and Faust II. Despite these late translations, the presences of Goethe’s texts are still prevailing in the academic research in South Korea, but indicated previously, discussion on gender role is largely missing.

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2. Park’s Critique of a Neo-Confucian View of Women

Through a fictional character Pamela, Sang-Sun Park’s critical project in her manhwa, The Tarot Café (2008), is to evoke the resistance of the feminine norms in

South Korea that persisted during the Chosun Dynasty (1392-1919 C.E.), when neo-

Confucian ideology stripped away women rights. During the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392

C.E.) women had many rights and economic freedoms including the right to be heads of households (Lee, “Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women” 189).

Neo-Confucian patriarchy was introduced during the Chosun Dynasty and became the rationale behind a radical reform that stripped the freedom from women and ensured men’s economic power and social status. Women became the property of men and were taught early to accept their subordinating role as a means to produce a male heir to inherit male privileges.

There were, however, Korean women who resisted these harsh male patriarchal norms and, according, to the scholar Jonghyn Lee, they learned how to resist through shamanism (Lee, “Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women” 191).

During the Chosun Dynasty, Korean shamanic beliefs were regarded as being superstitious and shamans dismissed as inferior beings because shamanism was a women-dominant spiritual practice. Neo-Confucianism confined women to the domestic sphere but some Korean women resisted by conducting shamanic rituals in public spaces.

Park assigns her character Pamela the role of a shaman to display the deviance of the

Korean shaman during Chosun Dynasty, but also to shed light on the important role of shamanism throughout Korean history. Shamanism as a form of religious belief in Korea is counted as the oldest religion with its beginning sometime around 6000 to 5000 B.C.E.

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and still pervades every corner of South Korean society (Lee, “Shamanism and Its

Emancipatory Power for Korean Women” 187). The most significant role of shamanism in Korea is that it is a countercultural ideology because it resists the dominant ruling ideologies, which is the role of Park’s Pamela. Set ideology dictates that only women are clients of shamanism, but in Pamela’s café, most of the clientele seeking her guidance are male. Pamela conducts her spiritual practice in a public space, which is her own café.

Thus, she defies two of the neo- Confucianism norms: one, that women are bound to domestic space, and two, that women cannot be the head of a household nor become an owner of a business.

Park’s fictional character Pamela is universal in that she represents a displaced woman who is free from national confinement, and thus, free to question the established gender norms of men and women. Her transnationalism represents the trend of contemporary Korean society. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Korea has been a country of outmigration, and Korean residents have been forcibly relocating due to political or financial reasons with currently over seven million members of the Korean diaspora spread globally.51 As South Korea’s economy grew and the globalization of

Korean society began, an increase of immigration occurred in South Korea and growing numbers of migrated Koreans returned. Park applies this notion of transnationalism displayed by Koreans to her protagonist. She places Pamela as a young girl with her mother in the Scottish Highlands in 1232, but since Pamela gains immortality and continues to live more than seven hundred years, she migrates to other countries and participates in varies social communities. She is then positioned as a young woman in the

51 Sung-Yul Park J., and Lo A. "Transnational South Korea as a site for a sociolinguistics of globalization: Markets, timescales, neoliberalism," Journal of Sociolinguistics 16, no. 2 (2012): 148.

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current time period in Great Britain. Only a fragmented history of her past traveling the world is revealed, thus Park sustains the mysterious background of her character, but also her objective view of gender roles. Park maintains Pamela in a transit mode to preserve her mobility of gender representation but also to display global social interactions that have shaped her perception.

3. Park’s Critical Feminist Project through Goethe’s Faust

In order to critique the established feminine norms in South Korea, Park places

Pamela in a less culturally specific literary space, created through the vessels of German high literature, represented by Goethe’s Faust I and re-designed paintings from Gustav

Klimt. Reference to Goethe’s Faust I is predominant in her last volume of The Tarot

Café. Park begins volume 7 with a prologue in heaven, which explains how

Mephistopheles came to be, who he is, and how he attained the power to manipulate people on earth.52 The influence of Goethe’s Faust on Park’s Pamela is evident from the fact that the prologue sets the stage for a protagonist and plotline (Koh, Intermedialität und Kulturkomparatistik 149). Mephistopheles is the mastermind who drives the main plot and the provocateur who pulls the strings behind the scene. Mephistopheles sets up the circumstances that force Pamela’s mother to sign a contract with him, then later for

Pamela to do the same, where she signs a contract with him in order to be reunited with her lover. Park’s Pamela may not have been directly identified as the servant of God as was the case with Faust. However, it is later revealed that she was endowed with a gift from God; as a shaman, she had the ability to see the truth and into a person’s future.

52 Park, The Tarot Café, Volume 7. The Tarot Café begins with the prologue in heaven that explains how Mephistopheles attained his power and how Nebrios became intertwined with Pamela’s fate. Nebrios plays a vital role in the final volume because he opens the path to Hell and acts as a guide for Pamela and Aaron in Hell.

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Park continues to use Faust I to create the transcultural flow from western culture into her work. Mephistopheles’ first encounter with Pamela reflects the first encounter between Goethe’s Faust and Gretchen. In this scene, Park even places Pamela in the role of Gretchen. Faust is captivated with Gretchen’s childish innocence and purity. When he asks to accompany her, her reply is simple and sassy, which only enflames his passion.

She says, “I'm neither lady, neither fair, And home I can go without your care.”53 Faust assigns her a gender role of a lady in appearance and behavior, but Gretchen rejects this and the societal gender assignment. She refuses the offer to accompany her home, displaying her independence of a male guide. Faust then confesses that Gretchen is not only beautiful but also virtuous.

Faust. By God, but that’s a lovely girl!

More lovely than I’ve ever met.

So virtuous, so decent, yet

A touch of sauciness as well!

Her lips so red, her cheeks so bright-

All my life I’ll not forget that sight.

It stirred my very heart to see. (Goethe, Faust. Part One 81)

When he is rejected, Faust feels not only enchanted by Gretchen’s charm, but this rejection heightens his attraction to her. Park recreates, in her text, the meeting of Faust with Gretchen through Pamela meeting with Mephistopheles, but during their meeting,

Mephistopheles is disguised as a sage. He says, “Little Child! Come and have some

53 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust. Part One, trans. David Luke (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 81.

