The European Union´s Tacis Cross-Border Co-operation Small Project Facility Programme

Strategy development for

sustainable use of

groundwater and aggregates

in Vyborg district, Leningrad Oblast

Activity 4, Report 1: Comparison of the methods and procedures used to investigate, manage and remediate ground water and aggregate extraction areas in Finland and in Russia

Strategy development for sustainable use of groundwater and aggregates in Vyborg district, Leningrad Oblast

Activity 4, Report 1: Comparison of the methods and procedures used to investigate, manage and remediate ground water and aggregate extraction areas in Finland and in Russia

Edited by Leveinen J. and Kaija J.

Contributors

Savanin V., Philippov N., Myradymov G., Litvinenko V., Bogatyrev I., Savenkova G., Dimitriev D., Leveinen J., Ahonen I, Backman B., Eskelinen A., Hatakka, T., Härmä P, Jarva J., Paalijärvi M., Sallasmaa, O., Sapon S., Räisänen M.,

2 Contents Contents...... 3 Contents...... 3 Summary...... 5 1 Introduction ...... 6 2 Objectives of the report ...... 7 3 Relevance of the project to the sustainable development of the Vyborg district ..... 7 4 Current environmental planning practices for groundwater and aggregate in Finland...... 9 4.1 Brief introduction to the Finnish planning system ...... 9 4.2 Master plans for water management...... 11 4.2.1 Planning process...... 12 4.2.2 Outputs of the planning process ...... 14 4.2.2.1 Relevant background information ...... 14 4.3 National land use guidelines...... 15 4.4 Spatial planning on the regional level ...... 15 4.5 Spatial planning on the local level...... 16 4.6 Natural resources in land use planning...... 16 4.7 Symbols used in the land use plans ...... 17 4.8 Other relevant plans...... 19 5 Information sources for groundwater and aggregate resources management in Finland...... 20 5.1 Geological maps ...... 20 5.2 Mapping programmes...... 21 5.3 Relevant socio-economic and environmental information sources...... 22 5.4 Assessment of sand and gravel resources...... 24 5.4.1 Basic work...... 24 5.4.2 Database ...... 24 5.4.3 New challenges...... 24 5.4.4 Accounting system ...... 25 5.5 Information on groundwater quality...... 25 5.5.1 Groundwater monitoring in Finland...... 25 6 Groundwater resource investigations ...... 26 6.1 Investigation program...... 27 6.2 Glaciofluvial formations as aquifers ...... 27 6.3 Studies of aquifer structure...... 28 6.4 Procedures for hydrogeological studies...... 31 7 Approaches to sand and gravel aggregate resources assessment ...... 33 7.1 Course of study...... 34 7.1.1 First visit on the spot ...... 34 7.1.2 Methods ...... 34 7.1.2.1 Gravimetric measurements...... 34 7.1.2.2 Ground penetrating radar (GPR) ...... 35 7.1.2.3 Seismic sounding...... 36 7.1.2.4 Drilling ...... 36 7.1.2.5 Electrical tomography (resistivity) ...... 36 7.1.2.6 Terrain analysis ...... 37 7.1.2.7 Volume calculations and quality analysis ...... 37 7.1.2.8 Updating the sand – and gravel database...... 37 8 Groundwater quality in geologically analogous cross-border areas in Finland ..... 38

3 8.1 Effect of gravel extraction on groundwater...... 43 9 Current planning practices for groundwater and aggregate in Russia...... 45 10 Information sources for groundwater and aggregate resources management in Vyborg district...... 47 10.1 Geological maps ...... 47 10.2 Relevant socio-economic and environmental information sources...... 48 10.3 Groundwater resource inventories...... 49 10.4 Soil and rock aggregate resource inventories...... 51 10.4.1 Aggregate data of the northern part of Vyborg area...... 52 10.5 Information on Groundwater Quality...... 55 10.5.1 Monitoring of groundwater ...... 55 10.5.2. Groundwater quality of the main aquifers in the northern part of the Vyborg area ...... 55 10.5.5. Pilot groundwater exploration ...... 58 11 Comparison of the exploration, assessment and mapping techniques used for groundwater investigations...... 61 12 Conclusions ...... 64 13 References ...... 65

4 Summary The main purpose of this Tacis Cross Border Cooperation, Small Project Facility project was to develop water supply and rational management and exploitation of groundwater resources and sand, gravel and rock aggregate materials around existing water intakes in towns and villages in the Vyborg district, Leningrad Oblast.

Groundwater-based water supply in Finland has developed cost-efficient technical solutions and groundwater exploration approaches that can be recommended as the basis for best practices for groundwater investigations also in Vyborg area and similar crystalline bedrock areas in NW-Russia. The Finnish approaches are versitile and can be adjusted to comply with the current Russian regulations on groundwater investigations. Consequently, the development of water supply in the Vyborg district based on the utilization of glaciofluvial deposits can be included to the already started federal programs. Glaciofluvial deposits can provide similarly, solutions for water deficit in other parts of NW Russia. Future programs could also integrate the investigations of improved assessments of aggregate resources in Vyborg district. Based on Finnish experiences, this would support significantly sustainable aggregate extraction and future management of natural resources in Vyborg area. Finally, investigations promoting production of mechanically high quality rock aggregate materials should be supported to reduce the use of sand and gravel aggregates.

The results of the pilot project carried out as part of this project demonstrate that the current deficit for the Vyborg Town could be fulfilled cost-efficiently by groundwater from glaciofluvial deposits. In general, the results also indicate that the glaciofluvial deposits, which cover 2-5 % of total area of Vyborg district, commonly comprise aquifers capable to yield groundwater sufficiently for rural communities, small towns and tourist resorts i.e. few thousand cubic meters per day.

Previous Russian groundwater investigations approaches applied in the region have been based on the concepts of horizontally extensive sedimentary rock aquifers that do not well fit to crystalline bedrock areas and for glaciofluvial deposits. Results of this project suggest that, glaciofluvial deposits could make to the water supply in geologically analogical areas in Karelian Isthmus, Republic of Karelia and Murmansk Region as significant contribution as they currently do in Finland. The main reason for the groundwater based municipal water management in Finland is the superior quality of groundwater. Unlike surface water, groundwater can be normally distributed to the consumers as it is or after minor treatment.

Glaciofluvial deposits provide major sand and gravel resource for construction and concrete production. Due to the positive development of the economy in Russia during past few years, the infrastructure build-up of Vyborg district and St. Petersburg has become possible. The improvement of road and railroad connections can be expected to increase the demand for the high-quality concrete production and aggregate materials in the near future. Simultaneous development of groundwater supply and environmentally based aggregate extraction has the great potential for making the difference. It is necessary to develop techniques and land-use plans so that groundwater areas will be further classified to areas suitable for aggregation extraction, areas with limited possibility of aggregate extraction and to areas non suitable for aggregate production. This will also eventually result in cost savings, because improved water supply is

5 important for the sustainable development of the local economy in general and particularly for the tourism sector.

1 Introduction Since 1997, The Tacis Cross Border Cooperation (CBC) Small Project Facility (Tacis CBC SPF) has supported small-scale co-operation projects between local and regional authorities on the Western borders of the NIS. The basic purpose of the SPF is to foster co-operation between regions, cities and local authorities. The objective is to support priority areas by enabling partners to work together on a common cross-border problems or developing the partners’ competencies in different priority areas. In addition to the obvious need for cross-border cooperation in combating pollution and improving conservation, the European Parliament, EU Member States, and the NIS' governments themselves have shown political interest in the environment, and all of them stress that the environmental considerations should be a key component of the Tacis-CBC programme.

This project has been co-financed by the European Union´s Tacis Cross-Border Co- operation Small Project Facility Programme (79,75 %)1, the Administration of Leningrad Oblast (ca. 7 %) and Geological Survey of Finland – GTK(ca. 12 %).

The main purpose of the project was to develop water supply and rational management and exploitation of groundwater resources and sand, gravel and rock aggregate materials around existing water intakes in towns and villages in the Vyborg district, Leningrad Oblast. The local authorities were helped to safeguard the sufficient groundwater supply for the local population and tourists in long terms while upholding the supply of high-quality aggregate production needed for the strong ongoing build-up of infrastructure in NW-Russia.

The aim or the project was to distinguish best practices for sustainable use of groundwater and aggregate resources after know-how transfer and comparison of the present techniques used for environmental planning and groundwater investigations in geologically analogical cross-border areas. The project went beyond mere dissemination of information and recommendations by developing a pilot site and delineating prospective areas for future investigations. Environmental strategies based on the project findings were developed to help the region to cope with the increasing demand for potable water and high quality construction materials.

Project consortium consisted of local and regional environmental administrators and scientific experts from Finland and Russia. The leader of the consortium was the Kouvola Region Federation of Municipalities, who was responsible for the over-all co-ordination and the know-how transfer on land-use planning and environmental management. The Core Partners were The Administration of Leningrad Oblast and State Company Mineral who were responsible for organizing and processing of available hydrogeological data, compilation of the hydrogeological and land-use maps,

1 This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of this document are compiled by GTK and SC Mineral and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union.

6 analyzing existing sources of groundwater pollution and act as a local end user of exploration and environmental monitoring methodologies and GIS-tools. Additional Partner was Geological Survey of Finland - GTK who brought to the consortium expertise on hydrogeological and geophysical investigation techniques, characterization and evaluation techniques of aquifers and rock aggregate materials and GIS-analysis techniques applied in Finland. In addition to Consortium partners, representatives of the relevant local end users and stakeholders have been invited to participate the project workshops. These included representatives of Vyborg City, Vyborg district Administration, Finnish Environmental Institute; Southeast Finland Regional Environmental Centre, and Geopex ltd. Joint seminars have been organized also with Rantasalmi Environment Education Institute, Finnish Environment Institute, Kola Science Center and North Finland Environment Center.

2 Objectives of the report This report forms an integral part of the Activity 4. Integrated evaluation and environmental planning strategy for the target areas, of the work program. GTK is responsible for the deliverables of Activity 4, which include: 1) a report comparing the different methods and procedures used to investigate, manage and remediate ground water and aggregate extraction areas in Finland and in Russia, and 2) a report describing an environmental management strategy for Vyborg district. Special emphasis has been given to resolving the contradiction of increasing demand of sand and gravel resources for construction of infrastructure, and increasing demand of potable water for the population, tourism and local industries.

While this present document is not legally binding, the partner organizations aim however, to fully support the developed strategy in their future actions depending on their available resources.

The major objectives of the Report 1 are: To distinct the best practices based on the comparison of the exploration, assessment and mapping techniques used for environmental planning and groundwater investigations in geologically and hydrogeologically similar cross- border areas in Finland and Russia, To specify a strategy for the selection of important aquifers and areas suitable for the aggregate production.

The developed strategic land use plan for the selected areas includes e.g. grouping of aggregate production areas into following categories: 1) areas suitable for aggregation extraction, 2) areas with limited possibility for aggregate extraction and 3) areas non- suitable for aggregate production. The generic land use plan will be presented in the scale 1:200 000.

3 Relevance of the project to the sustainable development of the Vyborg district The study area of Vyborg district is located on the Karelian Isthmus in the north- western part of Russia in the Leningrad Oblast (Figure 1). The total area of Vyborg district is 7431 km2, which is about 8.6 % of the whole territory of Leningrad Oblast.

7 Approximately 73 % of the area is forests. The Vyborg municipal area includes 8 city settlements (Vyborg, Kamenogorsk, Cvetogorsk, Lesogorsk, Visotsk, Primorsk, Poshino and Soviet) and 6 rural settlements. The total permanent population of the Vyborg district is 191 800 inhabitants, from which 65 200 (34 %) lives in rural areas.

Figure 1. The location of the study area.

The current total need for the good quality water for the population Vyborg is approximately 50 000 m3/day which is about 23 % of the total potable water produced in Vyborg district within centralized surface water supply (215 400 m3/day). The major water supply for Vyborg is from Lake Krasnoholmskoe.

Towns of Svetogorsk and Kamennogorsk, together with smaller municipalities of Lesogorski, Baryshevo, Krasnyi Sokol and Losevo, which all are located in the Vuoksi catchment area, take most of their potable water from the Vuoksi River. Total population of abovementioned population centres is 27 600 (14,3 % of the Vyborg district population) from which 21 000 people use river water from Vuoksi, the rest of the people use their own wells or springs. In summer time the population in the Vyborg district nearly doubles by tourism and water consumption increases.

Present water supply for the cross-border area of Leningrad oblast (Vyborg district) is not enough for permanent population and tourists. In addition, due to the pollution and eutrophication of surface water resources by e.g. agricultural activities, leaking of numerous septic storages of the farms and from existing uncontrolled waste dumps, further development of the present surface water supply would require modernization of water treatment facilities and water intake stations.

The results of the pilot project carried out as part of this project demonstrate that the current deficit for the Vyborg City could be fulfilled cost-efficiently by groundwater from glaciofluvial deposits. In general, the results also indicate that the glaciofluvial deposits, which cover 2-5 % of total area of Vyborg district, commonly comprise aquifers capable to yield groundwater sufficiently for rural communities, small towns and tourist resorts i.e. few thousand cubic meters per day. Previous Russian

8 groundwater investigations approaches applied in the region have been based totally on the concepts of horizontally extensive sedimentary rock aquifers that do not work well in crystalline bedrock areas and for glaciofluvial deposits. Consequently, the results suggest that, glaciofluvial deposits could make to the water supply in geologically analogical areas in Karelian Isthmus, Republic of Karelia and Murmansk Region as significant contribution as they currently do in Finland. For example, in Finland there are about 6600 groundwater areas (2300 groundwater areas important for water supply, Class I; and 1500 areas suitable for water supply, Class II; 2800 other groundwater areas, Class III), which are located in glaciofluvial formations. Groundwater resources in these formations are over 6 million m3/day and waterworks distribute 0,7 million m3/day to consumers, i.e. over 60 % of potable water distributed by municipal water supplies is groundwater. In scattered settlement areas groundwater from wells or springs is almost the sole source of drinking water. The main reason for the groundwater based municipal water management in Finland is the superior quality of groundwater. Unlike surface water, groundwater can be normally distributed to the consumers as it is or after minor treatment.

In addition to groundwater, glaciofluvial deposits provide major sand and gravel resource for road construction and concrete production. Due to the positive development of the economy in Russia during past few years, the infrastructure build- up of Vyborg district and St. Petersburg has become possible. The improvement of road and railroad connections can be expected to increase the demand for the high-quality concrete production and aggregate materials in the near future.

Extraction of sand, gravel and rock aggregate materials poses a threat to groundwater quality (Hatva et al., 1993). Simultaneous development of groundwater supply and environmentally based aggregate extraction has the great potential for making the difference. It is necessary to develop techniques and land-use plans so that groundwater areas will be further classified to areas suitable for aggregation extraction, areas with limited possibility of aggregate extraction and to areas non suitable for aggregate production. This will also eventually result in cost savings, because improved water supply is important for the sustainable development of the local economy in general and particularly for the tourism sector.

4 Current environmental planning practices for groundwater and aggregate in Finland

4.1 Brief introduction to the Finnish planning system The Finnish administrative structure relies on three levels: national, regional and local. The central government in Finland consists of the Council of State, which includes the cabinet and 12 ministries. Legislative power rests exclusively with the central government. There are six provinces in Finland that belong to the state system and are purely for the purposes of central government administration. The 19 Regional Councils in Finland, which are associations of municipalities, have authority for regional development and are responsible for regional policy and planning. On a local level, there are 431 self-governed municipalities in Finland (situation in the beginning of year 2006). The municipalities have in common the basic administrative and decision- making system. They are responsible for organizing health and social security,

9 education, youth work and land use planning in their area. The Åland islands (Ahvenanmaa islands) – situated between Finland and Sweden – form an autonomous, demilitarized and unilingual Swedish province in Finland. Their self-government status is stated in the Finnish constitution (based on Jarva & Virkki, 2006)

Land use planning in Finland is regulated mainly by the Land Use and Building Act (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 132/1999). More detailed regulations and controls on land use and construction are included in the Land Use and Building Decree (Maankäyttö- ja rakennusasetus 895/1999). The National Building Code contains regulations and guidelines that complement the legislation in the Land Use and Building Act. Other legislation that steers the land use planning is for example the Nature Conservation Act (Luonnonsuojelulaki 1096/1996). The common objectives of the Land Use and Building Act are to organise land use and construction to create the basis for high quality residential environments, to promote ecologically, economically, socially and culturally sustainable development, to ensure that everyone has the chance to participate in open planning process and to guarantee the quality of planning decisions and solutions.

