White Teachers Talk about Building Relationships with Students of Color
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Drexel University
by
Ronald J. Silvis
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
of
Doctor of Education
May 2016
© Copyright 2016 Ronald J. Silvis. All Rights Reserved
Acknowledgments
Anyone who has gone through the dissertation process understands the time, energy, and emotional commitment required. There are many highs and lows along the way, and it takes a team of individuals behind you to be able to navigate the process. I must take a moment to acknowledge individuals who have been instrumental in my ability to complete this research study.
Dr. Kristine Lewis Grant, my dissertation chair, provider of inspiration, and friend. As I think about our journey together I can’t help but begin to get emotional.
You have been with me no less than bi-weekly for the past fourteen months and weekly for the past nine. As I reflect on our time together you have been more than a scholarly advisor. You were compassionate and understanding when I needed some time because my little dog was attacked and needed to have one of her limbs removed (she is fine now), you provided advanced opportunity to get a jump on work when I had a major shoulder surgery scheduled that would put me out of commission for a while, you advised me in the acceptance of a new job and helped me in my transition from K-12 to higher education, and you went above and beyond in your detailed feedback, which not only helped guide my research, but also helped improve my writing. Your role as my chair went beyond research advising. You served as a psychiatrist, coach, cheerleader, editor, content expert, and second mother. I can’t begin to imagine how different this experience would have been without you in my corner. Thank you!
Dr. Michele Hammersla-Quick was a member of my doctoral cohort. We had the pleasure of each working with Dr. Grant and we also had the same goal and time table.
The dissertation process can be a lonely one at times, but Michele served as a great friend iv
who understood the rigors of the process. We were able to bounce ideas off of each other, and many times just simply vent about how we felt. It was fantastic to have someone else at the same point who understood what was happening. Thanks Michele.
I need to also acknowledge the outstanding support and program design and delivery from all the faculty and cohort members at Drexel University. I believe I was set up for success, and never felt alone through the entire program. From the first orientation with Dr. Allen Grant where we talked about boiling crawfish and SEC football before the other members arrived, to the first leadership course with Dr. Gould, to my final defense I felt support and encouragement from all.
The dissertation process is long and involved. There were times when personal relationships took a back seat. I must acknowledge Brittnee Walker for her patience, understanding, and constant motivation and encouragement from day one. She was my biggest cheerleader and always offered encouragement. She defended me when people questioned where I was or why I couldn’t do certain things. She put her own interests to the side for longer than anybody should have to in order to help ensure I was on track to complete the dissertation process. I will be forever grateful. Thank you!
Finally, I must acknowledge my biological family. They raised and helped guide me to be in a position to complete my doctoral studies. They were supportive when I decided to move from our small town to New York City, provided financial support if it was needed, and encouraged me along the way. They understood when I couldn’t come home at certain times because of the work I was doing and deadlines that were approaching. Though I will always be the second Dr. Silvis, as my father is the original
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Dr. Silvis, the honor and privilege is the same and I couldn’t have done it without their support and encouragement.
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Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ...... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...... x
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH ...... 1
Introduction to the Problem ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 3
Purpose and Significance ...... 8
Research Questions ...... 11
Conceptual Framework ...... 11
Definition of Terms...... 14
Assumptions and Limitations ...... 15
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 18
Introduction to Chapter 2 ...... 18
Literature Review...... 21
Summary ...... 53
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 54
Introduction ...... 54
Research Design and Rationale ...... 54
Site and Population ...... 58
Research Methods ...... 67
Ethical Considerations ...... 73
vii
4. FINDINGS, RESULTS, AND INTERPRETATIONS ...... 76
Introduction ...... 76
Findings...... 79
Results and Interpretations ...... 107
Summary ...... 118
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 120
Introduction ...... 120
Conclusions ...... 123
Recommendations ...... 126
Summary ...... 128
LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 131
APPENDIX: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ...... 137
viii
List of Tables
1. City and Township Population and Median Income Levels ...... 60
2. Habana Middle School and National Demographics ...... 62
3. Habana Middle School Teacher Demographics ...... 63
4. Participant Information ...... 66
5. Stages of the Study...... 73
6. Participant Data ...... 78
ix
List of Figures
1. Conceptual map ...... 14
2. Multicultural/Care spectrum ...... 47
x
Abstract
White Teachers Talk about Building Relationships with Students of Color
Ronald J. Silvis, Ed.D.
Drexel University, May 2016
Chairperson: Kristine S. Lewis Grant
Teachers enter the classroom with a particular set of cultural norms and values. These norms and values are often different from the students they teach and can impact the ability for students to succeed in the American K-12 school system. This qualitative research study explored how white suburban middle school teachers attempt to generate authentic teacher-student relationships with their students of color to create a better connection with the school community and help raise classroom achievement. The following questions guided this research: a) How do white teachers create authentic relationships with their students of color in a suburban K-12 middle school?, b) How do white suburban middle school teachers define authentic teacher-student relationships?, and c) How do white suburban middle school teachers help create authentic teacher- student relationships with their students of color in a suburban middle school? Multiple one-on-one interviews were conducted with the teacher participants to determine how they define authentic care, methods and techniques they use to display authentic care and to gain personal narratives of how the white participants authentically connect specifically with students of color in their classrooms. The data demonstrated that there remains a gap in teacher training with respect to diversity and multicultural education, participants at this site utilize advanced communication techniques such as direct dialogue and dialogue journaling to help them authentically connect with their students of color, and participants were able to create meaningful connections with specific students of color in which care was reciprocated from the students onto the teachers.
xi 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Research
Introduction to the Problem
The largest migration of upward socioeconomic mobility for people of color in the United States occurred in the decade following the desegregation of American public schools (Hudson & Holmes, 1994). Hence, the most successful period of upward mobility for people of color in the United States happened over 40 years ago, and it was done by men and women who were educated in schools by teachers of a similar background as they. Hudson and Holmes (1994) suggest that a major factor in this mobility is the quality of education these students received from their teachers because the teachers had the ability to relate and connect to the students in an authentic way that teachers from another background cannot. White teachers, however, can overcome their differences, according to Irvine (1991). She called the disenfranchisement that happens with many students of color a “lack of cultural synchronization” (p. 12). Weinstein,
Tomlinson-Clarke, and Curran (2004) cited this lack of cultural synchronization as the reason for many misunderstandings when it comes to discipline as well. For white teachers to overcome this issue and connect with students of color as their teachers of color do, they need to learn and understand their students of colors’ home culture, language, environment, values, and learning styles (Irvine, 1991). According to Nieto
(2012), white teachers need to change their behavior.
The connection to this topic stems from my upbringing and association with very diverse groups of people. I can remember when I was in sixth grade going to my uncle’s house and being changed socially forever. He was a great lover of history and had an
2 extensive video collection. I saw a set called Shaka , which I asked to borrow. The series was about an African Zulu leader during the time of British colonization. It was a world I had never experienced. I was hooked and developed a great empathy for the
African tribe. My parents, seeing this, steered me towards Alex Haley’s miniseries Roots about the trials and tribulations of his family as they were captured in Africa, were sold into slavery here in America, and eventually purchased their freedom. From this point in my life, I never approached European American Culture quite the same. This is not to say that I am strictly biased against my own birth culture; however, I was now privy to the bias, privilege, and sense of entitlement that often comes along with being white, particularly in a predominantly white area. Throughout my middle school and high school years, I often experienced discrimination and racist undertones from classmates and people I knew. I cannot say for certain these were the true feelings of the particular students or if they were ideologies they heard at home, but the danger, in my opinion, was the same. It was in high school where my transformation truly began. I gravitated towards much more diverse circles, often spending personal time with a separate circle of friends comprising predominantly people of color. This other circle took me to Baptist and Pentecostal church services, spending holidays with families of color, and opening my mind to different foods and art forms. I was still friends with my white classmates with whom I had grown up; however, in my free time when I had control of who I associated with, I was often times the only white person in the group.
Throughout my 12-year teaching career in a suburban middle school, there were several times when I heard teachers describe students of color by the color of their skin.
It was as if their skin was the defining characteristic. I heard many conversations similar
3 to the ones highlighted in the study done by Pollack (2013) on deficit narratives. As our school’s detention supervisor, I received a disproportionate number of students of color in detention. This piqued my interest in how teachers perceived and interacted with their students of color. I want to know if the white teachers at this site possess the knowledge of how to form authentic connections with their students of color and what they saw as impediments to forming these relationships. I aimed to construct a detailed narrative of the site itself to help determine the level of authentic care being displayed, and or reasons for the lack of it.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES; 2014), 50.66% of public K-12 students are students of color. This makes students of color, as a whole, the majority in the American public K-12 system. This is the first time in our history where this can be said. Teacher demographics, however, have not kept pace. The NCES, in the same report, shows that white teachers comprise 83.5% of the public K-12 teacher population. The change in demographics raises questions about the relationships between white teachers and their students of color. This qualitative research study explored how white suburban middle school teachers attempt to generate authentic teacher-student relationships with their students of color. This chapter provides a clear articulation of the statement of the research problem, introduction of the research questions, description of the research study, and a context for subsequent chapters in this dissertation.
Statement of the Problem
Research supports the notion that authentic teacher-student relationships can positively impact classroom achievement. Valenzuela (1999) defined authentic care as showing care for the student, student’s family, and school community as a whole. Rolon-
4
Dow (2005) defined authentic relationships as those built on genuine care for students’ lives, families, and communities. While care theorists place a focus on the student, family, and community, this study focuses solely on the student. Though family and community came up in participant interviews, the subject was explored only as it related to connecting with the students. This was deliberate for this study because the purpose was to determine how teachers define authentic care and to explore methods used by teachers to connect with their students of color.
In a 2012 study conducted by Barile et al. (2012), 8,000 students who represented national demographics were studied to see if authentic relationship-building methods used by their teachers could help increase their classroom achievement. According to the students, a greater connection to the school was created and in turn helped them achieve at higher levels. In a separate study, Bernstein-Yamashiro and Noam (2013) found that middle school students were 47% more likely to be engaged when there was an authentic connection to their teacher. Oreshkina and Greenberg (2010) found that a major factor in underachievement was a feeling of not being connected to others. Because authentic teacher-student relationships have a foundation in care for their students’ lives, families, and communities (rather than just pedagogical issues), these relationships are geared toward achieving the connection that so many students indicate, through studies, is necessary for increased engagement. This engagement can help lead to better achievement in the classroom and can create a true feeling of belonging (Barile et al.,
2012; Bernstein-Yamashiro & Noam, 2013; Oreshkina & Greenberg, 2010). This is of particular importance to students of color, who many times are asked to conform to a
5 system that is primarily rooted in Eurocentric ideals and taught by teachers who are not accustomed to working with diverse populations (Gay, 1999; Giroux, 2005).
A large hurdle of authentic teacher-student relationships can be the perceptions of the teachers and students in the relationship. Studies show that teacher perceptions differed when looking at white students and students of color (Cornbleth & Korth, 1980;
Marcus, Gross, & Seefeldt, 1991). This idea was further articulated by care theorist
Noddings (2013) when she explained perceptions are reality when it comes to how people feel about each other. This can cause students to feel isolated and alienated when that was not the teacher’s intention. Marcus et al. (1991) examined black and white students’ perceptions of teacher treatment and found that black students said their teachers treated them like lower achieving students. Cornbleth and Korth (1980) found that black students were asked lower-level questions than their white counterparts and that teachers, when interviewed, rated their white students higher in participation, communication, and discussion than their black counterparts. This study is of particular significance because it was conducted in the same region of the country as this study. In a more recent study, Seaton (2010) found that when students of color perceived discrimination, they had less motivation, reduced levels of engagement, and lower GPAs.
These studies demonstrate a need and desire by students of color that are not always met.
The need to feel appreciated and to be treated equitably is vital to feeling cared for and connected. The above studies demonstrate the desire for students to be treated equally from a pedagogical standpoint, and students’ perceptions of teachers treating them differently from their white counterparts can have adverse effects on their feeling of
6 connectedness to the school and on their classroom achievement (Cornbleth & Korth,
1980; Marcus et al., 1991; Seaton, 2010).
In contrast to the perceptions of students of color, there is evidence that teachers feel differently. A study conducted by Pollack (2013) set out to explore white teachers’ perceptions of their students of color. What was uncovered was a concept referred to as deficit teaching. The study found that by looking at informal “teacher talk,” a clear pattern of reasons was presented why teachers could justify spending less time with their students of color. Teachers showed a clear pattern of reinforcing stereotypes about their students of color in the classroom and with other teachers. This included lowering expectations, expecting less engagement, and an unwillingness to get to know and understand the students. This creates a culture of apathy, rather than the culture of care that Noddings (1984) explains is necessary for authentic relationships to take root. The findings of the Pollack study support many scholars who explain that teacher preparation programs are not training teachers with multicultural competencies. Teacher preparation programs have a tendency to be Eurocentric and focus on training European-American teachers (Gay, 2005). Programs do not focus on multicultural issues that could help teachers gain knowledge and empathy for working with diverse backgrounds. Because of this, many teachers practice cultural encapsulation, which is the promotion of their culture and an inability to advance others. This in turn socializes the students into the teacher’s culture rather than the teachers into the students, which is needed for authentic connections to occur (Banks, 2001; Blasé, 1986; Gay, 2005; Lytle, 1995).
Much of the current literature on this subject takes place in an urban landscape where students of color are a much larger proportion of the school (Anderson, Nelson,
7
Richardson, Webb, & Young, 2011; Blasé, 1986; Booker-Baker, 2005; Cornbleth &
Korth, 1980; Giroux, 2005; Hampson, Rahman, Brown, Taylor, & Donaldson, 1998;
Irving & Hundley, 2005; Newberry, 2010). The problem with focusing only on large urban areas is that, as indicated above, the student demographics are changing nationwide, and suburban, predominantly white schools will soon experience increasing numbers of students of color. In the suburban setting where a typical classroom might have few students of color, the teacher is much more likely to be a cultural encapsulator, where they are guilty of promoting the dominant white culture and are unwilling to promote others (Banks, 2001). Little research has been conducted on what Valenzuela
(1999) coined as authentic relationships or those that extend beyond the pedagogical care in the suburban setting. Pedagogical care is defined as care for issues such as high standards and clearly defined objectives, none of which focus directly on each student
(Rolon-Dow, 2005). Hence, it is important to examine the perceptions teachers have towards their relationships with their students. This focus should include multi-cultural needs, since research has indicated students of color feel they are being treated differently by their white teachers and these students require a different set of authentic elements in their relationships with their teachers (Nieto, 2012; Noddings, 2013; Rolon-Dow, 2005;
Valenzuela, 1999).
Thus, this study examined the level of awareness current white suburban middle school teachers have about what constitutes an authentic teacher-student relationship and explored the methods and techniques used by these teachers to attain authentic connections with their students of color to increase classroom achievement and make sure all students are learning at the appropriate rate. Teacher perceptions about their students
8 of color and also their perceptions about what they need to generate authentic-teacher student relationships were explored as well, an important aspect of seeing and understanding teachers’ perspectives. Do they blame outside influences for preventing authentic connections, is it a lack of knowledge on their part, or is it a lack of training at the college and/or district level?
Purpose and Significance
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to develop a picture of the multicultural awareness of white teachers as the demographics of our public K-12 schools nationwide are changing. Current data were collected and presented about whether white suburban middle school teachers are aware of the importance of making authentic connections to their students of color, how they attempt to do so, and also any boundaries they perceive that prevents authentic connections from occurring.
This study explored a particular suburban middle school and, through interviewing white teachers at the site who teach students of color, tried to determine several things. The first component was to see how teachers define authentic teacher- student relationships. Their definitions had a bearing on how they attempted to generate authentic connections. The definitions or lack of definitions also provided an indication as to whether teachers were trained in generating authentic teacher-student relationships in their teacher prep programs or are currently trained by their district. An important dynamic to look at was if the teachers had a working understanding of what constitutes authentic relationships, yet for whatever reason were unable to generate them or chose not to. A second component was to examine the perceptions teachers had of their
9 students of color because, according to Noddings (1998), perceptions are reality, and they can have a great impact on how a teacher approaches a particular student. If teachers subscribe to what Pollack (2013) coined deficit narratives, these negative perceptions, often rooted in stereotypes, can have a lasting effect on the teachers’ ability to connect to their students. The final component was to look at the methods and techniques used by white teachers to connect authentically to their students of color to see if there is a certain tool kit of methods that has proven to be effective at this site.
Significance
This dissertation could make the following contribution to research on teacher- student relationships between white teachers and their students of color. This study’s findings have the potential to provide data on a subject in an under-researched setting, important because of the ever-increasing numbers of students of color nationwide in our public K-12 classrooms. It is no longer an urban issue but a national issue. With the teacher demographics remaining constant, students of color in predominantly white schools can find themselves culturally alone. In an article in 2005, Gay stated, “We can’t teach what we don’t know” (p. 113). She was referring to white middle class teachers being able to authentically connect to students of color. If they can connect authentically to students of color, it can be significant in breaking down barriers that are reinforced through racially charged events that appear on the news and are potentially the only understanding that students of color have about white authority figures. Authentic teacher-student relationships between white teachers and students of color in the suburban setting could show students of color that white people in authority positions can
10 be on their side. This study could also support or contradict the notion that authentic care is best when delivered from people of a similar racial background.
Findings from this dissertation have the potential to enhance and or expand the concept of care in education. Ten years ago Rolon-Dow (2005), when talking about multicultural education, said that care tied to pedagogical issues such as high expectations, state standards, and clearly defined objectives are not enough to create a connection between the student and the teacher or school. She and Valenzuela (1999) explained that most schools and teachers focus on this form of care. This study revisited and explored their theories in a different context: from a predominantly white school with a small population of students of color. Taking it a step further, the proposed study uncovered specific methods and techniques being used by white suburban middle school teachers to authentically connect to their students of color. Multicultural education scholars such as Nieto (2012) and Gay (2005) explained that multicultural connections need to be made on a regular basis, and not just in ceremonial cases like Black History
Month. This study explored whether the teachers at this school have a working understanding of this concept or if this is something that needs to be worked into teacher preparation and or professional development programs to help teachers make a better connection to their students of color. This study also looked at the perceptions white teachers have toward their white students and students of color. This contributes to previous studies that show white teachers treated their students of color differently. This can provide further supports for the study conducted by Pollack (2013) on deficit teaching.
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Finally, this study may be important to teachers and school administrators at this research site. Through interviews, definitions were created of what teachers think make up authentic teacher-student relationships. These will invariably have an impact on the methods teachers use to try to create authentic connections with their students of color. In comparing the definitions and methods to current research, teachers and the district can determine if training is needed for their faculty in creating authentic connections. Teachers and school administrators will also be able to learn methods and techniques that have worked for some teachers in creating authentic connections to their students. Other teachers and administrators can use these methods as a foundation to begin creating better authentic connections with their students of color.
Research Questions
• How do white teachers create authentic relationships with their students of color
in a suburban K-12 middle school?
¤ How do white suburban middle school teachers define authentic
teacher-student relationships?
¤ What approaches, techniques, and strategies do white suburban middle
school teachers employ to establish and maintain authentic
relationships with students of color in their classrooms?
Conceptual Framework
Introduction
This section introduces the researcher’s stance as to why this researcher has such a connection to the subject matter. It begins with the researcher’s experience as a professional at the research site and continues with how much the researcher experienced
12 throughout his professional life many of the concepts this study aimed to examine.
The section concludes by taking a detailed look at the conceptual framework that drove this study. A conceptual map outlines the streams of literature and seminal works.
Researcher’s Stance
The researcher’s experiences, as noted in the Introduction to this chapter, led to adopting a critical theory perspective. Critical theorists have a desire for a more rational, enlightened society through a process of critical reflection upon the organization of institutions and ideologies (Alvesson & Willmott, 1996). Critical theorists look to question established social orders, dominating practices, ideologies, discourses, and institutions (Alvessson & Deetz, 2000). In essence, critical theory looks to change society. In this case, it is the society of the dynamic between white teachers and students of color. As a critical theorist, the researcher attempted to use his work as a form of social or cultural criticism (Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994). The main themes found in critical theory writings encompass ideology, power, domination, organizational structure, rationality, interest, communication, and emancipation of actors (Alvesson & Deetz,
2000). The purpose was to ignite and foster organizational change through critical reflection of self and the organization, present through the interview protocol that guided this study.
When conducting interviews, this researcher took a sociological approach.
According to Luttrell (2010), this is when the researcher combines the “what” and the
“how.” In looking at the research questions, this study not only wanted to know what teachers know about authentic relationships, but also how they go about generating them.
Consistent with the sociological approach, the researcher took an authoritative voice
13 when writing the findings. An authoritative approach means the researcher presents excerpts from the interviews with the participants, followed by an analysis and interpretation of what the participants said. The researcher needed to pay attention to the actual words of the participants, the tone, and body language as they were speaking
(Luttrell, 2010; Merriam, 2009).
Conceptual Framework
Noddings (1998, 2013) explained that perceptions are reality when it comes to how students feel about their teachers. She went on to say that if a student feels they are being treated differently, in their mind they are, and if a student feels a teacher does not like them, the teacher does not, in the mind of the student. Many times, students perceive teacher actions and words in a way the teacher did not intend them. This disconnect in interpretation can have a great impact on the relationship between the teacher and the student, and ultimately on student learning and achievement. As we move through the
21 st century and the multicultural population begins to surpass the white population in our
K-12 schools, it is becoming increasingly important for teachers to practice culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2005). Teacher-student relationships that revolve around the aesthetic of teaching will not suffice. Authentic connections are required (Rolon-Dow,
2005; Valenzuela, 1999).
This study attempted to understand the dynamic between white teachers and their students of color in a suburban middle school setting. Qualitative research was gathered in the form of interviews from white suburban middle school teachers. This research was used to explore and examine the perceptions teachers have of the relationships that exist between them and their students of color and explored current methods the teacher
14 participants utilize to attempt to make authentic connections with their students of color. This study approached the subject through the three streams of types of teacher- student relationships, boundaries that prevent authentic teacher-student relationships from occurring, and methods used to create authentic connections (see Figure 1).
