DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND COMMERCE
UNIVERSITY OF FORT HARE
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN
ZIMBABWE: THE CASE OF MWENEZI DISTRICT
By
MAGAISA DAVID FARAI (201013374)
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL SCIENCES IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SUPERVISOR: DR. W KACHERE
DATE: 15 December 2015
Abstract
Drought remains a huge challenge in Africa, particularly in Zimbabwe. The study investigated the effectiveness of drought management strategies and poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe with particular focus on Mwenezi District. In order to come up with a comprehensive investigation, the researcher grounded the study in sustainable livelihood approach and the community driven development theory. Due to drought being the number one disaster in Zimbabwe, the government and NGOs have collectively come up with strategies aimed at ameliorating the impact of drought in the area. The study employed a qualitative methodology as it provided an understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of drought. The study investigated the roles of both the government and NGOs involved in drought management in the district. NGOs and Government institutions charged with drought relief implement various programmes designed to manage drought in this area. This study’s findings were that cattle rearing, provision of food aid, provision of seed packs, supplementary feeding, among other programmes, are being implemented in the district to curb drought. Local people in the area have adopted a number of strategies so as to cope with drought effects. These strategies include growing of drought-resistant crops, livestock selling, change of farming methods, informal cross- border trading and establishing gardening plots. The Zimbabwean government has been criticised for being reactive rather than being proactive when it comes to drought management. The study further calls for improved and effective policies to tackle drought and poverty in the area. Effective monitoring and evaluation of programmes designed to manage drought should be prioritised if ever drought is to be effectively managed.
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Declaration
I, the undersigned, hereby make a declaration that this dissertation entitled: ‘Drought
Management Strategies and Poverty Alleviation in Zimbabwe: The Case of Mwenezi
District’, is the product of my own work. All the sources that I have quoted or used have been acknowledged or indicated by means of completed references. I also declare that this dissertation has not been previously submitted and will not be presented at any other institution.
………………………………..
Signature
______/______/_2015____
Date
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Acknowledgements
Through Him all things are possible. Thank you God Almighty for granting me inspiration and strength to complete this study. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. W. Kachere for her care, dedication and excellent guidance. I really appreciate you Doc.
My heartfelt gratitude also goes to my family members, Hastings, Gift, Simbisai and
Leniency for your unwavering support. To my brother, Trust and wife Mercy, words cannot express how much I appreciate your support throughout the course of my studies, without you guys, achieving this dream would have been impossible. May the Almighty God bless you abundantly and exceedingly. My nephew, Shingirirai and wife, Nombuso, thank you for your hospitality, support and words of encouragement; again without you, this would have been difficult, if not impossible, to accomplish.
I am appreciative of my friends whom I shared memories and experiences during the course of my study. Special thanks to Nosizo Ncube for being a friend par excellence. To Joseph Budzi and Kennias Chigwaya, thank you guys, for your friendship kept me going. It is your words of wisdom and encouragement that I will forever cherish.
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Dedications
I dedicate this study to my late parents, Mr and Mrs Magaisa, who taught me the value of education, the essence of hard work, perseverance and determination, but never lived to see my work.
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List of acronyms
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
CBOs Community Based Organizations
CFN Cluster for Food and Nutrition
CFSAM Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CSO Central Statistics Office
DFID Department for International Development
DMP Drought Management Plan
EWS Early Warning Systems
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FTLRP Fast Land Reform Programme
FWP Food for Work Programme
GLS Grain Loan Scheme
GMB Grain Marketing Board
GOZ Government of Zimbabwe
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KPA Key Performance Areas
MDGs Millennium Developmental Goals
MLGPW &UD Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and Urban
Development
NEPC National Economic Planning Commission
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NMDC National Drought Mitigation Centre
NPDM National Policy on Drought Management
PDA Provincial Departments of Agriculture
REWU Regional Early Warning Unit
RMS Results Management System
SADC Southern Africa Development Community
SLA Sustainable Livelihood Approach
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
ZIMASSET Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic
Transformation
ZimVac Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee
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List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Demographic profile of local respondents’ 94
Table 2: Age of local respondents 96
Table 3: Gender of local participants (household respondents) 98
Table 4: Education of respondents (household respondents) 99
Table 5: Employment Status of respondents 100
Table 6: Key informants 101
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Linkages between types of drought...... 17 Figure 2.2: Zimbabwe severity of food insecure by district...... 41 Figure 2.3: Ten Step Drought Planning Process...... 48 Figure 2.4: Drought Task Force Organizational Structure...... 52 Figure 2.5: Top 10 Natural disasters in Zimbabwe...... 67 Figure 3.1: A Map showing Zimbabwe Districts...... 86 Figure 3.2: A Map showing study area and adjacent districts...... 87 Figure 3.3: A Map showing agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe...... 88
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...... i
Declaration ...... ii
Acknowledgements ...... iii
Dedications ...... iv
List of acronyms ...... v
List of Tables ...... vii
List of Figures ...... viii
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 1
1.1 Introduction and Background ...... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 9
1.3 Research Objectives ...... 10
1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 11
1.5 Organization of the Study ...... 12
CHAPTER TWO ...... 13
LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 13
2.1 Introduction ...... 13
2.2 Conceptual framework ...... 13
2.3 Theoretical Framework ...... 19
2.3.1 Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) ...... 19
2.3.2 Livelihood assets ...... 22
2.3.3 Applicability of the five capitals to drought management ...... 23
2.3.3.1 Human Capital ...... 23
2.3.3.2 Social Capital ...... 24
2.3.3.3 Natural Capital ...... 24
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2.3.3.4 Physical Capital ...... 25
2.3.3.5 Financial Capital ...... 25