The principal instruments of the Finnish planning system are national land use guidelines, regional plans, local master plans and local detailed plans. On a national level, the Ministry of Environment supervises and develops planning policy in Finland. Regional Councils are in charge of regional scale spatial planning (maakuntakaava) and the municipalities are responsible for preparing a local master plan (yleiskaava) as well as a local detailed plan (asemakaava) for their area. These three separate spatial plans have been developed to serve different aims and purposes. The regional plan concentrates on land use issues that are of national or regional interest (usually in scale 1:100 000-1:250 000). The local master plan takes into account the special needs of a municipality (usually in scale 1:5 000-1:50 000) and the local detailed plan guides building and planning within the municipality (usually in scale 1:2 000). In the hierarchical system, the regional plan steers the local master plan and the local master plan steers the local detailed plan. However, the legal effects go in the other direction. It means that the more detailed plan, if it exists, has to be followed, e.g. if a local detailed plan exists it has more power than a local master plan and if a local master plan exists it has more power than a regional plan. Every municipality also needs to have a building code (rakennusjärjestys), which guides planning on the local level. The building code includes regulations that are necessary for the realisation and preservation of a good living environment. (based on Jarva & Virkki, 2006)

Plans for shore zones have been drawn up since the 1960’s. In 2003, 15 % of shore zones had either a local (shore) detailed plan or local (shore) master plan (Jylhä & Riipinen, 2003). The Land Use and Building Act states (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 10/72§) that “buildings may not be constructed in shore zones in shore area of the sea or of a body of water without a local detailed plan or legally binding local master plan. […] These provisions also apply to shore areas where planning of building and other use to arrange for holiday homes which are mainly shore-based is necessary because of anticipated building development in the area.”

10 4.2 Master plans for water management Since 1960ies, municipalities have played the primary role in the development and implementation of water services, which cover by legal definition, both water supply and waste water treatment. The responsibilities of municipalities have been further clarified in the Water Services Act (Vesihuoltolaki 119/2001) adopted in 2001. This piece of legislation also addresses the role of master planning of water services on two levels. Regional level plans called ”vesihuollon yleissuunnitelmat” cover the extent of provinces or groups of municipalities. Local level plans i.e. ”vesihuollon kehittämissuunnitelmat” cover the area of a municipality or a certain part of it. The decrees of national legislation take into account also the EU:s Water Framework Directive (WFD) that requires general water planning to be made in a river-basin scale. The Integrated River Basing Management Plans, which are made as a part of WFD- implementation and the water services plans as well as land use plans must be made mutually consistent.

Regional level plans are in general organized (publicly bid) by e.g. the Regional Councils or Regional Environmental Centers. Since municipalities are responsible bodies for organizing and developing water supply and wastewater treatment in their areas, they are also required to carry out local level water services planning. Consequently, the preparation of local level plans is organized directly by the municipalities or municipally owned water works companies. Municipalities are also required to participate to the inter-municipal water planning.

Regional plans have become the central instrument for cross-municipal-border co- operation and development of water services for several reasons. In many cases, organization and financing of water supply could not be done without inter-municipal co-operation. The sand and gravel aquifers as well as suitable surface water sources in general are spatially unevenly distributed. Therefore, many municipalities lack sufficient water resources available with in their cadastral area. In addition, most of the Finnish municipalities are small and have difficulties to finance costly investments. Financial benefits that can be likely reached through technical co-operation between municipalities will be more than welcomed. In addition, municipalities can also trade water services and achieve significant income.

Especially when financially difficult and long-lasting commitments need to be made in the participating municipalities a general plan of the foreseen technical solutions becomes in practice mandatory before any political and administrative decisions on the inter-municipal co-operation can be made.

For the cases when municipalities may not wish to co-operate with their neighbors due to conflicting interests, the current legislation gives authorities efficient incentive to promote inter-municipal co-operation and consequently, the preparation of regional plans. Finnish municipalities can collect service fees and tax income from their citizens. However, municipalities also compete about taxpayers with the services that they can provide to them. As a result, municipalities may have conflicting interests in developing water supply or wastewater management. Nevertheless, they can receive financial investment support from the state or EU for developing water services if they attach their application with a suitable plan. In practice, such plan must be done according to the guidelines for the regional master planning (Vikman and Santala, 2001).

11 4.2.1 Planning process Irrespective of the planning scale, the preparation always involves stakeholder participation. The stakeholders should always represent an area that is “larger than the planning area”. This means that e.g. stakeholders of a local, municipal plan should involve representatives from the neighboring communities; regional scale planning should involve also authorities and regional administration of the surrounding areas etc. Stakeholders can be represented in the drafting committee or they can be asked to give comments/statements on the plan text or on the scenarios underplaying the plan. These typically involve estimates on water consumption based on socio-economic prognoses, or developments in environmental situation etc.

The co-ordination is carried out or at least a key role is played by a Regional Environmental Centre whose duties include the promotion and preparation of regional land use plans and who comprise the regional authority on environmental monitoring. The planning committee typically includes 6-7 persons with relevant substance experience. A steering committee may be established to include higher-level decision makers or stake holder groups.

The text and particularly the summary should be clear and understandable to non- experts so that a layman reader can comprehend the prognoses and assumptions made, the suggested responses and their possible consequences. The drafting the plan text and map illustrations is carried out usually by a consultant selected after a tender process based on the previous references and the price of their bid.

The planning and the implementation processes shown in Figure 2 can be considered as a cyclic procedure that will be repeated after 5-10 years. The plan is supposed to provide an expert opinion on the most feasible actions to be taken in the implementation period as a response to the different scenarios (Figure 3). The time frame of the underlying scenarios is typically longer. For example, the water demand is typically estimated separately for urban and rural areas and industries typically for the next 10-20 years.

However, the plan needs to take into account for example area reservations in land use plans that can cover next 200/500 years or more. According to the national legislation, water services include also wastewater treatment. Threfore, production of waste water and solid slurry waste will be assessed. Depending on the hydrological conditions, scenarios should take into account the preparedness to flood and drought situations based on existing historical data (few tens of years, few hundred years maximum). The underlying scenarios must take into account the objectives of national and EU-level programs e.g. Water management 2010 or EU-WFD, the latter of which assumes that a good qualitative and quantitative status of water resources should be reached 2015 and requires reduction the risks of groundwater pollution.

12

Final master plan

Tentative plan Decisions and contracts Hearing/ Alternatives statem ent /schenarios Hearing/ Implementatio n selections

Monitoring Prognosis and goals

Basic Need for new information plan? Purpose and objectives

Figure 2. An illustration of the planning process as described in Ympäristöopas 88 (Environmental guideline) by Finnish Environment Institute (Vikman and Santala, 2001). The process is in principle continuous cycle the need for plan will be evaluated in 5-10 year cycles.

Schenario A

Schenario B Current Plan situation Actual outcome

Schenario C

next 5-10 years Figure 3. Time frame for the master plan implementation. Modified from Ympäristöopas 88 (Environmental guideline) by Finnish Environment Institute (Vikman and Santala, 2001).

13 4.2.2 Outputs of the planning process The planning process produces several reports and documents. In order to become accepted by authorities, stakeholders and the public, the plan needs to be prepared transparently. Therefore the planning program is commonly described in a separate report. The basic information collected for the plan is commonly documented at least as work documents. However, this information is commonly included into a separate report describing the planning objectives and the relevant prognosis of population, industry and water demand etc. Particular attention should be paid to the documentation of the different planning alternatives and scenarios, which will be represented for evaluation and comments to different stakeholders. After the comments to the scenarios have been received, a tentative master plan comprising report and map attachments will be compiled. This will be exposed again to stakeholder and in many cases also to public for their comments that will be also documented. Hearings may lead to several clarifications before the final master plan is achieved. The final version of the plan is comprises commonly a short document and generic thematic maps targeted not only to experts of water sector but also to the public as well.

4.2.2.1 Relevant background information The background information to be collected for water services development concerns both drinking water supply and wastewater management. The different scenarios need to rely on relevant socio-economic statistics and prognoses on the developments of population, industries, business lines and sources of livelihoods in the area. The plans need to take into account the current land use and land-use plans, the existing plans for water management and protection must be described and considered. The development plans must be consistent with all the relevant court decisions and environmental permissions and agreements between municipalities on water management. Preparation committee needs to be concerned about relevant ongoing court-decision processes. It is evident that the above goals cannot be reached without interdisciplinary co-operation and expertise, transparent preparation process and involvement of different stakeholders.

The collected information also includes description of the water service sector; organizations and their co-operation in the planning area. Description should include the current situation with the water works companies including operational costs, development plans and preparation plans for water shortages. Similarly current situation of the waster water treatment facilities and their operational costs need to be provided and the planned responses to water surplus situations (floods, heavy rain etc.) need to be included.

Water use statistics that will be collected from local water works companies for specifies the statistical trends of urban and rural population as well as industries. Also characteristics and timing of peak and low consumption will be defined for different user groups. For example, consumption of industrial raw waters and production of wastewater may take place in summer time when groundwater levels are low. Consumption of potable water and wastewaters by local residence can depend on socio- economic structure.

The guidelines for the planning process address many human activities that are at least indirectly depended on geology and hydrology. Therefore, the Guidelines also require that the plans need to be attached with maps of watercourses and geology (soil cover).

14 In addition, data collected and reported must include description of groundwater resources in terms of quantity and quality, vulnerability and pollution risks, current and planned use and impact assessments. Also relevant surface water bodies need to be described in terms of hydrological characteristics and water quality and any estimates of nutrient and pollution loads and impact assessments. Available summaries of operation and monitoring reports should be provided. Evidently, efficient management of all the necessary spatial data and text documents would require development of a GIS-system.

4.3 National land use guidelines The Finnish Council of State sets the national land use guidelines. They outline Finland's land use far into the future. The valid guidelines were set in November 2000. The guidelines indicate which issues should be taken into account all over the country in all land use and land use planning. Under the Land Use and Building Act, regional planning, planning at the local level, and the activities of government authorities should promote the implementation of these guidelines (Ministry of the Environment, 2002).

The national land use guidelines have been grouped according to subject as follows: 1) a well-functioning regional structure, 2) a more coherent community structure and a quality of the living environment, 3) the cultural and natural heritage, recreation uses and natural resources, 4) well-functioning communication networks and energy supply, 5) special issues of the Helsinki region and 6) areal entities of outstanding interest as natural and cultural sites (Ministry of the Environment, 2002).

4.4 Spatial planning on the regional level Regional Councils, that are joint municipal boards, are responsible for preparing a regional plan (maakuntakaava) for their area. The regional plan covers usually the whole region. It is also possible to make a regional plan of a smaller part of the region or it can be prepared in stages, divided into several themes. The aim is to end up with one regional plan that covers all themes and the region as a whole.

The required content of the regional plan is provided in the Land Use and Building Act (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 4/28§). “In planning, special attention shall be paid to following: 1) the appropriate regional and community structure of the region; 2) ecological sustainability of land use; 3) environmentally and economically sustainable arrangement of transport and technical services; 4) sustainable use of water and extractable land resources; 5) operating for the region’s business; 6) protection of landscape, natural values, and cultural heritage; and 7) sufficient availability of areas suitable for recreation.

Regional planning process includes also regional development strategies drawn up by the Regional Councils for 20-30 years. These strategies are concretized in regional plans that are drawn up for 10-20 years. Regional programmes are prepared for 3-5 years. They define more precisely the long-term regional development strategies.

Regional plans are fairly general plans set out medium-term and long-term objectives for regional land use patterns concerning issues that affect land use planning in many municipalities (Ministry of the Environment, 2005). The Assembly of the Regional Council, which is the Regional Council’s highest decision-making body, approves the

15 regional plan. After approval, the regional plan is submitted to the Ministry of the Environment for ratification and legal effects.

Preparing a regional plan is quite a complex planning-, interaction- and decision- making process. Every phase of the process includes participation, impact assessment, decision-making and actual planning. The planning process can be divided roughly into seven different phases: start-up, objectives, preparation, draft, approval, ratification and follow-up phase.

4.5 Spatial planning on the local level Municipalities are responsible for preparing a local master plan (yleiskaava) for their area. It can cover the whole municipality or it can be drawn up in stages or by sub-area. Neighboring municipalities can also co-operate and prepare a joint municipal master plan. The local master plan is usually drawn up by the local authority, that is municipality, and is approved by the local elected council. However, the task of preparing a joint municipal master plan can be delegated to some suitable joint organization of local authorities, e.g. to the Regional Council. The joint master plan needs to be ratified by the Ministry of the Environment.

The required content of the local master plan is provided in the Land Use and Building Act (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 5/39§). “The following must be taken into account when a local master plan is drafted: 1) the functionality, economy and ecological sustainability of the community structure; 2) utilization of the existing community structure; 3) housing needs and availability of services; 4) opportunities to organize traffic, especially public transport and non-motorized traffic, energy, water supply and drainage, and energy and waste management in an appropriate manner which is sustainable in terms of the environment, natural resources and economy; 5) opportunities for a safe and healthy living environment which takes different population groups into equal consideration; 6) business conditions within the municipality; 7) reduction of environmental hazards; 8) protection of the built environment, landscape and natural values; and 9) sufficient number of areas suitable for recreation.”

Municipalities prepare also local detailed plans (asemakaava) for their area. A local detailed plan can cover a whole residential area including housing, work and recreation areas or sometimes a smaller area. The local detailed plan is approved by the local council.

The required content of the local detailed plan is provided in the Land Use and Building Act (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 7/55§). “The local detailed plan shall be presented on a map indicating the following: 1) the boundaries of the area covered by the local detailed plan (local detailed plan area); 2) the boundaries of the various areas included in the local detailed plan; 3) the public and private uses intended for land and water areas; 4) the volume of building; and 5) the principles governing the siting of buildings and, when necessary, the type of construction.”

4.6 Natural resources in land use planning The national land use guidelines state that “land use should promote the sustainable use of natural resources so as to secure their availability for future generations as well. In

16 land use and its planning, the location of natural resources and the possibilities of utilising them are to be taken into account” (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). In terms of sustainable use of natural resources, usable bedrock resources, their consumption and long-range needs as well as mires suitable for turf extraction and their needs for production and protection should be taken into account in regional planning. The need for protecting groundwater and surface waters and the needs for using them should also be taken into account in land use planning (Ministry of the Environment, 2002).

The regional development strategies are often written in very general level but they follow the principles defined by the national land use guidelines. The regional programme is more detailed and it includes for example impact assessment studies where among other things the impacts on nature and on natural resources are studied (Maankäyttö- ja rakennusasetus 1/1§). In the case of natural resources, the important groundwater areas as well as extractable sand, gravel and bedrock areas are defined in the regional plan. It is important to reserve areas and to ensure both the supply of good quality aggregate for construction (e.g. for the concrete industry and highway construction) and good quality groundwater for water supply systems within the regional plans. The description of the regional plan gives detailed information on natural resources of the area, i.e. how many important groundwater areas there exist, what is the quantity and quality of extractable sand, gravel and bedrock resources as well as estimated future use and it can also give information on specific conditions that should be taken into account.

Regional plan commits on the environmental management and post-treatment of the extraction areas. There are many different ways in which former extraction areas can be developed. Silviculture is the most common alternative. Other possibilities include recreation and sports, housebuilding and industrial use. Hard rock quarries can even be suitable for construction of refuse disposals. Parts of some extraction sites may also be used as educational sites for science classes (Alapassi et al. 2001). The objectives of the environmental management and post-treatment actions of the extraction areas are presented in the regional plan.

Land Extraction Act (Maa-aineslaki 1981/555) defines how to apply permission to extraction of land resources. The permission is granted by the authority that municipal has issued. The statement is needed from the Regional Environment Centre if the planned land extraction area has national or other significant importance in terms of nature conservation, significance in terms of water protection or it directly effects on other municipal.

4.7 Symbols used in the land use plans The Ministry of the Environment has published 13 separate guides for implementing the Land Use and Building Act (Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 2000 -sarja / Land use and Building Act 2000 -series). There exist specific guides to symbols that should be used in land use plans in different planning levels. In the following, some symbols related to the land extraction and water supply are presented and shortly explained.

17

Valuable esker or other geological formation

Valuable bedrock area with significant geological/biological/scenery values. The actions that could endanger the natural values are forbidden

This symbol is used to indicate the valuable and significant geological formations, such as eskers, drumlins, ice margins and bedrocks in the land use plan. The basis to take these areas into account in land use planning is on geological, biological and scenery values of the formations. Within these areas the consideration of a permit for land extraction should be followed to avoid damaging the valuable landscape etc. The key text to the symbol, or the plan regulations should give detailed information on the values that are meant to be protected.

Groundwater area important for water supply (I) or suitable for water supply (II)

Boundary of groundwater area important for water supply (I)

Boundary of groundwater area suitable for water supply (II)

Boundary of other groundwater area (III)

Boundary of groundwater protection zone

This symbol indicates the important groundwater areas for water supply and their classification according to their priority; class I: groundwater area important for water supply; class II: groundwater area suitable for water supply; class III: other groundwater area (indication of groundwater areas that belong to the class III is optional). The water intakes are marked with symbol. The protection zones of the groundwater areas that are based on the Water Act (Vesilaki 264/1961) regulations are indicated with letters pv/s and the delineations is drawn to the land use plan.

Area reserved for land extraction

18 Land extraction area that will be turned into industrial area after extraction has been finished

This symbol indicates the areas that are reserved for the land extraction in the land use plan. However, the extraction of land resources in these areas needs permit like regulated in the Land Extraction Act.

It is also recommended to indicate the post-treatment actions of the area already in the land use plan.

Need for environment or landscape treatmen t

This mark is used to indicate the specific need for environment or landscape treatment. For example, the old land extraction areas that are insufficiently post-treated can be indicate with this symbol in the land use plan.