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bread”54 “You’re no Sage. I can see your true form… And it’s dirty, vile and distorted”

(Park, The Tarot Café, Vol 6. 15). Like Gretchen, Pamela responds to Mephistopheles in a sassy manner and this, along with her clarity to see the truth and other things that no other person is able to see only, awakens his interest in her.

As a result, Mephistopheles begins to orchestrate and manipulate Pamela’s surroundings in order to possess her. In Goethe’s drama, Mephistopheles manipulates

Faust’s outer appearance so that Faust can attract Gretchen. He is given a potion that makes him appear young again. In Park’s manhwa, it is Mephistopheles who must change his appearance to seduce Pamela, since Pamela is able to see his true nature.

Mephistopheles resorts to magic. Both male characters must change their outer appearance in order to seduce their female counterparts. Only after their physical appearances have changed do Gretchen and Pamela interact with them. And for both, the interaction with these female figures causes their downfall by which Park continues to draw connection between her work and Goethe’s Faust I. In The Tarot Café, Pamela witnesses the death of two family members, which she indirectly caused, just as Gretchen witnesses the death of her brother, which she indirectly caused.

In volume two of The Tarot Café55 Park critiques the male position through their enduring female assigned role. During a tarot card reading for a male customer, Pamela withheld her power to see his future and instead, questioned his old belief bound to established convention. She says, “You’re trapped in old notions” (Park, The Tarot Café,

Volume 2, 11). His belief rooted in superficiality was that the surface beauty of a female explicitly matches her inner character. In other words, his female partner is a princess

54 Sang-Sun Park, The Tarot Café, Volume 6, trans. Jennifer Hahm (Los Angeles: Tokyopop, 2007), 15 55 Sang-Sun Park, The Tarot Café, Volume 2, trans. Sukhee Ryu (Los Angeles: Tokyopop, 2003).

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with a radiance of beauty, so she must behave in such way to reflect her outer appearance. In Goethe’s Faust I, the outer appearance is also vital and, as already mentioned previously, it is the cause motivating the Faust character to drink the magic potion and only once he achieved a younger appearance and dressed as a noble, is he wiling to approach Gretchen. Both males, Pamela’s male customer and Faust, place the beauty of female bodies as a feast and satisfaction for their male gazes, yet the females’ behaviors were contradicting their visual fulfillment.

In Faust case, Gretchen rejected his courting in impudent manner. In case of

Pamela’s customer, the princess tormented inanimate objects and found pleasure in disassembling his dolls even when one of his human-like doll came to be very much alive as a human. She took great pleasure in destroying and dismantling his dolls, which he continue to ignore until she whipped his awoken doll, who displayed the pain he felt when she was contradicting her beauty with her behavior. Pamela rejects the notion of providing him with a solution and rather, she critiques his view. Even though he is a paying customer and Pamela can deliver his request, she does not fulfill his request, but she instead challenges him to reevaluate applying his own expectation to her beauty

(Park, The Tarot Café, Vol. 2, 12 and 20).

Park utilizes Pamela to question societal expectations that the outer female beauty is to match her position, behavior, and ultimately her character. In Goethe’s Faust, it is

Gretchen’s behavior that adds to his attraction but in Park’s case, the male customer is distraught of the princess’ behavior and even rejects her due to the disconnect of her beauty to her behavior. Park thus liberates women from the appearance, the external expectations from the societal norms, to allow her to behave contrary to her expected

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behavior. The gaze of man is placed on the surface of the woman, which results in visual attraction but her action determines the outcome, therefore provoking to reposition the behavioral expectation based on beauty and gender.

Park borrows from Goethe’s Faust I by presenting an assistant for Pamela. In

Goethe’s drama, Wagner is his Faust’s famulus, which is a servant or attendant of a scholar or magician. Wagner desires to learn from Faust and admits that he knows a lot but wants to know more: “I’ve studied now for years with zeal and zest; Already I know much, I must know all the rest” (Goethe, Faust, Part One, 21). Wagner not only makes a mockery of scholarly satire by appearing in a nightgown and cap but he is represented as a boring and stiff famulus. In The Tarot Café, Pamela has a closer relationship with

Aaron, who is her famulus. Like Wagner, Aaron wants to learn from Pamela, and they develop a personal relationship. Once she learns about his abandonment by caregiver,

Pamela takes Aaron and allows him to stay. Aaron has the look of a naïve cute little boy that resembles the look of a flower boy known in Korean as kkonminam.

The term kkonminam is referred to soft masculinity with a look that is gender undistinguishable and breathtakingly beautiful. Aaron is befitting of his image and acts innocent and easily manipulated by the darkness of the world. He reflects the role assigned to young native girls but he acts like an assistant to the storyteller, asking questions that a reader of the manhwa would have. Park reverses the patriarchal order and it is the male Aaron in the lower position of the society questioning the female Pamela’s action, his authoritative figure in his life. This role-reversal points to the notion that women can be an authoritative figure, who can respond to critical questions and situations.

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Park not only borrows from Goethe’s Faust I, she establishes the direct relationship to his work in her manhwa by including the names of the protagonist. The names appear in the original Korean version and in the translated English version. In the last volume, when Pamela journeys to Hell to save her friend Belus, she encounters her dead mother and Nebrios explains “… this seems like another special case, as with

Gretchen and Faust” (Park, The Taro Café, Vol 7, 48). Park also adapts the salvation of

Faust’s character and explains that when “it’s done for love, sometimes the contract between a human and the devil becomes null and void” (Park, The Taro Café, Vol 7, 49).

Park ensures that the German literary impact is visible through the names of Faust and

Gretchen, though, she does not make any reference to Goethe.

4. Gustav Klimt Paintings reimagined in The Tarot Café

In addition to Goethe’s Faust I characters and canonical plots, Park creatively adopts Gustav Klimt’s painting in her visually Eastern styled facelift. In Park’s volume 7 of The Tarot Café, each chapter is introduced with a reinterpretation of Klimt’s paintings.