2.3.4 Applicability of SLA to poverty reduction ...... 26
2.4 Community Driven Development Theory ...... 33
2.5 Vulnerability and Drought ...... 36
2.6 The Poverty and Drought in Zimbabwe ...... 38
2.7 Poverty alleviation strategies ...... 43
2.7.1 Poverty Alleviation Action Plan (PAAP) of 1994 and drought management ...... 43
2.7.2 Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation and drought management (ZIMASSET) ...... 44
2.8 Drought management in Southern Africa ...... 46
2.9 South Africa and Drought Management ...... 56
2.10 Botswana and drought Management ...... 61
2.11 Zimbabwe and Drought Management strategies ...... 66
2.12 Legal framework in disaster management in Zimbabwe ...... 68
2.12.1 Zimbabwe’s National Policy on Drought Management (NPDM) ...... 71
2.12.2 Drought Relief programmes in Zimbabwe ...... 73
2.12.3 Food for Work Programme (FWP) ...... 73
2.12.4 Rural drought relief ...... 74
2.12.5 The Grain Loan Scheme (GLS) ...... 75
2.12.6 Land reform Programme ...... 75
2.12.7 Irrigation development in Zimbabwe ...... 76
2.13 NGOs and Drought Management ...... 77
2.14 Conclusion ...... 80
CHAPTER THREE ...... 81
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 81
3.1 Introduction ...... 81
3.2 Qualitative Research ...... 81
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3.3 Sampling and Population ...... 82
3.4 Data collection techniques ...... 84
3.4.1 Interviews ...... 85
3.5 Primary and Secondary Data sources ...... 85
3.6 Data analysis ...... 86
3.7 Description of the study area ...... 86
3.7.1 Geographical Location ...... 86
3.7.2 Agro-ecological conditions in the district ...... 88
3.7.3 Employment in the District ...... 91
3.8 Ethical considerations ...... 92
3.8.1 Avoidance of Harm ...... 92
3.8.2 Informed Consent ...... 92
3.8.3 Confidentiality ...... 93
3.8.4 Plagiarism ...... 93
3.9 Limitations of the study ...... 93
3.10 Delimitation of the Study ...... 94
3.11 Conclusion ...... 94
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 95
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 95
4.1 Introduction ...... 95
4.2 Drought coping strategies of local people in Mwenezi ...... 102
4.2.1 Growing of drought resistant crops ...... 102
4.2. 2 Food aid as a strategy to drought management...... 102
4.2.3 Livestock selling ...... 104
4.2.4 Growing of drought tolerant crops and change of farming methods ...... 105
4.2.5 Informal Cross border trading ...... 107
4.2.6 Gardening Plots ...... 108
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4.2.7 Remittances ...... 109
4.2.8 Access to and reliance on credit ...... 109
4.2.9 Seasonal migration ...... 110
4.3 Drought strategies employed by both Government and NGOs ...... 111
4.3.1 Conservation farming ...... 111
4.3.2 Livestock Rearing ...... 112
4.3.3 Provision of seed packs/ Input aid ...... 114
4.3.4 Supplementary feeding programme ...... 115
4.3.5 Agricultural research ...... 116
4.3.6 Irrigation and Water resource development ...... 116
4.3.7 Zunde RaMambo (Grain Support Scheme) ...... 117
4.4 Challenges faced by Government and NGOs in drought management ...... 118
4.4.1 Lack of Funds ...... 118
4.4.2 Lack of Coordination ...... 118
4.4.2 Political Interference ...... 119
4.4.3 Development Approaches to drought management in Mwenezi ...... 119
4.5 Analysis of Research Findings ...... 120
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 127
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 127
5.1 Introduction ...... 127
5.2 Summary and Conclusion ...... 127
5.3 Recommendations ...... 130
5.3 Areas for further research ...... 134
References ...... 135
Appendices ...... 153
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CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction and Background
This study sought to explore the influence of drought management strategies on poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe, and used Mwenezi Rural District as the case study.
This endeavour explored the efficiency of both governmental and Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in their quest to manage drought and poverty in Mwenezi.
Droughts are a normal climatic phenomenon which affects almost all the countries world over. Southern Africa is one region that is characterized by erratic rainfall patterns which have since contributed to longer periods of droughts in the region.
According to Hewitt (1997), drought is ranked as number one natural disaster throughout the world. Zimbabwe is one country in the Sub-Saharan Africa that has experienced a number of droughts which have had severe effects on the general populace. In 1980-82, Zimbabwe had one of the worst droughts in her history, and up to now (2015), Zimbabwe continues to experience severe droughts, with notable droughts occurring in 1992 and 2006-08 respectively.
Zimbabwe was once well known as the ‘bread basket” of the whole Southern African
Development Community (SADC) region, but now it is an “empty basket’ (Chigodora,
1999). This satiric statement denotes how consistent poor harvests in the country perpetuated by recurring droughts have affected the country’s status as the leading agriculture producing nation in SADC. Due to the continual occurrence of drought, a number of local institutions have come upfront in trying to mitigate and manage the drought impact in the country. Droughts occur locally, regionally and nationally for
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varying periods (Wichita, 1991). In Zimbabwe, Mwenezi District, which is under
Masvingo province, is one district that is prone to drought due to its geographical location.
Zimbabwe is categorized into 5 five different agricultural regions, (Vincent and
Thomas 1960). These regions depend on the annual rainfall that an area can receive and the type of agricultural production that can be practiced. Masvingo, as a result falls under region 4 which receives an annual average rainfall of 540mm per annum and high temperatures averaging above 25 degrees Celsius. Due to this disadvantaged location of Masvingo, the effects of droughts in this district are severe, and some families in this district are living in abject poverty (Chigodora,
1999). As a result of these weather conditions in this district, both Governmental and
NGOs have come upfront to ameliorate this dire situation; however, the results are not as effective as envisaged.
According to Joaquin et al (2013), policies and strategies are crucial elements in drought management as they offer an outline and guidance to support the implementation of best management practices and suitable interventions. For far too long, SADC member states are on record for striving to come up with policies and approaches that accurately address drought related strategies, legislations and policies that are relevant to these countries. This has been a serious challenge in
Zimbabwe. Thus, there is need to examine the efficacy of drought management policies and programmes adopted in independent Zimbabwe.
However in a bid to fight this recurrent phenomenon, SADC member states have found common ground where they agreed to coordinate and harmonise drought related policies and strategies for sustainable development. Unfortunately, their
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efforts on drought management strategies, according to Whittle (2002), have focused on short term mitigation rather than long term mitigation measures. Thus, drought mitigation policies and strategies in Africa have since been accused of being reactionary rather than being proactive (Ward low, 2012).