Types of Teacher- Boundaries that How to Authentically Student Relationships Prevent Authentic Connections Connect
• Aesthetic • Defined • African Connections Boundaries American and Latino(a) • Culturally • Teacher Teachers Responsive Preparation Connections Programs • Social Justice
• Authentic • Teacher • Specific Connections Perceptions Techniques
Figure 1. Conceptual map.
Definition of Terms
Aesthetic Relationships
Relationships built on pedagogical issues such as rigorous instruction, high
expectations, and test preparation (Valenzuela, 1999)
Authentic Relationships
Relationships built on genuine care for the students’ lives, families, and
community (Rolon-Dow, 2005)
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Boundaries
Anything that could interfere with the ability of teachers and students to generate
authentic relationships (Newberry, 2010)
Care
To look after and provide for the needs of, showing concern or interest and
attaching an importance to something. Noddings (1992) stated caring for and
caring about are the two stages of care. The former deals with the physical act,
and the latter with the intentions to care. Used for motivation to inspire social
justice. There are three necessary components to caring: Relatedness,
Receptivity, and Responsiveness.
Classroom Achievement
Achievement within the students’ classroom in the form of attention, assessments,
work, engagement, and behavior
Students of Color
Multi-cultural and or multi-race students that are non-white (Nieto, 2012).
Assumptions and Limitations
Introduction
The sensitive nature of the subject matter of this study is very important to this researcher. Current K-12 demographic numbers from the NCES further support its importance. Having taught for 12 years in a suburban public middle school, this researcher has observed what have appeared to be improper perceptions and treatment of students of color compared to their white counterparts. The researcher entered this study with the following assumptions.
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Assumptions
The first assumption was that white teachers perceived their students of color differently from their white students. This could be through concrete observation the teacher has attained through classroom activities or personal bias. A second assumption was that a majority of teachers at the site do not have a working understanding of what an authentic teacher-student relationship is. This assumption is due to several factors. The first, having taught in the district for eight years, the subject of authentic relationships was never approached. Also, in the researcher’s own personal teacher preparation courses, the subject was never discussed. Finally, through a conducted pilot study, participants mentioned they had never thought about the subject before and mentioned it was a new concept to them. Thirdly, this researcher expected to find that most of the participants define their relationships with their students in aesthetic terms, in part because that is the school district’s focus during professional development sessions.
Because of the district’s emphasis, teachers spend most of their emotional and physical labor on aesthetic details. A fourth assumption was that the teacher participants have not been trained in making authentic connections with their students of color. This assumption stems from the literature in which many scholars argue that teacher preparation programs are designed for white teachers, by white teachers, to teach white students, and teacher preparation programs do not focus on multicultural competencies
(Gay, 2005; Lytle, 1995; Nieto, 2012). Finally, this researcher approached this study expecting to find that some of the participants do utilize effective methods that create authentic connections.
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Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. The first limitation is that only teachers were interviewed as participants. This means the data were from one part of the teacher-student relationship equation. The purpose of this study was to examine if teachers have the knowledge and methods necessary to generate authentic teacher-student relationships. This did not require student participants. It is the teacher who is the director and architect of these relationships. If the teacher is not willing, or is incapable because they do not possess the desire or skills necessary, the student element becomes irrelevant. A follow-up study would include examination of the teachers who possess the necessary skillset actually utilize it.
A second limitation is that this study looked at one site in particular. This site was chosen because of its unique makeup. It has an urban population and also a very rural population. This unique dynamic could help generate applicable findings.
The third limitation of this study is that because it is a qualitative study, the findings are not generalizable. This was an in-depth study of a particular site. The findings can be directly applied to this site only. The data and findings from this study can be used to build upon our current base of knowledge on authentic teacher-student relationships. Methods and techniques uncovered in this study could be applied to other sites if the findings resonate with the school climate of a particular site.
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Chapter 2: The Literature Review
Introduction to Chapter 2
This chapter presents an extensive review of the literature relevant to teacher- student relationships. The chapter opens with a look at the historical background of segregation in American Public K-12 schools in order to set the table for the discussion.
A contemporary context follows to show the current state of the achievement gap.
Within the literature review itself, there are three major streams of literature. The first stream looks at types of teacher-student relationships. This is followed by a look at methods teachers use or could use to help generate teacher-student relationships that are of the authentic variety. Finally, the chapter ends by exploring identified boundaries that have the potential to inhibit teachers from authentically connecting to their students of color.
Historical Background
Sixty years ago, when the monumental Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of
Education passed, its intentions were to create an education system that was equal for all on the basis of race. The days when students of African descent had to attend segregated, inferiorly funded schools that lacked the resources necessary to provide a “separate but equal” education were supposed to be in the rearview mirror. No longer were only white students supposed to have access to the best schools and resources. From an educational perspective, the United States was intended to truly be one. This landmark case got its roots in the late 1930s when the NAACP adopted new strategies under the direction of
Charles Hamilton Houston to attempt to overturn the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case that
19 created the “separate but equal” status of American schools (Gates, 2011). According to Gates (2011), this new strategy involved showing consistent inequality through several cases that would eventually overturn Plessy v. Ferguson . Common practices at the time were for universities to make their African American students attend classes in different buildings or different rooms. This, the NAACP argued, deprived these students from the intangibles of studying and discussions with classmates that would train them more effectively (Gates, 2011). The Brown v. Board case began with a lawsuit in 1950, when attorney Thurgood Marshall (future chief justice of the supreme court) argued that segregation stigmatized children, giving them labels of inferiority, which Plessy v.
Ferguson was supposed to prevent (Gates, 2011). In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Brown , which overruled the Plessy decision; however, a decision on enforcement of the new law was put off until the following year.
When the decision on enforcement was delivered in 1955, it read that school desegregation must occur with “all deliberate speed” (Gates, 2011, p. 323). A large percentage of white southerners interpreted this to mean slowly or never, and local and state officials did little to enforce the decision. Many schools did not integrate until years after Brown v. Board . Sixty years after the decision that was supposed to close the achievement gap between white and black students, the gap still exists (Cavanaugh,
2009).
Contemporary Context
The achievement gap between white and black students is approximately equal to two grade levels (Nieto, 2007). According to Nieto (2007), schools are the most segregated now than at any time since Brown v. Board . She explained it was not students
20 who created this gap, policy did. This is further supported by the civil rights project at
UCLA (Kotok, Reed, Kuscera, & Orfield, 2014) where they found that since No Child
Left Behind, there has not been a significant increase or decrease in the achievement gap.
The finding supports Nieto by showing evidence of greater segregation and the disappearance of desegregation plans in several regions of the country (Kotok et al.,
2014). In a study conducted by Long (2014), integration led to a 25% fall in black dropout rates. In the study, consisting of kids who attended desegregated schools in the civil rights era, desegregation was said to have led to higher earnings, better health, and better prospects in life (Long, 2014). The evidence found in these studies supports the notion that creating more inclusive environments for all students in schools can have positive consequences.
Theories to explain the gap in achievement between white students and students of color have explored student household climate, socioeconomic conditions, language, and school opportunities (Sosnowski, 2013). For example, Nieto (2012), who is professor emeritus at the University of Massachusetts, and an expert in the area of multicultural education, explained that 85-90% of American teachers are white and mono-lingual. She found that immigrant students who are encouraged to have a positive ethnic identity and speak multiple languages at school have increased mental health and academic records. She also explained how policy and socioeconomics play a role. Urban schools that are predominately attended by students of color are disproportionately underfunded based on our current funding policies (Nieto, 2012). Several of these factors are out of the control of the school; however, each school and each teacher can control the boundaries and depth of their relationships with their students of color. There are
21 many layers and levels to determining what exactly impacts achievement in the K-12 classroom. What impacts achievement for one student may not impact achievement for another. Multiple factors can be in play, and the prospects of singling out the main contributor are very daunting. What is known is that academic achievement is directly related to future wealth, health, and life prospects (Long, 2014). If the achievement gap continues to exist, it could lead to an increase in the vicious cycle of poverty and underachievement that exists within many students of color’s communities. For example, according to the U.S. Department of Education’s office for civil rights (2014), 12% of black students are retained in ninth grade, when the national average for all students is
6%. This review of the literature looks to examine elements that define authentic relationships, explore methods and techniques teachers can use in their classrooms, and break down various boundaries teachers face when establishing authentic relationships with their students of color.
Literature Review
Types of Teacher-Student Relationships
Introduction . In Noddings’s (1992) article, she explained how perceptions are reality when it comes to how students feel about their teachers. “Caring thus becomes an ability to receive another's perception of reality and respond appropriately to the other”
(p. 302). Noddings was saying if a student feels they are being treated differently, in their mind they are, and if a student feels that a teacher does not like them, the teacher does not in the mind of the student (Noddings, 1992). Many times, students perceive teacher actions and words in a way the teacher did not intend. This disconnect in interpretation can have a great impact on the relationship between the teacher and the student. This
22 idea is further supported by Noddings (2013) when she stated that caring involves stepping out of our own personal frame of reference into others. She says we need to consider their point of view, objective needs, and what they expect. In this stream, different types and forms of teacher-student relationships are reviewed.
Aesthetic connections . The word “aesthetic” refers to the physical appearance of the observed subject or object. Rolon-Dow (2005) referred to aesthetic care as care that is limited to pedagogical issues. Valenzuela (1999) further supports this definition when she says aesthetic care in the classroom shows through things like high expectations, clearly defined objectives, and state standards. These aesthetic connections between teachers and students may look good from the outside, and on the surface they appear to be genuine; however, they lack one of the major components of care that Noddings says is necessary. Noddings (1992) defined care by saying there are two stages of care, caring for and caring about. Caring for somebody is the physical act of care. The person can see it, feel it, and experience it. Caring about someone is the intention to care. It is important to care about someone; however, without the other element of physically caring for them, the act of care simply becomes an aesthetic (Noddings, 1992).
Rolon-Dow—White teachers and Hispanic students. The idea of aesthetic care was brought to light in a study by Rolon-Dow (2005) in her study of care between teachers and their Puerto Rican female students in particular. In the study, Rolon-Dow presented several narratives that accentuate the type of care associated with the aesthetics of teaching. In the study that took place in a public middle school, Maria, one of her student participants, acknowledged that the teachers cared for the students. Her response
23 showed how this care was of the aesthetic variety. When speaking on the care teachers have for the students, Maria said:
Most of the teachers, all they want to do is teach the kids and that’s it. . . . But I don’t really think that they actually care, care. Like I’m always there for you and you can talk to me, no. . . . What I’m trying to say is that they care about the kids’ schoolwork, not their personal lives, like what happens at home. (p. 95)
It is clear to see in the quote that the teachers, according to Maria, have great care for school work, but not necessarily for the students themselves. The care for the technical side of teaching is what constitutes aesthetic care. Maria’s perceptions were further supported when a teacher, Mr. Rosenfield, was asked about the surrounding community. Mr. Rosenfield’s response was:
I think [kids have] a lot of problems at home to deal with. Single parents, no- parent families, alcohol problems, drug problems, simply lack of quality parenting. And they bring, they come to school with the neighborhood. In the class it’s reflected in their attitude, the way they talk, the way they dress, excessive use of profanity. We try to, one of the things we try to teach them is to separate the classroom from the neighborhood. I used to say that we try to make this school a home away from home. But I don’t say that anymore because if the home environment isn’t good this isn’t really . . . well maybe it’s a good home away from a bad home. (p. 96)
In the above response we see how this particular teacher separated the students’ community life from their school life. It was as if he was saying one is bad and one is good. This is another example of the aesthetics of teaching. It is the focus on caring about the students as opposed to caring for and about them. According to Rolon-Dow
(2005), when the technical elements alone are the focus, it is as if the teacher is isolating the classroom from the rest of society, which puts the blame for underachievement on the outside influences. She stated that this can be a crutch or excuse for teachers as to why their students are not successful, which takes the blame off them.
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The aesthetics of teaching are important and definitely have a place in the fabric of the K-12 classroom. We can see from Rolon-Dow’s (2005) study that aesthetics alone tend to present, and in some cases, perpetuate perceived problems in our schools.
In the case of Mr. Rosenfield, he used a lack of authentic concern, to blame the community and outside influence for his inability to educate his students. This could cause him to alter the aesthetic elements to his teaching, such as lowering his expectations and rigor in the classroom.
Culturally responsive connections . When it comes to white teachers being able to connect specifically to students of color, several issues can present themselves. As
Rolon-Dow (2005) articulated in her study, the teachers at the school tended to look at the technical elements of teaching and dismissed the cultural elements their students brought with them to the classroom. To achieve the definition of care set by Noddings
(1992), which not only includes caring about the students but also caring for the students, teachers must combine the aesthetic with culturally responsive attitudes.
Teachers of color, when teaching students of color, tend to have cultural synchronization (Irvine, 1991). This can be attributed to higher levels of empathy for each other. White teachers face the problem of cultural asynchronization or not being very culturally responsive (Irvine, 1991). This was explained by Rolon-Dow (2005) when she examined teacher attitudes about the communities and home environments from which their students came. When teachers have this type of mental model, they enhance the feeling of disenfranchisement of their students of color. This disenfranchisement shows up from teachers’ not understanding behavior, learning styles, communication styles, and students’ cognitive learning process (Irvine, 1991). Gay
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(2000) further articulates the problem of a lack of culturally responsive teaching by saying:
The cultures of schools and different ethnic groups are not always completely synchronized. These discontinuities can interfere with students’ academic achievement, in part because how students are accustomed to engaging in intellectual processing, self-presentation, and task performance is different from the processes used in school. (p. 12)
This lack of synchronization between white teachers and students of color can drive a wedge between the two and make forming culturally responsive, authentic connections difficult and will prevent teachers from achieving both levels of care that Noddings explained is critical between teachers and students.
McAllister and Irvine (2002) conducted a study that focused on teachers who had gone through multicultural training to help with cultural responsive teaching in the classroom. The study included 51 teachers and showed that culturally responsive techniques helped increase their positive interactions with diverse student populations, helped create a more supportive climate, and created a more student-centered classroom environment (McAllister & Irvine, 2002). The program comprised three steps to help teachers become more culturally responsive. The first step was self-reflection about their own cultural identities and what they mean. The second phase of the program was a cross-cultural simulation in which the teachers experienced firsthand a new culture as the outsider. The purpose of this was to demonstrate what their students of color experience in a way to generate more empathy. Finally, the third phase was for the teachers to identify what they needed to know about other cultures in order to foster culturally responsive teaching (McAllister & Irvine, 2002). The teachers in the study identified several characteristics that were necessary for teachers to be more culturally responsive to
26 their students of color. These characteristics are sensitivity, patience, tolerance, acceptance, understanding, and openness (McAllister & Irvine, 2002). In the following quote, a white teacher explained how the cultural responsive technique of openness helped him in his interactions with a student of color.
I had a situation yesterday with an [African American] kid who said to me, “If I was White you would let me sit where I want.” Before [the CULTURES program], I would have addressed a comment like that, because that really bothers me and I want to make sure that the kid understands where I’m coming from [as to] why would you label that as a racial issue. But now I think I approach it a little differently. I’m less defensive about it. I’m more attuned to, “you probably really do feel that way,” versus making that statement just to anger me. (p. 440)
The teacher went on to say that the feeling of openness has led to opportunities and space for discussions about sensitive subjects such as race, and his classroom has much more positive interaction and student-centered learning because of it (McAllister & Irvine,
2002).
The ideas of culturally responsive connections are grounded in Ladson-Billings’s
(1995, 2000, 2014) concept of culturally relevant pedagogy. When teachers practice culturally relevant pedagogy they attempt to have a fluid understanding of culture and engage in actively questioning issues of equity and social justice (Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Ladson-Billings (2014) explained that the fluidity of cultural competent teaching is important because it allows students of color to appreciate and celebrate their own culture of origin while gaining knowledge of the fluency of others. The purpose is to learn from each other as opposed to learning about each other. Another aspect of culturally relevant pedagogy is taking the individual life histories of each student into consideration in an attempt to match the home and community culture with the culture of the school (Ladson-
Billings, 1995). According to Ladson-Billings (1995), teachers are better prepared to be
27 culturally relevant if they (a) believe all students can learn, (b) view teaching as an art that is unpredictable and the process is constantly in a state of becoming, and (c) view themselves as part of the school community as opposed to other.
Culturally responsive connections grounded in culturally relevant pedagogy begin to transition from the aesthetic connections grounded in the aesthetics of teaching such as state standards and clearly defined objectives. In the next section of authentic connections, many of the concepts of culturally relevant pedagogy, according to Ladson-
Billings (1995, 2000, 2014), need to be present in order for true authentic connections with all students to be present. If situated on a continuum, culturally responsive connections would fall on the authentic side; however, it is important to keep in mind the concept that culture and relationships are fluid (Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Authentic connections. Common features exist among literature suggesting best practices for building authentic relationships between teachers and students. Newberry
(2010) attempted to look beyond the observed behavior patterns to understand the motivation behind teacher actions. The first conclusion she arrived at was that the more supportive the teachers were, the greater the comfort level was with the students. This shows that teachers who are willing to put forth the emotional labor required will help produce better relationships with their students (Newberry, 2010). The characteristics of emotional labor that teachers can utilize are attunement, being able to relate, being supportive, and having gentle discipline procedures (Newberry, 2010). These practices require teachers to put forth extra effort, and in many cases it can be mentally draining.
This type of relationship building requires districts to provide teachers with time to reflect, discuss, and plan with each other and with their students (Newberry, 2010). With
28 common core standards, PSSA testing, Keystone testing, and financial restraints, it is difficult to find time for these types of exercises. Newberry’s findings support what
Smith (1982) and Nieto (2012) confirm is missing in today’s schools between white teachers and students of color. There is a lack of emotional labor in the form of informal gatherings and attunement, which would help teachers and students relate to each other culturally and authentically. Ladson Billings (2000) also drove this point home when saying authentic relationships require inside knowledge of the student’s background and cultural identity.
Valenzuela (1999) defined authentic care as showing care for the student, student’s family, and school community as a whole. Rolon-Dow (2005) explained care limited to pedagogical care alone, such as high expectations, clearly defined objectives, and state standards, is not good enough; teachers and schools must display authentic care to impact students. Multicultural scholars such as Gay (1999, 2005) and Giroux (2005) discussed the importance of cultural identity and how teachers must have some consciousness of it and implement examples and activities that display this knowledge.
In a case study, Blasé (1986) showed how authentic connections helped teachers move from a rationalization model in which the teachers made adjustments and viewed the students more as pawns or employees to one of humanization, which helped them develop a better socialization perspective. In the case study, a big difference was seen in student achievement and attitudes when the teachers viewed the students as people and took the students’ needs into greater consideration. The case study showed that as the teachers got to know their students better in terms of their needs and problems, they began to care more for their students both inside and outside the classroom. This genuine
29 care for the students outside the classroom in terms of their needs and problems they face are critical elements of authentic teacher-student relationships.
Schools are places/institutions where the next generation is prepared to carry on the traditions and excellence of past generations. It is in essence a place where society produces the future by reproducing the “best” parts of the past. According to Gay (2000), the dominant culture forces the minority cultures to adjust to and fit into the dominant.
The dominant culture does not take the minority perspective into consideration, which contributes to minorities falling further behind. According to Nieto (2012), schools are racist by policy and socialization. Schools are excluding students of color from authentically connecting to the school community if their knowledge, ways of thinking, and reasoning are not included and used in the design of the school’s curriculum.
The need for authentic connections is further supported and defined by other researchers. Irving and Hundley (2005) present the argument that teachers who value and recognize the diversity that all students bring to the educational setting help create a nurturing and supportive environment, which helps increase the academic success of students of color. Hampson and associates (1998) explained that kids with stable nurturing relationships with their teachers and schools have higher comprehension and are more likely to display success. Teachers, they argue, help by promoting the emotional support vital to creating authentic connections.
Rationale for how this stream informs the research. Having an understanding of different types of teacher-student relationships is crucial to change the social culture of our K-12 schools and create the authentic connection both teachers and students indicate is needed. A vital misconception that teachers have is that pedagogical elements such as
30 high expectations and clearly defined objectives help create authentic connections.
The literature clearly shows that more is needed. Gaining an understanding of the elements that make authentic connections will allow teachers to reflect on their current actions and methods to determine if what they do fits the definition. Having a working definition of the elements of authentic care will help teachers adjust and change current practices that do not help them align to best practices. To date, research in this area has largely been conducted in urban schools, where white teachers lead classrooms that predominantly comprise students of color. This study proposes to examine teacher- student relationships in a predominantly white suburban school, where white teachers lead classrooms with as few as one student of color. Considering white teachers’ connections with students of color in this context may provide insight into the ways that context shapes these relationships.
How to Authentically Connect
Introduction . Following Brown v. Board , 38,000 black teachers lost their jobs due to desegregation (Hudson & Holmes, 1994). By 1991, black teachers made up just
8% of the teaching force while black students comprised 16.4% of the student population
(Hudson & Holmes, 1994). Hudson and Holmes (1994) argued that Brown v. Board mainly explored better conditions and facilities, which did not automatically translate into better education. The crucial overlooked factors were the degree of concern and the quality of teaching that existed in African American schools, which was not present in the newly desegregated schools. Hudson and Holmes (1994) also point out that the largest movement of African Americans into middle class status occurred just after the
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Brown v. Board decision, and this upward movement was by people taught in African
American schools.
Segregation-era connections – African American . Teachers of color in segregated schools used many methods to help students of color achieve at high levels.