Each of Klimt’s character is replaced with Park’s figures and begins with The Magician,

The Kiss, Death and The Wheel. In the most famous “The Kiss” painting, the male kissing the female in Park’s picture is Belus and Pamela, who as the original painting, displays the rapture of the kiss on her face. Gustav Klimt is known to use colors and motives inspired from the East and he was especially influenced from Japanese art. 56

Park continues his Eastern influenced image and inserts her protagonists into his painting, thus mixing her manhwa images with Western high art painting to become less culturally

56Victoria Charles and Klaus H. Carl, Wiener Secession (New York: Parkstone International, 2012), 113.

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specific to create a transcultural hybridity of an image that is not only rooted in Western art but influenced by East.

Park not only employs Gustav Klimt’s images but also his reputation as the drive behind the Vienna Session as a mean for her gender discourse. During the last years of the 19th century in Vienna, a group of women, among them also feminist, began sponsoring fashion reform and many of them were associated with the Session group led by Gustav Klimt. 57 The Vienna Session consisted of new artists who opposed the two established visual art institutes -- Academy and the Künstlerhaus. 58 The Vienna

Session’s group members were driven by a desire for change and critiquing the established norms, which reflect the motivation behind Park’s reinterpretations of their leader Klimt’s masterpieces. Through her own recreations of his globally recognizable paintings, she draws attention to her critique on the female role and calls forth for a reevaluation.

5. Kkonminam and Modern Korean Masculinity

Park not only employs iconological Western tropes and images but also pop- cultural Eastern images to create a domain to re-evaluate the assigned female gender role in a patriarchal society. In the The Tarot Café, Park’s male characters are the flower boys known in Korean as kkonminman, commonly featured in the manhwa geared towards young females. The term kkonminman is referred as the images of flower boys, who are androgynous and depicted in modern highly styled clothing with hairstyle befitting their visual image; they objectify the reflection of the desires of young girls. These

57 Mary L. Wagener. “Fashion and Feminism in ‘fin De Siècle’ Vienna.” Woman's Art Journal 10, no. 2 (1989): 29. 58 Jane Rogoyska and Patrick Bade, Best of Gustav Klimt (New York: Confidential Concepts, 2012), 10.

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kkonminman is referred to being the Korean version of bishōnen, which appear in manga and also refer to beautiful young male. Kkonminman images feed the desire of the female gaze by dominating the pages of manhwa. Park includes these elements aimed at young female readers to draw their attention and comply with their demand for their readership but once she has their attention, she critiques their assigned male roles of these flower boys and the young women consuming them.

The devil, Belus in Park’s manhwa is a kkonminman, and he orchestrates the fate of Pamela, who signs a contract with him. Park sets her Mephistopheles vis-à-vis

Goethe’s Mephistopheles and presents his true nature regardless of his appearance.

Goethe’s Mephistopheles first appears to Faust as a black poodle and only when Faust begins to translate the Bible does he change his form from a poodle to a hippopotamus, then to a traveling scholar.59 In The Tarot Café, Mephistopheles first appears as a beautiful sage distributing food to the poor. During the first encounter with Pamela as a child, she is able to see through his disguise, but Goethe’s Faust is unable to see

Mephistopheles in disguise and even takes him home. By presenting Pamela as a child during the first meeting between Mephistopheles and Pamela, Park sets the stage for her critique of female being blinded by the desired beauty of a male. This becomes evident during the second time Mephistopheles encounters Pamela as a young adult. He appears in the image of kkonminman thus she is unable to see his true form even though, he introduces himself as “The prince of pandemonium. I’m Belus” (Park, The Taro Café,

Vol 7, 99). In the form of kkonminman, Belus stays by Pamela’s side and earns her trust and her friendship. Park’s character Belus has the handsome face and slender figure that

59 Goethe, Faust, Part One. Mephistopheles takes the form of various animals before appearing as a traveling scholar.

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reflects youthful appearance with clothing appropriate to the fashion of the time period in which he lives. Only at the end when Belus becomes Pamela’s lover and only after a sexual act with her does he reveal his true nature. After Pamela reunited with Belus does she recognize her true feelings for him and she engages in a sexual night with him.

During the sexual act she catches a glimpse of his true identity but refuses to believe her intuition. Park allows the reader to see the same image Pamela sees, but refuses to acknowledge, to prove that the beautiful façade only masks the true. The next morning

Belus reveals his plot and how he manipulated her life but even after hearing his confession is Pamela unable to accept the true. In order to display the power of kkonminman images against words, Park places his confessing words vis-à-vis his naked toned chest and centralizes on his image. She purposely directs the gaze of the readers to re-evaluate the consumption of gaze of kkonminman. The male gaze of kkonminman manipulates young female readers thus they continue to be confined in the male dominated patriarchal norms.

The gaze on male and the image of kkonminman is presented as problematic issue with other characters. Aaron is the one who advises Pamela with his dying words, encouraging her to learn to forgive because forgiveness will lead her to salvation. But he is only able to advise her once he has aged and his youthful look that of a kkonminman has passed. In Aaren’s youthful years, when he was Pamela’s apprentice with kkonminam appearance, he was unable to help Pamela and had to rely on her for his needs. Only once Aaron lost his kkonminman appearance and when he displayed the

South Korean traditional masculinity of that of a scholar-official, the seonbi,

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was he able to guide her. The term seonbi “refers to a Confucian scholar-official who studies Confucian texts to obtain ‘wisdom’… [and] indicates mental attainment.”60 Once again, Park directs the gaze of the reader and centers on the lack of kkonminman appearance to focus on his words as a wise seonbi. Readers expect to see the kkonminman of Aaron but are positioned to question their perception of the male gaze and their expectations connected to kkonminman. By redirecting the gaze, Park points to the

“traditional virtues as politeness, integrity, faithfulness, loyalty and cultural-scholarly attainment” of the seonbi masculinity in South Korean contemporary times, which are also displayed in todays popular television dramas and movies in which male characters embody the seonbi masculinity and even emphasis the gentle and cultured mentality (Sun

28).