4.8 Other relevant plans As it is said before in this report the national land use guidelines state, that “land use should promote the sustainable use of natural resources so as to secure their availability for future generations as well. In land use and its planning, the location of natural resources and the possibilities of utilising them are to be taken into account” (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). In terms of sustainable use of natural resources, usable bedrock resources, their consumption and long-range needs should be taken into account in regional planning (Ministry of the Environment, 2002).

Different kinds of explorations have been operated in SE Finland by GTK to define usable bedrock resource areas for natural stones and hard rock aggregates among others. Natural stone exploration projects were carried out in Kymenlaakso region 1996-1997 and in South Karelia region 1998-2000. And respectively hard rock aggregate exploration projects were carried out in Kymenlaakso region 2000-2002 and in South Karelia region 2004-2006. Principles in both exploration projects (natural stone and hard rock aggregates) were to explore all bedrock outcrops, which were not nearer than 500 m to a house or any kind of building and had not any environmental protection options. Distance to a lake should be over 200-300 m.

Natural stone exploration project in Kymenlaakso region was not overarching due to available time and money. As a result of the project quite large potential areas for natural stone production were defined but on the other hand only a few prospect areas. The result of the project could be useful for regional scale land-use planning. But in South Karelia the same kind of project was carried out more detailed and more prospect areas were defined. The results from South Karelia could be more useful for regional land-use planning, because there are determined prospect scale areas and not so large potential areas. The results of both projects have been reported (Härmä and Selonen 2000, Härmä 2001).

Hard rock aggregate exploration projects in Kymenlaakso and South Karelia regions have been a part of POSKI –projects (The Adjustment of Groundwater Protection with Aggregate Service). The objective of these projects was to produce relevant information

19 on the protection needed in sand, gravel and bedrock formations, the amount of aggregate and quality of the formation and their suitability for water or aggregate supply. The results of these projects are very useful in regional land-use planning but they are proposals and do not have any juridical obligations for authorities and landowners.

Hard rock aggregate explorations do not cover evenly the Kymenlaakso or South Karelia districts. The bedrock consists quite widely of different types of rapakivi granites that were not so precisely explored as the bedrock outside of rapakivi granites. The results of Kymenlaakso region have been reported (Keskitalo (ed.) et al 2004), and the report of South Karelia region will be published in 2007.

The exploitation areas of hard rock aggregates and areas suitable for natural stone production could be inserted in regional land-use plans and some Regional Councils have decided to insert these areas to their regional land-use plans, but possibly every Regional Councils will not do so. Areas reserved for rock aggregate and natural stone extraction could be presented in regional land-use plans with a symbol:

Area reserved for land extraction or with a symbol EOk = Area reserved for hard rock aggregate extraction.

5 Information sources for groundwater and aggregate resources management in Finland

5.1 Geological maps Systematic geological mapping of soil and bedrock started in 1888 by the Geological Commission of Finland know today as GTK. The first geological maps of SE-Finland delineating already the main of sand and gravel outcrops in 1:200 000 scale were produced by 1896. The maps of Quaternary Deposits in 1:400 000 scale cover almost the entire country. In addition most of the country has been mapped in 20:000 scale maps. An access of these maps is provided through the INTERNET (http://geokartta.gtk.fi/geokartta_uk/mainpage_uk.htm). However, more detailed information that the published maps on the occurrence, quality and quantity of sand and gravel deposits have been obtained by the sand and gravel inventory carried out since 1970’s.

Today the geological mapping programmes continue produce basic information for the needs of the extractive industry, land use planning, construction and environmental protection. However, the ongoing mapping programmes focus to produce more thematic maps with a project oriented data capture, interpretation and product delivery. Data will be standardized and regularly updated to provide national coverage at any desired scale. Mapping resources will be reassigned to mapping of centres of population growth and

20 areas for natural resource potential. A uniform national database, based on conceptual data model according to international developments, is under construction. Mapping of Quaternary deposits will emphasise 3D-data and modelling for urban construction and groundwater/sand and gravel deposits. This is a response to the increasing need for geological high-quality 3D information about glacial (Quaternary) deposits, as attention to environmental and land-use issues grow, particularly in urban and suburban areas. In recent decades attention has also turned to the study of local and regional groundwater systems and to their long-term sustainable development. The aim is to improve the knowledge of the geology, sedimentology and hydrogeology of the important groundwater areas. The complex geology of glacial deposits produces needs to develop further and optimize mapping and modeling methods. Therefore it is necessary to experiment with new ways to deal with large data sets, develop ways of integrating mapping, drilling and geophysics data of variable quality, and develop methods to construct 3D geological models of appropriate detail that can be used for land and water applications, such as hydrogeological modeling.

5.2 Mapping programmes Largely based on the outputs of the sand and gravel resource inventory (see section 5.5 below) and their own investigations and existing geological data, the organizations of environmental administration carried out in 1980s and 1990s mapping and delineation of groundwater areas (Britshgi, 1996). Approximately 7000 groundwater areas were classified as the following:

• Class I: Important for groundwater production • Class II: Suitable for groundwater production • Class III: Other groundwater area

Groundwater areas have been delineated on the basis of surficial geology, observations on the groundwater level, and location of wells. Each area has been assigned also an estimate of the total groundwater yield. For some areas, the collected database include more specific additional information such as borehole logs or yield estimations based on pumping tests. The groundwater areas are essentially administrative areas and should delineate an area were human activities may affect the ground water quality (In the implementation process of EU´s Water Framework Directive these areas are also considered to delineate the groundwater bodies). All activities that may be harmful are forbidden or controlled by environmental permissions.

The role of the different regional environmental centres in the mapping of groundwater areas has been variable. The water works companies have produced the majority of groundwater data. Some of the centres have actively conducted site investigations using their own resources. For last part of the Category III groundwater areas, the only available data are the delineated boundaries. However, such groundwater areas will be either removed from the list or their status will be raised in the future investigations. The changes in legislation that have taken place over the past ten years have increased the responsibilities of environmental monitoring and addressed the role of environmental centres as authorities which inspect and examine the compliance with the legislation. The role played by some environmental centres as active service providers does no longer fit well to their current legislative profile.

21

5.3 Relevant socio-economic and environmental information sources Assessment of the socio-economic factors and most likely future changes (rate and extent) in socio-economic circumstances, especially changes (favorable or non- favorable) in the land use and population growth is essential for the development of water supply and rational management and exploitation of groundwater resources and sand, gravel and rock aggregate materials. Additionally, limitations that prevent the utilization of groundwater or aggregate resources must be taken into account in the land use planning procedure. Some of these restrictions are e.g. population distribution, land use practices, land ownership and water rights. In Table x the checklist of socio- economic data and the list of the Finnish data sources are presented.

Table 1. List of socio-economic data and Finnish data sources. DATA SOURCE DEMOGRAPHY 1. Population size Statistics Finland (villages, major cities, total) (SF) 2. Tourist (how much, when) 2. Population distribution SF (rural, urban, semi-urban), variation and projections 3. Number of households SF 4. Residential density (units SF per hectare) 5. Sources of livelihood incl. SF prognosis of changes WATER RESOURCES 1. Public freshwater (SYKE) resources (m3/day) (VELVET) 2. Surface water (what,where) 3. Groundwater 2. Water abstraction and " usage 3. Quantity of potable " water/inhabitant/day 4. Percentage of people " supplied from public water sources 5. Quality of water supplies " 6. Capabilities of water " treatment stations 7. Water pricing " 8. Current and future plans " for water management ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 2. Water pollution SYKE, Finnish Forest Industries Federation, GTK 3. Atmospheric pollution SYKE, STUK, SF, Finnish Forest Industries Federation, Technical Research Centre of Finland; LIISA calculation

22 model. Finnish Meteorological Institute. 4. Soil pollution Information Centre of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Plant Production Inspection Centre. GTK 5. Mining Ministry of Trade and Industry. The Central Association of Earth Moving Contractors in Finland. 5. Existing monitoring SYKE, Information Centre of the Ministry networks (groundwater, of Agriculture and Forestry. surface water, soil) Plant Production Inspection Centre, GTK WASTE MANAGEMENT 1. Landfills SYKE, SF 2. Sewage treatment plants SYKE, SF 3. Number of people with SYKE, SF connection to sewerage 4 Tonnes of sewage discharged untreated LANDUSE 1. Different land use SF categories (size) 2. Areas of contaminated SF, SYKE lands 3. Basic structure of SF, Information Centre of the Ministry of agriculture (farming Agriculture and Forestry. practises, crops, fertilizers, Plant Production Inspection Centre manures etc.) 4. Irrigation and drainage SF, SYKE systems 5. Basic structure of industry SF SUPPORTING INFORMATION

As can be found from the list above, several different sources of socioeconomic data is available. In addition to the data that can be obtained form the Statistics Finland, one of the most important sources are the statistics of the water works companies, water co- operatives and facilities producing wastewater discharges. Compilation of such statistics jointly with water and sewage works companies and environmental authorities have continued over 30 years. In addition to the VELVET-register maintained by the environmental administration, the statistics are available to the public and authorities through annual reports of most water and sewage works companies.

Statistical data compiled to official register was first complied from facilities that serve more that 200 people but since 1994 data collection has been extended to include all facilities that withdraw water or discharge waste water more that 10 m3/d or which serve 50 people or more. Statistics are published and made available also through internet (http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=55588&lan=fi and Lapinlampi and Raassina, 2002).

The statistic include information of the treated waste waters, investment costs, lengths of distribution pipelines, pumped water volumes, number of customers, water prices and daily consumption of water per person. Statistical analysis of time series of water consumption and comparisons other socio-economic data (such as fuel prices and cost of living etc.) has been used to develop water flow forecasts and demand scenarios for

23 general planning of water services (Laukkanen, 1981). The statistical data available in VELVET helps also administration and water management as well as the data can be also compared to permitted withdrawals, temporal variations on e.g. groundwater water level and water quality data and recharge. Transparency of the information provides means to the authorities, researchers, environmental interest groups and the public to assess and monitor the management of water resources and to respond if adverse changes in the environment take place.

5.4 Assessment of sand and gravel resources 5.4.1 Basic work The studies of sand and gravel deposits undertaken by Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) beginning in the early 1970s have involved both basic research and the inventorying of resources. In the nation-wide evaluation carried out by GTK and the National Board of Public Roads and Waterways between 1971 and 1978 sand and gravel resources above the groundwater table were estimated.

The quantity of crushable stone (grain size 60-600mm), gravel (grain size 2-60mm), sand (grain size 0.06-2 mm) and the volume of the whole deposit have been calculated. Main techniques used in aggregate resource analyses were geomorphological mapping, some seismic soundings, trial pitting (depth 3-4 meters), sampling and laboratory investigations. In mapping minimum thickness of sand and gravel formation has been 1,5 meters and areas that contain gravel more than 50% of the total volume have been separated. Volume of each formation was calculated in several parts (separate areas of sandy material, areas of coarse material, areas of thick layers etc. The basic calculation method that was used is the area of the formation multiplied by the average of the deposit thickness.

In POSKI-project (Accomodation between groundwater protection and aggregate supply) the main role of GTK has been to produce information about sand and gravel resources and rock aggregates – mapping and volume calculations. Conventional basic methods (geomorphological mapping, ground penetrating radar in few formations and few drillings) have been used. Basic unit of these studies has been a groundwater area, which is a very large and coarse unit. This means rather rough estimations about sand and gravel aggregate.

5.4.2 Database Data of sand and gravel deposits have been collected in Sand and Gravel Database. The database contains information about quality and quantity of sand and gravel, areal extent of the deposits, usefulness of the deposits and land use. About 25 000 glaciofluvial formations have been mapped. The accuracy of volume estimations is about 10 000 m³. The map scale used is 1:20 000.

5.4.3 New challenges The beginning of this century has been economically very good in Finland. Lately, a lot of large construction projects have been conducted. There is a growing need for aggregates in construction projects. One big challenge is that the abundance of sand and gravel deposits varies in different parts of Finland. On the other hand there is large sand and gravel areas reserved for other purposes, e.g. groundwater intake, nature

24 conservation, population and industry. This means that in more densely populated areas a great deal of the good quality natural sand and gravel above the groundwater table has already been used up. Because of the abovementioned challenges, follow-up studies begun after the basic work and POSKI-project. In the follow-up studies, the used methods allow more accurate estimate of amounts and more reliable classification of materials. The project is carried out by GTK covering the main regions of aggregate production. The aim of this project is to produce more detailed data for aggregate industry and for the land use planning purposes in Finland.

5.4.4 Accounting system As a co-operation of GTK and environmental authorities, a project to create an accounting system of aggregates between 2005 and 2007 has been going on. The idea of the new system is to manage both the data about quarries (licences and the yearly volumes of extracted material) and aggregate resources of the deposits. Exploitable sand and gravel areas can be indicated with this accounting system and the aggregate volume of these areas can be calculated.

Environmental authorities will collect the data about quarries and GTK will compile data about aggregate resources and takes care of the data management and www- service.

5.5 Information on groundwater quality 5.5.1 Groundwater monitoring in Finland There are several instances in Finland who are monitoring the quality of groundwater and the groundwater table.

Finnish Environmental Institute (SYKE) and GTK have monitored nationwide the quality and amount of groundwater since 1960's. GTK's systematic groundwater monitoring ended in 2006 and monitoring network was handed to SYKE. SYKE's groundwater monitoring network contains 53 sites in areas of 13 Regional Environment Centres. GTK had 62 sampling points in 43 sites. These sites are located in various geological formations in different parts of Finland.

Finnish waterworks monitor the groundwater table and quality in the vicinity of pumping stations. The licences related to gravel extraction obligate the people who carry on the business to monitor the groundwater table and groundwater quality to some extent. Finnish Road Administration is monitoring the effects of de-icing on groundwater quality. Cities and municipalities may also monitor groundwater table, especially for geotechnical purposes.

There are many operations that require environmental license especially if the action itself takes place in Class I or Class II groundwater areas and there are risks of groundwater pollution (Decree of Environmetal Protection 18.2.2000/169). Often the license requires an explanation about the quality of soil, formation of groundwater, groundwater table and flow directions, water intake stations and wells, protective measurement and protective zones according to the Finnish Water Law. Licensees are normally also obliged to monitor the groundwater table and the quality of groundwater

25 in these areas. Among the many activities defined in the Decree of Environmental Protection are e.g. paper mill industry, metal industry, wood preservation, nuclear power plants, chemical industry, storage and distribution of fuels, mining activity, ore refineries, quarrying, dairy, mink farming, airports and chemical transport terminals (http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/2000/20000169).

6 Groundwater resource investigations A typical assessment project of groundwater resources of an aquifer system involves several separate investigations steps t as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Flow diagram of typical steps in groundwater resources investigations. The pilot project carried out in this small- Tacis project covered more or less steps 1-5. Based on ”Groundwater investigations guide” by Finnish Water Association 2005

The first activities to be carried out in groundwater resource investigations include evaluation of the previous investigations, site visits, inventories of existing wells. In order to assess the overall water balances, discharges of groundwater to springs and streams i.e. estimates of base flow will be necessary. Geophysical soundings, drillings, installation of observations wells or piezometers and hydraulic tests will be carried out to define the hydrogeological structure and aquifer properties. Drilling methods that are used to investigate groundwater resources can range from the use of light geotechnical drilling gear for installing piezometers to soil sampling and installation of large diameter wells using heavy, truck mounted hydraulic drilling machines.

Hydraulic test can mean short-term pumping tests and/or flow rate logging in sections of the bored wells isolated with inflatable packers. However, in most cases hydraulic characteristics must be estimated based on relatively simple specific capacity measurements, which are commonly carried out jointly with groundwater quality

26 sampling. Pumping test with sufficient duration (several weeks or preferably, few months) should be carried to assure that estimated groundwater yield is sustainable and that the groundwater quality remains acceptable. Test pumping is commonly carried out cost effectively e.g. using well-point systems (e.g. Driscoll 1986) before actual production well is installed. When hydrogeological conditions require the use of heavy drilling methods for installing observation wells, one or more such wells can be drilled with sufficiently large diameter on the potential sites. Depending on site conditions, such wells can be used as a final production wells. However, final production wells are designed to meet the optimal conditions and installed after successful test pumping. They also large-diameter screened wells that need to be installed with more specialized hydraulic drilling equipment

6.1 Investigation program Although the activities to be carried out can be seen as a stepwise program as shown in Figure 4, the different steps need interaction an iterative interpretation. The efforts taken to carry out each steps as well as the selection methods or techniques in each steps depend on site-specific conditions to be determined during the project. The investigation should be directed to areas where no potential sources of pollution exist or where land use activities which may have an adverse effect on groundwater quality have not taken place.

One of the site dependent factors that will be estimated is the average depth to water table. The use of suction pumps for hydraulic testing and water sampling is technically possible only when water table is less than 6 m deep. Gravel extraction may on one hand have adverse effects on groundwater quality but on the other, gravel pits may provide place where groundwater can be reached in shallow depths. Thickness and quality of the deposits also effect to the selection of drilling methods.

The most important constrains to the activities are the overall investigations and the available resources. The objectives and consequently, the extent of the investigations are different if a single village well (for a co-operative) or a municipal main water supply is going to be developed.