Though the focus was primarily on African Americans, the concepts and methods used are transferrable to other underserved populations. In the current structure of our K-12 schools, white teachers often steer away from controversial issues such as race and identity. Many times, this prevents productive dialogue that could help break down stereotypes from occurring. In segregation-era schools, teachers of color were much more comfortable engaging their students of color in critical dialogues to help involve these students in their own learning. They were able to connect to their students through personal and political examples of the importance of education to uplift them as people
(Foster, 1990). Current teachers could learn from their examples—presented in this section on methods—to forge meaningful relationships with students of color.
Ramsey (2008) provides more evidence of how teachers of color in segregation- era schools were able to authentically connect to their students of color. Teachers at this time used a model of racial uplifting. This was a way of preventing detrimental images and ideas from shaping the identity students of color had of themselves. Because of their shared experiences, there was a natural support system for each other that was authentic.
Ladson-Billings (2000) explained that this is the opposite of what we typically see today.
Today’s schools are culturally neutral if not euro-centric, which does not value African
American culture and views like the segregated schools did. This was also at the heart of the Rolon-Dow (2005) narrative study with Puerto Rican students. Many of the teachers
32 in her study minimized the need to meet the students on their own cultural terms. They tried to make the Puerto Rican students the study focused on fit into the white cultural mold of what a student should be. The students could see right through this and knew the teachers did not care for them. Ladson Billings (2000) also pointed out that by integrating more culturally relevant teaching examples and methods, white students can also benefit by gaining insight into the experiences of their multicultural peers.
Latino(a) connections. When surveying the literature about how Latino(a) teachers are able to authentically connect to their students, many of the same concepts brought to light from African American teachers were discussed. According to Ochoa
(2007), similarly to how African American teachers used a model of “racial uplifting,”
Latino(a) teachers use a similar model in which they attempt to instill self-confidence, kindness, and respect by lengthening the curriculum to include many positive Latino(a) examples and stories. Urrietta (2009) found that Latino(a) teachers were also similar to
African American teachers by creating places where their students could discuss social issues and acquire critical thinking skills by looking at social justice. As previously mentioned, this is an area about which white teachers often feel very uncomfortable, yet is important for students of color. Urrietta (2009) also found that Latino(a) teachers teaching Latino(a) students had a tremendous sense of the community from which students came and often served as advocates in the community outside the classroom.
This is consistent with care theory and demonstrates to the students that the teachers care for and about them. It also allowed the teachers to gain empathy for their students, students’ families, and communities to which their students belonged.
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White connections with students of color . It would be naive to say that all white teachers have failed to make authentic connections with their students of color, and the research would be remiss if it excluded a search of how white teachers have been successful at creating authentic connections with their students of color. Through the review of the literature, it is interesting to note that many of the white teachers who have written or have been written about in terms of making authentic connections with their students of color have cited and followed many of the suggestions of the multicultural scholars cited in this chapter such as Giroux, Ladson Billings, Rolon-Dow, and Gay.
In their book, Slee and Jupp (2013) provided narratives of white teachers who successfully taught students of color. In an early narrative, a teacher is explaining how just teaching to pedagogy rather than the students was a disaster:
When I started teaching in South Texas through the Alternative Certification Program, I gravely struggled to “hold” students’ attention, “control” their behavior, and “teach” the Texas Essential Elements. My holding attention, controlling behavior, and teaching standards without reference to my students’ lives quickly turned out to be a disaster. (p. 15)
The teacher went on to say later that every time he received new students, this meant there were new needs (p. 16), showing this teacher’s understanding of personalization in order to authentically connect. White teachers also spoke about the need for developing a race-visible professional identity. This identity is developed over time and recognizes race and other identities in ways that help inform the teaching and learning in the classroom. Using this data, the teachers were able to develop curriculum and design lessons that targeted the specific identities of their students. One specific technique many of the white teachers cited was the use of “deliberate dialogue.” This technique appeared through KWL charts, letters or journaling, neighborhood maps, and formative evaluation.
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The teachers then used the information on their students’ backgrounds to design lessons and create curriculum (Slee & Jupp, 2013).
Emily Smith, who recently won the 2015 Donald H. Graves excellence in teaching and writing award, explained how her teaching career was changed forever after a student of color told her, a white female teacher, that she would not understand because she was white. Ms. Smith also reaffirmed national statistics and best practices for multicultural authentic connections when she discussed how her classroom changed. In this first quote, she mentions the barrier students of color face in America’s classroom in finding people like them in the curriculum and in front of the class.
Roughly 80 percent of teachers in the United States today are white. Yet the population of our students is a palette. That means America’s children of color will, for the majority of their school years, not had a teacher who is a reflection of their own image. Most of their school life they will be told what to do and how to do it by someone who is white, and most likely female. Except for a few themed weeks, America’s children of color will read books, watch videos, analyze documents and study historical figures who are also not in their image. (Strauss, 2015, p. 1)
To attempt to authentically connect with her students of color, Ms. Smith made a drastic change in the curricular materials and lesson design of her classroom, as illustrated:
My curriculum from then on shifted. We still did all of the wonderful things that I had already implemented in the classroom, except now the literature, the documents, the videos, the discussions, the images embodied the issues that my children wanted to explore. We studied the works of Sandra Cisneros, Pam Munoz Ryan and Gary Soto, with the intertwined Spanish language and Latino culture — so fluent and deep in the memories of my kids that I saw light in their eyes I had never seen before. We analyzed Langston Hughes’s “Let America be America Again” from the lens of both historical and current events and realized that the United States is still the land that has never been. The land that my kids, after reading an excerpt from Ta-Nehisi Coates’s letter to his son that connected so deeply to their personal experiences, decided they still wanted to believe in. The land they decided to still hope for. The land that one of my kids quietly said would be changed by her generation. A generation of empathy . . . One child cried and told me he never had a teacher who honored the journey his family took
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to the United States. He told me he was not ashamed anymore, but instead proud of the sacrifice his parents made for him. (Strauss, 2015, p. 1)
The above quote demonstrates the implementation of multicultural materials throughout the curriculum, giving autonomy to the students to help co-create the curriculum, and in the case of the young boy at the end shows how an authentic connection was forged by allowing him to explore his story outside the classroom and making it relevant for all.
In her article, “‘My Eyes Have Been Opened:’ White Teacher and Racial
Awareness,” Johnson (2002) provided narratives from six white teachers who teach in very racially diverse schools and were deemed by a panel of experts to be very racially aware. The narratives of the teachers include the importance of specific events such as immersion into communities of color at certain points in their lives, outside the classroom religious practices, and the need for exposure to the “insider” perspective. The teachers in the article all professed they had been ignorant prior to these experiences on the specific needs of their students of color; however, after the experiences, the ideas of
“teaching all kids” brought on new meaning. This idea was summed up best by Carol, a white elementary teacher when she said:
I thought it was wrong to see color. Like the T-shirts that say, “Love Sees No Color.” As I’ve come to learn, you’re missing the person who is that color. You’re missing a big part of that person if you refuse to see it. . . . My eyes have been opened. (Johnson, 2002, p. 160)
There are some techniques and methods the literature points to as being crucial for white teachers to overcome the boundaries they face when attempting to connect with their students of color. According to Blaisdell (2005), complicity is key for white teachers. White teachers need to be able to acknowledge the importance of understanding their whiteness (Blaisdell, 2005). This is the first step to being able to
36 overcome the ills of a color-blind classroom. By acknowledging their whiteness, they will be able to better value differences apart from their own culture and not hold all students to the same standard through their own white lens (Blaisdell, 2005).
Boucher (2016) offered another concept for white teachers to be mindful of as they work towards connections with students of color. Solidarity is key; there needs to be reciprocal sympathy and responsibility, and teachers need to promote mutual responsibility (Boucher, 2016). Mutual responsibility can help white teachers overcome deficiencies such as deficit narratives where they take responsibility off of them and put it on the specific condition they see in their students of color. Boucher (2016) also stated that for social justice to take root, white teachers need to empathize with and care deeply about the students and their communities. If this is present, they have a better chance of eliminating oppressions (Boucher, 2016). According to Boucher (2016), the first step in arriving at this more inclusive space is for white teachers to interrogate and frame their whiteness. They need to talk about themselves and communicate who they are within the society. This will help bridge the differences between themselves as white teachers and their students of color.
The concepts discussed by Boucher (2016) are reaffirmed by Hensfield and
Washington (2012). If white teachers are able to affirm their cultural identity, it gives them a greater ability to stimulate social inquiry (Hensfield & Washington, 2012). They went on to explain that whiteness is a belief system, and if racism is believed to be absent, the conversation gets diverted. Educators who deny the existence of racism are less likely to be sensitive to the cultural needs of students and, thus, continue to promote
37 a color-blind educational experience, which devalues the stories and experiences of multicultural students (Hensfield & Washington, 2012).
Social justice . Nieto (2014) offered several possible reasons for this disconnect.
Her research, supported by NCES statistics, has shown that 85-90% of American teachers are white, middle class, and mono-lingual. Most of these teachers have had little experience with diversity. The key, she said, is social justice. Social justice on the teacher’s part is not defined as being politically correct or bringing in diverse speakers. It is analyzing policy and hiring strategies (Nieto, 2014). Nieto supports the work of many care theorists, such as Noddings and Valenzuela, when she argues that teachers need to get to know the families and communities of their students of color. She said teachers must learn more about the students in their classrooms (Nieto, 2002). Social justice is not just a change in curriculum but in the school climate, values, and expectations. Smith
(1982) supports this when discussing that one problem of predominately white teachers teaching minority students is that the informal out-of-school interactions are eliminated.
These include church meetings and community gatherings.
In a 2010 study, Barile et al. examined the association between teacher policies and achievement as it related to the teacher-student relationship climate. They examined nearly 8,000 students, and the percentage of the population studied was closely related to the demographics of students nationwide. The one novel concept they uncovered was that teacher-student relationships increased if the students had a say in the teacher evaluation. They also saw a direct correlation between better relationships leading to increased math scores and higher graduation rates (Barile et al., 2010).
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Teachers have expressed feeling ill-equipped with methods and techniques for building authentic relationships with their students of color (Aultman, Williams-Johnson,
& Schultz, 2009). One of the foundations of relationship building is care. If the other person feels you genuinely care about them, they will be more receptive to your ideas
(Noddings, 1992). Using Noddings’s definition of care that states authentic care is when a person cares for and cares about somebody, we can divide care into two stages. The former, caring for somebody deals with the physical act, and the latter, caring about, is concerned with the intentions to care. Noddings (1994) went on to say that the three components needed in care to effect social change are relatedness, receptivity, and responsiveness. To display genuine care, Noddings uncovered that teachers must initiate and be totally engrossed in what their students are hearing, seeing, and feeling (Noddings,
1984). She indicated that authentic relationships between teachers and students must be built on trust and on cooperatively constructing classroom objectives (Noddings, 1998).
These ideas are further supported by Epstein (2009) in her article on multicultural education in which she explained that social justice in the curriculum requires establishing community (relatedness), crossing boarders (responsiveness), and student leadership (receptivity).
Looking at relatedness, white teachers who teach students of color often have difficult times relating to their students authentically. Empathy needs to be established for the students, their families, and the communities in which they live. Thinking back to
Mr. Rosenfield in the Rolon-Dow (2005) study, he dismissed the home lives, cultures, and native language of his Puerto Rican students. Had he taken the time to visit the community, be seen at events in the community, used examples and scenarios that
39 welcomed varying ethnic perspectives, or even attempted to speak Spanish or bring in
Spanish-speaking examples, he would have been much more likely to relate to his Puerto
Rican students, and perhaps Maria would not have said that she did not think the teachers cared for the students. Mr. Rosenfield, by gaining empathy for his students and relating to them, could learn that the Hispanic culture does not approach things the same way white European culture does. Gaining this perspective could help Mr. Rosenfield be more culturally responsive in the classroom as Noddings (1994) says is needed. The final idea that Noddings presents as being needed for genuine care for social change is cooperatively constructed objectives, which would fall under Epstein’s (2010) notion of student leadership. Having the authentic knowledge of his students outside the school day could help Mr. Rosenfield understand better and be more receptive to his students’ ideas. This could allow him to ask for their advice, or see what they think about a particular activity or speaker. This collaboration could serve as one of the key elements of authentic care to ignite social change.
Specific techniques. The concept of dialogue journaling is a method that can be used to create a culture of care in the classroom. Anderson et al. (2011) conducted a case study with middle school students using the dialogue journaling method to see its impact.
They selected a few students who had been struggling in class and began using the technique. They provide several guidelines teachers should follow when responding to student entries. The elements of a proper journal response should begin with specific praise. By making it specific, the student knows time was taken to read their response.
Teachers were told to ask the students to respond by asking “why” and “how,” so the conversation would continue. The final element had teachers make a request of the
40 student. A teacher should ask the student to do something, for example can you interview two people about our class content by next week and write about it (Anderson et al., 2011)? The case study found that students who had good interactions with their teachers in their journals rated their relationships with their teachers higher (Anderson et al., 2011). This is also an informal way white teachers can attempt to learn more about the communities and families of their students of color.
A second technique that teachers and districts are adopting in their schools is the model of hospitality. This model is used in reference to teachers being a true host to their learners (Schiewer, 2013). According to Schiewer (2013), we need to make the guest feel comfortable, which deals with the design and set-up of the classroom. Secondly, teachers need to “check for allergies,” which means teachers need to know their students’ family backgrounds, social or emotional issues, learning styles, and interests. The third step in the hospitality model is for teachers to offer directions. Students need a roadmap in order to succeed. Finally, teachers must protect their students from other students.
This entails creating a safe and friendly environment with clear expectations and policies.
The idea behind the hospitality model is to become fully present and engaged with students. This presence and engagement helps the teachers demonstrate care for the students and not just care about the students, which is needed for authentic connections to take root (Noddings, 1994).
Many Ivy League universities have turned to mentors to help students of color assimilate into the university culture. Students of color have indicated the importance of these mentors in helping them feel more welcome, allowing them to have somebody with whom they can speak candidly about issues and problems they are facing. Wiggan
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(2008) explained that teacher practice is the most influential impact the school can have on students. This concept reaffirms the importance of authentic connections in the classroom to help students feel connected. According to Kaplan and Maeher (1999), a mentor model displayed by teachers can help create an environment that is warm and supportive. According to a study conducted by Slack, Johnson, Dodor, and Woods
(2013), during the 2010-2011 school year at a suburban middle school, the elements needed for a successful mentoring program are building a relationship that includes recognizing and respecting cultural and gender differences. This is confirmed in the following statement found in the study.
Mentors need to exhibit cultural awareness and respect their mentees as both individuals and members of larger social constructs . . . [requiring] certain attributes or abilities, including selflessness, active listening skills, honesty, a non- judgmental attitude, persistence, patience, and an appreciation for diversity. (p. 3)
In the study, the authors pointed out that this type of mentoring was very successful with
African American males. Building the authentic relationships helped generate motivation in the students and led to greater success (Slack et al., 2013). Mentoring can help create the authentic care students of color need to help build their esteem and foster a connection to the school.
Rationale for how this stream informs the research. African American teachers had great success in teaching their African American students in segregation-era schools. Much of this can be attributed to their ability to authentically connect to their students. By understanding the politics and conditions of their students, they were able to provide culturally relevant instruction that connected students to the schools in ways current white teachers are struggling to do. Authentic relationships create a culture of
42 care in which the teacher and student play equal parts in the equation (Noddings,
1998). Students who universally feel a connection to their school achieve higher in the classroom, graduate at a higher rate, and have fewer discipline problems (Oreshkina &
Greenberg, 2010). Teachers in general do not feel as though they have the proper tools in their toolkits to properly and comfortably generate authentic relationships with their students (Aultman et al., 2009). There are many reasons for this, including, but not limited to, a lack of time and willingness to put in the emotional labor, lack of professional code of conduct for educators, and local district policies (Aultman et al.,
2009).
Students are confronted with many global and local phenomena that did not exist
20 years ago. According to the above referenced literature, there is a need for a safe caring environment where students can feel an authentic connection to their teachers.
This cannot happen unless teachers are provided with some universal techniques they can incorporate into their classrooms (Aultman et al., 2009). Care limited to pedagogical issues is not enough. Teacher-student relationships need to be of the authentic variety where teachers become engrossed in what their students are hearing, seeing, and feeling
(Noddings, 1984, 1992; Rolon-Dow, 2005; Valenzuela, 1998). This requires teachers to gain an understanding of their students’ families and communities outside the school setting, which will help create the necessary attunement (Smith, 1982). The subject of forming authentic relationships between students and teachers is a relatively new one.
Noddings’s (1984) seminal work on care theory in the mid-1980s was one of the first studies on relationship building between teachers and students. According to Rolon-Dow
(2005) and Valenzuela (1999), more research needs to be done on best practices and
43 methods that successfully generate positive relationships in the classroom with a focus on increasing achievement. The studies of techniques and methods used by teachers of color can help guide the research to see if white teachers are equipped to authentically connect to their students of color.
Boundaries That Prevent Authentic Connections
Introduction . Many professional organizations and disciplines have a professional code of conduct. An example of this would be lawyer-client confidentiality.
Aultman et al. (2009), in their study of the boundaries that prevent teachers from generating teacher-student relationships, cited the lack of a uniform system and toolkit of methods as a major factor inhibiting the relationships. For effective authentic teacher- student relationships to take root, we must work within the boundaries of the K-12 system. One problem with this is that most school districts operate under their own local codes and policies, which differ across localities, states, and the country (Aultman et al.,
2009).
Defined boundaries . In their phenomenological study, Aultman et al. (2009) found that there is a widespread difference in how teachers defined these boundaries.
They uncovered many different types of boundaries that need to be manipulated in order to create authentic teacher-student relationships. The identified boundaries include the following.
• Cultural Boundaries
• Emotional Boundaries
• Personal Boundaries
• Temporal Boundaries
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• Power Boundaries
The cultural boundaries deal with students and teachers coming into schools with different cultural norms and expectations. Cultural boundaries are further complicated by the fact that 83.4% of the American teaching force at the K-12 level are white, middle class, and mono-lingual (NCES, 2014). This causes many potential issues as our student population becomes increasingly diverse. When authentically connecting with students of color, the cultural boundary can become a major obstacle to the teacher becoming culturally responsive (Gay, 2000). This was very evident in the narratives written by
Rolon-Dow (2005) in which the teachers discussed their ignorance towards Hispanic
(Puerto Rican more specifically) culture and how it impacted the students’ learning styles.
Aultman et al.’s (2009) study defined emotional boundaries as those that deal with interpretation of behaviors and ways of reacting. Emotional boundaries become very important when looking at perceptions. A lack of empathy and understanding of the cultural norms and values of the students create this disconnect. The study indicated that teachers were unwilling to put in the emotional labor mainly due to an unwillingness to put in the time necessary to fully understand all their students’ differences. They indicated they would like the district to provide time (Aultman et al., 2009).
Personal boundaries are when teachers were unwilling to let students into their personal lives. The study also uncovered that older teachers are less willing to offer their students personal information, whereas younger teachers did not see this as a major boundary. A co-created collaborative curriculum and crossing borders require personal communication between teachers and their students (Epstein, 2009; Noddings, 1992).
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Temporal boundaries deal with the needs of children within a classroom and often can be accounted for by gaining the cultural and emotional knowledge needed
(Aultman et al., 2009). Power boundaries exist in some classrooms, which occurs when teachers are reluctant to give up power in the classroom. Based on the literature of what makes for authentic connections in a multicultural classroom, one of the key components is student leadership and trust (Epstein, 2009; Noddings, 1992). This cannot be fostered if teachers are unwilling to give a voice to their students.
Finally, perhaps the largest boundary according to the study was a lack of expertise. Teachers indicated they had no training in the area of authentic relationship building with their students. The district never talked about it, and they did not feel comfortable about knowing best practices, and where and how to draw the line (Aultman et al., 2009). This is an example of the policy change that Nieto argued is needed for social justice. This is also an example of why Nieto said schools are racist and classist, not by intention, but by result (Nieto, 2007).
Teacher preparation. A boundary that cannot be overlooked is how the United
States prepares teachers. As a scholar of multicultural education, Gay (2005) indicated that teacher preparation programs in the United States are designed to prepare white middle class teachers to teach white middle class students. She said what is missing is an infusion of multicultural issues in all courses of teacher preparation. There needs to be an emphasis put on this issue. Gay went on to discuss how training in multicultural education would encourage teachers to be less afraid to have genuine dialogue about racial issues, something she indicated students of color require. This idea is further supported by Noddings (2013) when she stated that caring involves stepping out of our
46 own personal frame of reference into others. She said we need to consider their point of view, objective needs, and what they expect. This is difficult to do if teachers are not trained in their teacher preparation courses in how to do so.
There are several drawbacks to the current state of teacher preparation as it relates to teachers being able to authentically connect to their students of color. In the suburban setting where the majority of the teachers are white and students are white, issues of culture and racial differences can be magnified. When teachers are not used to nor trained in how to work with diverse students, the problem cannot be addressed.
Literature states that the school’s social climate needs to be reformed for social equity
(Banks, 2001). Most teachers, when they begin their careers, are cultural encapsulators
(Banks, 2001). This means they tend to promote their own culture and are unwilling to advance others. This is because their own culture is what they know and familiar with.
In the case of white culture, it is how they were educated themselves. Teacher preparation programs have the ability, if done correctly, to help teachers move through the multicultural spectrum. The next step in the spectrum is bi-culturalism, which is the ability to step into other shoes (Bank, 2001). Becoming multicultural or reflective nationalists means teachers make a commitment to empathy and a genuine concern for others. The final and ultimate step along the multicultural spectrum is becoming a globalist (Banks, 2001). If teachers reach this stage, it means they will display equal concern for all groups and thus help change the social climate of the school, steering it toward equality (Banks, 2001). Figure 2 displays the type of care shown by teachers at each phase along the multicultural spectrum.
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Care Aesthetic Authentic I------I MC Spectrum Encapsulator Bi-Cultural Multicultural Global Source: Banks (2001)
Figure 2. Multicultural/Care spectrum.