6. Transculturation in The Tarot Café The birth of an Eastern version of Faust out of the reception of Goethe’s Western

Faust constitutes a transcultural act. A female Korean manhwa artist creates the figure of

Pamela who is not only a Faustine, but also a contemporary representation of modern women in both the East and the West. The representations of Gretchen and Pamela are remarkably similar. Goethe’s Faust permeates the work of a writer in the East. Like many artistic representations in the West, Park’s Pamela represents an emancipated woman who received an education and has her own professional career. Pamela is not the first

60 Jung Sun, Korean Masculinities and Transcultural Consumption Yonsama, Rain, Oldboy, K-Pop Idols, 27

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Faustine, since there were Western-version of Faustine, but she is the first Faustine written by a Korean manhwa artist.61

Interest in Western culture and literature is evident in the history of Goethe’s

Faust reception. Based on this interest, a Faust character emerges in this manhwa, but the gender has shifted to Faustine. This gender-shift may have occurred as a result of the rise in female interest in Manhwa. Introducing a Faustine in the Eastern culture may not only attract more female Manhwa readers, but also reflect the current issues in Korean society.

Critiques and reflections of current issues are the roots of Manhwa. The gender-shift may also have been influenced by the published research on Goethe’s Faust, all of which was all written by male scholars in Korea, reflecting only male point-of-view and male interpretations. By presenting a Faustine by a female Manhwa artist, the reader gains a female interpretation of the Faust character.

Park’s leading male characters are the visualization of the term kkonminman, the soft masculinity that is dominating the manhwa consumption geared towards young girls.

These beautiful young male images fulfill the gaze of young women, who purchase this type of manhwa genre. Park, however, positions these kkonminman in characters of both, evil, such as the devil Belus and also Aaron, who is the apprentice of Pamela. Other minor male characters are all in the image of kkonminman. Only when Aaron is in the image of South Korean traditional masculinity was he able to rescue Pamela. Park places her male characters in kkonminman image but only to counter this current demand and

61 In Die Schwestern des Doktor Faust , Sabine Doering writes a history of female Faust figures in European texts. This may represent one reason for the gender transformation of the male Faust into a female version. Doering, Sabine. Die Schwestern des Doktor Faust: eine Geschichte der weiblichen Faustgestalten (Göttingen: Wallstein. 2001).

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display that only the old educated male, such as an old scholar can provide a path to a solution.

In Sang-Sun Park’s The Tarot Café, mugukjeok presents how the popular cultural flows through the form of manhwa enabled the mixing of Western and Eastern literary elements with globally popular element of kkonminman images, which causes the female

Faust character to become less culturally specific. Park portrays her female Faust to point ambiguously precisely to this unresolved contemporary fact of Eastern culture, but also to the global question. How are women supposed to live life? One interpretation of the ending of Park’s Faustine is that even though Pamela does not attain her original goal to be reunited with her deceased lover, she learns how to live out her immortality. Her original goal was rooted in Eastern influence. She was willing to commit suicide to rejoin her lover after death. It is through experience in living an independent life, without a male provider, that she learns to value her own life. In Eastern culture, it is the role of the mother to be the educator of her daughter. It is also her role to be the nurturing parent, who would sacrifice her own life to save that of her child. Clearly Pamela’s mother provides that role of a nurturing parent, but the Western influence becomes evident when

Ash, the male “parent,” assumes the role of educator for Pamela. Pamela learns that she is able to live a life without a male in her life and have her own career. In the light of concept of mugukjeok, Park’s Pamela is a character influenced by Western literature and transcultural hybridity has been actualized in Park’s manhwa, in particular through the flow Western elements to provide a discourse to the contemporary Eastern female representation in a globalized world.

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This forth chapter ends this excavation of German literature influence with

Goethe’s Faust in the South Korean manhwa. It is due to the strong presence of Goethe’s literature that Sang-Sun Park’s Tarot Café fuses with Western ideology with Eastern tradition. Park utilizes a female version of Faust to critique the traditional, neo-

Confucianism reinforced, gender roles. She also uses mugukjeok to present how the popular cultural flows through the form of manhwa enable the mixing of Western and

Eastern literary elements with pop-cultural element of kkonminman images, to create a female Faust character and her occupying space to become less culturally specific. On the bases what I have argued from chapter one to this last chapter, I will transcend to the argument of using manga in a German language curriculum as a multimodal educational medium within the framework of Multiliteracies addressing transculturality. I provide an example how reading manga in German, where image is supported by text, allow space for German language development and open space for culture specific discussions.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Manga in the German Language Curriculum

As outlined in the earlier chapters of this dissertation, manga, like other forms of graphic literature, is inherently multimodal. Manga in particular also exemplifies transcultural literature due to the Western literature influence during the development of manga known as today and the intertextuality of Western and Eastern literature, as well as Western literary tropes, incorporated as themes in manga. Furthermore, manga contains numerous visual cues that would be understood by a broad audience due to globalization of manga, for example, “nervousness is portrayed by enormous sweat drop; sleep is shown by a balloon from the nose indicating snoring” (Furuhata-Turner 76).

Thus, manga is not only multimodal but also a transcultural product.

In the lessons that I outline here, I am particularly interested in the how to integrate transcultural aspects of literature and culture into foreign language teaching as they manifest in linguistic and visual codes. For this reason, I apply a multiliteracies framework that “focuses on modes of representation much broader than language alone

(Cope and Kalantzis 5). In what follows, I will first present an overview of multiliteracies as a pedagogical approach from within education and then shift to the reception of multiliteracies as it has been developed as a framework for foreign language teaching and learning. I will then argue for the use of manga as multimodal literary form and as a means of integrating transculturality in the German language classroom. Lastly, I will provide examples of how I have implemented manga in an intermediate German class.

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1. Brief Overview of Multiliteracies Pedagogy

Learners and educators alike are exposed today to multimodal ways of meaning making, where text is either enhanced or supported by the visual or the audio and new communication media are reforming the ways in which language is used. For this reason, some scholars, such as Cope and Kalantzis, have argued that learners today need to develop “a new, multimodal literacy” (Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design

5). In response to the shifting shape of literacy in the late 20th century, a group of education scholars, the New London Group (2000 [1994]), coined the word

‘multiliteracies’. According to the New London Group, the word ‘multiliteracies’ describes two important arguments: “first argument engages with the multiplicity of communications channels and media; the second with the increasing salience of cultural and linguistic diversity” (Cope and Kalantzis, Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the

Design 5). Because of their recognition of the role of rapidly shifting communications media on literacy itself, the pedagogy of multiliteracies proposed by the New London

Group focuses on modes of representation that extend beyond language alone. It also places emphasis on learners and educators as active participants of negotiating meaning and participating in transculturation and collaborative work (264).