Today groundwater is used in Finland about 1 million cubic meters per day with an average price of the potable water of about 1 €/m3. These returns have made possible in the recent years also to develop the water supply of large settlements which in turn, has allowed the use of technically advanced techniques and substantial efforts for data collection. Most communities in Finland however, are small with a few thousand or few tens of thousand people. Therefore, most water exploration projects financed essentially by municipalities have been off limited scale and budgets. Groundwater nowadays comprises over 60 % of the municipally distributed drinking water and became the main source of water supply over about 40 year long period only because it provided evident financial benefits over surface water supply.

6.2 Glaciofluvial formations as aquifers The term glaciofluvial pertains to streams, which derive water from melting ice or meltwater tunnels and channels formed under, within or at the surface of glaciers and the deposition or erosional processes in such currents. Glaciofluvial deposits shown in Figure 5 have been mostly formed during the retrieval of the latest (Weichselian)

27 glaciation. Only a small proportion of the deposits are older representing early to pre Weichselian deposits. The latter are characteristically strongly deformed by continental ice or buried by the later deposits (Kujansuu et al. 1981).

The glaciofluvial deposits in southern Finland are commonly eskers and deltas that comprise elongated outcropping landforms, which are oriented roughly perpendicular or located along the margin of a continental ice sheet, respectively. Ice marginal ridges extending from southern Finland to NW Russia are also known as Salpausselkä – formations. These ridges consist essentially of till and fine sands deposited along ice margins that have become to a halt for long periods of time. Coarse glaciofluvial deposits are accumulated at the mouth of channels and tunnels feeding glacial melt water to the ice margin. Smaller marginal ridges have been deposited when retrieval of ice margin has stopped or oscillated for shorter periods as well.

Figure 5. Sand and gravel deposits in Finland. The deposits comprise in total about 2 % of the countries surface areas. Note the continuity of the eskers making the chains of small-sized deposits appear as dotted lines. Such line evidently continues to the Russian side.

6.3 Studies of aquifer structure Due to the small size and in many ways heterogeneous internal structure, glaciofluvial deposits are challenging targets for investigations as aquifers. The main objective of the studies of 3D-structure of glaciofluvial deposits (step 2 in Figure 4) is to distinguish the main aquifer system from the parts that are off minor importance for the extraction of groundwater.

In geological mapping, the glaciofluvial deposits have been commonly subdivided as primary and secondary deposits, which result directly glaciofluvial deposition processes and reworked and re-deposited sediments, respectively. Similar, simplified classification is also adopted below. The main parts of the aquifers consist of coarse grained, ”primary” sand and gravels in eskers and deltas. Particularly important parts are coarse glaciofluvial channel deposits that commonly form a gravel-dominated core in the aquifer system as shown in Figures 6 and 7. The gravel cores can have extremely high hydraulic conductivities inducing strongly channeled groundwater flow pattern (Figure 6). The gravel cores do not only dominate the flow rates but also the residence time and oxygen concentration of groundwater. Groundwater in coarse parts of the

28 aquifer is characterized by high oxygen and low iron and manganese contents. Instead, iron and manganese tend to precipitate on grain surfaces as ferrous hydroxides that are able to sorb also heavy metals. Therefore, the overall water quality is commonly excellent in glaciofluvial aquifers.

At their margins however, primary gravel and sand deposits grade laterally to fine sand and silt sediments and/or become covered by secondary sand deposits, which commonly have substantially lower hydraulic conductivity. Due to the low groundwater flow rate compared to the rate of oxygen consumption by decomposition of organic matter and metabolism of microbes, the groundwater quality in the marginal parts commonly suffers from low oxygen concentration.

Primary depositional processes may lead to complex layer structure within the glaciofluvial formations, which can subsequently lead to perched groundwater horizons. More commonly however, perched water tables are found in secondary deposits, which have been redeposited on the top of more poorly conductive sediments, such as till and fine glaciomarine or glaciolacustrian sediments (Figure 7).

The secondary deposits commonly comprise reworked sand layers, and beach terrace deposits. Wave action during the different stages of the Baltic Sea has been strong enough to erode and transport locally sand size particles. Also areas lacking vegetation have been subjects of wind action producing dunes. In general, secondary, reworked sediments can comprise coarse sands or even coarse lag deposits (beach gravel). The hydraulic conductivity, storage and recharge may be sufficient to allow extraction of groundwater e.g. for small water co-operatives. However, such deposits and their yield can be misinterpreted to represent the actual aquifer. If the structure is not sufficiently studied, the secondary, reworked deposits may give a false impression on the extent of the main aquifer system and its recharge area.

The distribution of soil type and particularly, sand and gravel are not the only controlling factors of groundwater flow in the glaciofluvial aquifers. The elevation of bedrock surface and consequently, the thickness of saturated zone can vary abruptly over short distances. Areas in which bedrock surface is higher than the water table commonly subdivide groundwater systems (Figures 6 and 7) in glaciofluvial formations. In any case such areas can comprise a substantial part of the formation. In bedrock depression saturated zone may be substantially thicker compared to other parts of the formation.

Fracture zones are commonly associated with linear depressions of bedrock relief. Hydraulic conductivities in fracture zones can be high compared to poorly fractured, “average” bedrock. Measured conductivities can be as high as in sand deposits (e.g. Leveinen, et al, 1998). Bedrock depressions themselves as well as highly conductive fracture zones have apparently commonly directed subglacial melt water flow. As a result many eskers tend to be underlain by fracture zones. In addition, fracture zones that underlay diagonally eskers may contribute significantly to the water balance of the eskers and provide also potential routes for pollutants.

29

“Dry areas” with bedrock above the water table

Wells

Arrows ind ic a te flow direction and magnitude

Contanstant head at surface water bodies

Countours of water table

Figure 6. Left) a map of gravel (dark green) and sand (light green) area in a glaciofluvial formation in eastern Finland. The red lines mark the boundaries of groundwater areas delineated by local environmental authorities. Right) a groundwater flow model for a subdomain of the groundwater area on left. Note the strong channelling of groundwater flow into the coarse gravel core (glaciofluvial main channel). Note also that substantial dry areas exist within the area, due to the relief of bedrock that also divides and controls groundwater flow.

”primary ”sand lateral gradation

silt/fine sand ”secondary” sand glaciomarine clay/silt

GRAVEL till bedrock above the bedrock water table fracture zones

Figure 7. Simplified cross-sectional illustration of the hydrogeological system in glaciofluvial aquifers (eskers). The primary sand (yellow) and gravels /dark green) deposited by glacial melt water currents comprise the central parts of the deposits and comprise the main aquifer system. The marginal parts lack coarse sediments or the coarser deposits rapidly grade laterally to fine sand or silt (blue). Consequently, the hydraulic properties become less favorable for groundwater withdrawal. Reworked sediments (light green) or glaciomarine/glaciolacustrian clays and silts (bright blue) commonly cover the margins of the primary sediments and have perched water tables that poorly commute hydraulically with the main groundwater flow system. Bedrock highs subdivide the aquifer system. Fracture zones commonly are associated with bedrock depressions where the saturated zone can be substantially thick. Fracture zones may also contribute significantly to the overall water balance. For sustainable utilization of groundwater resources, the recharge of the main aquifer system (between the dashed lines) must exceed the pumping rate. 30 6.4 Procedures for hydrogeological studies Development of hydrogeological understanding of the groundwater flow system (step 3, Figure 4) aims to the estimation the water balance so that the recharge and consequently, the limits of the long-term discharge can be assessed and suitable well locations in terms of pumping efficiency and groundwater yield and environmental protection can be selected.

Estimations of water balances are based on field measurements and theoretical considerations. Locations of springs, small streams and ditches that discharge groundwater from glaciofluvial formations are commonly clearly marked on basic (topographical) maps (1:20 000) maps. Therefore, studies of air-photographs etc. are usually not need. Discharge measurements can be made using different “standard” methods such as flow gauging, dilution gauging or by using current meters and wading rods. Estimates of recharge are commonly obtained by assuming pragmatically that the recharge is about 60 % of the annual precipitation. The estimates however, are strongly supported by studies of infiltration and water balances by lysimeters, and by soil moisture measurements (e.g. Lemmelä 1990 and the references there in) and by many other hydrological observations.

Comparisons of the in and out flows to the information on the aquifer structure serves to verify the effective recharge area and consequently, maximum yield in different subdivisions of the formation.

In today’s point of view, analysis of 3D-structure is the key element for the conceptual understanding of hydrogeology and sustainable use of groundwater resources. The methods to study the 3D-structure of glaciofluvial sediments for groundwater withdrawal are essentially same as for aggregate studies (see below). Previously however, investigations must have relied on less advanced geophysical methods and more over limited financial resources. Success full investigations have been carried out using conventional investigation procedure illustrated in Figure 8. The procedure was exclusively used up till early 80ies.

The conventional procedure relies on the use of suction pumps that have been carried out in piezometers installed in different levels using light hand drilling or percussion drilling gear. During drilling, screened tip is penetrated downwards in 1-2 m intervals, flushed and pumped by suction pumps. Particularly the use of suction pump but also the use of light drilling has limited the investigations to areas where groundwater table is close to surface, in the depth less than 6 m. Therefore, the procedure is commonly called also as the shallow technique (Mälkki, 1999). The main drawback of the shallow techniques is that they tend to direct the investigations in areas where the hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions do not statistically favour high yield or good groundwater quality. The areas are also vulnerable to pollution and adverse effects of gravel extraction. Furthermore, when groundwater resources became more intensively utilized, the spots suitable for conventional investigations where gradually covered.

Also due to technical and socio-economical developments, the investigation are carried out today by using the deep investigation procedure given in Figure 9 or by modifying the conventional procedure so that deeper parts of the glaciofluvial formations can be investigated. The technical advances that allow deep investigations include submersible

31 pumps, and certain advances in geophysical soundings, hydraulic testing and borehole measurements. The GIS-assisted modelling of aquifer structure and groundwater flow allows today more detailed assessment and visualization of the generally complex structure as well as subdivision to different flow systems. However, use of any possible information on water table elevations and hydraulic heads is still necessary to assess the flow directions and rates in the groundwater system. In addition to conventional water level observations in piezometers and wells, use of GPS-positioning has provided alternative means to get at least rough estimates of water table elevation. These include levelling of seepage zones and springs and other discharge points, and more accurate estimation of depth to water table along geophysical sounding profiles particularly, on ground penetrating radar results.

Although socio-economic development and increased resource allocation to groundwater exploration has allowed extensive use of sophisticated hydraulic testing methods and geophysical soundings, drilling of deep and coarse glasiofluvial sediments remains to be expensive. The investigation procedures in general, remain to avoid the use of heavy drilling. In optimal cases heavy drilling has been used in the final steps of the project to install boreholes that can be used as such a production well.

Previous investigations Map interpretations

Discharge measurements / base flow Well inventory Site visits

Installation of observation wells Water level and quality observations Selection of test pumping site Specific capacity/yield tests from a number of yield estimates

Preparation of pumping test and monitoring program

Pump test using suction pump and a nest of piezometers

Report

Figure 8. Flow diagram of the conventional groundwater investigations procedures.

32 Previous investigations Map interpretations

Discharge measurements / base flow assessment Well inventory Site visits

Installation of monitoring wells 3D- stru ctural investigations using drilling rigs! geophysics Water level and quality observarvation heavy drilling Short-tem hydraulic tests and their interpreation

Selection of well location

Preparation of pumping test and monitoring program

Pump test using submersible pumps and bored wells

Report

Figure 9. Flow diagram of groundwater investigations using deep investigation techniques.

7 Approaches to sand and gravel aggregate resources assessment As any other activity, studying sand and gravel formations has to be economically and socially justified. With limited resources it is even more important to carry out investigations in areas with the highest need of aggregates, i.e. close to high constructing activity and thus constant need of aggregates.

Transportation costs form majority of the overall costs of aggregates. Depending on the available resources, there is an economically feasible zone of few tens of kilometres around the consumption area from which the aggregates can be delivered. That roughly defines the area in which the studies should be carried out.

There are a number of limitations and restrictions, which affect aggregate extraction. Nature conservation status either restricts or totally denies aggregate extraction. In Natura-areas aggregate extraction is denied categorically. Other nature conservation areas are mainly ruling out aggregate extraction.

33

Sand and gravel formations are classified in three groundwater classes: Class I: groundwater areas important for water supply. • only exceptionally to be considered as aggregate resource area Class II: groundwater areas suitable for water supply • possibly to be considered as aggregate resource area Class III: other groundwater areas • suitable as aggregate resource area Abovementioned restrictions guide inventories, as well. Studies are to be carried out in formations that are possibly available for aggregate extraction. Formations should situate close to major roads to keep transportation costs as low as possible. The size of the formation should be big enough to be worth all the efforts.

7.1 Course of study With the current resources of GTK´s staff, one or two consumption areas are chosen annually for aggregate studies. Bearing in mind all the restricting factors mentioned above, approximately 10 formations are chosen for further studies.

7.1.1 First visit on the spot Studying a formation begins with checking out the current situation. Possible new gravel pits not visible in the map are observed, as well as other important changes, new houses etc. If major restrictions come up, such formations are excluded from further studies. At the same time preliminary sites for GPR and seismic sounding lines are chosen.

7.1.2 Methods Usually relatively large areas and thick sediments make the drilling of boreholes an extremely expensive and impractical means of investigating the subsurface. Surface (and borehole) geophysical surveys provide a way of extending the subsurface information from a limited number of boreholes. Yet no single geophysical technique alone provides enough subsurface information required for an evaluation of groundwater behaviour.

7.1.2.1 Gravimetric measurements Gravimetric measurements are the primary geophysical method used in GTK subsurface mappings (Figure 10). The differences between bedrock and overburden densities produce small changes in the Earth's gravitational field that can be detected by a gravimeter. As a result large-scale features in bedrock topography can be detected. The groundwater level and internal structure of measured formation cannot be detected. Gravimeter is best suited for areas with overburden thicknesses below 10 metre. The needed levelling is done with automatic hose levelling device in rural areas and with High Accuracy GPS-measurement in urban areas.

Measuring points on measured profile are usually at 20 m interval, also ground surface level is measured. The maximum length of profile is 1,5 km, and maximum spacing of profiles 500 m. A reference point (outcrop, drilling point etc.) is needed at each end of the profile. The accuracy of interpretation is 15%. Gravimetric measurements are relatively cost-effective and fast, non-destructive, and non-invasive

34

Figure 10. An example of interpreted gravimetric measurement line.

7.1.2.2 Ground penetrating radar (GPR) Ground penetrating radar is (Figure 11) used to define bedrock depth, groundwater level and sedimentary structures. GPR is relatively cost efficient, effective and fast device, but it´s applicability is limited to coarse-grained materials (gravel and sand). It's range is up to 30 m below surface, depending on the antenna. GPR is used for continuous high resolution mapping of shallow subsurface structures (especially groundwater level). In some cases GPR can be used to give rough estimation of grain size variability of the structures. This, however, has to be verified by grain size analysis of drilling samples. In sand and gravel studies one of the main advantages of GPR is to find optimal sites for drilling.

Figure 11. GTK´s ground penetrating radar in operation in the Vyborg district. Right: details of the GPR.

GPR operates by transmitting pulses of ultra high frequency radio waves (25-1500 MHz) into the ground. Transmitted energy is partially reflected from the interfaces between layers containing different electric properties (= variations in moisture content)

35 and registered by the receiving antenna. Depth of penetration is determined by the GPR antenna used and the electrical conductivity of the media. Antennas with low frequencies obtain reflections from deeper depths but have lower resolution. Radio wave penetration is limited (or nothing) or in areas with fine sediments. Value and usability of the GPR results depends on the skill and competence of the interpreter.

7.1.2.3 Seismic sounding Seismic sounding is established, proven method particularly well suited for measuring the depths to bedrock and to give rough estimations of relative grain size variability of the sedimentary layer. It can be used to find optimal sites for drilling. It also gives information about groundwater level. Seismic sounding is used as bedrock depth reference for gravimetric measurements. Downsides of this method are the slowness and expensiveness.

Seismic sounding is based on measuring travel times of artificially (hammer or explosives) generated waves of elastic energy as they propagate through the subsurface. The objective is to profile the velocity contrasts within the subsurface on the basis of depth and dip of each refractor encountered. For the method to be successful, each successively deeper refractor must have a higher seismic velocity along with a considerable velocity contrast.

Although seismic refraction has lower resolution than seismic reflection, it is generally the favoured seismic method for shallow surveys in Finland because acquisition and processing costs are lower.

7.1.2.4 Drilling Drilling is the most important method in studying sand and gravel formations. Especially when it is used in combination with sampling and grain size analysis, it gives most accurate picture of sediment beds. Drilling is one-dimensional method, which is used as reference point for linear geophysical methods, such as GPR and seismic sounding.

With heavy drilling equipment, up to 100 m depths can be reached. In normal cases and normal equipment, 40 – 50 m depth is the maximum. Vast majority of formations is less than 40 m in thickness. Downside in drilling is its relative expensiveness. That's why it is important to use also other methods to find optimal drilling sites.

7.1.2.5 Electrical tomography (resistivity) Method is based on measurements of potential field stimulated by a direct current or very low frequency alternating current in the ground by means of metal electrodes. Because different geologic materials have different electrical properties (resistivity or conductivity), layers in the subsurface can be identified on the basis of these properties. Resistivity depends mainly on water and clay mineral content of media.