Teacher preparation programs are a great place to begin the social transformation of our K-12 schools. One way to do this, according to Britzman (1986), is to allow teachers to uncover their own biases, allowing them to be able to understand where their ideals originate. This self-reflection exercise can help teachers overcome some of their personal bias. Gay (1999) illustrated her further support of the notion of self-reflection in teacher preparation programs when she discussed the importance of identity. Individual identities are tied to race, culture, gender, and/or religion. Identity construction is very important in understanding who one is. Students are socialized into the school culture through the cultural ideologies of their teachers. Giroux (2005) pointed to teachers being able to make localized changes to this school culture through the addition of multicultural activities and examples and by drawing on the experiences of diverse students. If teachers are stuck in the cultural encapsulation phase of the multicultural spectrum, they will not have the ability to make these suggested minor changes. However, if teacher preparation programs can help future teachers advance through the spectrum and ultimately reach the globalism phase, they can begin to change the social culture of our
K-12 schools by decreasing their personal bias and increasing their multicultural empathy, which can help promote a more inclusive environment for all students (Banks,
2001; Britzman, 1986; Gay, 1999; Giroux, 2005).
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In her book, Crossing over to Canaan , Ladson-Billings (2001) spoke extensively to the state of teacher preparation as it relates to being able to teach students of color. According to Ladson-Billings (2001), of the 35,000 education faculty members in the United States, nearly 88% of them are white and between the ages of 45 and 65.
She also informed that diversity in today’s schools is no longer but the physical race of a person, as was the focus in the 1960s. In today’s classroom diversity also includes linguistic, racial, ability, and economics. Students of color have a difficult time achieving high when they are asked to conform to a set of norms or be someone they are not. This happens in part, according to Ladson-Billings (2001), because schools tend to imitate rather than innovate.
The problem is compounded by teachers leaving teacher preparation programs unprepared to teach diverse students because districts tend to focus on the curriculum and learning side of school in professional development sessions as opposed to the teaching side (Ladson-Billings, 2001). For teachers to successfully teach students of color, teachers need to know how to teach the content to the learner, and all learners are different (Ladson-Billings, 2001). Based on the teacher demographics nationwide, the average teacher has no idea what it is like to be a minority in the numerical or political sense. To be able to teach the content to the learner, teachers need to be trained to take responsibility to understand culture and its role in education and for learning about students’ culture and community; teachers must then use the student cultures in lesson design and must promote the flexible use of culture within the classroom (Ladson-
Billings, 2001).
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Perceptions . In a 2013 article, Pollack wrote about a concept called deficit narratives. The purpose of the study was to uncover the “teacher talk” that occurs in many public K-12 schools and show how teacher perceptions can lead to deficit teaching to students of color, which essentially lowers the expectation of the students based on these perceptions (Pollack, 2013). In one case, Pollack (2013) described a teacher who told another teacher “Don’t worry about Darnell. Just let him sleep; this is the most sleep he probably gets” (p. 866). The teacher then points to the family being on welfare and the criminal past of Darnell’s brother. On the surface, this may show concern for
Darnell; however, the author explained that this is deficit thinking and an attempt to rationalize why the teacher is not responsible for all students. Pollack also pointed to coded language that made it apparent the teachers were referencing students of color in an exclusionary manner such as “ghetto Safeway” or “rough area” (p. 882). Pollack
(2013) went on to explain that most white people, particularly those entering the field of education have had little or no authentic connections to communities of color. As a result, they accept negative stereotypes like the one presented above, which reinforces this deficit approach.
This observation is supported by Booker-Baker (2005) when she explained that if teachers feel kids cannot learn, the teacher is less likely to provide the student with rigorous academic opportunities. When this deficit model is used, teachers fail to consider the learning styles and strengths that students of color can bring to the equation.
Teachers are trying to force students of color to conform to the Eurocentric system that serve as the foundation of K-12 schools. Booker-Baker further explained that the
50 negative perceptions teachers have of their students of color contribute to poor performance. Teachers need to be more culturally sensitive in order to teach all students.
One of the first studies conducted on teacher perceptions of white and black students was conducted by Cornbleth and Korth (1980); they looked at the perceptions and interactions between teachers and their white and black students. The study was conducted in a suburban middle school near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Their study brought in trained observers to middle school classrooms and had them document communication patterns, participation, teacher feedback, questioning techniques, and teacher-student discussions. The observers found that black students were asked lower level questions than their white counterparts (Cornbleth & Korth, 1980). The teachers, when interviewed, rated their white students higher in participation, communication, and discussion than their black counterparts (Cornbleth & Korth, 1980). The observers also found that some teachers interpreted some behaviors differently depending on the race of the student (Cornbleth & Korth, 1980). In another study, Oresshkina and Greenberg
(2010) found that teachers said positive teacher-student relationships revealed increases in classroom achievement, social behavior, and school adjustment. Their research also found teachers saying that underachievement was a result of an emotional state of not being connected to the school, and that positive teacher-student relationships helped students feel more connected.
Eleven years after this first study, Marcus et al. (1991) conducted research that looked at Black and White students’ perceptions of teacher treatment. The study was conducted in a suburban middle school and the researchers made sure the students understood the questions being asked prior to answering. When interviewed, the students
51 were separated from teachers and administrators to help curb any bias, and students that were selected had similar academic achievement levels. When interviewed, the black students said they felt their teachers treated them like lower achieving kids (Marcus et al., 1991). White students, when interviewed, said they did not perceive any type of bias or preferential treatment from their teachers (Marcus et al., 1991). With both teachers and students perceiving different treatment depending on race, the next piece of the puzzle would be to determine if positive relationships between teachers and students could help increase achievement.
A 2002 public gender survey found that a lack of a connection to a caring adult was cited as a major factor in failure and dropout rates (Berstein-Yamashiro & Noam,
2013). Seaton (2010) found that students who had perceptions of teachers discriminating lacked motivation, had lower GPAs, and lower levels of engagement. Berstein-
Yamashiro and Noam (2013) found that 62% of all kids said they want a relationship with schools. These relationships were found to be linked to increases in motivation, learning, attitudes, test scores, and lower rates of students being retained within grade levels. Middle school students were found to be 47% more engaged when there was a positive relationship with their teacher. Students reported that feeling a connection to the school caused them to be more likely to succeed. When asked by Berstein-Yamashiro and Noam (2013) what students desired from their teachers that would help create positive relationships, students responded by indicating a desire for trust, responsibility, and to be spoken to honestly and with dignity and respect.
Rationale for how this stream informs the research . Just as multicultural scholars believe perceptions are reality, the same needs to be true for teachers. If our
52 public K-12 teachers truly perceive certain boundaries are preventing them from being able to “care for” their students of color rather than to simply “care about” them, work must be done to remove the boundaries. With an understanding of the elements that get in the way of teachers connecting authentically to their students—such as failure to break down personal boundaries, and a willingness to demonstrate the emotional effort
(Aultman et al., 2009)—teachers and districts can begin to plan and coordinate ways of manipulating these boundaries. Where and how the teachers of the United States are trained is also important to note. If teacher preparation programs do not include multicultural courses, as Gay (2005) suggested, this could be used to further support
Nieto’s (2012) concept of institutional racism. With an awareness of potential barriers in conjunction with what constitutes authentic connections and methods to create authentic connections, we can begin to create a school system that displays authentic care for all of its students.
The studies conducted by various researchers about how teachers and students perceive each other will prove vital to this research. Students of color very clearly indicated that their white teachers treated than differently from their white counterparts
(Booker-Baker, 2005; Cornbleth & Korth, 1980; Marcus et al., 1991; Pollack, 2013).
Teachers clearly believe that an authentic connection to the school will help increase achievement (Oresshkina & Greenberg, 2010). If perceptions are reality, as Noddings
(1992) indicated, then it is important to uncover any disconnect between the intention of the teachers and the methods used in conducting their class.
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Summary
Research shows there is a connection between positive teacher-student relationships and increasing classroom achievement (Barile et al., 2012; Berstein-
Yamashiro & Noam, 2013; Heacox, 2005; Hudson & Holmes, 1994; Long, 2014; Nieto,
2007, 2014). Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy (1986) stated that teachers’ race and background tells students something about the authority and power in contemporary America, which influences attitudes toward school and academic accomplishment. By acquiring knowledge about what the key elements of authentic connections are and gaining an understanding of the boundaries that hinder authentic connections from occurring, white teachers could gain the tools required to authentically connect to their students of color. The interviews and studies conducted by the researchers noted in this chapter indicate relationships are at least a contributing factor to increasing classroom achievement.
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Chapter 3: Research Methodology
Introduction
This chapter presents an overview of the research design and methodologies. The chapter begins by looking at the research questions that were the focal point of the study.
Following a description of the questions, a detailed look at the research design and rationale is provided. The site and population of the study followed by research methods and ethical concerns for the study round out the chapter. By the end of this chapter, the reader will have a clear picture of the conducted research, who was involved, how it was conducted, and the timeframe for the study.
This study focused on addressing the following questions.
• How do white teachers create authentic relationships with their students of color
in a suburban K-12 middle school?
¤ How do white suburban middle school teachers define authentic
teacher-student relationships?
¤ What approaches, techniques, and strategies do white suburban middle
school teachers employ to establish and maintain authentic
relationships with students of color in their classrooms?
Research Design and Rationale
This study examined white teachers’ thoughts and perceptions about creating authentic relationships with their students of color. The narrative research design worked best when exploring this topic. Snowden (2003) explained that narrative design is beneficial when you want to examine how people make meaning and sense of their lived
55 experiences. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) discussed how narrative design is useful when studying how humans experience an event or the world and that educational settings are ideal for narrative design because they are organizations of human experiences, intentions, motivations, and interpretations. The human experience this study examined is how white teachers make sense of their interactions and abilities to form authentic relationships with students of color through in-depth personal interviews.
Merriam (2009) stated that first-person accounts are the stories that will comprise the narratives and the main form of data collection is through in-depth interview transcripts. This study aimed to explore and understand the experiences that white teachers have in trying to understand and create authentic relationships with their students of color. Luttrel (2010) explained that interviews serve as a form of oral history. She further explained that it is the job of the researcher to bring the words and body language of participants to life to convey the meaning of their narratives. This study also called for narrative design because each participant is enabled or constrained by their social resources and circumstances. This means each participant brought a different voice and perspective that was analyzed across the narratives (Luttrel, 2010).
Foster (1993), whose concepts were used as a model in this study, provided an excellent example of how narrative design can be used to paint a rich picture of the subject being studied. In her works, she explains how interviews serve as a way to engage with participants and interact with the dialogue that will ultimately tell the story.
This provides the researcher with an opportunity to engage in dialogue around responses that are offered, allowing for a more in-depth story of the event to be created. Narrative design in this study allowed the researcher to engage the participants in their personal
56 backgrounds by discussing the influences from participant pasts that helped shape their teaching careers. This dialogue between the participants and the researcher also allowed for differences in participant teaching experiences to help tell the story. Foster (1993) referred to this type of interviewing as life and career histories.
Role of the Researcher
According to Merriam (2009), the role of the researcher in a qualitative study is that of the instrument. The researcher becomes the speaker for the voice of the participants. It is the researcher who will uncover the data and retell the story of the participants. Banks (2010) mentioned that we all have cultural norms based on where we came from, what we experienced, and what we have seen. All of our cultural norms have the ability to impact the findings of a qualitative study because they are how we make sense of the world. It is not only my cultural norms as the researcher that could impact the study, but also the cultural norms of the participants. For example, if a participant had negative experiences with people of color in the past, their perceptions could have been skewed. Growing up in the same geographic area where this study was conducted, my social group consisted primarily of people of color, though the general population was 90% white. Culturally speaking, this researcher always associated with music, dress, and activities that were often viewed as “non-white” by the white mainstream of the area.
This put me in situations where I was often the minority, which gave me unique insight.
As a result, I tend to view situations from a holistic and inclusive perspective. As I progress through my adult life, there is a very good chance that if or when I have children, they will be of a mixed race or multicultural. This creates a great deal of ownership in wanting to explore the research questions.
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Narrative design is often used when the researcher has experienced a particular event they want to explore more deeply (Merriam, 2009). For me, this occurred in my past work environment when hearing teachers use color as an adjective or seeing a disproportionate number of students of color in detention. I became a teacher because I wanted to contribute to making the lives of all students better. For me, there seemed to be such an emphasis put on the inclusion of students with cognitive learning disabilities and nothing about including all students period. Unfortunately, for many, the “learning disability” they have is the color of their skin. This may not be by design, and many teachers may be ignorant or turn a blind eye to it; however, the numbers support the claim. This is also a reason I chose to teach history. I knew from my own experience that history is taught from the perspective of the “winners” and the history taught is not the history of everybody, and in many cases if taught mono-culturally can reinforce stereotypes. I knew it would give me a forum to help tell the whole story rather than the story of who won. Being close and passionate to the subject being studied, judgments needed to be suspended when conducting interviews. To accurately present the meaning of the narratives, the study was approached with an open heart and mind. The purpose of this study was to see if teachers have the tools to connect to their students of color and how they attempt to utilize these tools. The study also examined the topic from multiple perspectives, which according to Merriam (2009), is essential in a narrative study.
I am very qualified to conduct this dissertation study at Habana Middle School.
To accurately perform this narrative study, it was imperative to go into the world of my teacher subjects. I had spent the past eight years of my professional life in their shoes as a colleague. Having been raised, educated, socialized, and taught in the school where this
58 study occurred provided me with a unique look and ability to relate and connect to my participants. I had already immersed myself in their world and had gained their acceptance and trust, which helped lead to the rich narrative I was after. I have no professional power of influence over their work environment, which alleviated any feelings of coercion, and judging from the body language of my participants, they were very comfortable speaking with me. I was very candid with my participants, and also informed them that this was not an evaluative study. We also discussed the importance of honesty and candor. Since I used pseudonyms for my participants, site, and community, I am not afraid to report accurate data. I believe in social justice and equity.
It is much more important to me than the negative portrayal of a town, site, or participant.
This knowledge, along with my personal multicultural experiences, allowed me the unique perspective of being able to relate to both perspectives of the study and helped me understand what the true meaning of the talk between us was. All of this helped create the rich descriptive narrative that a good qualitative study required (Creswell, 2012).
Site and Population
Introduction
This section provides a detailed description of the research site. It consists of a description of the site, population, and geographic summary of the area. The researcher looked for several characteristics to diversify the study and get the full narrative. The section concludes with an explanation of how the researcher gained access to the site to conduct this study.
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Site Description
The research site was a suburban middle school located in the Northeastern part of the United States identified as Habana-Fuego Middle School. Habana-Fuego Middle
School (HMS) comprises two very diverse geographic areas, which make it unique. The city of Habana, which is the largest city in the county and serves as the county seat, makes up half the school’s population. The city of Habana is a very old town, which dates back to the 1700s. There is a large downtown area, which consists of the courthouse, many restaurants, and small local businesses. The city itself is sectioned into several neighborhoods; however, each neighborhood is very diverse in terms of socio- economic status, race, and age of the inhabitants. There is not a “rich” section of town nor a “poor” section of town; however, there is a population that lives below the poverty line and a population that is financially well above everyone living in close proximity.
The second geographic region that makes up HMS is Fuego Township. Fuego Township is a very rural area that is extremely large geographically and consists of many family farms and trailer park-living communities. Fuego Township is a very close-knit township. Many developers have attempted to purchase lands from the family farms in order to industrialize the area; however, they have been met with great resistance. The township is much less diverse socioeconomically and racially than the city of Habana, which brings two groups of people with different cultural norms together under one roof.
Table 1 displays statistical data about the geography and median household incomes.
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Table 1
City and Township Population and Median Income Levels
City of Habana Fuego Township State
Population 14,660 6,939
Square Miles 4.20 47.8
Median Income $40, 451.00 $44, 045.00 $52,007.00
Source: City-Data.com
The district itself is structured in a way that represents the population of the district. There are three elementary schools, two of which are located in the City of
Habana and one located in Fuego Township. The unique element of the district is that all three elementary schools combine into one middle school, which is located in the heart of downtown Habana. In the school is the first time many of these students associate with their peers from other geographic areas of the district. After leaving middle school, all students attend one high school, also located in the City of Habana. The Fuego students are bussed in from the township. Habana Middle School as a whole has a building score of 77.5 out of 100 according to the Value Added Assessment Score (VAAS). Within this building score, the school has exceeded growth in math and science and has shown a slight regression in reading and writing. In 2013-2014, Habana Middle School met expectations on the standardized state tests in writing, reading, and science, and exceeded expectation in math (SSP, 2014).
The school building is led by three administrators, two male and one female, all white, and none with more than 20 years of experience. The physical space of the school
61 consists of three floors, which allows for the natural separation into teams that is part of the middle school model. The first floor is made up of eighth-grade classrooms, seventh grade is on the second floor, and sixth grade is on the top floor. Because of this separation, all students are in close proximity to their peers and teachers. Walking through the halls of HMS, one will see a plethora of different groups of kids based on many defining characteristics, such as athletes, musical, artistic, academic, hip-hop, rock etc. The great diversity in interests is due in part to the unique situation of the city and township coming together under one roof.
The teacher population of the school comprises 40 teachers and staff members.
According to the School Performance Portfolio (SPP, 2015), the average length of service is 11.24 years and HMS is made of 100% highly qualified teachers. The teaching staff is
100% white, with a majority of the faculty being women from the area where the school is located. With an average of 11.24 years of experience, the staff is relatively young.
Many teachers are very focused on the aesthetic of teaching such as high standards, homework, grades, and discipline referrals. A pilot study uncovered there are also teachers who seem to be more balanced between the authentic elements of teaching, like creating empathy for students and trying to get to know and understand their students, and the aesthetic.
Table 2 reports that there are 640 students who attend HMS with 88.28% of them identifying as white, and 11.72% identifying as being a student of color. The percentages of students of color breaks down to 1.09% Hispanic, 1.41% Asian, 4.38% Black, and
4.84% multiracial, with the majority of them living in the City of Habana. There is a great mix between city and country kids, which has created a bit of a friendly rivalry
62 within the school. The HMS student population also consists of 41.41% of students being economically disadvantaged, 15.62% identified as special education, and 7.5% as gifted. The students at the school generally get along, and there have not been any openly racial or socioeconomic divisions within the school during the past eight years.
During the 2013-2014 school year, 64.9% of the students attending detention identified themselves as white, and 35.1% identified themselves as students of color.
Table 2
Habana Middle School and National Demographics
HMS National
Number of Students 640
% identified as White 88.28 49.34
% identified as Student of 11.72 50.66
Color
% economically 41.41
Disadvantaged
Average number of years of 11.24 15
teacher experience
% highly qualified teachers 100 94
% Gifted 7.5 6-10 on average
Source: NCES (2014); SPP (2015)
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Table 3
Habana Middle School Teacher Demographics
Number of Teachers 40
Percent of white teachers 100
Percent Highly Qualified 100
Number of Male Teachers 12
Number of Female Teachers 28
Source: SPP 2015
According to Nieto (2012), the teacher composition of the school is very representative of schools across the country; 85-90% of public school teachers in the
United States are white, middle class, and monolingual (Nieto, 2012). The latest NCES statistics indicate the study site is no different; white teachers comprise 83.5% of public
K-12 staff nationwide (NCES, 2014). The student population that these teachers are responsible for is more diverse than the raw statistical data would indicate. HMS is a unique school in that half the district is comprised of the City of Habana, which is the largest city in the county, and half by Fuego Township, which is a very rural farming community. HMS is very socioeconomically diverse, with 41.41% of the student population being identified as economically disadvantaged. There is also a percentage of the population that is economically very comfortable.
Participants
Purposeful sampling is used when research subjects’ experiences fit certain criteria (Merriam 2009). For this study, the criteria were that participants teach at a
64 suburban middle school, are white, and have students of color in their classroom.
According to Creswell (2012), purposeful sampling is used by researchers to intentionally select individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon. Purposeful sampling helped generate information-rich data because participants were chosen who fit the above criteria.
The purposeful sampling approach used was homogeneous sampling. According to Creswell (2012), this is used when you select people because they have similar traits or characteristics. This study purposefully selected subjects based on membership in a subgroup that has defining characteristics. In this study, the characteristics were teachers identified as being white, teaching in a suburban middle school, and also having students of color and white students in their classrooms. Participants in this study were HMS public middle school teachers. The participants were a cross-section of teachers representing the entire building comprising a mix of sixth, seventh, and eighth grade teachers. It was important to explore if there were any differences across grade levels, as the students were at very different points in their development in the middle school setting. Male and female, veteran and new teachers, were invited to take part in the study. Using a diverse mix of subjects allowed this study to generate a rich narrative.
Ten teachers were part of the study, which makes up 25% of the teaching faculty.
There were three from eighth grade, three from seventh grade, three from sixth grade, and one teacher who taught a mix of all the grades. Five males and five females were selected. The school has a diverse staff in terms of service time, so this researcher also selected teachers within the grade levels who were at different points in their career. This was important to help determine if age or service time of the teacher had any bearing on
65 their ability to connect to their students. Using teachers at different points in their careers could also shed light on if teacher preparation programs are addressing the issue of authentic teacher-student relationships. This surfaced in the responses to the questions that asked teachers to define what such relationships looked like to them.
To further diversify the population, this researcher selected teachers involved in extra-curricular activities and some who were not. Many teachers also doubled up as coaches, sponsors, and chaperones, allowing them to spend additional time with students and perhaps get to know them much better and more authentically. This out-of-class experience could impact the way teachers worked with kids in their classroom. It was interesting to see how extra-curricular involvement with students outside the traditional classroom setting impacted how teachers attempted to generate authentic relationships with their students.
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Table 4
Participant Information
Name Years of Grade Level Subject Extra-
Service Curriculars
Zoe 9 7th Language Arts Detention Supv.