According to the New London Group, the new multimodal literacy requires that educators reconsider what they teach, but it also requires a shift in how we teach. The

New London Group proposes four pedagogy components, which are Situated Practice,

Overt Instruction, Critical Framing and Transformed Practice. These components are not to be sequential and meant to be applied best suited for the learning environment.

Situated Practice, which, according to James Gee, is the “ “hands-on’, embodied

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experiences of authentic and meaningful social practices involving talk, texts, tools, and technologies of the sort that help one imagine contexts that render what is being taught meaningful” (65). Overt Instruction, which are “all forms of guidance and scaffolding, within and outside Situated Practice, that focus the learner’s attention, in a reflective and meta-aware way, on the important parts of the language and practice being taught” (Gee

65). The Critical Framing refers to the “ways of coming to know where in the overall system you stand” (65). Learners interpret the social and cultural context of a text and take a critical view in relation to the purpose. In Transformed Practice, learners produce and transform their acquired knowledge.

These four components are central to my approach because they emphasize a view “through a cultural perspective” (239). Students arrive to the classroom with knowledge and learning grounded from various cultural backgrounds and experiences and as Cope and Kalantzis state that “ [a] certain kind of multicultural education” aims

“to honor students’ cultures and experience” but “goes no further than this” (239). A multiliteracies approach, however, aims to go further than honoring students’ cultures and experiences by aiming to expand their cultural horizons and become active creators of meaning making. For example, during the overt instruction phase, students examine and question the foundations of a system, which involves concept formation and theory making. “As a consequence,” Gee writes, “you see everyday life in a new light” (239). In the critical framing phase, students question contexts and purpose and then interpret the social and cultural perspectives represented in a text.

Another central aspect of the New London Group’s multiliteracies pedagogies to my approach is multimodality and visual analysis. I refer to multimodality to “the ability

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to obtain, systematize, expand, and link information from different symbolic systems

(language, graphic illustrations, numeric representations)” (Elsner 28). The visual analysis refers to decoding, interpreting, and also meaning making of graphic representations and visual modes of expressions. Multimodality and visual analysis are both addressed with manga. Learners read a multimodal medium narrated through graphic and text, thus they develop to decode the visual representation to decode meaning to make decisions on its purpose and function.

2. Multiliteracies within the Foreign Language curriculum

Writing from the context of EFL teaching and learning in Germany, Daniela

Elsner et al recognizes the role of learners of having to learn to make meaning of multiple sorts of texts, and she states that todays’ “learners of foreign languages need to be able to decode and comprehend mono-and multimodal, linear and non-linear, mono-and multilingual, audio-or visual, traditional or digital text forms”(56). She also points out that that some students lack the motivation to read. Thus FL teachers are not only faced with the challenge to teach students literacies that they will need in the new progressive digital age, but also maintaining their motivation to read. Reading contemporary graphic novels involves making meaning from the richly textured, juxtaposed images combined with texts in deliberate sequences thus also promoting the development of critical visual analysis and literacy.

Elsner et al. propose graphic novels a multimodal text form with the potential to motivate reluctant readers. Elsner adopts a multiliteracies approach to teaching these texts, emphasizing that “[a] multiliteracies approach to teaching and learning foreign

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languages aims at the development of functional, visual, multimodal, and digital literacies, transcultural competence, language awareness and critical-reflective thinking skills (8)” Elsner claims that graphic novels contain texts same as traditional books, but as a multimodal text-form on the rise, the combination of text and symbols support weak and reluctant readers.

Another example of using graphic novels, this time in a German Language classroom, is presented by Elizabeth Bridges in “Bridging the Gap: A Literacy-Oriented

Approach to Teaching the Graphic Novel Der erste Frühling.” Like Elsner, Bridges cites motivational reasons for working with these texts, since most “students have some familiarity with graphic novels [and] often associating them with leisure reading”

(Bridges 154). Bridges claims that [r]eading a graphic novel in a German Studies course will therefore necessarily spark student interest and invite speculation about the genre, including its effectiveness and appropriateness in depicting “heavy” historical material”

(157). Bridges also sees a connection between graphic novels and dominant communicative pedagogies found in most textbooks - “many current first-year, communicative textbooks routinely utilize the interaction of the visual with other cognitive processes by automatically associating image with words” (155). This advantage, Bridges claims, can be used to close the gap between the language/literature curriculum divide, since the texts in graphic novels are same as traditional books with dialogues or monologues and train of thoughts or even narration but comprehension is enhanced and supported by visuals. This can result in students making the transition of reading literary work while using the reading and comprehension skills acquired from the communicative textbooks in the beginning years of German FL curriculum.

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Both Elsner and Bridges use Maus as an example of graphic novel to be used in a

FL classroom because the graphic novel as a medium of picture-text combination offers a narrative outlet to portray authentic historical content of dealing with the past and present. Bridges, however, focuses on Maus as an exemplary of a graphic novel format, whereas Elsner gives examples on how to teach English using Maus, with practical applications.

Cheng-Wen Huang continues to present the educational gains and points to comic or graphic novels “as the pedagogical efficacy of using popular cultural texts in schooling”.62 Huang focuses on a particular genre of comics, manga and proposes “a

Hallidayan framework that offers a way of understanding and describing how semiotic resources in manga communicate ideas and experiences of the world, convey interpersonal meaning, and how these meanings are communicated to the reader as a coherent whole” (Huang 72). In manga, socially situated communicative events or acts embedded with cultural practices, take place with images and dialogues thus students engage with a multimodal, since the imagery aids words. Readers are not only reading the languages but also the sequenced images. The students are involved in the social act while they read the nonverbal cues from the images that provide insights of the required communication skills. The meaning making first occurs through words supported by imagery. The same applies to graphic novels; therefore, the question may arise of the use of manga in a German FL curriculum, especially due to the existence of a vast corpus of

German graphic novels with varies historical events and other relevant topics more suited

62 Cheng-Wen Huang, “Teaching visual Narratives Using a Social Semiotic Framework: The Case of Manga,” in Multimodal approaches to research and pedagogy recognition, resources, and access, ed Archer, Arlene, and Denise Newfield. (Routledge, 2014), 71.