The applications of this method in groundwater studies include e.g. resource mapping, aquifer vulnerability and saline intrusion problems (Figure 12). The maximum penetration depth is about 50 meters and measurements can be made in 2D or 3D, depending on the problem. This is non-destructive and non-invasive method which is especially efficient in conductive environments e.g. in clay areas where GPR or other

36 EM methods are unsuitable. In comparison with e.g. GPR and gravimetric measurements electrical tomography method is slow and expensive.

Conductive layer highway

d dry sand e p t h watertable distance (m)

Figure 12. An example of variation of the conductivity caused by the rise in conductivity from the use of road de-icing salts.

7.1.2.6 Terrain analysis Terrain analysis and land cover mapping can provide key information in resolving geological and hydrogeological questions. A digital elevation model (DEM) and it’s enhancements can also aid in recognition of regional (and local) geological features. DEM’s are developed from numerical elevation contours using e.g. Arc/Infos TOPOGRID module. For example intelligibility of Quaternary geological maps is significantly enhanced when they are combined with hill-shaded relief. The processes which have caused the relief can for a large part be interpreted using this type of combination maps.

7.1.2.7 Volume calculations and quality analysis After all the required methods have been applied, and all the necessary data has been collected, it's time to make refined estimates of volume and grain size variability of the formation.

Surface heights are derived from Digital elevation model (DEM), and it is transformed to appropriate GIS–format. Bottom of the formation is interpolated using available GWL, bedrock depth and drilling data. The total volume of the sand and gravel formation is calculated as a difference between surface and bottom elevation models.

7.1.2.8 Updating the sand – and gravel database With all the observations made in the field and all data acquired and calculated GTK´s sand and gravel database is updated. If needed, the limits of the formations can be re- drawn using Arcgis-program and attribute data of the formation will be updated in the database.

37

8 Groundwater quality in geologically analogous cross-border areas in Finland At the beginning of GTK´s groundwater monitoring programme there were 17 monitoring sites in SE Finland but later only four sites with ten sampling points were selected for systematic monitoring. All sampling sites are located in sand and gravel formations (Backman et al. 1999). In 1999 GTK updated the existing national groundwater database by collecting and analysing about 1000 water samples from springs, shallow dug wells and drilled bedrock wells (Lahermo et al. 2002). The wells were located in different geological formations. In 2000 a study of fluoride in groundwater was completed (Lahermo & Backman 2000). In the following chapters an overview of results from groundwater monitoring study and so called 1000 wells project are presented from the SE Finland.

For this project the results from municipalities of Hamina, Imatra, Joutseno, Lappeenranta, Lemi, Luumäki, Miehikkälä, Ruokolahti, Savitaipale, Vehkalahti, Virolahti and Ylämaa were chosen from the 1000 wells data. The total number of samples was 39, seven springs and captured springs, 24 dug wells and eight drilled bedrock wells. Table 2 presents the median concentrations of selected elements and properties in groundwater of SE Finland. For comparison, median concentrations from the groundwater of the whole Finland are presented.

Groundwater in SE Finland is slightly acidic both in dug wells and drilled bedrock wells. The main anion and cation concentrations are on the average at the same level as those in whole of Finland. Iron and manganese concentrations are low. The rapakivigranite bedrock causes high fluoride, litium and radon concentrations for groundwater. The trace metal amounts of groundwaters are usually low in this area.

The groundwater samples from selected 10 monitoring points have been taken four times per year. Minimum, mean, median and maximum values of different physical- chemical variables of one spring and drilled well samples are presented in tables 3 and 4. The Onkalolähde spring is located in esker and 130 metre deep bedrock well is drilled into rapakivigranite.

Both springs show seasonal variation in certain chemical components (Figures 13-15). Sulphate concentrations of both springs have increased during the whole monitoring period (1993-2004). Fluoride concentrations are low, usually below detection limit. The groundwater in bedrock well differs substantially from the waters of springs; groundwater is neutral and contains more electrolytes. It is of Na-HCO3-type water (Backman et al. 1999) with high fluoride content which is typical for groundwaters in the rapakivigranite area.

38 Table 2. Median concentrations of variables of groundwater in South-East Finland and in Finland in 1999 (Lahermo et al. 2002).

d lls lls

Element or property n nland

i

k we k we red oc oc ed ed ian ian ian ian ian ings a tu ings SE dr dr ed nland nland nland i i i inland ap pr Spr c s F M Dug wells SE F Med Dug wells F Med Drill be SE F Med Drill be F Med pH, field 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.8 7.2 El. cond.field,mS/m,25°C 6.6 20.2 12.5 27.2 22.9 Total hardness,°dH 1.1 3.6 2.2 2.8 3.4 Alkalinity, mmol/l 0.28 0.64 0.54 1.47 1.37 HCO3-, mg/l 17.1 38.7 32.9 89.7 83.3 2- SO4 , mg/l 8.1 15.2 10.4 17.7 12.2 Cl-, mg/l 3.0 5.9 4.5 9.2 9.5 NO3-, mg/l 0.60 11.7 3.2 0.5 0.3 F-, mg/l 0.99 0.60 <0.1 1.6 0.15 SiO2, mg/l 11.8 16.1 12.9 12.0 13.8 Ca, mg/l 5.6 17.7 11.4 17.3 16 Mg, mg/l 1.0 4.8 2.4 2.3 4.5 Na, mg/l 2.9 7.3 4.2 14.4 9.0 K, mg/l 1.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 3.0 Li, µg/l 1.5 2.8 0.77 11.9 3.3 Fe, mg/l <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 0.03 Mn, µg/l 0.52 4.6 4.4 20.6 16.3 Rn, Bq/l 43.0 20.0 12.0 218 138 U, µg/l 0.21 0.23 0.09 0.73 0.64 Number of samples 8 24 698 - 739 8 252 - 263 Table 3. The minimum, mean, median and maximum values in groundwater in the spring Onkalolähde in 1993 – 2004. Element or property Min. Mean Med. Max. No of samples pH, field 5.7 6.4 6.4 7.1 46 El.cond. mS/m,25°C field 5.2 5.8 5.8 7.5 48 Temperature, °C field 1.9 5.4 5.4 11.7 49 CO2 mg/l, field 4.0 8.2 9.0 15.0 47 O2 %, field 67.0 104 97.7 147 47 pH, lab. 5.9 6.4 6.4 7.5 49 El.cond. mS/m 25°C lab. 4.8 5.5 5.4 6.9 49 Colour Pt mg/l <5 - <5 15 50 KMnO4-number mg/l 0.50 2.5 2.0 13.0 50 SiO2 mg/l 8.6 10.5 10.6 12.5 50 Alkalinity mmol/l 0.13 0.19 0.18 0.34 50 HCO3- mg/l 6.1 11.4 11.0 20.7 48 2- SO4 mg/l 3.7 4.5 4.2 6.2 50 Cl- mg/l 4.2 5.7 5.7 7.4 50 Br- mg/l <0.1 - <0.1 <0.1 50 F- mg/l <0.1 - <0.1 0.30 50 NO3- mg/l 2.2 4.1 4.1 7.0 50 3- PO4 mg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.05 50 Ca mg/l 4.1 4.7 4.6 6.7 50 Mg mg/l 1.2 1.5 1.5 2.0 50 Total hardness °dH 0.79 0.99 0.99 1.40 50 Na mg/l 2.2 2.5 2.4 5.8 50 K mg/l 0.61 0.79 0.76 1.6 50 Al µg/l 4.8 12.6 8.0 81.3 50 As µg/l <0.05 - <0.05 0.11 50 B µg/l 1.4 3.8 3.6 9.1 50 Ba µg/l 3.5 4.4 4.3 8.0 50 Cd µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.03 50 Co µg/l <0.02 0.03 0.02 0.15 50

39 Cr µg/l <0.2 - <0.2 1.9 49 Cu µg/l <0.04 0.38 0.21 3.1 50 Fe mg/l <0.03 - <0.03 0.07 50 Li µg/l <0.1 - <0.3 4.6 44 Mn µg/l 1.1 1.7 1.4 4.9 50 Mo µg/l 0.14 0.17 0.17 0.30 50 Ni µg/l <0.06 0.24 0.09 2.6 49 Pb µg/l <0.03 - <0.03 0.11 50 Rb µg/l 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.8 50 S mg/l 1.3 2.0 2.0 2.5 15 Sb µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.07 50 Se µg/l <0.5 - <0.5 0.72 50 Si mg/l 4.0 4.9 4.9 5.9 50 Sr µg/l 29.1 34.6 34.0 46.8 50 Th µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.03 50 Tl µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.04 50 U µg/l 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 50 V µg/l <0.02 0.09 0.08 0.39 49 Zn µg/l 0.53 3.4 1.5 36.8 50 Rn Bq/l 8.0 13.0 13.0 17.0 19

Table 4. The minimum, mean, median and maximum values in groundwater in drilled bedrock well in Myrä in 1993 – 1996 (Backman et al. 1999). Element or property Min. Mean Med. Max. No of samples pH, field 6.6 7.3 7.1 8.4 8 El. cond.,mS/m, 25 °C,field 20.9 21.3 21.4 21.8 8 Temperature °C, field 10 11.3 11 13 9 CO2 mg/l, field 0 7.1 10 10 7 O2 %, field 35.3 68.6 76.7 92.9 7 pH, lab. 7.6 8.0 8.0 8.4 10 El. cond.,mS/m, 25 °C, lab. 16.5 20.7 21.3 21.6 10 Colour Pt mg/l 5 - <5 5 10 KMnO4-number mg/l 0.6 1.4 1.5 2.2 10 SiO2 mg/l 11.5 13.1 13.3 14.3 10 Alkalinity mmol/l/ 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.9 10 HCO3- mg/l 95.8 108 110 113 10 2- SO4 mg/l 6.5 6.9 6.9 7.4 10 Cl- mg/l 2.4 2.8 2.8 3.1 10 Br- mg/l <0.03 - <0.1 - 10 F- mg/l 3.5 4 4.1 4.5 10 NO3- mg/l <0.2 - <0.2 <0.2 10 3- PO4 mg/l <0.02 0.06 0.05 0.16 10 Ca mg/l 2.9 3.1 3 3.6 10 Mg mg/l 0.72 0.8 0.79 0.91 10 Total hardness°dH 0.57 0.61 0.6 0.7 10 Na mg/l 43.7 46.5 47.1 48.6 10 K mg/l 1 1.1 1.1 1.4 10 Al µg/l 5.9 8.3 8.2 11.9 10 As µg/l 0.84 1.1 1.1 1.2 10 B µg/l 70.9 87.3 88.8 100 10 Ba µg/l 0.86 1.2 1.1 1.9 10 Bi µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 - 10 Cd µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 - 10 Co µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 - 10 Cr µg/l <0.2 - <0.2 0.86 10 Cu µg/l 6.9 26.3 12.6 143 10 Fe mg/l <0.02 - <0.03 0.04 10 Li µg/l 13.4 15.3 15.1 17.3 8 Mn µg/l 1.9 3.3 3.0 5.4 10 Mo µg/l 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.9 10

40 Ni µg/l 0.1 0.19 0.18 0.32 10 Pb µg/l 0.16 0.37 0.27 1 10 Rb µg/l 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.2 10 Sb µg/l <0.02 - <0.02 0.02 10 Se µg/l <0.5 - <0.5 <0.5 10 Sr µg/l 23.2 26.2 26.1 29.7 10 Th µg/l <0.01 - <0.01 - 10 Tl µg/l <0.01 - <0.01 - 10 U µg/l 0.75 0.88 0.86 1 10 V µg/l <0.02 - <0.03 0.05 10 Zn µg/l 3.7 18 11.8 46.3 10 Rn Bq/l 290 443 455 560 10

Figure 13. pH values in Onkalolähde and Nuijamaa springs in 1993 – 2004.

41 Figure 14. Electric conductivity in Onkalolähde and Nuijamaa springs in 1993 – 2004.

Figure 15. Sulphate concentrations in Onkalolähde and Nuijamaa springs in 1993 – 2004.

In general, the quality of groundwater in SE Finland fulfils the demands set for good drinking water in Finland (Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö, 2000). The main problems that may occur in the study area are elevated fluoride concentrations and low pH values.

42 In 1000 well study about 44 % of pH values of water samples taken from wells in SE Finland were below the recommended value of 6.5. Fluoride concentrations exceeded the limit value of 1.5 mg/l in 10 cases, which is 26 % of all the samples. Also colour, aluminium, chloride and nitrate concentrations exceeded the limit values in some cases but this is usually caused by local anthropogenic factors and surface water influence. Iron concentrations in SE Finland exceeded the limit value of 0.4 µg/l only in one case. Manganese concentrations were over 100 µg/l in five cases (12,8 %). The fluoride concentrations in groundwaters of the study area are higher in drilled bedrock wells than in shallower spring and dug well waters because the origin of fluoride is the rapakivigranitic bedrock.

8.1 Effect of gravel extraction on groundwater In 1983 Finnish Environment Institute, GTK and Finnish National Road Administration established a project 'Effect of gravel extraction on groundwater (1984-1991) (Hatva et al. 1993). The major aim was to provide basic information of the effects of gravel extraction on groundwater in order to draw up recommendations for groundwater protection. This was the first attempt to create guidelines and instructions for the integrated use of gravel and groundwater in Finland. The project produced substantial amount of new discoveries.

The main results of the project are listed below: • Gravel extraction affects both groundwater quality and groundwater quantity • Extraction of vegetation and topsoil (podzol) affects the percolating water in unsaturated zone and thereby affects groundwater: o Changes in recharge conditions o Decreased geochemical and biochemical processes o Decreased buffer capacity o Increases volume of infiltration about 10 – 15 % o Increases the seepage of pollutants to water • Geochemical composition of water in unsaturated zone and in groundwater zone

changes: electrical conductivity, NO3 , SO4 , SiO2, Al, Mg, Ca increase, pH decreases (Table 5). • In areas of gravel extraction the risk of groundwater acidification increases. • Topsoil, and especially the humus layer, adsorb most part of the pollutants but when it is extracted pollutants migrate to the groundwater. • Volume of water in unsaturated sand and gravel zone without topsoil is remarkable higher and groundwater level reacts more easily to changes in the precipitation • Recharge of groundwater is in average about a half of the precipitation in sand and gravel deposits in natural state, but in gravel extraction areas about 60 - 70 %. • Annual fluctuation of groundwater table is wider in areas of gravel extraction than in areas of natural state. Steady state of groundwater table is on higher level in gravel extraction areas than in areas of natural state.

43 Table 5. The average properties of precipitation, and groundwater in gravel extraction areas and in areas of natural state. (According to Hatva et al. 1993) Parameter Precipitation Sand and gravel Sand and gravel areas of natural state extraction areas n=12 n=43-60 n=76-240 Median Median Median Temperature, oC 4.7 5.6 pH 4.5 6.4 5.9 El. conduc. mS/m 4 6 7

CO2, mg/l 11 24

HCO3, mg/l 25 20 Cl, mg/l 1 2 3

SO4, mg/l 2 4 10

NO3, mg/l 2.1 0.4 1.9

The most important recommendations for groundwater protection were the following: • Gravel extraction should be guided to the areas where the damages and risks are lowest • General principle is to divert the gravel extraction away from vulnerable areas considered to be important or suitable for groundwater supply, to areas that are of secondary important for water supply • Gravel extraction areas should be chosen according to the protection zones of groundwater • Protection zones, thickness of protective layers and post-extraction management should be planned and implemented with the zoning of the water intake protection areas or the zoning based on the protection plan made for the aquifers • In order to investigate the effects of gravel extraction it was recommended that groundwater table and groundwater quality should be monitored. • Post-extraction management during the gravel extraction and after it, is especially important • Old gravel and sand extraction sites should be rehabilitated. • Use of aggregate and groundwater should be managed and reconciled in general land use plans • For individual projects the gravel extraction plan should be highly demanding, demanding or conventional, depending on the need to protect groundwater in the area in question.

Some of the follow-up projects have been dealing with the rehabilitation of gravel extraction sites (Ympäristöministeriö, 2001). The spreading of topsoil material on the extracted barren site is an essential part of the rehabilitation, because the most important processes affecting the quality of groundwater occur in the upper part of the soil (O-, E, and B-horizons), when rainwater percolates through soil to groundwater.

In 1988-1996 a project on 'The Mapping and the Classification of Finnish Groundwater Areas' was conducted (Britschgi & Gustafsson 1996). Alltogether 7141 groundwater areas in Finland were classified to three different classes (see Chapter 4.7). This study was a good basis for the future work concerning the integrated groundwater protection and gravel extraction.

44 A nation-wide study program 'Accommodation between groundwater protection and aggregate supply' began in 1993 and ended in 2002. It is still ongoing at local scale in some parts of Finland. The main aim of this program was the harmonization of groundwater protection and aggregate service in regional scale.