Molly 3 6-8 Health/Phys. Ed. None
Flora 23 8th Science None
Becca 4 6th Math None
Gabby 23 8th Language Arts Writing Camp
Wade 15 8th Science Athletic Coach
Henry 5 7th Social Studies Athletic Coach
Karl 8 6th Science/Social Studies Athletic Coach
Peter 5 6th Learning Support Athletic Coach
Nevin 24 7th Technology Ed. None
Source: Participant Interviews
Site Access
I am fortunate in that I used to work in the building with the teachers who were part of the research. To gain access to the site, I reached out to the building principal and asked for permission to use the site. Since teachers were my primary participants, I could conduct all my interviews outside the building and outside of school hours. I secured permission to use the site in case an interview needed to be conducted at the school by presenting the principal with a letter that included my intentions, and he agreed to grant
67 permission for my study. I was sure to convey to him that the results would be confidential and that neither the district nor any employees would be addressed by name.
The next step was to speak with my targeted participants and ask if they were willing to participate. After receiving IRB approval, my initial contact was through an e- mail that explained my dissertation study. Once they agreed, I sent along the formal consent form. The consent form described the purpose of the study, what their participation entailed, and the rights they had as participants. Participants were asked to select a safe location where anonymity could be protected and to select a date and time that was outside the regular school day. This study did not interrupt the day-to-day operations of Habana Middle School or the professional responsibilities of its teachers.
Research Methods
Introduction
The method of data collection that fit with a narrative design was one-on-one interviews. For this study, I began by explaining the study’s purpose and participants’ rights. This helped me create a comfortable feeling where they knew they could trust what was said would remain anonymous. The initial contact and consent by participants was generated through e-mail correspondence. Once together, the participants were given a physical consent form that reiterated our verbal agreement. Any questions or concerns raised by the participants were addressed at that time, and key rights were reviewed (such as their participation was voluntary, and they did not need to answer any question that made them feel uncomfortable).
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Stages of Data Collection and Analysis
Stage one of the data collection involved conducting two participant interviews with each participant. The first interview took place at a date, time, and location of the participants’ choosing and was face-to-face. Participants were able to select where they felt most comfortable. Four of them chose to have the interview at their house, two participants decided to have the interviews at my house, and four participants decided to have the interviews in their classrooms after the school day was over. They were informed prior to making these decisions that interviews should occur in a private place to protect their identity. The location also needed to be quiet and comfortable because the researcher needed to record the interviews and interviewee and they would be about an hour in duration. It was the researcher’s responsibility after attaining this information to further ensure the safety of the location. Participants only knew the general subject of the interviews. It was important that steps were taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. The interviews were kept to places where outside observers or bystanders were absent. The reliability of the narrative could have been compromised by the known presence of a third party, causing the participants apprehension. The privacy measure helped the participants relax and ideally not be afraid to open up and speak candidly. The second interview in the data collection process occurred via phone.
Participants’ rights were communicated to make sure they understood they were not obligated to answer. They should not have felt coerced. Coercion was also reduced because of the researcher’s outsider status compared to the organization. Though the researcher used to work in the building, he has no power of authority in the district or over the participants. Anonymity was ensured through each participant being referred to
69 by a pseudonym so they cannot be identified. This information remains on an encrypted password-protected computer and will do so for upwards of three years in case an audit is required. Transcriptions and electronic data are being stored on an encrypted password-protected computer that only the researcher can access. These measures helped create an environment that made participants feel relaxed; thus, our informal conversations generated a much richer narrative.
The interviews themselves ranged between 30 and 50 minutes. After conducting a small pilot study, it was decided that two interview sessions would work best as opposed to one because of the sensitive nature of the research questions, and also to achieve the proper depth needed. The first round of interviews was composed of questions to determine how the teachers defined authentic relationships with their students and what authentic care looked like in general in their classroom. The second interview shifted gears and focused on authentic care with regard to students of color specifically. Interviews were digitally recorded. Recording allowed for active listening at a higher level, which also helped generate additional questions. The interview protocol is included in the Appendix.
The beginning questions were generally descriptive questions structured to help participants feel comfortable. From there, questions built upon one another in a cumulative fashion to help answer the guiding research questions and generate a rich narrative. Questions were structured in a way to help participants feel like experts. This was important to get the narrative of what authentic relationship-building looks like in their classroom because they were made to feel like they were educating the researcher rather than being probed for data. During the pilot study, interviews lasted approximately
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40 minutes and produced rich data about how authentic relationships were defined and how they were formed. The initial interview protocol did not generate a rich discussion about how and if multicultural students were treated differently than others or if there was a difference in perceptions of multicultural students. These results helped create the new interview protocol and determine that two interviews would be best. This study did not include the participants from the pilot study because they would be entering the interview with prior knowledge of what the researcher was asking, which could help influence their responses. The researcher wanted the participant responses to be as organic as possible.
Stage two of the data collection featured the transcription of each interview.
Interviews were transcribed shortly after each interview was conducted. Transcribing the interviews helped create an initial pass of the data analysis and an early look at possible codes. Stage two was a long tedious process; however, taking time and ensuring each interview was transcribed accurately was one of the most important steps in data collection.
In stage three, transcriptions of the interviews were analyzed and separated into codes. From the literature, the researcher gained certain concepts and ideas for what codes could be, for example “aesthetic care” and “authentic care.” The first stage of coding was the open coding phase, which was used to create large categories that seemed to jump out of the data. This was done by first reading the transcripts and highlighting data that stood out or seemed to tell a story. A second pass of the transcripts was then conducted and notes were written in the margins based on the highlighted sections of the transcript. The third pass of the transcript was made and the notes in the margins were transcribed in a word document with notes that connected them to the literature. Finally,
71 an analytical memo was written based on the initial passes of the transcriptions. Once the data were separated into large themes, the next stage of analysis begun.
Stage four entailed deeper analysis of the data collected. Once the open codes were categorized, the data were broken into smaller axial or analytical codes that fit under each theme. For example, if teachers defined authentic care differently, their definitions may all have been categorized as authentic care; however, it may have been applied differently, requiring an expansion of the code structure. The researcher had to combine, collapse, and generate new codes as he progressed through the participant interviews. As more and more data were analyzed, new concepts, ideas, and codes presented themselves. This was a constantly evolving work in progress, and the initial framework of codes looked vastly different from the final version. This type of coding is used when interpreting what the respondent said. The researcher was creating a family tree of data based on the responses from the interviews. Once the data were coded, the codes were used to interpret what each teacher said and what their answers meant with regard to the questions asked. The data interpretation occurred by looking for areas where certain codes were present and, in some cases, where they were noticeably absent.
The researcher also looked for consistency and inconsistency between the participant responses and between the participants themselves. Stage four was very crucial to the validity of this study.
According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2012), many qualitative studies fall short because of an inadequate analysis of the data. They explain that one way to offset this problem is to use “member checks.” To enhance the self-audit of this study, member checks were utilized to check for validity. Following the data analysis, participants were
72 asked to review the transcripts of their interviews to determine if what they said was transcribed accurately. Specifically, participants were asked if the researcher accurately interpreted and captured their experience, which helped ensure their words and meanings were interpreted correctly (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012). To ensure validity of the study, triangulation occurred through digitally recorded interviews, hand-written notes, interview transcriptions, and the member check process.
Stage one of the data collection process began following the approval by the IRB at the end of October; and interviews began at Thanksgiving 2015. Stage two was underway throughout stage one, meaning that the researcher began transcriptions immediately so the interviews were still fresh. Stages one and two were completed by early January 2016. The timeframe was due to the ability to schedule and conduct the interviews when participants were available. Stages three and four took careful planning and time. One month was needed to code and analyze the data carefully and accurately.
Stages three and four were completed by mid-February 2016.
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Table 5
Stages of the Study
Date Activity
September – 2015 Defend Proposal
End of October – 2015 Gain IRB approval
November and December 2015 Conduct participant interviews and transcribe the
interviews.
January, February 2016 Complete all levels of coding and analysis of interview
transcriptions.
February and March 2016 Write and revise Chapters 4 and 5
April and May 2016 Circulate dissertation to committee and defend
dissertation
June, 2016 Commencement
Ethical Considerations
Introduction
Several ethical concerns needed to be addressed when conducting this qualitative study. First, care needed to be taken to ensure nobody was physically or emotionally put in harm’s way. Secondly, coercion in the form of participants feeling obligated to answer certain ways needed to be addressed so it would not impact the reliability of the data.
Finally, great measures needed to be taken to protect the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants.
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Seeking IRB approval served a key function. IRB approval helped make sure that the risks and benefits of this study were properly assessed without bias. It was very important that an independent third party comb through the proposed methods to ensure that nobody was being put in harm’s way. The IRB can do this more objectively than the researcher.
One ethical issue was the fact that this study focused on former colleagues. Care was used not to jeopardize the relationships that have been established. There are several ways this was prevented. First of all, the presentation to them was crucial. The participants needed to understand that they could say no. Refusal to answer would not impact the professional relationships built over the years. Participants were made aware that there were no right or wrong answers and that they were not being judged or evaluated. They knew that the purpose was to simply gather information about how they viewed things and what they did in their classroom. Secondly, they were informed that identities would be protected, which was done through the creation of pseudonyms for each participant and by explaining the security measures of password-protected data storage. Thirdly, they were informed that narrative design is simply to paint a picture of a particular site or experience that occurs in a particular site. The site was further protected by my referencing the region of the country it is in rather than the state or city itself. Finally, the research questions looked at what teachers do. They were not evaluative in nature. An extra measure to increase transparency with participants and ensure the validity of the study was using member checks. As suggested by Bloomberg and Volpe (2012), copies of the transcriptions were sent to participants and feedback collected to ensure the proper interpretation of their words and comments.
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The participants were informed of how the researcher would protect their confidentiality. According to Russ-Eft and Preskill (2009), when collecting qualitative data, one method the researcher can use is coding the data. The researcher provided each participant in this study with a numerical code and pseudonym. Their name was kept in an encrypted password-protected Excel file and will be held for at least three years in case an issue comes up; however, the researcher is the only person who knows this information. Participants will be known by a pseudonym when referenced in the research report. The school where the study is conducted will also remain anonymous. Any reference to the school will be through the name Habana-Fuego Middle School or HMS.
Participants’ rights were protected in several ways. The first way was through making participation voluntary. All participants granted informed consent before they were included. Each participant received an informed consent waiver they signed. The consent form also took into account the protection of making my research subject centered and helped avoid coercion. They needed to know that failure to participate would have no ill effects on them.
An ethical concern dealt with the reliability of the data collected. The researcher made sure to pilot any final interview protocols with some teachers from other buildings and get their feedback. If participants did not understand the question(s), the results would have been unreliable. Without this oversight, if the researcher gave the interview to the participants, most of the data collected could be unreliable and the study invalid.
This was avoided by searching for current protocols that could be used and also by continuing to pilot any self-made interviews until they were refined to gather the narrative data needed to answer the research questions.
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Chapter 4: Findings, Results, and Interpretations
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine how 10 white suburban middle school teachers perceived and approached the development of authentic caring relationships with students of color. To this end, the guiding research question reads: How do white teachers create authentic relationships with their students of color in a suburban K-12 middle school? Two sub-questions were posed:
1. How do white suburban middle school teachers define authentic teacher-
student relationships?
2. What approaches, techniques, and strategies do white suburban middle
school teachers employ to establish and maintain authentic relationships
with students of color in their classrooms?
As mentioned in Chapter 1, I spent 12 years as a white teacher, teaching in a suburban middle school, eight of which occurred at the research site. Throughout the eight years, I heard instances of deficit narratives in the halls and teacher lounges, and as detention supervisor at the school, I witnessed a disproportionate number of students of color attending detention each week. These events piqued my interest in the teacher- student dynamics at the school. I was curious if these issues were by design, misinterpretation, or simply coincidental. As a teacher in the building who prided myself on bringing in multicultural competent material and strove to establish a classroom built on tolerance and equity, I am the ideal person to collect, analyze, and interpret data for this study.
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This qualitative study employed a narrative design. Each of the middle school teachers participated in two one-hour interview sessions. The first interview session focused primarily on authentic teacher-student relationships in general. The interviews attempted to determine how each participant defined the term “authentic,” if participants had a working understanding of authentic care, how participants attempted to apply the term in their classrooms, and the importance participants placed on creating authentic teacher-student relationships. The second session switched gears and focused on the multicultural element of the study. In this session, participants discussed perceptions of the students of color they had in their classrooms, specific strategies and techniques they have used to build relationships with specific students of color in their classes, and boundaries they encountered in efforts to authentically connect with students of color.
Table 6 displays a snapshot of each teacher who took part in this study. The chart identifies each teacher’s length of service, current grade level, subject matter, and leadership positions outside of the classroom. In addition, the table indicates what the teachers identified as influences on their decisions to become teachers and any training in the area of diversity.
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Table 6
Participant Data
Participant Service/Grade Subject Extra- Diversity Training Level Curricular Zoe 9 years / 7 th Language Detention One graduate course, and one district grade Arts Supervisor training. Focus on White privilege. Molly 3 years / 6-8th Health and None One district training. Focus on White grade Physical privilege Education Flora 23 years / 8 th Science None One district training. Focus on White grade privilege Becca 5 years / 6 th Math None One district training. Focus on White grade privilege Gabby 23 years / 8 th Language Writing One district training. Focus on White grade Arts Camp privilege Wade 15 years / 8 th Science Athletic No Diversity Training grade Coach Henry 5 years / 7 th Social Athletic One district training. Focus on White grade Studies Coach privilege Karl 8 years / 6 th Science/Soci Athletic One district training. Focus on White grade al Studies Coach privilege Peter 5 years / 6 th Learning Athletic One district training. Focus on White grade Support Coach privilege Nevin 24 years / 7 th Technology None One district training. Focus on White grade Education privilege
Table 6 shows the diversity amongst the participants. Participants included five women and five men, with wide-ranging years of service. Molly, the newest to the teaching profession, was in her third year, whereas Nevin, the most experienced, was in his 24 th . Participants covered every middle school grade and subject, including all four major subject areas, special education, and special areas. There was also diversity within participants’ extra-curricular activities. These activities ranged from academic activities such as writing camp, to athletics, to detention supervisor. All of these additional assignments provided participants with increased opportunity to spend time with students. It is also important to note that of the 10 participants, only one, Zoe, ever had a
80 course on diversity during her teacher prep program. None of the other participants had ever been trained prior to starting their teaching careers. Habana-Fuego school district provided one, one-hour training session, which revolved around the concept of white privilege.
Data analysis began with transcription. Interviews were transcribed upon completion by the researcher. Transcriptions were sent to the participants to check for accuracy. Initial codes came from the literature and notes were taken during the transcription process. Transcripts were read over no fewer than four times each to reduce the number of codes and clarify emergent themes. The key themes were then examined and clarified in analytical memos based on each interview session. Clear themes and concepts emerged, which began to paint pictures of the participants at this particular research site. Themes relevant to the guiding research questions are presented in this chapter.
The remainder of this chapter is divided into three sections: Findings, Results and
Interpretation, and Summary. The Findings section is organized around two major themes with clear connections to the research questions: authentic teacher-student relationships and authentic relationships with students of color. Second, the Results and
Interpretation section examines the findings in light of relevant research literature.
Finally, this chapter concludes with a brief summary.
Findings
The findings are presented in two sections. The first section explores how participants define authentic teacher-student relationships. Participants discussed how to create authentic teacher-student relationships. Analysis of the data revealed three major
81 themes: treating students as people; learning about the backgrounds of students; and displaying trust, safety, and a sense of community. Treating students as people refers to acknowledging that there is more to the individual than just a student in a seat. It is approaching them holistically as a human first, student second. Learning about student backgrounds provided participants with data on their students they could use when presenting lessons. Creating a sense of community allowed students to feel comfortable to be able to respectfully question and learn from each other. The second section provides concrete examples of how participants described authentic connections with specific students of color.
Participants were able to articulate different methods they attempted to create authentic connections with their students of color. The second section revolves around four themes: wrestling with the concept of race, using various forms of written communication with students, transferring coaching skills to connect with students, and drawing on personal background experiences. Participants acknowledged having trouble with race when it came to connecting with students in the first theme. Advanced communication techniques with students such as dialogue journaling were found to be effective in the second section. Coaches talked about the additional time with students as a platform to get to know about the students more holistically. Finally, one participant used her experience of being marginalized by the greater society as a way to relate and connect with her students of color.
Authentic Teacher – Student Relationships
When asked, “What do authentic teacher-student relationships look like in your classroom?” all 10 participants talked about the importance of communication.
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Participants emphasized different aspects of communication. Zoe and Karl highlighted how they talked to students by treating students as people . Peter, Molly, Gabby, and
Wade underscored what they talk about when communicating with students, specifically learning about the students’ backgrounds and families. Becca stressed the importance of trust, safety, and community in the classroom.
Within this, teachers differed on the motives behind the establishment of teacher- student relationships. The majority of teachers’ motives were authentic, grounded in their care for students (Noddings, 1992; Rolon-Dow, 2005; Valenzuela, 1999). The remaining teachers described teacher-student relationships in more aesthetic terms, seeing their relationships with students as a means to manage their classrooms and facilitate student learning (Noddings, 1992; Valenzuela, 1999).
Treat students as people. Zoe is a seventh grade language arts teacher. In her response to what an authentic teacher-student relationship looks like in her classroom, she spoke about the importance of treating the students as people:
I see that in the kids. If you just talk to them [students] like they're people and don't talk down to them. There's a back and forth. You have to have some interest in the kid too. You can't just totally be listening halfway. You have to care. You do have to care and express some interest. (Interview 1)
Zoe specifically stated that she attempts to “talk to them [students] like they are people.” She explained what this does not entail before elaborating on what it means to treat students like people. To Zoe, establishing a teacher-student relationship means that the teacher does not talk down to students. Talking down to students is “one-way” communication where the teachers talk and students listen. This undermines genuine communication, what Zoe sees as involving a “back and forth” and active “listening.”
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The “back and forth” communication that Zoe described shows there is “two-way” communication taking place. Zoe treats students as people by actively listening and engaging in what students are telling her so she can show her interest and respond to them appropriately. She strives to establish relationships with students by showing that she cares for them as people.
Nevin is in his 24 th year of teaching technology education at the middle school.
His response to defining authentic teacher-student relationships had similar themes to what Zoe mentioned above. When asked to define an authentic teacher-student relationship, Nevin offered:
There’s respect, but it’s a collaboration, not just not me dishing out the information. I have to learn about the kid as much as the kid has to learn about the subject. Not giving up, not having a one size fits all. That’s, you know, it’s fun, respectful. (Interview 1)
Nevin’s definition of authentic teacher-student relationships involves “respect” and
“collaboration.” Respect seems to be very important to Nevin when trying to generate authentic relationships with his students. To clarify, Nevin is not saying the students need to respect him. He attempts to display respect towards his students, which helps foster the collaboration and respect he discussed. Nevin believes he needs to learn as much about the students as they need to learn about the subject. In other words, he tries to learn from the students as much as they attempt to learn from him. He cannot treat his students as the same, or take what he calls a “having a one size fits all” approach. He believes respect and collaboration with students leads to a fun learning experience.
Karl made it clear that he tries to differentiate between the typical teacher talk where students are treated simply as a student in the classroom and “real dialogue,” as he
84 called it, where he approaches the students as individual human beings with lives outside the classroom. Karl explained:
There needs to be real conversation and dialogue as there is to teacher conversations. The genuine dialogue that you have with the kid and being true and honest with the kid, gives you a better chance of being able to connect with that kid and carry on a long-term relationship with them. (Interview 1)
Similar to Zoe, Karl placed an emphasis on communication in the development of authentic teacher-student relationships. He referred to “real conversation” and “genuine dialogue” with students. In addition to communication, Karl identified “truth and honesty” as important elements when it comes to “a better chance of being able to connect with the kid.” Karl attempts to get to know “the kids,” his students, as individuals. He views them as more than just a name or face in his classroom.
Moreover, Karl sees his connections with students as “long-term relationships,” not just for the length of the class or the academic year.
To further complement Zoe and Karl, Henry also described the importance of treating students as individuals. Henry, a seventh grade social studies teacher, revealed his approach to establishing relationships with students:
I feel like if I open up to them, and they can understand me as a person, they're going to be much more open about themselves. Just making connections with those students where they see you more than just a teacher, but as a real person that cares about them. (Interview 1)
Henry talked about the importance of students being able to feel like they can open up and let him into their lives, which goes way beyond the aesthetic curricular information that Henry may desire. He does this by attempting to show his students that he is a “real person” and not just a teacher. In this case, Henry is actually modeling for his students the authentic care that he has for them. His students are able to see, feel, and experience
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Henry letting them into his personal life. Henry indicated that it then makes it much easier for students to reciprocate and allows him to get to know their personal lives. This also shows that Henry does not want to treat his students as just students. He wants to know who they are as a person.
Henry went on to speak about teachers he knows who have trouble authentically connecting with students. He stated:
It's either that they have a hard time letting their own guard down or they just see it as, I'm the professional. You're the student. You have to do what I tell you to do, and that's the way it's going to be. . . . There's no gray area. It's all black and white, and that's hard—like, students don't get that. They don't—they're not going to trust you if you don't give them a little bit of leeway once in a while or—you know. (Interview 1)
In this statement, Henry spoke to many elements of authentic care that are noticeably absent for some teachers. For starters, he talked about teachers viewing the relationship in terms of power when he talked about the difference in roles between teachers and students. This creates a separation and distance between the two. He also mentioned that such separation will prevent students from opening up and trusting you if it is always a one-way relationship. He indicated that these teachers also address their students in a manner that puts the blame on the students for under performance as opposed to being able to reflect internally.