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in a German FL classroom. After all, manga is a graphic novel from Japan written originally in Japanese for Japanese audience. This statement is accurate, however, due to the globalization of manga, this view does not present the complete picture.

3. Manga in the German Classroom

According to Casey Brienza, “American manga sales grew 350 percent from $60 million in 2002 to $210 million in 2007 and this so-called “manga boom” effected changes in the publishing landscape that have become spatially inscribed into the floor plans of every mainstream bookstore in the country.”63 This is due to the success of the

American manga publishers, who raised the visibility of manga and its entrance to the mainstream. Manga are also shelved at local libraries. In addition, the renowned

American manga expert and writer, Frederik Schodt, stated the following in reference to the status of manga in the United States.

By September 4, 2006, it was clear to me that manga had truly conquered

North America. That week, the New Yorker magazine featured on its

cover a cartoon titled “Back to Cool”, showing an average American

teenager slouching back to school, his brain depicted as an enlarged map

divided into zones of interest. There, along with My Space, Video iPod,

PS3, Snoop Dogg, Algebra, and YouTube, was a large zone labeled

“Manga”. There was no translation of the word, of course, and –with the

63 Casey Brienza, Manga in America: transnational book publishing and the domestication of Japanese comics, London ; New York : Bloomsbury Academic, 2016, 2.

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market for English versions of both manga and anime now estimated to be

in the billions of dollars- who would need one?64

This cover displays the presence of manga in the mainstream. Furthermore, top selling

English version manga, such as Naruto, are even at local Walmart, which, according to manga researcher Mark MacWilliams, “is a good evidence that manga is becoming a mass-market phenomenon in America.”65 Manga, once only sold at specialty stores, are stocked and maintain a permanent location at bookstores and libraries. A manga boom also occurred in Germany, where the sales of manga in 1997 were under one million Euro but only after 5 years in 2002, rose to about 20 million Euro (Nitto 563). And in 2005, the sales of manga reached to 70 million Euro. The rapid rising of the manga sales in

Germany indicates that manga, like in the United States, has established a permanent place at the bookstores. Due to the massive increase of manga sales in Germany, the leading publishers developed and followed two new strategies. The first one was to adapt the same application used in Japan, where varies manga-journals were weekly published based on the readers’ preference. The second was to discover new talents based on manga competitions at large book conventions, such as the competition “Manga- Talente” at

Leipzig Book Fair.

Second, the globalization of manga produced two different results. The first result is the production of manga outside of Japan that either mimics or resembles manga. But some manga are an entity of its own and Casey Brienza argues, that there is global manga, which she refers to as “the published sequential art products of a sometimes

64 Frederik Schodt, in Foreword: Japan’s New Visual Culture, ed. Mark W. MacWilliams, New York, M.E. Sharpe, 2008, vii. 65 Mark W. MacWilliams, Japan’s New Visual Culture, New York, M.E. Sharpe, 2008, 14.

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globalized, sometimes transnational, sometimes hyperlocal world in which something its producers and consumers might call ‘manga’ can be produced without any direct creative input at all from Japan.”66 The second result is the “world comics”, which Paul Gravett, who describes the development of “world comics”: “world comics take the best and most interesting features of comics from all over the world and combine them into new, often highly aesthetic and adventurous art.” The comics in the world comics are not mainstream and tend to be Avant-guard in nature thus only selected manga fit into this category. In Germany, during the first phase of the manga boom, manga was considered to products of Japan exclusively, thus manga produced by German manga artist were only a product of a simulacrum. This view, however, has now been changed due to successful German manga artist. The statement, that manga is only produced in Japan is not only inadequate but also a primordial view. Manga is used as a medium to express daily activities, challenges of coming to age or even as instructional books worldwide.

Manga from German artist, such as Anike Hage, are translated into Japanese, a reverse order of publishing and distribution and recognized as manga artists. This clearly marks that manga is not only consumed worldwide but also globally produced. The manga I propose as an example in German FL classroom is from a Japanese manga artist but written in Germany for the German audience for a German publishing company by Kei

Ishiyama Grimms Manga. It is a global manga as Brienza describes, since is globalized and hyperlocal.

Third, manga has different advantages than graphic novels. Even though in various books for pedagogical application for graphic novels, manga also occupies a

66 Casey Brienza Global manga. 'Japanese' comics without Japan? Aldershot, Hamps: Ashgate Publishing 2015, 4.

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chapter due to their similarities, but manga differs from graphic novels in types of storytelling though transition.67 Scott McCloud identifies, that most western graphic novels apply straightforward storytelling but manga apply the fifth type of transition, which he calls “Aspect-To-Aspect, bypasses time for the most part and sets wandering eye on different aspects of a place, idea or mood” (McCloud, Understanding Comics 72).

This type is rarely seen in West but in Japanese mainstream comics, it is an integral part from the very beginning and is used to establish mood or a sense of place and the reader plays an active role and “must assemble a single scattered fragments” (McCloud,

Understanding Comics 79). McCloud claims that the Japanese storytelling technique differs because manga artists are shaped by traditional Japanese arts, where “a greater focus on figure/ground relationships and negative space” is placed (McCloud,

Understanding Comics 82). The intervals and fragmentations emphasis of “being there over getting there” (McCloud, Understanding Comics 83). Manga is also known for pacing the narrative by using aspect-to-aspect transition and to focus on small details of the real world to re-create daily social encounters and experiences (Huang 76). Another aspect in which manga differs from graphic novels is the use of super deformed, which is used for comic relief. The characters are depicted in an exaggerated small form to express an extreme burst or change of emotion. The use of onomatopoeia creates motion in manga and adds to the movement of characters or situation, which creates a cinematic effect.