Although in Africa, developing drought related policies has been a challenge due to the continual recurrence, new and explicit policies are now being developed with much emphasis being placed on preparedness, rehabilitation, prevention and planning as the major concern (Whittle, 2002). However, the effectiveness of these prescribed policies is still contentious in drought management discourse. According to Appal (2005) and Austin (2008), rural populace and resource-poor farmers are more vulnerable to the impacts of drought hence the need for comprehensive drought management policies and implementation strategies that place rural populace in the mainstream of the implementation process.
In essence, strategies to manage drought must take drought as a potential disaster and incorporate it into management cycles aimed at mitigation and prevention.
Wichita (2002) argues that although drought is a normal or natural phenomenon which is recurrent, its impact can be managed and mitigated. As such, there is need for a microscopic scrutiny on the policies and programmes for drought management in Africa, particularly in Zimbabwe. This is grounded on the premise that drought management programmes in Zimbabwe have not been consistent in ensuring the sustainability of small scale and subsistence farmers. Over and above, they have failed to ensure the sustainability of ordinary poor Zimbabweans who are trapped in abject poverty. This is despite the fact that the SADC report of 1999 recommended that there should be a link between short term and long term development in which
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most suitable methods of helping farmers are recommended in order to minimise their vulnerability to drought.
Drought impact, as it relates to poverty, is voluminously profound. Droughts account for about 80% loss of life and 70% economic loss to Sub-Saharan Africa (Hair,
2013). In 1990/91, Zimbabwe suffered a GDP drop of about 11% (Zimbabwe
Vulnerability Assessment Committee, 2007). This argument brings to the core the notion that drought management and mitigation should be conceptualized in the broader context of poverty and vulnerability. Consequently, the failure of drought management in Zimbabwe is not necessarily because the country does not have a drought management policy per se, but the point is that the policy failed to account to poverty in general. This accelerated the vulnerability of the general populace in the country (Chinked, 1997)
According to Kailua and Caitlyn (2010), successive periods of drought in Africa affect those people that are ensnared within the vicious cycle of poverty and vulnerability.
This is embedded in the notion that the vulnerable quickly lose livestock and agricultural products, thereby leaving them plunged into a deep ocean of poverty.
Thus, the austerity of poverty in Zimbabwe, especially in drought-prone areas such as Mwenezi, is intrinsically and inextricably linked to drought and poor drought management mechanism.
The inter-connectedness of drought and poverty was echoed by the United Nations
(2008) and Hair (2013) who argue that in the past years in Africa, drought has caused crop yield decrease, unemployment, and impoverishment and even forced migration. Ideally, it is impossible to alleviate extreme poverty, as entrenched in the
Millennium Development Goals agenda (MDGs), without finding sustainable
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solutions or alternatives to manage the severe impact of drought. Likewise, the fact that Africa is still lagging behind in achieving these goals is largely due to its weak policy formulation and implementation mechanisms towards drought (Non-U, 2008).
Non-U further alludes that poverty and hunger in Africa cannot be solely blamed on drought but to other manmade problems such as political crises, limited Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI), and low domestic savings, among other factors. Therefore, poverty and hunger in Africa remains a complex phenomenon that is part of a macrocosm.
The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) predicted that drought in
Zimbabwe is bound to be more severe and occur recurrently in the future. However,
Chigodora (1999) argues that local government authorities in the country seem to lack the competence to counter drought, not to mention being prepared for drought in an effort to mitigate the effects of drought. Chigodora further postulates that there is need for the Government of Zimbabwe (GOZ) to consider the urgent need to offset both short-term and long-term impacts of drought, to expand institutional capacities of local institutions in dealing with drought and to devote more resources so as to be able to meet the needs of the most vulnerable population group which happens to be the rural populace. Severity of drought impacts in Zimbabwe in the last decade raises eyebrows as to whether the GOZ and NGOs in Mwenezi have considered the sentiments raised by Chigodora in their drought management mechanisms or whether they just took these sentiments as mere rhetoric.
It is important to note that there is no accurate and unanimously conventional definition of drought, and this has led to confusion as to drought’s existence and its impact. In addition, this ambiguity can account for confusion on the policy makers across all levels of government, in the private sector, international organizations and
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NGOs. According to Wichita (1988), drought has mainly three types, namely: meteorological drought, agricultural drought, and hydrological drought. He further argues that there are some commonalities on the impacts of these three different types of drought.
Metrological drought relates to the deficiency of rainfall from the normal. This is the least type of drought in terms of severity, and it is normally recognized by hot and sunny weather conditions. On the other hand hydrological drought or operational drought is marked by reduction of a natural stream flow or ground water levels. The main cause of this type of drought is an abnormal persistence of low rainfall over a particular period (Iglesias et al, 2009). Agricultural drought is the most common type of drought affecting Africa, especially Southern Africa and Zimbabwe in particular.
Agricultural drought occurs when the moisture level is insufficient to sustain average crop yields. This then affects the seasonal crop output as well as other related production. According to Iglesias et al (2009) an excessive agricultural drought can result in famine.
The frequency of drought has been of major concern not only in Africa but world over for the past decade (Dercon, 2002). In the 1980s, the Western United States experienced about six years of consecutive hydrological drought which lasted up to
1993. In 1994, some regions in United States were, still suffering from significant drought. Due to these successive years, the government and other stakeholders embarked on drought management and mitigation programs. Successful drought management requires effective monitoring mechanisms. From the efforts exhibited in the Western United States, it is quite evident that in drought management, improved monitoring and early warning systems are essential if a country needs to combat drought and its effects.
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However, according to Campbell (1990), in developing countries especially in Africa and Asian countries, the most outstanding consequence of drought is the loss in agricultural output. In rural areas such as Mwenezi where agriculture is the main source of employment, severe drops in agricultural production result in a number of consequences through the relationship that exist between agriculture and other sectors. For instance, a decline in agriculture returns causes a decrease in the demand of agro processing industries that do cater for local markets. The negative effect of this is reduction of income and employment in the sector.