Flora is a veteran eighth grade science teacher with 23 years of teaching experience at the research site. Flora stated that sometimes she has trouble letting her guard down and being more flexible, but that she has seen great results when she is able to do so. This is what she said when asked what an authentic teacher-student relationship looks like to her:
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There is a mutual respect between myself and them. Uh, me not having you know this arrogant approach to anything, but also them recognizing that I’m the adult and they’re the child. (Interview 1)
In this statement, Flora discussed the relationships in terms of respect. Flora seems to be concerned with the power structure of the classroom, which would be an aesthetic measure. She also indicated that she defines the relationship through classroom behavior.
Later in the interview, Flora spoke to the importance she has seen when she is able to open up to her students.
I allow myself to let them enter my life . . . And so that allows me then oftentimes to enter their life . . . His (referring to a specific student) family went to my church, so I would actually see him outside of school, as well. So, there were some connections outside of school. (Interview 1)
In the above short narrative, Flora talked about the importance of letting students know about her life and, in return, learning about them. This reciprocation can indicate that students feel safe and comfortable. It is also an example of care being shown that can be seen, felt, and experienced (Noddings, 1992). Flora also mentioned continuing the connections into community events such as church services. Valenzuela (1999) explained that this is one way to help foster authentic teacher-student relationships. Flora also spoke to a two-way connection with the students where the students reciprocate.
Learn about students’ backgrounds . Peter is a sixth grade learning support teacher in his fourth year of teaching. When asked what an authentic teacher-student relationship looked like to him, Peter responded, “In my classroom I like to, like I said, get to know the students on a personal level and understand them personally, where they come from, what they do outside of school” (Interview 1). Peter was very clear when he stated that he tries to get to know the students on “a personal level.” Peter wants to know
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“where they come from” and “what they do outside of school.” This in is line with elements of Noddings’s (1992) definition of authentic care. When Peter seeks to gain this information from the students, he has a greater chance of being able to relate, being receptive, and being responsive to their needs. It has the potential to show them that he is not only concerned about academics. Peter is not alone in stressing the importance of knowing about the students outside the classroom as much as inside.
Molly is in her fourth year of teaching at the middle school and she teaches health and physical education to all three grade levels. When asked about what authentic teacher-student relationships look like in her classroom, Molly responded:
Well, just at the beginning of class before you even get started having a conversation with the kid about what’s going on at home, how was their weekend, um, interests that they have, if they’re involved in sports or course programs, knowing more about the students rather than just do they have an A or do they have a B in your class. Throughout the semester I try to think, like, oh, I haven’t made a connection with this kid yet, so I’ll take time out just to talk to them more. But most of them, it’s not just in the school day. Like, I’ve gone to football games over the weekends and their basketball games after school just making a little extra time to connect with all of them. (Interview 1)
Molly stressed the importance of getting to know the students on a personal level, their situations, and interests outside of school. She went a step further than Peter and explained that she actually keeps a journal of with whom she has or has not made a connection. This conscientious and intentional approach shows the importance that she puts on showing the students she genuinely cares about them. Molly seeks to establish relationships with her students by inquiring about their personal lives. She attends her students’ extra-curricular events. This shows her students that she is willing to put in her own time to take an interest in what they are involved in outside of her classroom. She
88 took it further and stated that it is more important to her to know about her students as individual people as opposed to the grade they are earning in her classroom.
Gabby is in her 23 rd year of teaching eighth grade language arts. She stated that, through her 23 years of teaching and her time in college, she could not remember one course or training that focused on building relationships with students. When asked what an authentic teacher-student relationship looks like in her classroom, her lack of training was not apparent. With a lot of passion, she remarked:
I like to talk to them [students]. I don't look at it [teaching] like a job. I like to know about their [students’] lives. I think the teacher has to love kids. I think you have to, honestly, just be invested in their lives. And I don't know if it would be the same if I were a math teacher. I don't know how you just teach math for that full hour. When do you have time to even interact with [the] kids? When we read a story, there's always personal connection. (Interview 1)
Gabby does not view her position and her relationships with her students as a job. She seems to genuinely care for them and enjoys getting to know her students. She “likes to talk to [students].” She stated that teachers have “to love kids” and “honestly just be invested in their lives.” Gabby uses subject content to make personal connections and time to interact with the students. She finds storytelling to be an optimal approach to connecting with students.
Wade was very clear when he stated that authentic teacher-student relationships go way beyond the curriculum. He even referenced that some teachers cannot go beyond the curriculum when trying to connect to students and these are the teachers who are always wondering why they are having problems with certain students. When I asked him what an authentic teacher-student relationship looks like to him, Wade specifically said:
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I think an authentic teacher-student relationship will look like one that it goes beyond your classroom. It’s out in the halls. It’s knowing the kid’s mom, dad, brother, sisters, knowing something about them, knowing their likes, dislikes. If you’re not connecting with them on that level, then you can be the best teacher in the world, but it’s probably not going to matter inside your classroom. You got to get to know the kid to see what is going to be the most beneficial for that student and then you got to make it happen as a teacher. And that’s a little bit a work on the teacher’s part, but that’s why you’re in the profession. (Interview 1)
Wade stated clearly the importance of authentic teacher-student relationships. He asserted that it does not matter how good of a teacher you are; it will not matter if you do not have that personal connection. Wade made an important distinction that other participants left out; he specifically talked about the need to get to know the families of his students as part of forming an authentic teacher-student relationship, which is corroborated by Valenzuela (1999). Wade also highlighted many of the ideas earlier participants spoke about when he listed getting to know students’ family members, along with the students’ likes and dislikes. To know “what’s most beneficial for the student,”
Wade explained that he stepped beyond the four walls of his classroom. He did this by being in the halls between classes and talking to students.
Trust, safety, and community. Becca is a sixth grade math teacher that puts a great focus on creating a community like environment in her classroom. She portrayed authentic teacher-student relationships:
I think it starts with—it’s not the academic learning that takes place, but it’s the developing that trust and that relationship and making them feel comfortable that they can talk to you. And especially at the age that I teach, there’s so much awkwardness with that age and the hormones and that feeling accepted and coming together as three different schools that don’t really know each other, where they fit in, and watching that develop. But I will look for that and try to develop that community feel in our classroom where everyone feels safe to say what they feel like saying, even if it’s not something they would say outside of the class, but giving them that freedom to-to remain respectful to each other, but to feel okay with questioning each other too. (Interview 1)
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Becca clearly stated that the academic learning is secondary when it comes to authentic teacher-student relationships. She spoke about developing trust, making students feel safe and comfortable, and creating a community environment. She acknowledged the unique circumstance facing students—experiencing adolescent development (“so much awkwardness with that age and the hormones”) and a new school environment (“feeling accepted and coming together from three different schools”). Becca showed great sensitivity and sees her role as the teacher to facilitate student-to-student relationships.
She wants to give students the “freedom to remain respectful to each other” as well as to feel comfortable to respectfully question each other about issues.
In summary, this first finding on authentic teacher-student relationships explored several themes related to communication. Several participants spoke about the importance of treating their students as the individual people they are, beyond just a student in the classroom. Other participants spoke about the importance of getting to know their students and learning about their personal backgrounds. Becca spoke directly about creating a community feel where students can feel safe and comfortable.
Throughout all the descriptions of authentic teacher-student relationships in the participants’ classrooms, adjectives such as mutual respect, collaboration, trust, and honesty were present in one form or another. While most participants’ descriptions of teacher-student relationships aligned with Noddings’s (1992) definition of authentic care and caring for students, some parts of participant descriptions were more consistent with
Noddings’s definition of aesthetic care. Flora, for example spoke about care in terms of academic objectives. Participants also provided rich narratives about their relationships
91 with students of color. The next section examines the teachers’ descriptions of authentic connections with individual students of color.
Authentic Connections with Students of Color
One of the research questions for this qualitative study poses: How do white teachers describe their perceived authentic relationships with students of color? In this section, participants were asked to consider a positive relationship with a student of color in their classroom—past or present. The participants’ responses to this question reflect a range of perceptions and approaches to building relationships with students of color.
First, Nevin and Flora wrestle with the role of race in their interactions with students of color. Second, Molly, Peter, Zoe and Gabby highlighted how writing—in the form of logs, letters, and dialogue journals—helped them establish and maintain reciprocated relationships with students of color. Third, Wade, Karl, and Henry considered how their experiences as coaches informed and influenced their connections with students of color.
Fourth and finally, Becca explored how her personal history with school as a safe haven shapes her relationships with students of color.
Wrestling with race in teacher-student relationships: Nevin and Flora. This subsection presents two participants, Nevin and Flora, who noticeably wrestled with the concept of race and authentic teacher-student relationships. Nevin, on the one hand, specifically said he does not see color, or in other words is color blind, and Flora talked about having trouble letting her guard down and allowing students to enter her life. She went further and explained how she wrestles with how she approaches students for fear of having the “race” card thrown at her.
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In his interview, Nevin said the following: “I couldn’t give you a number because I don’t see color.” Despite this, he was able to describe a particular way he attempted to connect with Casey, a young man of color. Nevin explained that Casey was very shy and Nevin tried to get him to come out of his “shell” by asking for his help with classroom tasks:
Just like, “Hey, come here. I need your help. Hold this.” And, next thing you know, we’re working together. It can be anything from, “Hey, come on in here and work on the news. You’re going to run the camera. I want you to read today,” and, no, you don’t have a chance to think about what they’re doing. Next thing you know, you’re working together on something, and it’s a little bit of, uh, trickery, maybe. (Interview 2)
In Nevin’s version of an authentic connection with Casey, the relationship focused on collaboration. Nevin tried to create situations where Casey had no choice but to work with Nevin. Nevin pretended that he could not complete the task without Casey’s help.
Through this method, though Nevin admits it may be tricking students, Nevin attempts to engage the student in meaningful ways in the classroom, as opposed to allowing students to be passive receivers of information. Nevin indicated that Casey seemed to respond to the technique when Casey said he did not hate school anymore. Although Nevin appeared to define his relationship with Casey in relation to academics, Nevin’s efforts to engage Casey reflect a certain concern for Casey’s sense of connection to the school.
Flora admittedly stated that sometimes she has trouble letting her guard down and being more flexible, but also that she has seen great results when she is able to do so.
She also highlighted the importance of connecting outside of the school environment through attending the same church. Flora continued to discuss how she actually changed her typical approach with Austin after the connection was made:
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So uh, but you also have to bend. Like this student I just talked about. It got to the point where I had to accept things that I would not usually accept, because you have to, you have to choose your battles. Oh, you better believe it’s difficult! Well, I did something that surprised the heck out of me and I actually remained pretty calm. And just said, you know, “I, I just think that you need to take a walk, and I, I’ll call the office and tell them that you’re on your way down.” I said, “I just think you need to remove yourself from the room.” And I was surprised, because years ago, I probably would have brought myself down to his level and we would’ve had this verbal battle in front of everybody. (Interview 2)
In her description, Flora stated she did something that was totally out of character for her and was able to acknowledge that in the past she had used poor judgment in situations like this. She also stated that it is difficult to change who you are. This difficulty could be extended to most students if Flora lacks the personal connection with them. In this case, Flora also ultimately chose to send Austin to the office as opposed to handling the situation between the two of them, which could have strengthened their connection.
Flora went on to provide another candid and interesting piece to the puzzle with Austin:
I have to admit, you find yourself holding back sometimes in how you um, how you reprimand students, how you address certain situations because um you, for the lack of a better way to describe it, you don’t want that race card thrown at you. Um, and um, so I think you—I’ve learned that you—sometimes I tip toe around, there have been times that I know that I’ve tiptoed around um certain situations. But there are times that I haven’t. (Interview 2)
Flora indicated she altered her practice with Austin for fear of being called a racist. The literature points at white teachers being afraid to address the issue of race and multicultural scholars say that is one of the barriers between white teachers and students of color. If Flora altered her behavior because she was uncomfortable with a male student of color, she is doing a disservice to the student. She is allowing him to get away with a reduced set of standards, and if racism was perceived, she is denying herself and
Austin the opportunity to discuss the issue, which could have let Flora enter Austin’s
94 world even more and given her some of those experiences she stated at the beginning that she lacked. This could have also been a time where Flora would have interrogated her whiteness.
The role of writing in white teachers’ relationships with students of color:
Molly, Peter, Zoe, and Gabby. In the previous finding on authentic teacher-student relationships, communication proved to be the prime vehicle in the facilitation of these connections. Under this sub-heading, the role of writing is examined as one crucial form of communication. Interestingly, writing was not unique to language arts teachers.
Molly, the health and physical education teacher, described how she employs her log to document and reflect upon her relationship with Garfield, a young man of color she has in class. Peter, a learning support instructor and athletic coach, explained how he encouraged Juan, a young man of color he has in class to write him letters to begin subsequent conversations. Zoe and Gabby, both language arts teachers, employed dialogue journals, which helped them hold ongoing personal exchanges with students. In addition to writing, this section also explores ways that (a) teachers cared for students and
(b) students acknowledged the care.
In the previous section on Authentic Teacher-Student Relationships, Molly explained how she kept a log of her conversations with students to understand better where they were coming from and what they were dealing with outside of school.
Each kid has, like, that individual time to tell me about themselves, and I take notes and throughout the semester I try to think, like, oh, I haven’t made a connection with this kid yet, so I’ll take time out just to talk to them more. (Interview 1)
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When asked to think about a particular student of color with whom she would say she had a positive authentic teacher-student relationship, she spoke about her relationship with Garfield:
I developed my own relationship with him. And there are some behavior issues, but getting to know him and hearing how his life is at home and everything, that helped me better understand why he acts out the way he does in school, and he respected that, that I actually took the time to get to know him rather than just yell at him right away. And I’ve done rewards with him. He likes athletics, so if he is passing all of his classes and he has good behavior for the week, he’s allowed to come down to the gym to shoot around during enrichment. And that’s—from talking to him teachers, that’s helped out. I mean, a lot of them don’t have the same connection with him, but knowing that there’s some sort of reward at the end, if he does what he’s asked, it’s helping him in class. (Interview 1)
Molly indicated that Garfield displayed behavioral issues that she did not want in her class. She spoke about taking the time to get to know what was at the root of the disturbances, rather than react to his action. From her narrative, it appears that Garfield respected her for taking the time to get to know him, rather than simply reacting and disciplining him. Molly also stated that this personal knowledge, which helped build their relationship, seemed to be helping Garfield with his academics in all of his classes.
The interesting thing to note is that it seems the motivation behind the intervention was to improve Garfield’s behavior in class, which would be an aesthetic element of teaching, rather than to initiate the relationships for the sake of improving achievement.
Peter provided a very candid description of a specific relationship between himself and a student of color, Juan:
I was kind of the person that I told him he could go to if he didn’t feel comfortable. And things that I would do would be like, “Just write me a letter and set it on my desk if I’m not there and we talk about [the] letter—later.” I think just trying to be his confidante whenever he felt that he needed somebody that he could talk to . . . but yes, there was a trust there between him and me. This student was black and he would act out a lot. And I had to find a way that—for
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him to stop that, so we’ve developed a kind of a rewards system if you—will— for lack of a better word. And to be able to do that, whatever his reward would be he’d get to pick and he picked shoot baskets with me down in the gym, and that was just what he liked to do. But it really—that’s again—that was just unique to him. (Interview 2)
Several items stand out when looking at Peter’s description. First, according to Peter, a sense of trust was established with Juan. Many of the participants such as Gabby, Becca,
Henry, and Karl identified trust as an essential ingredient to the development of teacher- student relationships. Peter established trust with Juan by becoming Juan’s confidante.
Even if Peter was not around, Juan could write letters to Peter about important issues, then discuss them later. Peter indicated that Juan felt comfortable with him, as evidenced by the fact that Juan sought Peter out for both conversation and his rewards. As a reward for good behavior, Juan decided to choose his reward to be an activity with Peter— playing basketball together. Juan, in this case, consciously chose to spend additional time with Peter. For a middle school student to choose an activity with their teacher suggests that a level of trust and comfort was established.
Zoe described what she perceived to be a positive connection with a student of color, a young man named Marcus. Zoe ignited a conversation with Marcus at an after- school sports event. While watching the game and talking, they began to create their authentic connection. Zoe described this moment as the beginning of their teacher- student relationship, and she was intentional about developing and strengthening her connection with Marcus. She discussed dialogue journaling as a technique teachers can use to foster authentic conversations with students as a means to better connect with them:
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And I mean, really, kids would spill their guts. And I'd always give the caveat, "Anything you write, it's not confidential. If you write you're, getting drunk, I have to report that." But, kids would really open up in the writing, in a way they couldn't verbally. (Interview 2)
Zoe stated that she learned about Marcus’s home life through her conversations at the afterschool event and in the dialogue journals. Zoe said Marcus felt very comfortable speaking to her about personal issues and would often seek her out for advice because of the trust they had built:
Well, I think that I did get to know him, and I know another teacher, my next door neighbor, she really liked this kid too. And, we did things like we paid for his dance ticket so he could go to the school dance. Or I think I paid for the ticket, and I got the principal's permission because he [Marcus] had said he wanted to go but didn't have money. . . . He couldn't get a ride, and I stayed after school with him. And then she brought him dinner, so the three of us had dinner and then made sure he had a ride after the dance. We did individual things for him, like the giving tree. We both went in on a special gift for him, like a coat. You know, stuff like that. (Interview 2)
It is pretty clear to see from the above statement that Zoe and another teacher at the school were willing to put in the personal time and emotional labor needed to authentically connect with Marcus (Aultman et al., 2009). By putting in the emotional labor, Zoe has a better chance of allowing Marcus to physically experience her care.
First, Zoe took the time to get to know Marcus to learn of his situation. Second, she displayed physical acts of care through purchasing his dance ticket and dinner. Third,
Zoe took the time to arrange transportation for Marcus. Zoe shared that all of her care for
Marcus was validated one day when he was having a meltdown because of family issues that were beyond his control. The school counselor told Zoe, “Marcus said he felt safe with her, and that she was the person he liked the most.” Zoe’s face lit up as she spoke these words during the interview.
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Gabby is a teacher who likes to use the dialogue journaling technique Zoe described. Gabby referred to herself as being very motherly. In her own words, she said:
“There's something likeable or motherly, maybe, about me, that kids kind of relate to.”
When asked to think of a particular student of color with whom she would say she had a positive authentic teacher-student relationship, Gabby described her relationship with
Kenyatta:
[Kenyatta] did Young Writing Camp when I taught that in the summer when she was in elementary school, so she knew me before she got there [the middle school]. And she just loves to write, and I like to write. I share that with the kids. And I love to read, and they know that about me, too, so if they like language arts, that's just another good thing. (Interview 2)
Gabby and Kenyatta were able to connect prior to the student coming to eighth grade through an extra-curricular activity. It is important to note that Gabby talked about the importance of the kids knowing about the teachers as well. Gabby explained that
Kenyatta had an apparent issue with another teacher being discriminatory. Kenyatta felt comfortable confiding in Gabby:
We did have a couple private talks about it [another teacher’s discriminatory behavior] because I know I wouldn't have allowed her to bash the teacher in front of kids, for example . . . I know that we were talking in private. I think she probably did confide in me. . . . It was a long time ago, but I think that's how it came about. I remember talking' about sports a lot with her. She was into working out and she loved football and things like that. But the only conversations that we ever had that had to do with color were specifically about that other teacher, but she came to me, and then, as you know, you know, we don't—we don't have any black teachers. (Interview 2)
Gabby recalled that Kenyatta spoke with her in private about the discrimination she experienced with another teacher. Gabby attributed the trust and connection they had built to helping with these discussions. She stated that it was Kenyatta who approached her about having these conversations. Gabby stated that she is confident Kenyatta felt
99 comfortable confiding in her. Gabby even mentioned at the end that the school did not have any teachers of color. She said this almost as if, had there been any, Kenyatta, in her opinion would have gone to those teachers.
Gabby and Kenyatta’s relationship has continued for years after Gabby had her in class. From time to time, Kenyatta would send Gabby writings she did and ask for her opinions on them. Gabby explained that one time she received a paper from Kenyatta that shocked her. This is what she said, “And she didn't I guess explicitly say so, but within the paper you could tell this was her coming-out paper. So she's gay” (Interview
2). In this case, Gabby did not infuse a discussion in her class with social issues, but with
Kenyatta used the written form of communication to help facilitate the connection between teacher and student.
Coaching, communication, and connection: Wade’s, Karl’s, and Henry’s relationships with students of color . In this section, three of the participants who coach athletics were grouped together. In the case of Wade, his years of coaching experience afforded him additional time with students and allowed him to better understand the kids of Habana-Fuego Middle School. Karl and Henry were able to parlay their extra- curricular time with particular students of color to help forge and develop authentic connections with the students.
While Wade is a coach, he recounted on his relationship with a female student of color in his class named Tara. Wade described a conflict with Tara and how he sought to resolve the matter:
[Tara] would not participate in the labs. Just flat out would not put lab goggles on. And it was something as simple as, “Hey, you can’t do the lab if you don’t put the goggles on,” and she just flat out would not put the goggles on. So, every
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day we did a lab I’d have to sit her out in the hallway. And I originally took that as disrespect to me, and I think she was putting up a barrier of I’m not giving in. But in the end the girl ended up going through the middle school and sending me a letter like after that thanking me for disciplining her, but not disciplining her in a way, like I never sent her to the office.
Wade continued to reflect on his relationship with Tara:
I look at that as sometimes you don’t know what’s going on in that kid’s head. Like, yeah, they might not want do what you’re asking them to do, but there might be other variables in there that you have no idea of what you’re dealing with. I mean was flat out and originally I thought, “Well, this girl is just—she just wants to be disrespectful and she does not want to do anything,” but I handled that one different because I never like blew up like I’ve done in the past. And because I didn’t blow up and I just talked to her and I said, “Well, you’re not going be able to participate in the labs,” and she was okay with that and she would leave the room when we did the lab. She would come back in and do the questions and do everything, but it was a flat out, like I did not understand, and then, uh, later on, I—it clicked to me like, “Hey, you know what? There”—there was something going on there that I obviously wasn’t reading right. (Interview 2).