67 See “Graphic Novels and Comics in the Classroom: Essays on the Educational Power of Sequential Art” edited by Syma and Weiner or “Teaching the Graphic Novel” edited by Tabachnick. Of particular interest in the FL classroom is the book “Films, Graphic Novels & Visuals: Developing Multiliteracies in Foreign Language Education- An Interdisciplinary Approach” edited by Daniela Elsner, Sissy Helff and Britta Viebrock.

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Manga in a German FL classroom will motivate readers and serve as a multimodal reading materiel to combine visual cues with text, engage students actively with detailed panels and cinematic language. Dismissing manga would mean a loss of a new medium of expression produced for a worldwide audience in a language, that is accessible to network of visual readers.

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4. Manga in Action

I argue for the use of manga in transitional-level course to ensure instructional continuity but also, access to a new type of multimodal literary form for meaning making.

As already mentioned, the sequential images are supported by texts and readers of manga read both, visuals and text to create meaning, thus using multimodal function to decode the messages in manga. The students will read two excerpts of Little Red Riding Hood from Kei Ishiyama Grimms Manga. I selected these manga excerpts because there are two distinct versions of Little Red Riding Hood: one is written for a German audience with the setting in Germany and the second was written during Ishiyama’s application process with the settings in Japan. The latter was not published in the first publication since the first publication would be in sold in Germany, thus it was decided to leave the settings in Germany for German readers. I also selected these two manga excerpts due to their visual cultural references, which students would be able identify immediately. For example, Little Red Riding Hood, with the setting in Germany, wears a traditional

German folk costume (Volkstracht). And the Little Red Riding Hood, with the setting in

Japan, wears a kimono. These visual cultural references serve to distinguish the excerpts but also allow for visual analysis and meaning making based on the cultural representations.

This intermediate level German class is the last of the language classes in a sequence typically contained in the language requirement. The course introduces fairy tales in the fourth semester of German language instruction. I selected a fairy tale version of manga because fairy tales are quintessentially transcultural concept of literature, as they began with the oral tradition and later was written. Furthermore, referring back to

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Table 1 in chapter one, the primary field of fairy tales resides in aesthetics, where they are created and recreated to a new formation to serve a heterogeneous community. Fairy tales are also most suitable since most if not all of the students were exposed to fairy tales, in one form or another, which will enable them to apply their previous knowledge to new information. Fairy tales are an important aesthetic repository of cognitive and emotive knowledge and a tool that individuals, communities, and nations utilize to work through deep anxieties, painful experiences, hopes, and aspirations. As cultural documents, they lend themselves as excellent material for foreign language courses. Not only can fairy tales help students develop their fluency, but they support active learning of vocabulary and interpretation skills while making students more knowledgeable about literary and cultural history.

Ishiyama’s versions of Little Red Riding Hood are literary fairy tale retellings based on the Grimms’ version. Students will engage in cultural exploration of text since the two versions are written in Japanese and German settings. They will also engage in textual analysis and interpretation based on the interaction between words and pictures.

They will be reading visual cues alongside verbal ones thus making literary connections through pictorial representations. They will go from picture description then to text comprehension progressing to analysis. They will apprehend vocabulary appropriately to paraphrase or summarize the information the text/picture communicates. Manga as a medium will contribute in enhancing the students understanding of the role and function of images in representation and communication. The pictures act as mnemonic device to remind students of the plot elements not only read but also watched like a move since reading manga are like reading and watching a movie at the same time. Teaching manga

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is like teaching with film but the static format allows for time to analyze and fixed visual format allows students to begin with descriptions applying the vocabularies/ grammatical structures already acquired then moving on to deeper questions about interaction and communicative effectiveness of words and pictures. When students read manga, simultaneous close readings of words and images occur while they observe visual layouts assisting in formulating answers.

In my pilot lesson, instead of applying New London Group’s four pedagogy components as previously explained, I applied the Multiliteracies pedagogy reframed by

Kalantzis and Cope in 2010 as ‘Knowledge Processes’, which are Experiencing,

Conceptualizing, Analyzing, and Applying. Experiencing, in short, refers to the “cross- connections between school and the rest of life” of learners and grounding meanings “in real-world patterns of experience, action and subjective interest (Cope and Kalantzis

Pedagogy of Multiliteracies 4). Conceptualizing refers to defining terms and categorizing information to place them as concepts together. Analyzing refers to examine functions and Applying refers to the actual application of knowledge and understandings. I implemented these four pedagogy components and address these four components of

Knowledge Processes in the following.

Day 1: Introduction of manga

Prior to the first reading, students will have discussed the key features of fairy tales and will already have read the original version of the Grimms’ Little Red Riding Hood. On the first day for this lesson, the students brought their text to class. I began with collecting answers and associations of graphic novel, and then move to description of manga. The purpose is to identify the definitions or ideas students have about manga and if they

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associate graphic novel with comics or manga. This is beginning of the Knowledge

Process as reframed by Cope and Kalantzis.68

Experiencing (the known): Students were asked to examine their understanding of manga by describing and discussing with partners their own definitions. I collected their answers and brainstorms for key descriptive words to connect and to distinguish between graphic novel, comics and manga.

Conceptualizing: As a small group work, students came up with their own description of manga and contrast their definition with fellow other groups. As a class, the students wrote their own working definition of manga. With their own developed concept, students recognized that there are differences in graphic novel, comics, and manga. And each of them has a different purpose and function. For example, they agreed that comics are short in format in comparison to manga or graphic novel.

Experiencing (the new): Once the students have their own definition, I introduced manga by pointing to the key differences, such as reading directions (from left to right and from back to front), extreme close-up (Detailaufnahme) of characters or the use of chibi-form

(extreme diminutive form of characters) to display various situation or emotions.

Analyzing: Students read the first retelling of Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding Hood, hereafter LRRH, and paid close attention to the artistic style and the size of the characters. The chapter was read as a class, so that students, who are unfamiliar with the reading directions, would receive assistance as needed. I had the students read aloud each

68 Some learning activity types did not fit neatly into one category or rather applied to two or more terminology, thus were categorized simply to the first applicable term. This supports Cope and Kalantziz claim that “the essential idea in the Multiliteracies approach is that learning is a process of ‘weaving’ backwards and forwards across and between different pedagogical moves” (Kalantzis and Cope, Pedagogy of Multiliteracies 4)

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speech bubble and encouraged them to read as in the corresponding characters. Once they completed reading the chapter, they compared completed a worksheet with their partners.