In the same vein, the revenue of the rural families engaged in providing agricultural inputs will also decline. As a result, a decline in household income triggers secondary effects. Loss in household revenue leads to a reduced consumption by the poor who, in essence, is generally already in the negative, thereby leaving them more vulnerable and prone to severe poverty. Rural farmers, in an attempt to counter the droughts’ effects, may end up liquidating their assets, pulling their children out of school, migrating to other areas in search of employment and getting deeper in debt
(Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2011). It is estimated that 60% of Sub-Saharan
Africa is vulnerable to drought, with about 30% of it being purported to be highly vulnerable (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 1994 as cited in Benson
& Clay, 1998). Faced with such effects, comprehensive drought management mechanisms that speak out to poverty alleviation are crucial.
There is no consensus in the definition of drought in Zimbabwe. This can be attributed to the fact that interpretations of drought are influenced by a lot of factors, namely: religious and political affiliation, social status and educational background.
According to Sachikonye (1992), agriculture is the country’s (Zimbabwe) mainstay.
Therefore, the fact that droughts in Zimbabwe have affected the sustainability of
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agriculture implies that the country quickly accelerates into a morass of poverty.
Thus, mechanisms for drought management should endeavour to enhance the capacity of agricultural production as a poverty alleviation measures.
Usually, the hugely affected people by drought are the most vulnerable people living in rural areas, and this is an accurate assumption in the case of Zimbabwe, Mwenezi
Rural District in particular. Jayne and Rukuni (2006) once recommended that
Zimbabwe needs a disaster, contingency and response plan. Jayne and Rukuni further emphasized that such plans should highlight the institutional responsibilities and sources of funds. In a bid to address drought and drought related issues such as poverty, the Government of Zimbabwe developed the National Policy on Drought
Management (NPDM), which was formulated in 1998 and approved in 1999 (GOZ-
NEPC, 1999). In the same vein, the Civil Protection Act No 10:06 of 1989 also provides a legal framework for disaster risk management.
The Civil Protection system makes use of both the government and non- governmental organizations which have activities that are mainly intended for disaster prevention and community development. Due to the recurrence of drought and other disasters, the Government of Zimbabwe in collaboration with the United
Nations and other various Non-Governmental Organizations developed the National
Contingency Plan of 2012. This plan is an essential plan that allows the government and relevant stakeholders to plan for disaster with the goal of mitigating loss of life and damage to property (Amman et al, 2006).
However, despite the formulation and introduction of these frameworks, people in
Mwenezi continue to suffer from severe drought effects. As a result of the continual suffering of people in Mwenezi, despite the presence of National Policy on Drought
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Management and other drought related management efforts, this study investigated the effectiveness of both government and NGOs operating in Mwenezi when it comes to drought management and poverty alleviation.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Drought is a serious challenge in Mwenezi District despite several efforts to manage it and to mitigate its impact. The District is a drought-prone area in Zimbabwe.
However, according to Kamanga (2007), adopted drought management programmes and policies in Zimbabwe are failing to effectively address this gruesome phenomenon. The drought situation in Mwenezi has led to chronic poor harvests and high levels of food insecurity despite the presence of many drought management and mitigation institutions in the district (ZimVac, 2013)
The country crafted the Contingency Plan in 2012 and has also been using the
National Drought Management Policy of 1999 for the past seventeen years.
Surprisingly, drought management is still a challenge in Mwenezi despite the crafted policies, as indicated by chronic droughts affecting the district. The policy document converses general drought management issues and reviews government capacities and structures to deal with drought preparedness, mitigation and response issues.
This policy has since been accused of centralizing disasters or drought management function resulting in relegating rather than encouraging the participation of local people in drought preparedness, thereby doing less to combat poverty (Chitongo,
2013). This is largely affecting the poor in the area who have limited livelihood opportunities. Their suffering is evidenced by malnutrition, hunger, starvation, and migration out of the district. Moreover, the drought situation has seen an increase in malnutrition-related diseases and increased rates of child and adult mortality
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(ZimVac, 2006). Likewise, incidences of criminal activities and juvenile delinquency are now a common practice since children are dropping out of school. This deteriorating situation is also leading to the disintegration of the communities and further increase on poverty (Manganga, 2007).
Similarly, drought remains a predictor of poverty in the district. In many instances, if not all, drought co-exists with poverty (Nangombe, 2012). Therefore failure to manage drought in the district has put further strain on poverty alleviation efforts.
Owing to these factors, the question arises as to how drought management influences poverty alleviation effort (Nangombe, 2012).
1.3 Research Objectives
Research objectives are specific goals that the research is supposed to achieve
(Devos, Strydom & Delport, 2004). Newman (2006) further noted that research objectives should be smart, short, measurable, attainable, researchable and time- bound. Therefore, the major objective of this research project was to explore the effects of drought management strategies on poverty alleviation, and the sub- objectives are to:
Establish drought coping strategies of local people in Mwenezi.
Assess the role played by local institutions in drought management and
poverty alleviation.
Establish the challenges faced in the drought management and poverty
alleviation and a way forward.
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1.4 Significance of the Study
Mwenezi district is a drought-prone district and continues to suffer from drought every year. This has seen a number of studies being carried out in this district concerning drought. Nonetheless, most of the studies carried focused on the causes and effects of drought in the region. Little has been done to assess the implementation processes and policy formulation procedures of the drought management policy as well as the drought management strategies to counter drought. This exposes a knowledge gap which needs to be filled as identified by this study. Therefore, this study will go beyond identifying the cause and effects of drought to assess strategies and programmes implemented by the government and relevant stakeholders in the district in its endeavour to manage and mitigate the effects of drought in Mwenezi. Most food shortages that occur in Mwenezi are attributed to the chronic drought conditions in this area.