9 Current planning practices for groundwater and aggregate in Russia In Russian Federation, natural resources are under jurisdiction of Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR RF). It executes the state policy formulation and normative and legal regulation concerning studying, renewal, and conservation of natural resources. MNR RF is responsible for the management of subsoil, forestry and water resources, integrated management of multipurpose reservoirs and water resources systems, the use of wildlife resources and their habitat (excluding hunting game), specially protected natural areas and their environmental conservation. The use and protection of groundwaters in the Russian Federation is regulated by a national law – the RF Law on the Earth’s interior. In addition, a large number of federal regulations exists dealing with the implementation of the management and use of natural resources.

To achieve its tasks and executive obligations, MNR RF co-ordinates and controls four subordinate organizations:

• The Federal Subsoil Resources Management Agency (http://www.mnr.gov.ru/part/?pid=399) • The Federal Supervisory Natural Resources Management Service • (http://www.mnr.gov.ru/part/?pid=402) • The Federal Forestry Agency • (http://www.mnr.gov.ru/part/?pid=400) • The Federal Water Resources Agency • (http://www.mnr.gov.ru/part/?pid=401)

In the Russian Federation the land-use planning system is not comparable to the Finnish system (cf. chapter 4), but the utilization of groundwater and aggregate material resources is based wholly on the licensing system of various Federal Agencies.

The Federal Subsoil Resources Management Agency (Rosnedra) is a federal executive authority on the management of subsoil resources. As a part of its activities, Rosnedra organizes State geological study of the subsoil, appraises of geological study projects, the economic-geological evaluation and cost estimates of mineral deposits and subsoil sites and tenders and auctions for the right to use the subsoil. Rosnedra controls the State licensing system for subsurface resources utilization involving also the groundwater and aggregate resources. This task involves registration of applications, informing executive authorities of corresponding subjects of the Russian Federation about these applications. Rosnedra defines the rate of regular payment for the subsoil use of each licensed subsoil site to the executive authority of the subject of the Russian Federation. Finally, Rosnedra makes decisions on granting or approval of results of tenders or auctions of the right to use subsoil sites following predefined procedures

45 established under legislation of the Russian Federation. Rosnedra can make also changes, limitations and additions to the licences or terminate them based on proposals made by the Federal Nature Management Supervision Service and other authorized bodies.

The Federal Supervisory Natural Resources Management Service (Rosprirodnadzor) is a federal executive body performing management of specially protected natural areas of federal importance. Rosprirodnadzor also provides control and supervision concerning nature management including the geological study, rational management, and conservation of the subsoil and the use and protection of water bodies and acts as an authorized state body for environmental impact assessment and (State) ecological monitoring. The Agency is the administrative organ on trade of endangered species of wild flora and fauna. Rosprirodnadzor issues licenses for: • export of information on the subsoil by regions and fields of fuel and energy resources and mineral deposits located in the Russian Federation and within the limits of the continental shelf and offshore zone of the Russian Federation. • creation, operation, and use of man-made islands, constructions, and units; • conduction of drilling operations in connection with the geological study, mineral searches, exploration, and development, as well as laying of submarine cables and pipelines in the internal seas, the territorial sea of the Russian Federation, and the continental shelf of the Russian Federation.

The Federal Water Resources Agency (Rosvodresursov) is a federal executive body providing State services and federal property management of water resources. The Agency has authorities in basin-scale management of water bodies. However, according to the recently adopted Russian Federation Water Code, the water resources and consequently, the scope of Rosvodresursov is focused on surface water excluding groundwater resources.

The Federal Forestry Agency (Rosleshoz) and its subordinate bodies manage the forest resources.

The Federal Agencies listed above act directly or through their territorial bodies. They may have also delegated some of their tasks to federal state unitary enterprises, federal state institutions, and state enterprises within the jurisdiction of each Agency. The Federal Agencies also co-operate closely with other federal executive bodies, and the local self-government, that comprises e.g. authorities of different regions (subjects) of RF and the committees of Regional Governments. The local self-government and its departments, are in turn, the key initiators of infrastructure development. Therefore, concerning Vyborg district, administrative bodies like the Leningrad Oblast Administration and its different committees are in the key role as initiators for any planning of the use of groundwater and aggregate resources. The permitting role remains within the Rosnedra and its territorial subsidiary bodies.

In principle, the territorial organization of local self-management in Leningrad Oblast consists the following: 1. Leningrad region is subdivided into municipal areas (only 17) which, in turn, are divided to settlements - city (49) and rural (155).

46 2. The Vyborg municipal area includes 8 city settlements (Vyborg, Kamenogorsk, Cvetogorsk, Lesogorsk, Visotsk, Primorsk, Poshino and Soviet) and 6 rural settlements. Furthermore in the Vyborg area exist also plenty of country and gardening sites for the population of St. Petersburg and other urban areas. Granting gardening area is caused by the Governmental orders of Leningrad region number 136 and 276 dated 13.04.95 and 24.06.96 respectively.

The Vyborg municipal area solves e.g. following questions of local value:

• The budget, taxes, property • Electricity and gas supply of settlements • Roads and bridges of area • Public transport • Militia of public safety • Preservation of the environment and ecology, wildlife management • The general education and kindergartens • Medical aid • Trusteeship and guardianship • Recycling and processing of waste • Town-planning and land use

10 Information sources for groundwater and aggregate resources management in Vyborg district

10.1 Geological maps In the decision N:o 937/17.05.1954 of Soviet Ministers of the former USSR it was stated, that the geological mapping forms a basis for complex geological investigations of the whole country and a basis for the maintenance of its mineral and raw material database.

This system represented various scale works, from wider surveys up to local scale, and enabled consistently and systematically possibility to narrow areas of carrying out of prospecting works and to localize e.g. ores deposits of the areas. Basic bedrock and Quaternary geological maps were made in scales 1:1 000 000, 1:500 000, 1:200 000 and 1:50 000. Gathered information on geological structures of the country and its regions laid down a basis for the development of the regional forecast-metallogenic maps, from local surveys up to regional surveys. Presently, the regional geological mapping program has not yet been completed, and still 23 % of the Russian territory is represented as “a white spot”. From available scale 1:200 000 maps, more than 2/3 is out of date and do not represent the current level of geological knowledge. Moreover, these maps and maps in scale 1:1 000 000 were created without digital technologies and thus their applicability for modern geological studies is considerably lowered. Maps in scale 1:50 000 were made in 80–90ies years of the last century for the important mining areas in order to locate the areas for detailed mineral prospecting works.

47 Operating Federal program “Ecology and natural resources of Russia (2002-2010)”, takes into account the incompleteness of the previous mapping programs and focuses on new economic concepts and modern problems of management and use of natural resources. The scale of mapping is 1:1 000 000 - 1:200 000. This program has already offered new geological-cartographic material for operative management of natural resources. It offers basic data needed for the monitoring and controlling natural resources. One of its main goals is to create uniform national database of geological data. The main end-users are prospecting and nature protection companies and regulatory institutes of the various Ministries and departments of the Russian Federation dealing with water, ecological and forest resources. From the Vyborg district geological maps of scales 1:1 000 000 and 1:200 000 have been made.

10.2 Relevant socio-economic and environmental information sources In the Russian Federation, the socio-economic and environmental information is provided by corresponding federal agencies and services and their territorial divisions. Production of demographic data is the responsibility of the Federal Service of the State Statistics. Within Leningrad region and St. Petersburg territorial division “Petrostat” collects the data.

The accounting of natural resources in the Russian Federation has departmental character. In particular, the information on groundwater resources, their use for different purposes, vulnerability estimates, generalization of groundwater monitoring data, as well as the accounting minerals resources (including aggregate sources defined as combination of sand-gravel) for territory of Leningrad region is carried out by Federal official body “Territorial Fund of Information on Natural Resources and Environmental Protection”.

Data about groundwaters in Leningrad region, including the Vyborg area, are published once in 2-3 years in geological reports and in “Newsletter on a condition of underground waters in territory of Leningrad region”. The accounts of mineral resources, including aggregates (combined sand and gravel deposits), is managed in the form of so-called “balance of minerals across Leningrad region”. In these reports, annual data about quantity of extracted mineral resources and the explored new deposits are compared.

The information on underground waters and aggregate materials is accessible for physical and legal persons and can be received on charge from “Territorial Fund of Information on Natural Resources and Environmental Protection”. Neva-Ladoga water basin management maintains the statistics on the status and use of surface water resources in Leningrad region. Information of environmental protection, are compiled by other territorial bodies of corresponding federal services ranging from ecological management to different types of technical supervision.

All data on natural resources and environmental status of different subjects of the Federation are generalized annually at federal level and presented as state report which is accessible via Internet.

48 At Leningrad Region level, the most significant source of information concerning ecological management is annually published compilation: “Preservation of the environment, ecological management and maintenance of ecological safety in Leningrad region”. This edition contains the data received from federal bodies, and also the information from the divisions of Committee on Natural Resources and Preservation of the Environment. The edition is public, but its circulation is limited to 200 copies.

10.3 Groundwater resource inventories In Russian Federation, groundwater resource investigations are required to be carried out according to “Current regulations about the order of carrying out of prospecting works in steps and stages (underground waters)” (1998). Investigations are required to proceed as follows:

Step I. Regional studying of subsurface for initial estimation of groundwater resources. Investigations are done in one stage. Stage 1 leads to a regional assessment of (overall) groundwater resources. The investigations comprise basic compilation and interpretation of existing information including 1:200 000-scale maps and any results of previous investigations relevant to hydrogeological studies. The outcome of the regional studies is a classification of the resources in the study region to certain categories.

Step II. Geological studies of subsurface. The investigations in are carried out in two stages. In Stage 2 the aim is to explore aquifers and tentative estimation of their groundwater yield and storage. The investigations are carried out in the areas and prospective aquifer horizons delineated in the previous step in order to detect and estimate the groundwater resources. In addition, the objectives include delineation of the aquifer borders and estimation of their effective storage of category C22 according to the Russian classification. Depending on geological conditions the investigations at the given stage can include: 1. Profiling or areal studies of hydrogeological conditions with reference to scale 1: 100 000-1: 50 000, 2. Complex geophysical (vertical electric sounding) and refraction seismic prospecting for studying deep artesian formations, 3. Electromagnetic soundings to reveal water conducting fracture zones, 4. Detailed investigation of fractured-karstic rocks by vertical and circular electric soundings in boreholes and at surface, 5. Hydraulic tests and hydrochemical studies, studies of surface relief and vegetation pattern, remote sensing methods, inspection of operating groundwater-intakes, studies of groundwater table fluctuations, laboratory studies, mathematical modelling etc.

Result of investigations is the geological assessment of the groundwater potential of the given area and detection of groundwater bodies for further studies. Results are represented in a report giving an estimation of groundwater storage fitting to the category C2. The results form the basis for licensing the use of subsurface resources.

2 Category C2 reserves are preliminary estimated reserves of a deposit calculated on the basis of geological and geophysical research of unexplored sections of deposits adjoining sections of a field containing reserves of higher categories and of untested deposits of explored fields. The shape, size, structure, level, reservoir types, content and characteristics of the deposit are determined in general terms based on the results of the geological and geophysical exploration and information on the more fully explored portions of a deposit (http://www.novatek.ru/eng/news_center/clas/).

49

In Stage 3 the aim is to study the discovered aquifers and estimate tentatively the sustainable aquifer yield in reference to the foreseen groundwater abstraction scheme. The investigations comprise: 1. Defining the factors controlling the utilization of the aquifers (recharge, limits of sustainable pumping and water quality), 2. Comparison the groundwater quality to its intended use and assessment of possible changes during groundwater extraction, 3. Estimation of anthropogenic impacts to drinking water quality and preliminary delineation of groundwater protection areas, 4. Specific investigations comprising, depending on site specific conditions, more specific hydrogeochemical, isotope geological or geophysical studies etc.

As a result of works of this estimation stage, contour maps of aquifers are compiled, aquifer boundaries and water bearing horizons are delineated and economic feasibility of the resource is estimated. In addition, actions of further study and development will be proposed. The outcome of the Stage 3 investigations is an estimation of extractable groundwater resources (fitting to category B3, according to a Russian classification) and a feasibility report for further development and construction of a water-intake.

Step III. Investigation and development of deposits. Investigations are carried out in two stages. In Stage 4 all the information for the design of the final water-intake structures should be obtained. This includes information on the groundwater quality and forecasting its possible changes during pumping rates that correspond to the foreseen operational rates. In practise these mean organization of pumping tests. Stage 5 comprises the verification of the yield and groundwater quality by long-term pumping and starting continuous monitoring program.

Investigations at each stage result to improved estimation of the groundwater resources and/or classification of extractable yield according certain categories, and obtaining of initial data for development of design of groundwater intake as well as for preparing required documents and licences for groundwater use.

The studies completed as the part of this Tacis-project in Russia were carried out in close reference to the current Russian requirements for groundwater investigations. The report of the investigations can be down loaded from the project ftp-sites. The report has been also submitted to the Russian authorities, who provided the co-financing for the project.

In principle, exploration or assessment investigations on groundwater in certain area or site can be financed from budgets of the Federal Agency Rosnedra (see Chapter 9). A prerequisite for financing from the budget of Rosnedra or its territorial bodies is an application, which can be initiated by regional or municipal bodies. The application is processed in the Rosnedra and after a positive evaluation the project tasks are added to

3 Category B represents the reserves of a deposit (or portion thereof), which has been determined on the basis of commercial flows at various depths. For example the type, shape and size of the deposit; type of the reservoir; the nature of changes in the reservoir characteristics; composition and characteristics; and major features of the deposit that determine the conditions of its development have been studied in detail to draw up a project to develop the deposit (http://www.novatek.ru/eng/news_center/clas/).

50 the annually approved list of projects to be ordered by the state. All the projects on the list will be financed from the federal budget but after an open tender. The winner of the tender signs a state contract to carry out the project according to the terms of reference. Currently in Leningrad region, the groundwater exploration and assessment investigations are financed from means of the regional budget within the limits of the regional target program “Water-security and water-economic works in Leningrad region in 2006-2008” which was approved by the regional law from May 18th 2006. This program relies largely on the municipal initiatives. The enterprises, the organizations or physical persons have the right to get information on groundwater investigations since this information must be taken into account before licences for the appropriate use of subsurface resources can be admitted. In the Leningrad region the licenses are given by the Northwest Federal District Division of Rosnedra. The applications must be processed according to the order n:o 61 of MPR, Russian Federation 15 March, 2005.

10.4 Soil and rock aggregate resource inventories The Vyborg area is one of three large mining areas of Leningrad region. Its industry has potential of a federal level and building material industry is based on the use of own raw material. On the federal aggregate resource register 51 deposit have been explored and divided to different industrial categories e.g facing and building stones, sands, sand- gravel materials and brick earths. In northern part of the Vyborg area 25 mining enterprises are located.

Data of mineral recourses collected during long-term geological surveying, exploration and mapping works, have been carried out by specialized organizations. Basically, these were expeditions of Sevzapgeologia, State Geological Enterprise. Geological works were made stage by stage from scales from 1:500000 - 1:200000 to 1:50000-1:25000. Presently, whole Vyborg area is geologically surveyed in scale 1:50000, and from the northern part of Vyborg area the summary geological map of scale 1:200 000 have been made.

The Northern-Western Territorial Geological Fund keeps track of all mineral resources use in the Leningrad region, e.g. resources, extraction of minerals, losses at extraction, gain of recourses due to prospecting works, abandoned recourses, various restrictions (ecological, water-security, town-planning, etc). Each enterprise is annually obliged to represent data on their mineral recourses extraction, based on their accounting system. Accordingly the charge and payment of taxes are defined.

Planning and regulation of subsoil use in territory of Leningrad region is carried out by Committee of Natural Resources and Preservation of the Environment of the Leningrad region Administration together with the participation of various regional departments and other divisions of administration. Their field of work include:

• development of strategy of the use of a raw-materials; • delivery, renewal and cancellation of licenses for extraction, exploration and investigation of minerals; • monitoring of the performance of license agreements; • development of programs for prospecting works in Leningrad region, including the reassessment of mineral resources; • carrying out tenders for performance of the works

51

Supervising and inspection functions for subsoil use are carried out by NW Management of Gosgortekhnadzor, GosGeokontrol of St.Petersburg and Leningrad region, regional tax inspections and nature protection Office of Public Prosecutor.

10.4.1 Aggregate data of the northern part of Vyborg area

The area of the northern, investigated part of the Vyborg area is about half of the total area (3750 km2). Practically all known granite deposits are located in this area together with 13 of 65 sand and sand-gravel deposits. Presently the sand and sand-gravel is extracted from 6 quarries: Gavrilovski deposits of sand (3 quarries), and Veshevo, Svetogorsk and the Zvezdochka sand-gravel quarries (Tables 6 and 7).

Figure 16.. Example of granitic quarry in Prudy-Mohovoe-Yaskinskoye area.

Also numerous granitite deposits suitable for manufacturing rock blocks for various purposes, building stones and high-strength rubble are found in the area (Figure 16). Compilation of aggregate material deposits and their inventories are presented in tables 6 and 7. Presently, practically unused 15 million m3 reserves of sandy materials are deposits consisting of material formed during granite extraction and processing. It is necessary to note, that a number of deposits, listed in the tables cannot be used because of poor quality of raw material and due to land-use restrictions: they are located in protective and sanitary-protective zones of cities, rivers, lakes, roads, various pipelines (oil-, gas-), electric mains, sanitary zones of economic-drinking water supply and natural reservations. A significant part of deposits of sand and sand-gravel are related to

52 eskers what their elongation with NW on SE.