They collected the characters in Ishiyama’s version and they had to describe them based on their visual appearance, for example, the wolf wore clothing and was standing like a human kid. They also had to collect key terms describing the main character, such as “du guter Junge” (Ishiyama, Grimms Manga 17).

Students then listed the differences between Ishiyama’s LRRD with the Grimms’ version using a chart. They contrasted and discussed the differences of the characters or the inclusion of additional characters, such as the seven goats. In the beginning of

Ishiyama’s version, the young wolf received a quest from his father. Students recognized immediately that the wolf does not take the role of the villain and speculated of the function of the wolf in the story. The homework was to read the manga again and closely while keeping a Lesejournal with guided questions.

Day 2

After answering any comprehension questions, which were part of the Lesejournal, students explored specific points of view of characters though particular lenses, for example the young wolf, who is threatened by the hunter and accused of being a monster.

The students also discussed what is behind the manga by answering how the image and text work to position a reader. What perspective does this retelling present? Students identified the role reversal of good and evil, where the hunter was the “evil” and the wolf takes on the “good” character. As a small group, students addressed questions such as:

How do the images emphasize/enhance their roles? By analyzing the images corresponding to their characters, students recognized that the sizes and the positioning of

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them impact the their understanding of the characteristics. Students selected a character and picked specific images that display the characteristics of their character. The static juxtaposed images of the characters “in combination with texts and symbols intend to convey information to the reader and evoke a response.”69 For example, the introduction of Little Red Riding Hood: at first she is drawn small and only her back is visible. Once she turns to face the wolf, only a headshot is drawn in extreme close-up with huge eyes and laces in the background (Ishiyama, Grimms Manga 14). This is a shōjo manga style to evoke a sense of innocence and cuteness of her character by the readers, by staring straight and directly with her round big eyes with a innocent smile and replying with a simple “Ja?” By identifying specific images in combination with the speech bubbles, students analyzed the internal world of the characters to include their struggles and emotions. The homework was to read the second version of Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding

Hood while keeping a Lesejournal.

Day 3

The setting of the second version of Ishiyama’s Little Red Riding Hood is in Japan.

Students compared and contrasted the first version, which takes place in Germany, with the second version. Key features, images and texts, that represent Germany and Japan were collected and then noted on the board. Students readily identified the differences in clothing. In the first version, Little Red Riding Hood is wearing a traditional folks costume (Volkstracht) and in the second version, she wears a kimono. Students also recognized the differences of naming the wolf, where in the first version, he is called by

69 Daniela Elsner “Graphic Novels in the Limelight of a Multiliteracies Approach to Teaching English” ed. Daniela Elsner, Sissy Helff and Britta Viebrock in Films, Graphic Novels & Visuals Developing Multiliteracies in Foreign Language Education-An Interdisciplinary Approach (Münster, 2011), 62

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the hunter a monster and in the second a demon. Also, age difference was noted. In the first version, LRRD is a little girl, but in the second version, she is a young adult. After reading three different versions of the LRRH, students identified the variations of characteristics and the shift of perspectives represented in the narratives. Follow-up discussions followed to analyze the shift of the characters, especially the assigned role of the wolf. And how this redirects the view on the traditional role of the characters and how students took the new view. The crucial character is the wolf, the protagonist in both of

Ishiyama’s versions. In the first version, there are also two wolves, like the Grimms version. Students will also reflect back to the Grimms version, where the moral of the fairy tale was to teach specific morals. Students identify the moral in Ishiyama’s versions and explain them.

Applying (creatively): Students created their own version of retelling of LRRD, either with a partner or small group. They selected the setting, either in Germany, Japan, or even US. They also selected a moral for their own version to either resemble the Grimms’ version or Ishiyama’s. They may also select a moral fitting their setting to include modernized version.

After reading the Grimms version of the LRRD and Ishiyama’s two versions, students gained an understanding of the localization of fairy tales. By reading the fairy tale fusion of image and text via manga, they gained access to reading visual literacy based on prior knowledge of fairy tales. Moreover, the students connected their previous learning strategies of learning German words with images and applied this skill in reading visual stories, thus students engaged in multimodal aspects of learning.

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Conclusion

The Manga Boom in Germany in the late 1990s and the rising sales of manga in the American market growing from 60 million in 2002 to $210 million in 2007 present the proliferation of manga worldwide (Brienza, “Manga for Girls” 42). This not only resulted in the widespread of manga but also a new field of research, Manga studies, where scholars worldwide discuss the globalization of manga or the impact of the distribution of manga. Research topics on manga expanded from socio-cultural and economical aspects to historical to literacy of manga, to include the research of the

Japanese visual language. The multifaceted emerging research of Manga studies opened the space for transcultural exploration. And throughout this project, I have explored how

German literary reception in Japan and in South Korea emerged and interacted historically with the social and cultural aspects of modernity, national ideology, and literary convention that present transculturation of West and East.

What may began as moral educational device, such as the Grimms’ fairy tales, or simply admiration of German literature, provided a space for transcultural exploration but also to address contemporary topic of gender roles. I found that the reception of German literature in Japan and in South Korea was tied into German literary traditions, especially the Romantics. This trend of Westernization in Asian countries without Western colonization history freed the Japanese and South Korean writers to create new genre or genre fusions that are intended to be educational to young adolescents. Their intention also expands to exercise critique to current relevant topics and address readers to reflect on central issues. The results of their efforts were transculturated manga. And these manga, infused with contemporary topics and German literary influence, in a German FL

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classroom served in my pilot lesson as a multimodal reading materiel to combine visual cues with text and actively engaged students with visual descriptions and cinematic languages. Manga served as a new medium of expression produced for a worldwide audience in a language, that was accessible to network of visual readers. It is my hope that this dissertation encourages an expansion of transcultural studies of German literature in manga and manhwa and the use of manga/manhwa in German language curriculum.

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