It is, therefore, important to identify the drought management and mitigation programmes of local institutions and their monitoring mechanisms for one to understand the impact of intervention programmes on the livelihoods of local people and communities. This will help policy makers and implementers with necessary information on best methods on policy formulation and implementation. These good policy formulation and implementation practices would help to strengthen the livelihoods strategies of the Zimbabwe populace and Africa as a whole. This research will not only contribute to the world knowledge but will also help to increase financial accountability of these institutions in order to challenge these institutions to develop effective monitoring and evaluation systems. This research will further help policy makers to draft policies that comprehend the efforts of both Governmental and
Non Governmental Institution involved in drought management’s efforts. The
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proliferation of both Governmental and Non-Governmental organizations in Mwenezi, alongside escalating incidents of drought, makes this study an opportune prospect to review the involvement of various stakeholders in the implementation of the drought management policy as well as the strategies to manage drought.
1.5 Organization of the Study
The study is divided into five chapters and is structured as follows:
Chapter one covers the introductory chapter that presents the background of study, problems statement, and study objectives as well as the significance of the study.
Chapter two covers literature review which includes conceptualisation, theoretical framework and some empirical studies. Chapter three covers study area, a detailed discussion of research methodology and methods as well as delimitation of the study. Chapter four covers data presentation, interpretation and analysis, and
Chapter five covers the summary of the study findings, conclusions and recommendations.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter, as previously mentioned in Chapter one, is to scrutinize the literature that is applicable to this study. It also discusses the theoretical framework behind the study as well as the argument for and against the theories discussed. More so, this chapter presents the conceptual framework and theoretical framework pertinent to the variables under study. The chapter also discusses empirical reviews covering drought experiences in South and its neighbouring countries, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and the intervention strategies adopted by these countries.
2.2 Conceptual framework
In coming up with comprehensive strategies to manage drought, it is crucial to start by defining drought. According to Wilhite (2000), countries fail to manage droughts because they fail to define drought. Droughts in Africa, according to Vogel (1998), are a common and permanent feature. This has seen African countries struggling to cope with this climatic problem and more often, the people in this region rely on rainfall for agriculture and other production activities. There are basically three types of droughts even though some scholars identify four, namely: metrological drought, hydrological drought and agricultural drought and the least discussed, social drought.
Despite these types of droughts being identified, it is still very difficult to define drought. According to Grantz and Wilhite (1985), there are more than 150 definitions of drought. This shows the degree of variance when it comes to defining drought. It is this variation of perspectives that triggers confusion between the government and
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non-governmental organizations in coming up with sustainable and long-lasting drought management strategies and timely policies (Dube, 2008).
In order to enable coping or management strategies of drought as well as response plans, it is important that an inclusive early warning system has to be used.
According to the UNISDR (2003), this early warning system should include social and physical factors. According to Wilhite and Glantz (1985), when defining drought, it is very crucial to use both operational and conceptual definitions. The conceptual definition of drought is just put in general terms and according to Wilhite (2000), this definition is useful in helping the general public to understand the notion of drought.
However, when one is dealing with the impact and management strategies of drought, the conceptual definition of drought is not useful.
The shortcomings of this definition in understanding drought is that this definition is not able to quantify the commencement of drought, its duration, extent of sternness and the end of the drought spell (NMDC 2007). On the other hand, operational definitions are more useful in understanding drought since they are able to recognize the start, severity, length and ending of drought. This type of definition is quite handy in the formulation of drought management policies and mitigation strategies.
According to Wilhite (200a), there are four types of droughts, namely: the hydrological drought, metrological, agricultural and the socio-economic drought.
These types of droughts, according to Grantz (1985), not only help in understanding the concept of drought but are also critical in the designing of drought management strategies.
Metrological drought is articulated purely on the extent of dryness or a period of dryness that is sometimes in comparison to some normal or standard amount and
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the length of the dry period (Wilhite 1985). Metrological drought is regarded in terms of regions; this is due to the fact that the atmospheric conditions that cause the precipitation deficiencies are highly different from one region to another. This best explains why droughts affect different regions at different periods. In some circles, the metrological drought is differentiated on the basis of the number days in which the amount of rainfall received is less than some specified threshold.
In Southern Africa, most countries do not have a developed operational definition of drought, and according Bandson and Unganai (2005), in Zimbabwe, drought can be experienced when the amount of rainfall received over a particular period is below 75
%. However, in countries like South Africa where an operational definition has been developed, drought exists when the amount of rainfall received is less than 70%, thereby becoming a disaster when the country continues experiencing the same amount of rainfall (that is below 70%) in two consecutive seasons or years. This definition attached to metrological drought, according to Dube (2008), strives to define the period, commencement as well as the end of the drought event and can be adopted as the tool or benchmark for early warning.
The conceptual definition of metrological drought is marked by several shortcomings. The first one is that it is difficult establish whether the drought has ended; secondly, it is very difficult to tell when the drought commences simply because in some cases, the moisture reserved in the soil may cover up for the start of drought. According to Whitmore (2003), the definition used is derived for application in one limited region and as such, it is difficult to apply the same definition.
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Hydrological drought refers to the deficit in rainfall capable of adversely reducing the amount of water flowing on the surface, stream flow, inflows into storage reservoirs and recharge of the groundwater (Wilhite 2003). The problems associated with the defining of the start, severity and the duration of hydrological drought are somehow the same as those for metrological drought. For example, run off in clay a soil is different from run off on sandy soils, and the same applies to the infiltration capacity respectively. According to Wilhite, usually, water shortages occur when the demand of water outweighs its supply. This is a typical example of phantom drought which is not only a result of shortage rainfall, but also water resource mismanagement. The relationship between hydrological and metrological drought, in some cases, is not that apparent. However, despite a clear correlation amongst the types of droughts during the drought period, metrological drought is usually followed by agricultural drought.
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Figure 2.1: Linkages between types of drought
Adapted from NMDC (2006)
Agricultural drought, according to Wilhite (2003), links the metrological and hydrological drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation, differences between evapo-transpiration, and soil water deficits, among other factors. The
UNISDR (2003) describes agricultural drought as occurring when there is inadequate moisture in the soil, thereby causing crop failure. According to Wilhite and
Buchananan-Smith (2005), agricultural drought can in some cases refer to shortage of adequate water required for plants growth to meet the needs of livestock. In this study, major emphasis will be put on agricultural drought. This is due to the importance of agriculture to the Zimbabwean economy as well as its rural development. According to Glantz et al. (1997), agricultural drought is crucial in the sense that when it occurs, it affects virtually all the spheres of the society notably
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areas planted for both local consumption and export purposes and rural poverty.