Wade’s reflection is quite revealing; this was an eye opening experience for him. He initially had a negative perception of Tara as being “disrespectful” and obstructive.
However, he chose to respond to Tara by giving her an option to complete the class activity without disciplining her or sending her to the office. By treating Tara differently and handling himself the way he did, he showed Tara that he cared for her, if in no other way than he gave her a different opportunity to complete what she needed to complete.
Tara acknowledged this care as she initiated future correspondence with Wade, thanking him for his patience. Wade stated that this was an eye-opening experience that he can now apply to future relationships with students. Had he not been as understanding in the beginning and sent her to the office as many teachers might have done in response to her not doing work, he could have ruined any chance of connecting with Tara. He also would have missed out on this opportunity to learn and grow as a teacher.
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Karl remembered his relationship with Dorian. Dorian was an African
American student who Karl taught in school and eventually had on the varsity football team. Karl said he knew Dorian’s family situation very well. Throughout their time together, Dorian had some rough times. Karl said Dorian did not have a lot of structure in his home life. From the time he was in sixth grade, Dorian was getting himself into trouble—none involving the legal system, but mischief nonetheless. Karl said he was always the teacher given the task of working with Dorian when he would get in trouble.
Karl described his approach to Dorian:
I always took the theory of tough love with him. You know like care for him, and let him know you love him, but don’t bend on him. Don’t give in on him. That’s what I did with Dorian, and that’s my approach. I’m going to be tough as hell on you, but I’ll care about you at the end of the day. You know, and I think that’s the coach in me. You talk to most coaches, watching different things, being like—I watched the thing on Bruce Arians. [H]e said I tell them, I’m going be tough as hell on you, I’m going coach them—coach you hard and then be critical of you as a football player, but at the end of the day I care about you as a person and realize there’s something more to the person. (Interview 2)
Karl used a few important words in this statement. The word “love” is referenced throughout his description of his approach to connecting with Dorian, as well as the word
“care.” Karl acknowledged the different personas within each kid. With Dorian, there is the student he sees in the classroom, the athlete he sees on the football field, and the human being there who deserves genuine love and care. Karl stated later that it took
Dorian some time to realize the level of care Karl was putting in. He said Dorian recently returned from college where he is playing football. Dorian thanked Karl for all the tough love. He told him that he finally now realized what he was doing and that he was trying to become a better person.
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Henry provided two examples of authentic connections with students of color.
In the first, Henry recounted his relationship with Jerry, a student of color he coaches as well as teaches. In this account, Henry goes out of his way to help connect with Jerry:
And he's a kid that I had in class, I've coached in football, I've coached in basketball. He's a kid that I have a good relationship with because I think he depends upon people in his life that are at least stable enough to give him a chance. I mean, his mom's a mess. His family life sucks, stepdad he hates, you know, stuff like that. You know, I take him to practice. I take him home from practice. I'll buy the kid dinner after practice if he needs it, you know, just giving him the opportunities to participate in stuff that gets him out of his home life. (Interview 2)
Henry highlighted his willingness to put in additional time and labor to connect with
Jerry. This extra time and effort of driving Jerry to and from practice and buying him dinner provides Henry with time to have genuine conversations with Jerry. Because of these opportunities, Henry was able to learn about Jerry—his home life, his stressors, and his strengths.
Henry revisited this relationship later in the interview and explained how there were conversations with Jerry about social issues and problems the student faces outside of the classroom:
You know, just ask him, you know. He has two twin sisters that his mom has to take care of right now, little kids. Uh, they're probably two years old. So I say, you know, how is it? Do you have to babysit them a lot? Like, how do you help out? Then I just talk to him. And he'll, he'll—you know, he'll give up a response. And it wasn't something that I asked him right away, you know. . . . But, uh, you know, I'd talk to him, and he'd offer up some response. You know, it was a way for him to, I think, kind of open up a little bit about stuff that he probably wouldn't tell his friends. He doesn't like to talk about that stuff with his friends. I think he's a little bit embarrassed about his own situation, you know. (Henry, Interview 2)
Henry stated that he takes the initiative with Jerry. He understands Jerry’s situation and sees there might be a need for the student to discuss social issues he is facing. He did not
103 indicate that he forces Jerry to speak about it, but that he just asks questions about what he does and how he is doing. Jerry, having that trust with Henry, is then willing to open up about the things he is going through or that bother him outside the classroom.
Henry went on to explain how Jerry reciprocated his care in the classroom:
And when he comes into the classroom then, someone's goofing around, he's like, "Hey, shut up. Like, Mr. Henry’s trying to talk." And you get that relationship with a student that I think is meaningful because I know that he's going leave the school, and he's going to make a decent life of himself. I see that he has the potential. I know that he's going be a good kid growing up and moving on to the high school and beyond. (Interview 2)
Earlier, many of the participants mentioned that authentic relationships with students involve “collaboration,” or a two way-relationship, in which both they and the students play equal parts as opposed to just them controlling the direction. Henry and
Jerry provided an example of how such collaboration can work. In their case, Henry had the luxury of coaching Jerry in athletics, which provided him additional opportunities to get to know the student. This shows what can happen when there is an authentic connection between a teacher and a student. In this case, care transcended the playing field and made its way into the classroom, and Jerry emerged as a leader in the class.
In this second example, Henry opened up about his relationship with Andre, another student of color that he taught and coached. Henry discussed how he messed up and punished the entire team, including Andre, before he fully investigated the situation.
He based his decision on what another teacher told him she perceived happened. Henry recounted the situation:
And I remember one time I called home where he [Andre]—got in trouble in school with a teacher. She texted me a picture of what he did in the classroom and all this stuff. And he did this, and he did that, and all—and I'm like, all right. So my rule with the team is, when “one person screws up, everybody on the team
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pays the punishment” because I want them to start being able to take responsibility for each other. “Hey, you're goofing off? Quit it. We're all going to get in trouble for this” type deal. You know what I mean? So I punished the whole team, and he was adamant, "I didn't do anything. I didn't do anything." I have it right here. Then I find out later on from the teacher's aide that was in the classroom that it wasn't him, and he didn't do anything wrong, that it was just being blamed on him, and because he's gotten in trouble so many other times in the past. It was easy to think that he was lying, and he didn't do anything. (Interview 2)
There are a few things to take note of in this first part of the description. First of all, it is interesting to note that the teacher in question for some reason did not want to handle the situation. They probably knew Andre would be punished by Henry, who could take something away from Andre that he liked. Something else that is alarming in this part of the narrative was that Andre was adamant that he did not do anything this time, but was blamed because of his track record in the past. This shows that the teacher in question, and Henry to an extent, allowed a negative perception to enter into the decision-making about Andre. Henry continued:
So then I make a public apology to the team. I said, "I just want to apologize. I didn't do enough investigation. I punished all of you, and particularly Andre, and he didn't do anything wrong, and it was my fault. I'm sorry." And then I called home and said, "Hey, I just wanted to let you know that this is what happened, and I'm sorry, and I apologize, and I apologized to him and the team. And I think that the parents appreciated the fact that I took ownership of a mistake. (Interview 2)
Henry explained that when he found out the truth, he decided to publicly apologize to Andre, to the entire team, and took it a step further and called the family of the student at the center of the issue. He made an apology to the family as well and took ownership of his mistake. Henry stated that the family appreciated him taking responsibility. Not only did Andre and his family see this, but the entire team was enlightened to it. Henry could have very easily brushed it aside and nobody would have
105 known he knew he was wrong. If Henry had issues with a power boundary of always needing to be in charge and have that authority that he mentioned in his earlier narrative that some teachers have, he would not have apologized and would have missed an opportunity to connect with this student and his family. Henry showed that he is human and makes mistakes, but that he is willing to fix the mistakes he makes.
Becca on building relationships with students of color: “Academics will come if they have that comfort level.” Becca was a unique participant who relied on her personal experiences to help create the classroom environment where she could authentically connect with her students. Becca grew up in a very dysfunctional family.
She stated that her voice and safety were marginalized by the larger family dynamic. She stated that school was her safe place. Because of this, she has had similar experiences as many of her students of color might have as minority students in a predominantly white school. She explained how she approached two specific students of color and formed authentic relationships with both of them.
Becca provided two accounts of her authentic connections with students of color.
The first one materialized from a family tragedy the student experienced, but Becca could relate to it, and the second was a relationship that came to fruition and was reciprocated by the student at sixth grade camp. In both cases, some of the elements of authentic care that Becca and her colleagues mentioned are present. The following is the first statement about how she helped a student of color, Tonya, through a family tragedy, which then grew into a connection between her and the student.
There was a family tragedy . . . And, I was there for her [Tonya] as a teacher, but also as someone that would connect her with other resources in our building when she needed it. And I could recognize it, she didn’t even have to say anything.
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I’ve continued that relationship with her and her family actually—I truly believe it’s recognizing students as a person. I mean that’s—I don’t think it’s anything I’ve learned. I—like I said my past, school was always that safety place for me . . . And so I’m more interested in—I think in having the kids feel that, and then I think the academics will come if they have that comfort level. (Interview 2)
Becca started by mentioning how she applies methods to authentically connect with her students. She talked about connecting and relating with students on a personal level. Becca stated that her purpose is to try to make them feel important, which also shows this two-way connection between her and her students. She stated that really knowing her students allows her to identify when something is wrong, like Tonya who experienced a family tragedy. Becca was able to act on her sense of empathy. She was able to then physically help Tonya by pointing her towards resources that she could access; she also stated that she is still in contact with Tonya and the Tonya’s family.
In a second example, Becca described an authentic connection she made with
Brittnee, a female student of color, during the student’s sixth grade year. In this case, it was Becca who seemed to truly be moved when Brittnee reciprocated the trust and care for Becca that Becca had shown to her. Becca told the story:
The student [Britnee] was extremely withdrawn, shy. I had her brother when I taught kindergarten, so I knew of the family, but I did not know her in particular. So she was real quiet, but started to ask questions. That was a big thing for her, because she would just sit silent, completely silent in the room. And I tried to find, again, interests in what she liked. And, she actually liked puzzles. And so I tried to come up with—when we had extra time—like any puzzles that I could show her. But what really, I think made the connection was when we got close to going to camp, and that was obviously later in the year, but it was a really strong connection. She loved to sing, and you would have never known it because she was completely silent otherwise. I mean silent, just barely said anything. She would talk to me during class though, but not comfortable with her peers. (Interview 2)
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Several things are important to note about the first part of her description.
One thing that was apparent was that Becca really cares authentically about her students.
Becca shows this by using interests to then foster the relationship, such as Brittnee’s love of puzzles. Becca had to work to try to find that access point of Brittnee loving puzzles.
She then takes this access point and uses it to dive deeper into Brittnee, like how she learned about Brittnee’s interest in singing.
Becca elaborated on her discovery that Britnee enjoys singing:
I actually wasn’t in the karaoke room at the time, but the staff called me over the walkie-talkie and said that Brittnee was ready to sing, but she wasn’t going to do it unless I was there...So I didn’t—yeah, so I, you know, dropped every—I was working in the kitchen, I dropped everything and ran over because I couldn’t believe it. And she has like the cutest voice ever, but you would have never known it because she never spoke. And I felt like at that point when I realized that she was accepting that relationship. Like I always thought she was comfortable, but that really made me know she was good...I don’t—I never gave up on her, like I never—I don’t—like I-I said the other day is just because there is resistance or my attempt to get to know students is met with resistance or maybe not felt, but it is authentic, I keep trying. And I always go back to it, and I don’t forget. And I, you know, like would complement her on if she changed her hairstyle, which she didn’t very often at all, I would complement on that and how nice she looked and, um, just everyday tried to make that connection with her (Interview 2)
At the end of the description, Becca explained again how she never stops and always needs to find that access point. A major takeaway from this narrative was that though the purpose of the authentic connection is to help Brittnee, it was clear from the narrative that when Brittnee asked for Becca before she sang, it meant as much to Becca as it probably did to Brittnee. This also shows a genuine care on the part of Becca. Her hours of additional labor allowed Brittnee to come out of her shell to the point when she sang in front of her entire class. It is also important to note that Becca was not in the room when the plan to sing was initiated. Brittnee it seems developed the courage with the help of
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Becca along the way but ultimately made the decision on her own. This courage and confidence that Becca helped develop is a lifelong skill Brittnee will take with her wherever she goes.
The above section presented individual examples provided by the participants of specific authentic teacher-student relationships they have had with students of color.
Each participant approached the student of color in the example differently and used elements of authentic care in different ways. Examples were grouped together by major themes that presented themselves through the methods used. Nevin and Flora wrestled with the idea of race and teacher-student relationships. Peter, Zoe, Gabby, and Molly utilized communication methods. Karl, Wade, and Henry relied on their coaching experience with students, and Becca relied on personal experience and creating a culture of comfort.
Results and Interpretation
An analysis of the qualitative data derived from interviews with 10 white suburban middle school teachers revealed two major findings: (a) participants generally defined authentic teacher-student relationships in ways that are consistent with
Noddings’s (1992) definitions of care and (b) participants varied in their knowledge and ability to authentically connect with their students of color. This section presents how the findings of this dissertation corroborate, challenge, and extend knowledge in the fields of teacher-student relationships and multicultural education.
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Authentic Teacher-Student Relationships
Participants in this study were able to speak about how they define and attempt to apply authentic teacher-student relationships. Three major themes emerged from the findings that corroborate the literature, presented below.
Treating students as people . Blasé (1986), in a case study, found a big difference in student achievement and attitudes when the teachers viewed the students as people and took the students’ needs into greater consideration. The case study showed that as the teachers got to know their students better in terms of their needs and problems, they began to care more for their students both inside and outside of the classroom. This genuine care for the students outside of the classroom, in terms of the needs and problems they face, are critical elements of authentic teacher-student relationships. Treating students as people was the most common theme to emerge in the participants’ definitions of authentic care.
Zoe, Nevin, Flora, Karl, and Henry all made specific statements about treating their students as people. They corroborate Blasé’s (1986) study by speaking about recognizing each student as their own individual human being outside of the class. This means recognizing the complexity of identities and not reducing them to a single identity of student. Such acknowledgment enables participants to learn about their students.
Karl, for example, differentiated very passionately between “teacher talk” and “real dialogue.” He understands that the teacher talk would be the aesthetics of teaching that
Rolon-Dow (2005) stated is not enough. Karl stated the real dialogue is getting to know the student as a person; it is working with the person who is in the room and not just the
110 student. Karl also stated that this type of relationship generally turns into a long-term relationship as opposed to one that ends when the school year ends.
Learning about backgrounds . Valenzuela (1999) defined authentic care as showing care for the student, student’s family, and school community as a whole.
Ladson Billings (2000) also drove this point home when saying the authentic relationships require inside knowledge of the student’s background and cultural identity.
Peter, Molly, Gabby, and Wade all spoke candidly about the importance of getting to know their students’ backgrounds. They all stated that this greatly improves their ability to connect with their students and they can also use this information to relate to their students and be more responsive to the unique needs each student brings to the classroom.
The concept of knowing students’ backgrounds was best illustrated by Wade. He stated, “It does not matter how good a teacher you are, it won’t matter if you don’t have that personal connection.” He also talked about the importance of getting to know the families of his students, which according to Valenzuela (1999), is very important to do.
Wade also specifically stated making personal connections is done to “know what is most beneficial for the student,” which allows him to be more attune, and responsive, both key elements to authentic care, according to Noddings (1992). Knowing students’ backgrounds also corroborates Ladson-Billings (2001) who makes the point that teachers need to be able to teach the content to the learner. Knowing student backgrounds helps, as all learners are different.
Communication. Communication is the one specific theme that every teacher in the study emphasized when defining authentic teacher-student relationships. Whether
111 they were attempting to treat students as people or learn about the students’ backgrounds, it was all generated through communication. White teachers in the literature cited the use of “deliberate dialogue” (Slee & Jupp, 2013, p. 22). This technique appeared through KWL charts, letters or journaling, neighborhood maps, and formative evaluation. The teachers then used this information about their students’ backgrounds to design lessons and create curriculum (Slee & Jupp, 2013). Peter, Wade,
Henry, Karl, and Zoe all spoke about having direct conversations with their students to learn about them as individuals. The conversations revolved around knowing the students outside of the classroom by attaining information about interests, family, and community, which corroborates with the participants in Slee and Jupp (2013).
The method of dialogue journaling can be used to create a culture of care in the classroom (Anderson et al., 2011). Using the technique, teachers can have authentic one- on-one conversations with students by asking specific questions or having students perform actions and then reporting back through their journals. Gabby, Molly, and Zoe all used dialogue journaling so they could have deliberate and direct conversations with their students of color in order to learn about them. The activity also provided a platform for students to discuss social issues that they were dealing with, which is a best practice according to multicultural scholars (Gay, 2005; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Nieto, 2012).
The findings on how study participants at Habana-Fuego Middle School define authentic teacher-student relationships are significant because they demonstrate findings that contrast with literature, which shows white teachers who define their relationships with students in terms of aesthetic care—based on high expectation, clearly defined objectives, state standards, and discipline (Nieto, 2012; Rolon-Dow, 2005; Smith, 1982;
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Valenzuela, 1999). Instead, study participants define teacher-student relationships in ways that corroborate the literature on authentic connections with students. By treating students as people, Zoe, Nevin, Karl, and Flora corroborate works by Blasé (1986) and
Rolon-Dow (2005). In discussing the importance of learning about students’ backgrounds, Wade, Karl, and Henry corroborate research by Ladson-Billings (2000),
Noddings (1992), and Valenzuala (1999). Findings on the importance of higher level communication techniques, such as direct dialogue and dialogue journaling, confirm the studies of Anderson et al. (2011) and Slee and Jupp (2013). The results of this dissertation show that study participants display knowledge about and could articulate how they utilize various elements that could be considered examples of authentic care.
Authentic Connections with Students of Color
Participants in this study were able to speak about how they authentically connect with students of color. Five major areas emerged from the findings that corroborate and expand the literature and are presented in this section.
Wrestling with race in teacher-student relationships. As a scholar of multicultural education, Gay (2005) indicated that teacher preparation programs in the
United States are designed to prepare white middle class teachers to teach white middle class students. She wrote that what is missing is an infusion of multicultural issues in all courses of teacher preparation. The idea is further supported by Noddings (2013) when she stated that caring involves stepping out of our own personal frame of reference into others. She wrote that we need to consider their point of view, objective needs, and what they expect. Ladson-Billings (2000) explained that this is the opposite of what we typically see today. Today’s schools are culturally neutral if not euro-centric, which does
113 not value African American culture. Ladson-Billings (2001) also explained the average teacher has no idea what it is like to be a minority, numerically or politically.
This can cause trouble when attempting to connect with students of color. Urrietta
(2009) found that Latino(a) teachers were also similar to African American teachers by creating places where their students could discuss social issues and acquire critical thinking skills by looking at social justice. As previously mentioned, this is an area about which white teachers often feel very uncomfortable, yet is important for students of color.
Two participants in this study acknowledged having trouble with race when it came to forming authentic connections with their students of color. Nevin stated in his interview, “He doesn’t see color.” The presence of being colorblind prevents Nevin from addressing the unique needs of students of color. This is a problem in multicultural education and ultimately the effects of being colorblind help disenfranchise students of color by not valuing the voices they bring to the table due to the perceptions of teachers being rooted in white norms (Blaisdell, 2005). The presence of colorblindness corroborates Ladson-Billings’s (2000) claim that most classrooms are culturally neutral.
Flora was another participant who corroborated the literature about white teachers having trouble connecting with students of color. In Flora’s narrative about a relationship with Austin, a young man of color, she spoke about finding herself holding back for fear of having the “race” card thrown at her. In her case, Austin could be getting away with a reduced set of standards, and if racism was perceived, Flora denied herself and Austin from discussing the issue, which Urrietta (2009) stated white teachers feel uncomfortable with.
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The role of writing in white teachers’ relationships with students of color.
The concept of dialogue journaling is a method that can be used to create a culture of care in the classroom. Anderson et al. (2011) conducted a case study with middle school students using the dialogue journaling method to see its impact. The case study found that students who had good interactions with their teachers in their journals rated their relationships with their teachers higher (Anderson et al., 2011). Journals are also an informal way white teachers can attempt to learn more about the communities and families of their students of color. The method also supports Urrietta (2009) who discussed the need to provide a platform found where their students could discuss social issues and acquire critical thinking skills by looking at social justice. According to Foster
(1990), students of color need a platform to have direct dialogue about issues that are important to them.
Four teachers, Molly, Peter, Zoe, and Gabby talked about the results of them utilizing writing as a way for them to authentically connect with their students of color.
Peter used journal writing as a way to have direct dialogue with Juan when Juan was having problems he needed to talk about. Peter’s use of the method is in line with what
Foster (1990) alluded to above.
Zoe and Gabby both used the technique mentioned earlier called dialogue journaling. In each of their cases, they are able to have direct private conversations with students of color through the journaling technique. The students know that what they write will remain confidential (with the exception of a legal matter), and if affords Zoe and Gabby the opportunity to ask direct questions to the students that can help provide insight into the students’ lives, and communities, which is exactly what Urrietta (1999)
115 and Anderson et al. (2011) mentioned in the literature. Both of the above examples provide evidence of the two-way connection that Noddings (1992) stated is needed for an authentic teacher-student relationship to occur. The finding regarding the role of writing is significant because in the cases of the four teachers in this section they are able to corroborate with the literature in terms of displaying applied methods that are indicated as best practice through the literature (Anderson et al., 2011; Foster, 1990; Noddings,
1992; Urrietta, 1999).
Coaching, communication, and connection. Wade, Karl, and Henry were three participants who also coached athletics. Newberry (2010) stated that gentle discipline procedures benefit students of color because it forces the teacher to take a step back and approach each situation in a unique way. Without this practice, teachers can face the problem of viewing each situation the same, which is also through the lens of their whiteness (Blaisdell, 2005).