Industrial development of 50 above listed operating deposits is conducted by 20 enterprises, having 1 to 5 licenses for the right of development of the deposits. Thus, more than 90 % of the extraction and processing, especially building stones, is performed by 5 large enterprises: Joint-Stock Company “Kamennogorskoe quarries management” (5 licenses), Joint-Stock Company “Vyborg quarries management” (5 licenses), Joint-Stock Company " Kamenogorski combine of nonmetallic materials " (2 licenses), State Unitary Enterprise “KNI-436” (1 license), Joint-Stock Company “Honkavaaran-Maastorakennus” (3 licenses). Licenses for annual volumes of extraction are following: granite rubble 7 million m3, granites for architectural purposes 100 000 m3, sand 2 500 000 m3, sang-gravel 1 300 000 m3. Actual volumes of extraction of minerals make 50-60 % from license.

Apparently the mining and quarrying in the Vyborg area is rather active. Thus the potential for the expansion of these sectors for the economy of the whole Vyborg area is rather significant. Table 6. Register of building material deposits in Vyborg area

Active granite deposits for rock debris 1 Sysoevskoe 2 Krasnovskoe (S) 3 Petrovskoe 4 Kirkinskoe 5 Prudy-Mohovoe- Jaskinskoe 6 Kamennogorskoe 7 Vozrozhdenie (areas 2 and 3) 8 Erkila 9 Gavrilovo (3 areas) 10 Gavrilovskoe (Kjamri-4) Total volume 560 million m3 Reserved granite deposits for rock debris 1 Sopka 92 2 Krasnovskoe (N) 3 Vozrozhdenie (areas 4, 5, 7) Ljubimovskoe 4 5 Vuoksa 6 Kravzovskoe Total volume 630 million m3 Active for gabbro-norite 1 Ostrovskoe 14 million m3 Reserved gabbro-norite deposits 1 Slavjanskoe 2 Krasnosokolskoe-4 Total reserves of gabbro-norite: 33 million m3 Active building stone granite deposits

1 Lasurnoe-1 2 Ojajarvi 4 Dymovskoe

53 5 Elisovskoe 6 Baltiyskoe 7 Borodinskoe (3areas) 8 Kilpenjoki 9 Kamennogorskoe 10 Dubinino 11 Vozrozhdenie - areas 6 and 8 Evdokimovskoe 12 Total building stone granite deposits 34 million m3

Reserved building stone granite deposits 1 Irinovskoe 2 Ilinskoe 3 Polevoe 4 Sjsnovaja Gorka Linnijarvinskoe 5 6 Krasnovskoe 7 Ala-Noskua 8 Borovinskoe Total for building stone granite: 51 million m3 Marble (reserved deposit) 3 1 Kuparisaari 60 000 m

Table 7. Sand and sand-gravel deposits. Active sand deposits Gavrilovskoe 1 Gavrilovskoe - 2 (2 areas) 2

Total sand: 15 million m3 Estimated sand deposits Jaskinskoe 1 Total estimated sand: 9.5 million m3

Active sand-gravel deposits Veschevo 1 Zvezdochka 2 Svetogorskoe 3 Dremovskoe 4 5 qvartal 5

Total sand-gravel deposits : 4 million m3 Reserved sand-gravel deposits Borovinskoe 1 Area Veschevo 2 Karpovskoe 3

54 Vuoksa 4 Total sand-gravel reserved : 25 million m3

Reserved deposits of clay 1 Borodinskoe 3 Pravdino Total clay deposits : 1,3 million m3

10.5 Information on Groundwater Quality 10.5.1 Monitoring of groundwater Groundwater monitoring in the Leningrad oblast is conducted at three levels: federal, territorial and local basins. The federal monitoring network is intended for the monitoring of water resources that have federal value, e.g. large aquifers and regional scale artesian basin aquifers (e.g. Gdov aquifer). The territorial monitoring network in Leningrad region concentrates on the aquifers, which are the basic important source of water supply for the population and the enterprises at this large area. The main function of the local level network is the monitoring the state of groundwater that can be endangered from certain anthropogenous activities in these localised areas which have state license. The monitoring is carried out basically by the territorial centre of North- Western Hydrogeological and Engineering Geological Party (NWGEP).

The groundwater monitoring network in Vyborg area is concentrated to its southern parts, where the main groundwater bodies are related to confined aquifer complexes and Gdov (lower Kotlin) sand-sandstone aquifer horizon of the Leningrad basin, having high water-economical significance. Groundwaters with high content of total dissolved solids are found especially in the Gdov and Kotlin horizons of the Leningrad artesian basin. Northern part of this projects area is not covered by monitoring network. Hydrochemical data is gathered from these areas by the individual water-users taking care of the local level monitoring. Normally this information is not public.

Currently, the quality of groundwater of springs and wells in the Vyborg area used by the local population for water supply is supervised with certain periodicity by the Test Laboratory of “Sanitary Epidemiology service of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Gossanepidnadzor”.

10.5.2. Groundwater quality of the main aquifers in the northern part of the Vyborg area Information about the hydrochemistry of the main aquifers in the northern parts of the Vyborg area has been gathered from the results of former hydrogeological studies in the area. These have included: geological-hydrogeological, hydrogeological, engineering- geological mapping of scale 1:50 000; data from “Newsletters on a condition of underground waters in territory of Leningrad region”; the Groundwater Cadastre of the Leningrad region and the hydrochemical studies carried out during this project.

Figure 17 presents an example of compiled data of the main components (main anions and cations) in groundwater. The data is based on 57 groundwater samples (19 springs, 5 wells, 33 bedrock fractures). Two basic water-bearing horizons are significant for this area: Quaternary layers and Proterozoic water zones. Main components were analysed

55 from practically every samples, from some samples also microcomponents (e.g. heavy metals) were analysed.

The Quaternary aquifers are, like in Finland, often characterised by dilute, soft Ca- HCO3, Na-HCO3, Na-HCO3-Cl type water of recent origin. The amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) varies 0.05-0.3 mg/l. Groundwater is saturated with oxygen, contains insignificant quantity of organic substances and often elevated concentrations of iron and manganese.

Figure 17. Main components in groundwater in the northern parts of the Vyborg area.

Groundwater in the Proterozoic fracture zones is often characterized by weak yield of water. Groundwater is dilute Na-HCO3, Na-HCO3-Cl type with TDS of 0.08-0.5 mg/l up to depths of 50 m. With depth the TDS raises together with e.g. Na, Cl, SO4. In bedrock groundwaters the elevated concentrations of iron is often observed. Occasionally bedrock groundwater in Proterozoic zone has high contents of radon, which also typical in Finnish granitic areas.

In the territory of northern part of the Vyborg area diluted mainly fresh and ultrafresh groundwaters are formed. These are very suitable for drinking water supply, but elevated levels of certain elements due to natural and anthropogenic factors were found during this project.

56 Normally high concentrations of Fe and Mn in groundwater of fluvioglacial deposits is a natural factor, associated with commonly with the presence of bogs and certain pH- redox conditions. In bedrock fracture waters the elevated concentration of radon is associated with granitic uranium-bearing bedrock. The anthropogenic effects on groundwater quality are normally local and concentrate in the areas of intensive technogenic and economic activities. For example, in the central part of the Cherkasov esker (Figure 18), there is abandoned sand-gravel quarry where household waste, production wastes of citric acid and oil have been dumped. This cause elevated concentration of oil components, Cl, NO3, Fe, Mn, Al and NH4. The concentration of oil components in water exceeds maximum permissible concentration (MPC) by 2,0 - 2,3 fold. NH4 content exceeded the MPC by 2-fold; Fe and Mn exceeds MPC by 3-11 and 4,4 fold, accordingly.

Figure 18.. Results of hydrochemical study in the area of Cherkasov esker.

Also pollution of groundwater was observed from some of the public and private wells from Goncharovo, Tolokonnikovo and Cherkasovo settlements. In Tolokonnikovo and Cherkasovo groundwaters had high concentration of nitrates, i.e. exceeding 3 times

57 MPC). The increased concentration of chlorides (100-110 mg/l) was also discovered. Practically in all the sampled wells adverse conditions of bacteriological parameters was observed: general microbe number exceeded the norms sometimes by dozens of times (Goncharovo – 54-fold). Practically in all wells there were coliform bacteria. It is noteworthy that, in most cases these water intakes are built without a special hydro- geological expertise. At operation of such sources of water supply there is a problem connected with practical impossibility of creation the protective zones around them because of polluted groundwater.

Appendix 1 presents the compilation of the minimum, mean, median and maximum values in groundwater samples taken from Vyborg area in Russia in 2006, as well as the upper permissible and recommended values in groundwater in Finland and in Russia.

10.5.5. Pilot groundwater exploration Within the time limits of the project three areas were selected from the previously selected potential groundwater areas for more detailed investigations and carried out as a part of the pilot groundwater exploration project. These areas are located 5-15 km to the East and South-East of Vyborg in the Northern and Southern Cherkasova and the Gavrilovsky area (Figure 19). The work included routine site characterisation, geophysical soundings (e.g. over 10 km of ground-penetrating radar profiles), hydrogeological drilling, test pumpings and hydrogeochemical characterisation.

Areas of detailed studies

Lesogorsky

Goncharovo

Kondratievsky Gavrilovsky

northern Cherkasovsky

southern Cherkasovsky

Figure 19. Areas of more detailed studies, Gavrilovsky area in south-eastern part of the area.

In addition to ground penetration radar data, geophysical geo-electric soundings were made in the selected areas. After the interpretation of the obtained measurements, the pilot groundwater exploration project activities were started in the Vyborg area on July- September 2006.

58

The project plan was based on the worst scenario that hydrogeological conditions require the use of submersible pumps. Use of such pumps would be necessary if depth to groundwater table would have exceeded 6 m in favourable well locations. Since submersible pumps require sufficiently large diameter (15-30 cm) boreholes, use of heavy drilling rigs would have been necessary. Such boreholes would be suitable for production wells and could have been passed over to the end user as such. However, they would have not been technically as optimal in terms of pumping efficiency as wells that were be installed with more specialized hydraulic drilling equipment and after interpretation of pumping test results (Figures 20 and 21).

Figure 20. Light percussion drilling gear (left) was used for instaling piezometers with screened well points, and for carrying hydraulic testing. Hydraulic tests comprised of yield and specific capacity estimations made by a suction pump (middle, right).

Suitable areas with shallow depth to groundwater table were found. Therefore, test pumping and the yield estimation was carried out cost effectively by using well-point systems and suction pumps (Figure 21). The used alternative methods represent traditional methodology in Finland. Therefore, the objective to demonstrate the feasibility of the Finnish approach was not compromised.

In the geological conditions encountered, the arrangement had a significant positive outcome concerning the long term-impact of the project results. As a result of this pilot, site for a groundwater extraction has been found with the capacity to yield groundwater up to 2000 m3/day. However, since expensive “heavy” drilling was not needed, more resources were available for light percussion drilling and consequently, short-term specific capacity pumping in temporarily installed well points. Depth of soil cover was investigated by drilling in 98 points. Total length of the borings is 390 m. About 110 m long sections in total were tested for hydraulic properties (specific capacity measurements). Therefore, more information than anticipated on the hydrogeological properties of the soils was obtained.

After interpolation of the obtained results and estimation of the annual recharge, the Russian partners concluded that in total 10 000-14 000 m3/day could be obtained from the Gavrilovsky area. Furthermore, apparently as potential glaciofluvial formations are located within few kilometres distance from the area. According to the Russian stakeholders, these areas could be developed to fulfil the current deficit of Vyborg City water supply (up to 50 000 m3/d).

59

Figure 21. Light drilling gear can be used to install well-point system for long term pumping tests when groundwater is found close to surface (depth < 6 m). A well-point system comprises several closely installed piezometers with a screened tip. These can be connected to a single high capacity suction pump.

60 11 Comparison of the exploration, assessment and mapping techniques used for groundwater investigations Similar locally coordinated mechanisms for land use planning and development of water services as in Finland do not exist in Russia. However, also in the Russian central system, existing information compiled from different federal, regional and local agencies can be taken into account in the licensing processes involving provision of new licenses as well as modification of currently existing ones. Federal Agency for the Management of subsurface resources (Rosnedra) and other agencies, can address the sustainable and integrated use of groundwater and aggregate resources in the initiated geological study projects, the economic-geological evaluation and cost estimate analyses of subsurface resources as well as in the tenders and auctions for the right to use the subsoil. Licensing procedures could probably be used similarly to control and direct land use and consequently, support sustainable use of aggregate and groundwater resources. In practise, this can difficult because the administrative structure is quite complex and obligations of different stakeholders to participate to the planning and incentives to agree are not necessarily evident. In Finland land use planning is not only used to direct aggregate and groundwater extraction. Plans extending to the post- extraction period commonly take into account the remediation of former aggregate extraction areas. Remediation commonly comprises smoothening of the surface, reforestation and sometimes creation of the organic material rich top-soil. Land use plans commonly tend to direct to the former gravel pits activities that do not pose high risk to the environment.

The available map information to the planning is also substantially different in Finland and in Russia. Differences concern not only about the scale and the context of geological and topographical maps. In Russia, maps with the scale 1:200 000 or less are public materials. Maps with a scale 1:100 000 and 1:50 000 scale are available for scientific work without or with a special permission, respectively.

Coarse mapping scales are used in Finland to represent the maps attached e.g. to a regional plans etc. However, actual planning (delineation of the protection areas, or certain land-use areas etc.) or field investigations are based on substantially more accurate spatial data and maps. Most important cartographic information is probably the basic topographical maps in 1:20 000 scale. Geological maps for the most densely populated parts of the country also exist at this scale. Cadastral, local topographical, geotechnical and geological maps are available and can be published at more accurate scales without limitations. Important tools such as digital elevation models (DEM) are also readily available in pixel resolution and 25 m elevation accuracy of 1 m.

Access to sufficiently accurate information is off great importance particularly for groundwater investigations where production well should be located into commonly only a few tens of meters wide core of a glaciofluvial channel. Data also improves also interpretation of certain geophysical measurements and allow use of e.g. gravimetric measurements to detect soil thicknesses.

Limitations concerning the access to cartographic materials exist even today to some extent. However, access to satellite images, GPS-measurements etc. and use of spatial analysis systems that are currently in intensive use also in Russia are currently making

61 exploration, pollution prevention planning and modeling of glaciofluvial groundwater systems possible.

In Russia, also groundwater resource investigations have been directed by the policies of a central government system, which have prioritized, quite naturally, the water supply of large population centers. Therefore, the drinking water supply has addressed the use of sources of potable water that have been able to provide sufficient for large cities and metropolis in terms of volumetric intake or vulnerability to pollution. The first priority has addressed the use of surface waters and the latter large, regionally extensive confined aquifers. The general approach and management structure applied in Russia has been “top-down”. For smaller towns and municipalities and marginal areas particularly, regional assessment and standard investigations procedures and technical solutions have been used. Local hydrogeological characteristics have not been necessarily taken into account. From this perspective it is not surprising that the potential of glaciofluvial aquifers remained poorly recognized and utilized. Limited access and use of cartographic materials has probably further contributed to the underestimation of their groundwater potential. The resent economic developments in Russia allow again the improvement of the water and wastewater facilities. Significant federal development programs have already been established.

The geological investigations carried out in Russia have addressed systematic drilling and interpolation the findings of cross-sectional profiles. The investigations have produced systematically information on the groundwater resources in crystalline bedrock. Russian scientist including hydrogeologist have paid special attention to characterization of fracture zones. Geophysical soundings carried out (and investigation sounding equipments) for groundwater investigations are rather advanced. The methods that can provide information on layer thicknesses in relatively deep deposits are today increasingly adopted in groundwater investigations in Finland. Also in the completed pilot project, Russian hydrogeologists pointed out possible hydraulic interactions between investigated glaciofluvial deposits and fractured crystalline bedrock.

In Finland, hydrogeology of fractured rock has also been a subject of extensive investigations as a part of a nuclear repository program. However, fractured rocks comprise a relatively source of distributed drinking water although drilled wells are extensively for single households. In the investigations of sand-and gravel aquifers, bedrock is commonly considered to comprise an impermeable aquifer bottom. Unfortunately, this does not only mean that possible contributions of groundwater in bedrock to the water balances in glaciofluvial aquifers have been underestimated. Furthermore, possible spread of pollution in rock fractures is also ignored. Unpleasant surprises may occur when causes of some reported pollution cases are investigated in more detail, e.g. as a part of the implementation process of the EU Water Framework Directive.

In Finland, groundwater has become a primary source of potable water over the past 40 years. During that period, the main responsibility of organizing water supply has belonged to local municipalities with significant organizational support from local level administration. Significant financial support has been also available (mainly in a form of bank guarantees and low-interest investment loans). The development of water services on a down-top basis has meant also the financial burden on a relatively small local entity. The limited financial sources of municipalities or water co-operatives have

62 forced to seek for most cost-efficient solutions to organize water supply. Since running a surface water supply facilities takes commonly substantially larger labour force compared to groundwater pumping stations not to mention cost of required chemicals, glaciofluvial groundwater resources have turned out to provide commonly a cost- efficient solution for water supply of small towns and communities even in areas were surface water resources are available. Therefore, development of groundwater based drinking water supply is also probably the most sustainable alternative to the geologically similar areas in NW-Russia.