Generally, droughts have both social and economic impact on developing countries and frequently, developing countries lose substantial amounts of money during drought periods trying to mitigate its impacts (Mugotsi et al., 2012). Drought causes decrease in the agricultural output as well as the export earnings that come from agricultural exportation, coupled with a decline in employment and income levels in rural areas.
According to Chigodora (2005), in Zimbabwe, the rural populations solely rely on agriculture and when there is an agricultural drought, their consumption levels are reduced and employment is lost a great deal, thus making these people susceptible to chronic poverty. He further reiterates that sustainable drought and poverty- alleviation strategies, therefore, become crucial. Drought is a natural disaster which calls for concerted efforts between the government and the non-governmental organizations. The disaster management approach in Zimbabwe is often castigated for being reactive rather than being proactive. In other words, a disaster has to strike first before strategies are put in place to combat the impact of a disaster. This makes the people in the country, especially in the rural areas like Mwenezi, more vulnerable to drought than any other natural disaster.
According to Lipton and Ravillion (1993), poverty is not an easy concept to define due to its multi-dimensional status. A few approaches have been used to define poverty notably: the basic need approach, the capabilities approach of Amatya Sen, and the human development approach. However, in this study, Malaba’s definition of poverty is used. According to Malaba (2006), poverty is a multifaceted concept which, in addition to low incomes, is reflected in malnutrition, poor health, low literacy levels, low wages, lack of safe access to safe housing and low living conditions. It is
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highly correlated with factors such as social exclusion, marginalization, vulnerability and isolation and other economic, social and cultural dimensions. Poverty reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) still remains a mammoth task. It goes without saying that SSA is the poorest region in Africa, and Zimbabwe is one of the countries found in this region that is adversely affected by poverty. Natural disasters such as drought are a common feature in Zimbabwe which, in turn, increases poverty in this region as a result of poor agricultural production (Chitongo, 2013)
2.3 Theoretical Framework
2.3.1 Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA)
The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) came to the centre-stage of development studies in the 1990s and later in beginning of the new millennium.
According to Assley and Carney (1999), SLA is a key framework in development and poverty studies. This conceptual framework takes a holistic approach to poverty and development studies in the sense that it combines a conceptual framework with a set of operational principles to afford guidance concerning policy formulation and development practice. Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA), according to Morse et al (2013), is founded on the idea that any form of intervention should be based on the understanding of what underpins livelihood.
SLA is designed to shun a situation where involvement by institutions or organization in any situation is unguided there by giving little positive effect. The key proponents of this approach, namely: the Department for International Development (DFID),
UNDP, Oxfam, CARE and UNDP are of the conviction that SLA can be used in the facilitation of concrete projects and programs. It is this versatility that allows the approach to be crucial in drought management and poverty alleviation. In addition,
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SLA can be perceived in three different dimensions, that is, it can be used as an analytical framework to assist understand what needs to be done, or it can be used as a set of principles guiding the development intervention regardless of the level of intervention and lastly, as a developmental objective in which development is regarded as improved livelihood and sustainability (Farrington, 2001).
Most African countries, especially in the Southern part of Africa, are prone to drought; this, in turn, leads to increased poverty in this region. It is worth mentioning that there is a direct correlation between drought and poverty. Comprehensive drought management strategies are crucial in fighting poverty in Africa. In this regard, sustainable livelihood approach becomes a crucial framework in understanding the concept of drought management and poverty alleviation in Africa.
There are many ways in which sustainable approach can be applied however, it is crucial to work along the principles of the approach. According to Cowen and
Shenton (1998), development has two meanings which are: immanent development and the international development. According to the afore-mentioned authors, immanent development is concerned with what the populace is doing and encompasses a broad process of advancement in human societies. This type of development is somehow influenced by globalization.
According to Shanmugaratnam (2001), the second type of development is called intentional development. This type of development is focused and directed at both the government and non-governmental organizations’ implementation of various projects and programmes designed to assist the vulnerable members in the society who in this context are referred to as the poor. In the case of Mwenezi district, the government is partnering with NGOs in a quest to manage drought which is a chronic problem in the area. These projects are usually time and resource bound.
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The SLA evolved from the intentional development, and this is basically due to its inclusion of both public and private sectors in poverty alleviation. In Zimbabwe, drought management largely depends on the Central government. A number of non- governmental organizations also assume significant responsibility in the drought management process. This is supported by a number of projects and programmes these organizations are implementing that are in line with poverty reduction and drought impact reduction. According Allison and Horemans (2006), the SLA came into being when development experts were seeking to capitalize on the efficacy of their intervention strategies to help the disadvantaged members in the community.
The approach was specifically applied to poorer nations as a component of the planning phase for an intervention via policy.
The SLA framework can be used as an analytical device for an enhanced understanding of livelihoods and poverty. In this regard, SLA promotes poverty eradication by making improvement of people’s livelihoods a central goal of development efforts. In the background, a livelihood encompasses the capabilities, assets, including both the material and social resources, and all the activities required for means of living. According to Scoones (1998), a livelihood is said to be sustainable when it can cope and recover from stresses and shocks, and being able to preserve or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not destabilizing the natural resource base. The shocks that usually affect most rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa are droughts hence in this regard, livelihoods that can recover from such shocks are said to be sustainable. The notion of complexity, uncertainty and change informs the SLA hence the issue of adaptive strategies at both community and local level being quite crucial.
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The significance of this approach to this study is that it recognizes the role of the government in influencing sustainable livelihood through implementation of sound policies and programmes that are aimed at drought management poverty alleviation.
The approach again helps to identify and develop assets, strategies and strengths of the people across various sectors so as to comprehend the needs and goals of the community. In the case of drought management and poverty alleviation, the focus is on ensuring that communities in Mwenezi are self-sustained and are capable to recover from external shocks.