Wade was a participant who displayed this technique very effectively with a student named Tara. Wade explained that it was an eye-opening experience for him when the following year he received a letter from Tara thanking him for not disciplining her like other teachers would have and for giving her another opportunity to complete the work. Had Wade not been able to display gentle discipline practices as Newberry (2010) stated is necessary, he might have missed a valuable opportunity to connect with Tara.
Direct dialogue is great way for teachers to interact with their students of color to learn more about their backgrounds, families, and communities in which they live. It is a way for white teachers to begin to enter the world of their students (Slee & Jupp, 2013).
The trouble teachers face sometimes, according to Newberry (2010), is the emotional
116 labor and time involved in conducting direct conversations with students. Henry and
Karl both corroborate this and use their additional time as athletic coaches to manipulate the barrier Newberry (2010) discussed.
Henry provided two examples of how communication through coaching helped him connect with two students. The first example was with Jerry, a young man Henry had in class and also coached. Henry said that through the additional time of coaching, he was able to learn a lot about Jerry. Henry said he was able, once trust was established, to allow Jerry to speak about social issues he was facing that he would not talk to friends about because he was embarrassed.
A second way Henry showed authentic care toward a student was with Andre.
Henry pre-maturely disciplined the football team for something Andre apparently did in another class. When Henry found out Andre did not do it, he did not let the power boundary Newberry (2010) mentioned is a factor in preventing authentic connections get in the way. Henry openly apologized to Andre and Andre’s family. This action supports
Noddings’s (1992) definition by showing care that can be seen and experienced. It also supports Valenzuela (1999) and Rolon-Dow (2005) who stated the families and communities of students need to be considered as well.
Academics will come if they have a comfort level. Urrietta (2009) found that
Latino(a) teachers teaching Latino(a) students had a tremendous sense of the community with their students and often served as advocates in the community outside the classroom.
This is consistent with care theory and demonstrates to the students that the teachers care for and about them. It also allowed the teachers to gain empathy for their students, students’ families, and communities in which their students lived (Rolon-Dow, 2005). In
117 her article “‘My Eyes Have Been Opened:’ White Teacher and Racial Awareness,”
Johnson (2002) provided narratives from six white teachers who teach in very racially diverse schools and who were deemed by a panel of experts to be very racially aware.
The narratives of the teachers discussed the importance of specific events such as immersion into communities of color at certain points in their lives, attending different religious practices, and the need for exposure to the “insider” perspective. Ladson-
Billings (2014) explained that good multicultural teaching occurs when teachers help students develop a positive self-image and have a commitment to creating a larger community of learners.
Becca relied on her personal experiences of being marginalized in a dysfunctional family growing up. The feeling of being marginalized allowed Becca to relate to her students of color, many of whom may experience the same feeling. Unfortunate as it may be, Becca’s experience corroborates the Johnson (2002) article. She tries to make her classroom a safe, community type environment, much like Urrietta (2009) and Rolon-
Dow (2005) discussed. To create the environment, she runs her “arms in” activity at the beginning of the year. Becca said she makes a point to acknowledge that “we are all different, that’s alright, and that we will learn from each other.” This is an example of a multicultural activity that has the potential to help make her students of color feel more welcome.
White teachers. This dissertation contributes to several areas within the body of research on white teachers. First, this study focused on 10 white teachers and their relationships with students of color in a predominantly white suburban school. Most studies on white teachers and students of color are set in urban schools with
118 predominantly Black and/or Latino student populations (Anderson et al., 2011; Blasé,
1986; Booker-Baker, 2005; Cornbleth & Korth, 1980; Giroux, 2005; Hampson et al.,
1998; Irving & Hundley, 2005; Newberry, 2010). The findings of this study explored how white teachers form authentic teacher-student relationships with students of color in predominantly white schools, which will prove to be very important because as the number of students of color nationwide continues to increase, suburban schools will continue to see more diverse classrooms.
Second, findings from this study show that two participants considered themselves colorblind and were uncomfortable with the acknowledgement of student race. The finding adds to the body of research on colorblindness and its impact on teacher-student relationships (Blaisdell, 2005; Boucher, 2016; Hensfield & Washington,
2012). Nevin stated specifically that he does not see color, which expands on the literature showing teachers who are colorblind view things from their white lens and do not take the unique needs of students of color into consideration (Blaisdell, 2005;
Boucher, 2016). Flora spoke about altering her behavior in fear of being called racist, corroborating the literature explaining that White teachers who are afraid to acknowledge or combat the existence of racism are less likely to be understanding of their students of color (Hensfield & Washington, 2012).
Third, consistent with research on teacher preparation (Gay, 2005; Ladson-
Billings, 2000; Nieto, 2012), none of the participants in this study received formal training in multicultural education. Despite this lack of training, several participants incorporated multicultural practices into their teaching. Gabby and Henry taught a curriculum filled with multicultural readings, examples, videos, and characters. Becca,
119 who showed the highest level of multicultural competency, also included multicultural practices and sought to empower students. Most participants who attended the district-sponsored diversity training expressed an interest in similar types of professional development. Findings of this study corroborate existing research and underscore the need to prepare teachers to understand and employ culturally responsive pedagogy. With training in multicultural education, white teachers are better equipped to educate all students (Nieto, 2012; Slee & Jupp, 2013; Strauss, 2015).
The overall findings of this study on how white middle school teachers authentically connect with their students of color are significant because they expand the literature by painting a picture of the topic in an under-researched setting. Participants in this study shed additional light on the nationwide problem of a lack of multicultural training for teachers. Teachers in this study also corroborate the literature that indicate white teachers are generally colorblind, and those with similar experiences as communities of color are better equipped to connect. Finally, this study does show that some participants corroborate the literature and that white teachers are able to form authentic meaningful relationships with their students of color.
Summary
Throughout this chapter, data were presented in the form of findings to show how teachers at Habana-Fuego Middle School defined authentic teacher-student relationships.
The participant definitions were divided among the three major themes present. These themes were treating students as people, learning about student backgrounds, and communication. Data were also presented about how teachers apply the concept of authentic care with their students of color. The data were also further broken down by
120 the themes of wrestling with race, the role of writing, coaching and communication, and finally, academics will come with comfort. In the interpretation of the results, there were elements of this study that corroborate, challenge, and extend the literature on authentic teacher-student relationships and also about the ability of white teachers to authentically connect with students of color.
In conducting this qualitative study at Habana-Fuego Middle School, several key results emerged from the data. Teachers at the school discussed their relationships with their students in terms of authentic elements. Many of the terms and techniques used were corroborated in the literature as best practices. Participants corroborated the literature that stated white teachers are generally not trained in multicultural education.
Finally, some participants were able to speak to authentically connecting with specific students of color as assessed through the reciprocation of care by the students, while in other cases, teachers showed confusion in motive and ability to authentically connect with their students of color.
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Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
This study provides an excellent snapshot of how white teachers in a suburban middle school define the concept of authentic teacher-student relationships. It also provides data on how teachers at the site apply their definitions to form authentic teacher- student relationships with their students of color.
Much of the current literature on this subject takes place in an urban landscape where students of color are a much larger proportion of the school (Anderson et al., 2011;
Blasé, 1986; Booker-Baker, 2005; Cornbleth & Korth, 1980; Giroux, 2005; Hampson et al., 1998; Irving & Hundley, 2005; Newberry, 2010). The problem with focusing only on large urban areas is that the student demographics are changing nationwide, and suburban, predominantly white schools are experiencing increasing numbers of students of color. Little research has been conducted on what Valenzuela (1999) coined as authentic relationships or those that extend beyond the pedagogical care in the suburban setting. Pedagogical care is defined as care for issues such as high standards and clearly defined objectives, none of which focus directly on each student (Rolon-Dow, 2005).
This study was conducted using a narrative design. Narrative design was determined to be the best fit for this study because each participant entered the study with their own set of cultural values and norms that would affect their approach in the classroom. Merriam (2009) stated that first-person accounts are the stories that will comprise the narratives, and the main form of data collection was through in-depth interview transcripts. This study aimed to explore and understand the experiences that
122 white teachers have in trying to understand and create authentic relationships with their students of color. Luttrel (2010) explained that interviews serve as a form of oral history. She further explained that it is the job of the researcher to bring the words and body language of participants to life to convey the meaning of their narratives. This study also called for narrative design because each participant is enabled or constrained by their social resources and circumstances. Hence, each participant brought a different voice and perspective that was analyzed across the narratives (Luttrel, 2010).
The driving force behind this study was Noddings’s definition of authentic care.
Noddings (1992) defined authentic care as caring for and caring about, the two stages of care. The former deals with the physical act, and the latter with the intentions to care, used for motivation to inspire social justice. There are three necessary components to caring: Relatedness, Receptivity, and Responsiveness.
Noddings is also a scholar of feminist theory, which helps draw the parallel between her definition of authentic care and that of many multicultural scholars such as
Booker-Baker, Gay, Ladson-Billings, Nieto, and Rolon-Dow. According to the multicultural scholars’ list of relatedness, receptivity, and responsiveness are also necessary elements to multicultural teacher-student relationships, making Noddings’s
(1992) definition the perfect fit for this study.
Participants were each put through two one-hour interview sessions to extract the desired data. The first interview session focused primarily on attaining the participants’ understanding of authentic teacher-student relationships. Questions asked participants for definitions of authentic care, barriers, examples, and training that may or may not have occurred. The second interview session shifted gears and focused on how each
123 participant applied the concept of generating authentic teacher-student relationships with specific students of color in their classes. Responses varied as some participants stated they were not comfortable with the concept of race when it came to teacher-student relationships, and others were able to provide very concrete examples of showing authentic care to their students of color.
Through data analysis, several key themes emerged that allowed the participants to be categorized based on the definitions they gave and methods they employed. It is important to note that none of the participants in this study previously had training on demonstrating authentic care, and they each only participated, recently, in a one-hour in- service training sponsored by the district about white privilege. Something else that is important to note is that the students the teachers discussed ranged from Grade 6 through
8, meaning they are at very different stages in their personal development, which can also impact their own racial identities. This has the potential to also impact the ability of the teacher and student to authentically connect with each other.
Though this study is not large enough to be generalizable, there were many important findings to come out of this study. During data analysis, several things stood out. When looking at the responses to questions that asked participants to define what authentic teacher-student relationships looked like in their classrooms, the participants across the board discussed things such as attempting to treat students as people, learning about the students’ backgrounds, and communicating. The interpretation of the results of the findings on how teachers at Habana-Fuego Middle School define teacher-student relationships are significant because they demonstrate an exception to the literature, which indicates most teachers define their relationships with students according to
124 pedagogical elements; and the participants corroborate the literature on specific methods of authentically connecting.
A major hurdle anticipated in conducting this study was that participants had not been trained to be able to authentically connect with their students of color. This idea came from the literature as multicultural scholar Gay (2005) indicated that teacher preparation programs in the United States are designed to prepare white middle class teachers to teach white middle class students. She stated that what is missing is an infusion of multicultural issues in all courses of teacher preparation. All participants corroborated with Gay, as they stated they had no training in their teacher preparation programs. This also helped show great variance in how teachers were able to connect with their students of color. Nevin and Flora corroborated the literature that indicates white teachers have trouble being culturally responsive, as the two participants stated they wrestled with the concept of race. Other teachers such as Gabby, Zoe, Peter, and
Molly engaged in direct dialogue with their students of color, which shows an exception to the literature of white teachers being able to use authentic methods to connect with students of color, yet corroborates the literature on best practices to use with students of color.
Conclusions
This purpose of this study was to seek answers to the following questions. Each of the questions is listed below, followed by data to help answer the question.
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Question One: How do white suburban middle school teachers define authentic teacher-student relationships?
The participants in this study identified three themes within their definitions of authentic teacher-student relationships. They stated they treat students as people, attempt to learn about student backgrounds, and base their methods off of communication. Five participants—Zoe, Nevin, Karl, Henry, and Flora—spoke about the importance of treating students as people. They made statements such as “acknowledging that there is more than a student there, there is a person” and you have to “treat them like people.”
Four participants, Peter, Molly, Gabby, and Wade spoke about authentic teacher-student relationships occurring when they learn about their students’ backgrounds. They articulated it in different ways, such as keeping a journal about student information and seeking knowledge about the students’ families and community as well as the student.
Each of the participants’ definition, whether it was through treating students as people or learning about student backgrounds used communication as the catalyst. It appeared through journaling, observing, and direct dialogue.
Question Two: What approaches, techniques, and strategies do white suburban middle school teachers employ to establish and maintain authentic relationships with students of color in their classrooms?
Participants in this study identified four methods they used to connect with students of color: wrestling with race, writing, coaching and communication, and through personal experiences. Two participants, Nevin and Flora, wrestled with the concept of race and teacher-student relationships. Nevin specifically said he was colorblind, and
Flora stated she altered her behavior in the past when working with students of color out of fear of being categorized a racist. Molly, Peter, Zoe, and Gabby used writing to
126 connect with their students of color. The methods they used were keeping personal journals, direct dialogue, and dialogue journaling. Three participants, Wade, Karl, and
Henry, are all athletic coaches and explained how the additional time with students afforded them through coaching has helped foster authentic connections with students of color. The extra time coaching afforded allowed for authentic direct conversations with student athletes about their home lives and social situations, and in each case, care was reciprocated from the students. Finally, Becca connects with her students of color through her personal experiences and desire to create a community feel in her classroom.
Question Three: How do white suburban middle school teachers form authentic teacher-student relationships with their students of color?
To answer this question, the study looked at how teachers defined authentic teacher-student relationships and explored specific methods and techniques teachers stated they had used with students of color. According to this study, white suburban middle school teachers at the site define authentic teacher-student relationships and display these relationships through several ways.
The most common elements of authentic care the teachers in this study stated they used are to treat students as people and learning about the students’ backgrounds. The elements consisted primarily of advanced communication methods such as dialogue journaling, direct conversation with the students at extra-curricular activities, and through open in-class discussion and observation. Zoe, Nevin, Karl, Henry, and Flora stated they treat students as people through listening, having two-way conversations with students, and displaying mutual respect. Peter, Molly, Gabby, and Wade stated they use tools such as direct dialogue, observation, and dialogue journaling to learn about student
127 backgrounds to help connect with them. In each case, communication techniques were the catalyst of the authentic methods used.
When speaking about forming authentic teacher-student relationships specifically with students of color, participants at this site spoke about four major themes that emerged. Peter, Molly, Gabby, and Zoe used advanced communication techniques such as dialogue journaling and direct dialogue to help connect authentically with their students of color. Wade, Henry, and Karl used extra-curricular activities as a platform to help connect with their students of color. The additional time spent with students in an extra-curricular arena proved to be very valuable for learning about the home and personal lives of students the teachers had in class. Becca used her personal experiences that students of color might have had in common to help her connect. Two participants in the study also spoke about or demonstrated difficulties with the subject of race in connecting with students of color. This appeared in the form of color blindness and also from being guarded as to not have the “race” card thrown at them.
Recommendations
Future Research
There are a few recommendations for future research studies. Because this study relied on the description and statements of participants in an interview setting, the data were derived from what the participants said. A follow-up study would be to enter the classrooms of these participants and observe the concepts, methods, and techniques they discussed. This could shed light on two things. It will show the actual application of the stated activities and could also shed light on the reaction of the students involved.
Observation would also validate that the participants follow through with what they
128 stated they do in their classrooms. In addition to entering the classrooms, data should also be collected on how participants physically attempt to connect with students’ families and communities. A second recommendation for future research would be to include the students of color at the site. This would be beneficial to help determine their perceptions of their white teachers and see if many of the concerns the teachers voiced are also voiced by the students.
Preparation and Professional Development
One recommendation would be for college preparation programs to include diversity/multicultural training throughout the teacher preparation curriculum. This is vital for two reasons: (a) if diversity/multicultural training is just one stand-alone class, students will have a greater chance of missing the importance and view it during that class only and (b) the infusion throughout the curriculum will allow students to explore diversity and multicultural training in a variety of areas, which will help create a better chance of internalizing the concepts. A second recommendation would be for districts, particularly this one, to include their own diversity/multicultural training. Teachers were enlightened of the need to plan and execute more training on multicultural/diversity education and also discussed and displayed an ignorance of best practices and, at times, discomfort with the concept.
Practice
This study uncovered methods that worked for white teachers in creating authentic connections with their students of color, as shown through a reciprocation of care from the students to the teachers. One recommendation would be for white suburban teachers teaching students of color to explore and implement advanced
129 communication techniques such as direct dialogue and dialogue journaling. These techniques proved to be a great way for teachers and students to discuss important social issues, and teachers could then use this information to design lessons to specifically engage each student. Finally, it is recommended that teachers become more conscience of balancing the “real conversations” and “teacher conversations” with students.
Aesthetic “teacher talk” is important and has its place; however, the informal “real dialogue” helps teachers learn about their students as people. This allows teachers to be more attuned and responsive to the needs of each student in their classroom.
Summary
According to the NCES (2014), 50.66% of public K-12 students are students of color. This makes students of color, as a whole, the majority in the American public K-
12 system. This is the first time in our history when this can be said. Teacher demographics, however, have not kept pace. The NCES, in the same report, shows that white teachers comprise 83.5% of the public K-12 teacher population. The change in demographics raises questions about the relationships between white teachers and their students of color.
This qualitative research study explored how white suburban middle school teachers attempt to generate authentic teacher-student relationships with their students of color. This dissertation could make the following contribution to research on teacher- student relationships between white teachers and their students of color. This study’s findings have the potential to provide data on a subject in an under-researched setting.
This is important because of the ever-increasing numbers of students of color nationwide in our public K-12 classrooms. It is no longer an urban issue, but a national issue.
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Findings from this dissertation have the potential to enhance and or expand the concept of care in education. Ten years ago, Rolon-Dow (2005), when talking about multicultural education, said that care tied to pedagogical issues such as high expectations, state standards, and clearly defined objectives is not enough to create a connection between the student and the teacher or school. She and Valenzuela (1999) explained that most schools and teachers focus on this form of care. This study revisited and explored their theories in a different context: from a predominantly white school with a small population of students of color. Taking it a step further, the proposed study uncovered specific methods and techniques that are being used by white suburban middle school teachers to authentically connect to their students of color.
When I began this study, I expected to find that most teachers in this study would define authentic teacher-student relationships based on aesthetic pedagogical terms. I also expected to find that teachers would struggle in their abilities to connect authentically with students of color. Both of these assumptions were due primarily to the literature that points to a tremendous lack of training at the college and district levels, and also the many barriers cited as preventing white teachers from being able to authentically connect with students of color. I was surprised and pleased to find that teachers at
Habana-Fuego Middle School generally define authentic teacher-student relationships in actual authentic terms that go beyond the curriculum. I was not surprised to find great variance in the ways white teachers attempted to connect with students of color, based on a lack of training, and the complexity involved in forming authentic multicultural connections.
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Ultimately, the results of this study provide hope for current and future teachers and students of color that white teachers are capable of forming authentic teacher-student relationships with their students of color. As teachers increase their awareness, training, and experience teaching diverse populations, one day we may be able to attain a truly equitable education system for all.
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Appendix: Interview Protocol
Throw away/Factual Questions
1. What grade and subject do you teach? 2. How long have you been in your current position? 3. What do you think is the best part about the position you occupy at the school? 4. How many students on average do you have in a class? 5. On average how many students of color do you have per class? 6. What student traits to you tend to gravitate toward? 7. Are there certain characteristics in students that make it easier for you to connect with? 8. What from your past would you say most heavily influences your ability to connect with students?
Contrast/Structural Questions/Essential
1. As teachers, relationships with our students are one foundation of student learning. Can you describe for me what an authentic teacher-student relationship looks like to you?
2. Think about a current or former student that you would say you had an authentic teacher-student relationship with. In your opinion what factors helped create it?
A. What did you do specifically that helped make a connection to this student? B. What did this student do that helped create a connection with you?
3. Think about a current or former student that you would say you didn’t have an authentic teacher student relationship with. In your opinion what factors prevented it? 1.
A. Was there anything you feel you did that prevented an authentic connection from occurring? B. Was there anything you feel the student did that prevented an authentic connection from occurring?
4. Questions 2 and 3 will be asked again, with a probe for students of color specifically.
5. Do you believe all students need to be treated the same in order to generate an authentic teacher-student relationship?
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6. What kind of training have you received (either through your district, teacher prep program, and/or professional conference) to help you make better personal connections to your students? 2.
7. Can you explain any methods or techniques you use that you have found to work in creating authentic connections to your students who may be resistant at first? 3.
8. How do you attempt to determine how or what methods to use in order to create connections with your students?
9. Do you see any general differences in achievement in your classroom between your white students’ and your students’ of color? 4.
A. Why do you think that is the case?
Second Interview Session 5.
10. Have you ever been in-serviced on the specific needs of students of color, and if so in what capacity?
11. What multi-cultural activities have you used in your class?
12. How often do you implement multi-cultural activities in your class? 6.
13. In general, how do you perceive the students that you teach in terms of their effort, participation, behavior, and achievement? 7.
A. In your particular classroom do you notice any differences in how your white students’ approach or interact with you compared to your students’ of color? (i.e. types of questions they ask, how they ask, responses to your questions) B. In your particular classroom do you notice any differences in how your white students’ interact with each other in comparison to how your students’ of color interact with each other? C. Do you perceive any division within your classroom along racial lines (for example do you see white kids interacting with only white kids and students’ of color interacting with only students’ of color)? 8.
9.
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14. Do you find it more difficult to connect with your students’ of color than your white students?
15. Have you done anything specifically to help connect to the students of color in your class?
16. Do you see any barriers existing that prevent you from making better personal connections with your students of color? 10.
17. Do you think authentic teacher-student relationships can help to increase classroom achievement?
Closure/Thanks