Comparison of the methods and procedures applied in Finland and in Russia for groundwater exploration made clear that the “Finnish approach” can be adjusted and fitted into the current Russian regulations on groundwater investigations. There are no regulatory obstacles to imply the demonstrated groundwater exploration approach in other parts NW-Russia.

Since the potentials of glaciofluvial formations as sources of groundwater were not recognized, the protection of groundwater pollution has not been paid attention. Consequently, plans for remediation of aggregate production areas are nowadays required as a part of the licensing process but these have aimed mainly for reforestation after extraction is finished. In Finland, particularly when large gravel pits are concerned, remediation is a progressive process that starts when operation is moving to the other side of the extracted formation. Furthermore, the primary target remediation and permits is to reduce the adverse effects of gravel extraction to the groundwater quality.

The geophysical soundings and map interpretations used in Finland for groundwater investigations and for aggregate resources assessment are essentially same. The groundwater investigations focus on the deposits below the water table, while aggregate resource investigations have mostly attempted to estimate the volume and quality of aggregates in the unsaturated zone. Today, traditional geological mapping of the distribution of soil types at the surface (to the depth of 1 m) has already covered the most densely populated parts. Furthermore, use of groundwater must be balanced in near future with the supply of aggregate materials for development and maintenance of infrastructure. Therefore, the resources allocated in GTK previously separately for these tasks are nowadays combined to more integrated collection soil geological data and analysis of 3D-structure jointly with other stakeholder organizations and particularly with local environmental authorities and municipalities. Also databases for storing relevant data and Internet platforms for sharing the information free of charge are under development. For long terms, the sustainable solution assuring protection of groundwater resources and the aggregate material flow for the infrastructure are increasing the use of rock aggregate material. This however, need research and technical development so that the rock material to be crushed and other wise processed can be selected so that the technical requirements that can be achieved today only by soil aggregate materials will be fulfilled. These include e.g. the mechanical strengths of certain types of concretes that in general can be achieved by using well-sorted glaciofluvial sands as a constituent in the concrete.

In Russian use of rock aggregate materials and selection of right aggregate material for right purpose is not very advanced. For example in production of dimension stones in Vyborg area, rock blasting is used excessively instead of hydraulic fracturing as in Finland. This produces nitrate pollution of groundwater and the enormous amounts of

63 waste rock. Blasting leads to micro fracturing that also reduces strongly the mechanical strength of waste rocks. Therefore, the waste rocks comprise a poor source of aggregate material.

The relatively simple approach used in the first systematic assessment program of sand and gravel aggregate resources in Finland (in 70ies and early 80ies) could be recommended as possible approach for Russian authorities dealing with aggregate resources in Vyborg area. Moreover, this data collection could be integrated to the groundwater investigations pilot tested already in this project.

Information of groundwater quality was compared in this project in three different ways. First, a pre-agreed number (20 samples) of duplicate water samples were taken in this project and the samples were send for analysis in a Russian laboratory of the Center of Research and the Control of Water of Vodokanal”(accredited by the Gosstandart of the Russian Federation) and to the Geolaboratory of GTK (accredited by FINAS). Analytical results of inorganic components of both sets of samples are closely mutually consistent. This shows that currently, analyses off high analytical precision and accuracy are available for environmental assessments in Russia. The analysed samples taken from the Vyborg area that could be presumed not to show any human impacts on groundwater quality were compared to the monitoring data obtained in geologically similar areas in Finland, near the Finnish-Russian border. This further verifies that the geochemical conditions and groundwater quality is similar and that significant groundwater resources of excellent drinking water quality exist in the Vyborg district. In the carried out groundwater investigations pollution sources as well as potential in were distinguished certain areas. Strategies to improve the groundwater protection are delineated in the other reports of this Project as well as in proposals for follow-up projects.

12 Conclusions The groundwater-based water supply in Finland has developed cost-efficient technical solutions and groundwater exploration approaches that can be recommended as the basis for best practices for groundwater investigations in Vyborg area and similar crystalline bedrock areas in NW-Russia. The Finnish approaches are flexible and can be adjusted to comply with the current Russian regulations on groundwater investigations. Consequently, the development of water supply in the Vyborg district based on the utilization of glaciofluvial deposits can be included to the already started federal programs. Glaciofluvial deposits can provide similarly, solutions for water deficit in other parts of NW Russia. Local authorities will make initiatives that programs of Rosnedra would support the now developed procedures/obtained experiences. Future programs could also integrate to investigations also improved assessments of aggregate resources in Vyborg district. Based on Finnish experiences, this would support significantly sustainable aggregate extraction and future management of natural resources in Vyborg area. Finally, investigations promoting production of mechanically high quality rock aggregate materials should be supported to reduce the use of sand and gravel aggregates.

64

13 References Alapassi, M., Rintala, J. & Sipilä, P. 2001. Maa-ainesten ottaminen ja ottamisalueiden jälkihoito. Abstract: Extraction of soil and rock resources and environmental management of the extraction areas. Ympäristöopas 85. 101 p.

Anonymous, 2001. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriön asetus pienten yksiköiden talousveden laatuvaatimuksista ja valvontatutkimuksista. (In Finnish) [Decree of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health for the household water quality parameters and surveillance monitoring of the small units.] N:o 401/2001 (annettu Helsingissä 17 päivänä toukokuuta 2001). 4 s., liite I ja II.

Backman, B., Lahermo, P., Väisänen, U., Paukola, T., Juntunen, R., Karhu, J., Pullinen, A., Rainio, H. & Tanskanen, H. 1999: Geologian ja ihmisen toiminnan vaikutus pohjaveteen. Seurantatutkimuksen tulokset vuosilta 1969 - 1996. Summary: The Effect of Geological Environment and Human Activities on Groundwater in Finland. The Results of Monitoring in 1969 - 1996. 261 p. ISBN: 951-690-738-5.

Britschgi, R. & Gustafsson, J. 1996 (toim.) Suomen luokitellut pohjavesialueet. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Suomen ympäristö 55. p. 387.

Driscoll, F.G., 1986, Groundwater and Wells: Johnson Filtration Systems, Inc., St. Paul, MN.

GTK, Geokarttapalvelu (Geomap service). Available at: http://geokartta.gtk.fi/geokartta_uk/mainpage_uk.htm. Visited at: 4.12.2006.

Hatva, T., Hyyppä, J., Ikäheimo, J., Penttinen, H. & Sandborg, M. 1993. Soranoton vaikutus pohjaveteen. Raportti VI: Pohjavesi ja soranotto. (In Finnish) [Effects of gravel extraction on groundwater. Report IV: Groundwater and gravel extraction].Ympäristöministeriö, Tutkimusraportti 1, 1993. p.58.

Hämeen liitto (Regional Council of Häme) 2006. Maakuntakaavakartta. (Regional land use plan) Available at: Visited 21.11.2006.

Härmä, P. & Selonen, O., 2000. Kymenlaakson rakennuskivivarojen kartoitus (In Finnish) [Exploration of new dimension stone deposits in Kymenlaakso region, in southeastern Finland]. Kymenlaakson liiton julkaisuja B 118. 24 p. + 5 app.

Härmä, P. 2001. Etelä-Karjalan rakennuskivivarojen etsintäkartoitus 1998-2001 (In Finnish) [Exploration of new dimension stone deposits in Etelä-Karjala region, in southeastern Finland] . Geologian tutkimuskeskus, 19 p. + 5 app. Report KA 33/01/2.

65 Jarva, J. & Virkki, H. 2006. Dealing with natural hazards : practice in the Finnish spatial planning system. In: Fleischhauer, M., Greiving, S. & Wanczura, S. (eds.) Natural hazards and spatial planning in Europe. Dortmund: Dortmunder Vertrieb für Bau- und Planungsliteratur, 19- 36.

Jylhä, S. & Riipinen, H. 2003. Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslain rantayleiskaavoja koskeva selvitys. (Investigation on shore master plans related to Land Use and Building Act).

Katko. T., S., Vettä! Suomen vesihuollon kehitys kaupungeissa ja maaseudulla. Vesi- ja viemärilaitosyhdistys. (In Finnish),“ Water!- Development of water services in urban and rural areas”, Finnish Water and Waste Water Works Association, 416 p.

Keskitalo, K. (ed.), Kurkinen, I., Malkavaara, T., Liljeqvist, L., Lyytikäinen, A., Nurmi, H., Ranta, P., Sahala, L., Timperi, J., Tossavainen, J., Vallinkoski, V.-M., Britschgi, R. 2004. Pohjavesien suojelun ja kiviaineshuollon yhteensovittaminen - Kymenlaakson loppuraportti. Abstract: The adjustment of groundwater protection with aggregate service - final report from Kymenlaakso region. Alueelliset ympäristöjulkaisut 349. Kouvola: Kaakkois-Suomen ympäristökeskus. 134 p. + 3 app. maps.

Kujansuu, R., Kurkinen, I. and Niemelä, J., 1981. Glaciofluvial deposits in Finland, in Ehlers, J., Kozarski, S. & Gibbard, P. (eds.), Glacial deposits in North-East Europe A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, p. 67-75

Lahermo, P. & Backman, B. 2000: The occurrence and geochemistry of fluorides with special reference to natural waters in Finland. 40 p. ISBN: 951-690-757-1.

Lahermo, P., Tarvainen, T., Hatakka, T., Backman, B., Juntunen, R., Kortelainen, N., Lakomaa, T., Nikkarinen, M., Vesterbacka, P., Väisänen, U. & Suomela, P. 2002: Tuhat kaivoa - Suomen kaivovesien fysikaalis-kemiallinen laatu vuonna 1999. Summary: One thousand wells - the physical-chemical quality of Finnish well waters in 1999. 92 p. ISBN: 951-690-842-X.

Lapinlampi T. & Raassina S. (eds.), 2001 Vesihuoltolaitokset 1998 - 2000. Vesilaitokset, Suomen ympäristö 541, luonto ja luonnonvarat, 480 p. ISBN 952-11-1086-4. Also available at: < http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=55588&lan=fi>. Visited at 26.11.2006.

Laukkanen R., 1981. Flow forecasts in general planning of municipal water and sewage works. Publications of the National Board of Waters 41, 51 p.

Lemmelä, R., 1990. Water balance of a sandy aquifer at Hyrylä in Southern Finland, Annales Universitatis Turkuencis, Ser. A, Biologica-Geographica-Geologica, 73, 340 p.

Leveinen, J., Rönkä, E., Tikkanen, J. & Karro, E. 1998. Fractional flow dimensions and hydraulic properties of a fracture-zone aquifer, Leppävirta, Finland. Hydrogeology Journal 6 (3), 327-340.

Luonnonsuojelulaki (Nature conservation Act) Available at: Visited 20.11.2006.

Maa-aineslaki (Land Extraction Act). Available at: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1981/19810555. Visited 21.11.2006

Maankäyttö- ja rakennuslaki 2000-sarja. (The Land Use and Building Act 2000-series). Available in pdf-form at: Visited 21.11.2006. Opas 5. Valtioneuvoston päätös valtakunnallisista alueidenkäyttötavoitteista. 15.1.2001.

66 Opas 6. Maakuntakaavan sisältö ja esitystapa. 1.7.2001. Opas 7. Maakuntakaavan oikeusvaikutukset. 2.7.2002. Opas 9. Valtakunnallisten alueidenkäyttötavoitteiden soveltaminen kaavoituksessa. 3.4.2003. Opas 10. Maakuntakaavamerkinnät ja –määräykset. 15.6.2003 Opas 11. Yleiskaavamerkinnät ja –määräykset. 16.6.2003. Opas 12. Asemakaavamerkinnät ja –määräykset. 17.6.2003.

Ministry of the Environment. 2002. Finland´s National Land Use Guidelines – issued by the Council of State on November 30, 2000. Environment Guide 93. 38 p.

Ministry of the Environment. 2005. Regional land use planning in Finland. Brochure. Availabe at: Visited 20.11.2006. Mälkki E., 1999, Pohjavesi ja pohjaveden ympäristö. Helsinki, Tammi, 304 p.

Suomen ympäristö 615.104 p. Available at: Visited 21.11.2006.

Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö, 2000. Asetus talousveden laatuvaatimuksista ja valvontatutkimuksista (Decree of the demands for drinking water quality and surveillance studies). Available at: < http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2000/20000461> Visited 26.11.2006.

Vesilaki(Water Act).Available at:http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1961/19610264. Visited 26.11.2006

Vesihuoltolaki (Water Services Act).Available at: . Visited 12.12.2006.

Vikman, H. & Santala, E.2001. Vesihuollon alueellinen yleissuunnittelu. Ympäristöopas 88, luonto ja luonnonvarat. ISBN:9521110015. ISBN 952-11-1001-5 (PDF). Julkaisu on saatavissa myös painetussa muodossa ISBN 952-11-1000-7. 52 p. Also available at: < http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=65181&lan=fi>. Visited at 4.1.07.

Virkki, H. & Jarva, J. 2005. Country Report: B.II: Finland. In report: Greiving, S., Fleischhauer, M. & Wanczura, S. (eds.) Report on the European scenario of technological and scientific standards reached in spatial planning versus natural risk management. Deliverable 1.1. ARMONIA –project (contract n:o 511208). 60 p.

Water Framework Directive. Available at: . Visited 6.12.2006.

Ympäristöministeriö 2001. Maa-ainesten ottaminen ja ottamisalueiden jälkihoito (In Finnish) [Soil and rock extraction and after-treatment of extraction areas]. Ympäristöopas 85. p.101.

Ympäristönsuojeluasetus (Decree of Environmental Protection). Available at: http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=55588&lan=fi. Visited 22.11.2006.

67 Appendix 1. The minimum, mean, median and maximum values in groundwater samples taken from Vyborg area in Russia in 2006 (analysed by GTK), as well as the upper permissible and recommended values in groundwater in Finland (Anon 2001) and in Russia. Mean value is not computed if more than a half of the element concentrations is under the detection limit. Element or property Minimum Mean Median Maximum Number of Limit Limit samples value in value in Russia Finland pH, lab. 5.8 6.5 6.5 7.1 12 6.0 – 9.0 6.5 – 9.5 El.cond.mS/m, 4.7 17.3 9.0 74.0 12 <250 Colour, Pt mg/l <5 18.1 5.0 120 13 KMnO4-number, 0.50 9.9 1.8 70.0 13 mg/l SiO2 mg/l 0.71 12.4 12.8 20.7 13 Alkalinity mmol/l 0.25 1.26 0.51 6.86 13 - 15.3 76.9 31.1 419 13 HCO3 mg/l 2- 0.90 13.3 6.5 65.6 13 500 250 SO4 mg/l Cl- mg/l 1.2 8.3 4.7 20.2 13 350 250 Br- mg/l <0.1 - <0.1 <0.1 13 F- mg/l <0.1 0.87 1.0 1.4 13 1.5 1.5 - <0.2 4.1 0.50 23.4 13 45.0 50.0 NO3 mg/l 3- <0.02 - <0.02 0.04 13 PO4 mg/l Ca mg/l 4.5 15.4 8.9 60.7 13 Mg mg/l 1.0 4.0 2.0 17.7 13 Total hardness odH 0.86 3.1 1.7 12.6 13 Na mg/l 2.2 7.7 4.9 29.3 13 200 200 K mg/l 0.59 7.5 1.7 50.1 13 Al µg/l <1.0 40.5 14.7 200 13 500 200 As µg/l <0.05 0.55 0.10 4.1 13 50.0 10.0 B µg/l 2.5 6.6 4.5 21.8 13 500 1000 Ba µg/l 1.5 25.3 6.0 197 13 Be µg/l <0.05 0.06 0.05 0.22 13 Bi µg/l <0.01 0.02 0.01 0.07 13 Cd µg/l <0.003 0.014 0.008 0.047 13 1.0 5.0 Co µg/l <0.02 0.19 0.03 1.1 13 Cr µg/l <0.1 - <0.1 2.0 13 50.0 Cu µg/l 0.05 1.2 0.62 6.7 13 1000 2000 Fe mg/l <0.03 0.41 0.04 2.1 13 0.3 0.2 Li µg/l 0.34 3.1 2.4 16.1 13 Mn µg/l 0.40 223 7.2 2220 13 100 50.0 Mo µg/l 0.06 0.66 0.12 4.8 13 Ni µg/l 0.23 1.7 0.43 12.5 13 100 20.0 Pb µg/l <0.05 0.14 0.11 0.47 13 30.0 10.0 Rb µg/l 0.11 4.6 0.31 41.4 13 S mg/l 0.60 4.5 2.3 22.5 13 Sb µg/l <0.01 0.04 0.01 0.28 13 50.0 5.0 Si mg/l 0.33 5.8 6.0 9.7 13 Sr µg/l 20.9 78.5 39.4 353 13 Th µg/l <0.002 0.005 0.004 0.014 13 U µg/l 0.04 0.24 0.15 0.99 13 V µg/l 0.02 0.10 0.05 0.58 13 Zn µg/l 1.3 9.5 3.6 48.2 13

68