SLA is generally regarded as the operational vehicle for human development (Singh
& Gilman, 1999). Human development was influenced by the works of Amartya Sen, an Indian Economist. Core to the SLA is how people can enhance their livelihoods.
The SLA places the people at the centre of development, hence people rather than the resources they use or the governments that serve these people are the main priority. This translates to providing necessary support to resource management or good governance. According to the Department for International Development, the
SLA put much emphasis on the livelihood assets. Hence, it is quite important to discuss the livelihood assets engulfed in the Approach.
2.3.2 Livelihood assets
As mentioned earlier, sustainable livelihood approach is primarily concerned with people as it strives to get a comprehensive understanding of people’s strength which is called assets or capitals. It goes without saying that it is quite important to analyse how people convert their strength into positive livelihood outcomes. In order to achieve positive livelihoods, people require a range of assets. According to the
Department for International Development (1999), there are, basically, five types of assets or capitals that are crucial to positive livelihoods outcomes namely:
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Human capital (which include primarily, labour, the skills, experience,
knowledge and inventiveness);
Natural Capital (resources such as land, water, forests and pastures as well
as minerals);
Physical Capital (such as houses, tools, machinery, food stocks, jewellery and
farm equipment);
Financial Capital (includes money in a savings account, or in an old stock a
loan or credit); and
Social Capital (the quality of relations amongst populace, like for instance;
whether an individual can count on support from close relatives or family or
communal support from people around her or him.)
2.3.3 Applicability of the five capitals to drought management
2.3.3.1 Human Capital
According to DFID (2000), human capital is one of the essential assets in attaining sustainable development. Human capital, in this regard, is described as the expertise, knowledge, capability to work as well as good health that allow citizens to follow different strategies of livelihoods and achieve their livelihood objectives. In drought management, human capital is important since it enables both the community and stakeholders involved in drought management and poverty alleviation to accelerate the rate of development and sustainable development since people will be empowered with the skills that are essential to drought management.
It is also worth mentioning the relationship that exists linking human capital and economic development; this is crucial in poverty alleviation. A community can only
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be sustainable if people within the stipulated area have knowledge of what sustains their livelihood. This means education is quite crucial as well as enhanced skills.
Limited skills reduce people’s innovations, and in the case of drought and poverty, people will be made to rely on aid from the government and non-profit making organisations also known as non-governmental organisation.
2.3.3.2 Social Capital
There is so much controversy as to what entails social capital. Davies (1996) postulates that social capital may be considered to mean social resources that individuals draw from for their livelihood outcomes, including but not limited to networks and connectedness; these are meant to enhance the trust of people and the capacity to collaborate or form partnerships in more formalised groups with systems of rules, norms as well as sanctions. Social capital is crucial because it enables community-driven development, as well as networking with agencies that can help a community to recover from shocks that are brought in by natural disasters such as drought.
2.3.3.3 Natural Capital
In drought management and poverty alleviation, natural capital is of paramount significance. Mwenezi is a rural area and most of the livelihoods in this area are derived from the natural resource stocks like land and water, among other stocks.
Proper management of these resources reduces the shocks caused by natural disasters. According to Godwin (2003), a close connection exists between natural capital and the vulnerability context, and some disturbing shocks for livelihoods are innate processes that destroy the natural capital. Comprehensive management mechanism is, therefore, essential if sustainable development is to be achieved.
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2.3.3.4 Physical Capital
Essential infrastructure and produced goods needed to maintain livelihoods, such as affordable transport, safe shelter, sufficient water supplies and information accessibility forms part of the physical capital. This reduces effects of poverty in an area. According to DFID (2002), shortage of particular types of infrastructure is taken to be the fundamental dimension of poverty. For instance, lack of clean water and energy means that during the rainy season, instead of people spending most of their time in the fields in rural areas, they walk for longer distances to collect water and firewood which, in turn, consumes their productive time. For instance, in rural areas like Mwenezi where there is poor transport infrastructure, it is very difficult for the
NGOs and government to effectively distribute fertilizers so as to boost agricultural productive in this area hence, the area continues to experience sub- minimal yields.
Again, it is very difficult for the very few farmers who grow cash crops to take their produce to the markets due to poor roads.
2.3.3.5 Financial Capital
In order to successfully manage drought and poverty in Mwenezi, financial capital is a crucial element. In this regard financial capital can be interpreted as the financial resources which the people maximise in order to achieve their livelihood objectives.
Financial capital encompasses flows and the stocks that can significantly contribute to consumption as well as the production. In the case of Mwenezi, agriculture is the main source of financial income hence drought, if not properly managed, reduces the production and consumption levels of the people in this area. There are two main sources of income; these include: the available stocks (which consist of bank deposits, cash,) and liquid assets (mainly domestic animals and jewellery). In the case of Mwenezi, livestock is one source of financial income for most households,
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especially during the times of drought; however, due to the perennial droughts that affect the area, most of these livestock are now depleted, which leaves most of the households prone to the severe impacts of drought since they lack other means to supplement their consumption needs. Other sources of financial income include: regular inflows of money the labour income or remittances. It is worth mentioning that amongst the five capitals of sustainable livelihood, the financial capital happens to be the most important one and easily convertible into the other capitals. However, a major concern is its availability to the poor, especially in rural areas such as
Mwenezi.
2.3.4 Applicability of SLA to poverty reduction
The Sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) has been the most applied approach to poverty reduction. This is due to its comprehensive nature, since it takes a holistic approach in poverty alleviation. Basically, there are three major factors that can be noted in line with the application of SL to poverty reduction.
First and foremost is the recognition that as much as economic growth is an important element in poverty reduction, no direct correlation between the two since it all boils down to the capacities of the vulnerable to take advantage of the increasing economic opportunities. According to Kollmair et al (2002), in developing countries such as Zimbabwe, economic growth is often slow and for the most vulnerable people especially in the rural areas to realize the opportunities that comes with, economic growth is quite difficult if not impossible. This makes it important to make a comprehensive analysis of what restrains the poor from improving their lot in a given situation in order to come up with appropriate support. Secondly, it is now commonly agreed that poverty, as envisaged by the most vulnerable members in the
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community, is not just a matter of low income, but it comes with other proportions such as bad health, illiteracy, lack of social services as well as the state of vulnerability and feelings of powerlessness (Sen, 1999)
According to Delgado (2004), the capacity of people to generate and sustain their means of living improves their well-being and that of future generations, and this is what defines the Sustainable Livelihood theory. These capacities are future- influenced by the availability and accessibility of options which are: political, ownership of resources, economic and participatory decision-making. Therefore, the realization of the linkage between diverse dimensions of poverty in those improvements in one has a positive effect on another. It is again important to mention that vulnerability is not poverty, but underlying poverty increases vulnerability. Vulnerability occurs when people have to face harmful shock or threat whilst having inadequate resources or capacity to respond to such events effectively.
Therefore, according to Sen (1981), reducing people’s vulnerability by minimizing their vulnerability to risk may, as well, increase their prosperity to engage in formerly untried but more productive economic activities.
Finally, SLA acknowledges that poor people themselves more often understand and know their circumstances and needs better; therefore, they should be actively involved in the design and implementation of projects and policies. When people are given a say during the drafting and designing of policies and projects, they tend to be more committed to the implementation. As mentioned before, participation in matters that affect one’s well-being is quite crucial. Therefore, when the poor participate in the design of projects, for example, then project performance will be enhanced, thereby leading to improved outcome and in this case, food security.
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Despite the application of this theory by many different international development agencies in different settings, the framework has five principles which are: people- oriented, holistic, dynamic, building on strengths, and macro-micro links and sustainability.
People-centred principle recognizes that people rather than the resources they use as the main concern in the livelihoods approach due to the fact that problems that are linked to development, often rooted in undesirable institutional structures, are difficult to combat through simple asset creation. The holistic principle strives to understand the livelihoods of all the stakeholders that are involved with all its facets through a model which makes it easier to identify most challenges that people encounter. Another principle of the approach is its dynamism. This principle recognizes that the institutions that shape people’s livelihoods are dynamic. As such, the approach has to be also flexible enough to embrace the changes and help to mitigate negative impacts so as to promote positive impacts.
The macro-micro links principle denotes that the development activity pays particular attention at two levels which can be identified either as the macro or micro level.
However, Sustainable Livelihood Approach strives to close the gap through emphasising the relationship that exists between the macro and micro levels. SLA recognizes that populace is often affected by decisions made at the macro- policy level and vice-versa. This is particularly the case in most developing countries, and in Africa, the people in the rural areas who are the most vulnerable people are usually not consulted or involved in decision- making on issues affecting their lives.
Thus, sustainable development to be achieved, this relationship should be considered. According to the sustainability principle, a livelihood can be classified as sustainable if it is able to withstand the external shocks and stresses, if it is also
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independent from the external support, if it is able to sustain the long-term productivity of natural resources, and if it does not undermine the livelihoods options of others (Kollmair et al, 2000).
The SLA has been used by different organizations namely DFID, OXFAM, CARE and UNDP in their practical development work with different emphasis on programme planning and assessment of a particular programme. However, despite the approach being used in different setups because of its flexibility, there are, however, three basic features which it has. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach pays particular focus on the livelihoods of the underprivileged since poverty reduction is at the heart of the SLA. Again the approach discards the sectoral entry point such as water, agriculture or health and instead focuses on the primary investigation of people’s analysis of their current livelihood systems so as to come up with the appropriate intervention strategy. For instance, in the case of Mwenezi, it is quite important to get an understanding of what entails people’s livelihood so as to come up with a comprehensive programme to counter poverty as a result of chronic droughts that affect the area time and again.
As mentioned prior, the Sustainable Livelihood Approach works with people, thus affording them with the necessary support on their strengths and also helping them to realize their potential. It also recognizes the effects of policies, institutions and external shocks. According to Ashley and Carney (1999), the fundamental nature of the policies, institutions and processes cannot be ignored. It is worth mentioning that that policies, institutions and processes affect almost everyone from households, international arena, as well as both the private and public spheres. Access to various types of capital, to livelihoods approaches and decision-making (amid different
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capital and returns to any given livelihood) is affectively determined by policies and institutions.
According to Chambers (1995), the approach comes with a number of activities that individuals undertake in order to earn a living. This is quite essential in cases of vulnerable groups in the community who usually rely on numerous economic activities for their livelihoods. The sectoral approach usually pre-determines the of economic activity area which people have to pay particular focus on and typically leads to only one aspect of the livelihoods being addressed and not necessarily an aspect which might be most appropriate to the poor.
Through drawing attention to different assets that people can utilize to construct their livelihoods, the SLA takes a holistic view on what possessions, or combination of resources, that are imperative to the poor including not just physical and natural resources but also social and human capital. This is on the backdrop that poverty is more complex than the general view that it just comes as result of low income or insufficient food production (Holland & Blackburn, 1998)
Chambers and Conway (1992) argue that Sustainable Livelihood Approach assists in the understanding of the underlying causes of poverty, as mentioned above, through paying particular focus on different aspects at different levels that ultimately hinder the poor from accessing resources or assets that improve their livelihoods.
Factors that hinder the poor from accessing these resources and assets might emerge from formal and informal institutional and social factors at a local level, or they may be the product of overriding policies, economic processes and legislative frameworks at the macro- level. The micro-macro perspective is, thus, built into the
SLA, thereby leading to more strategic intervention.
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The approach also focuses on the way through which populace craft their livelihood strategies, namely, the coping and adapting strategies to achieve the desired results in response to a particular vulnerability context. This enables one to identify how the poorest of the poor are actively involved in the shaping of their livelihoods. In other words, the poor will not only be passive victims in matters that affect their lives rather, they will be included in the mainstream of decision-making. This makes it easier to come up with initiatives that utilize the capabilities strengths of the poor, thereby fostering a positive effect on their livelihood.
It can also be said that the SLA calls for more a dynamic perspective on livelihoods; this can be attributed to the fact that the strengths of people are not fixed and as time moves may change as their coping strategies are also bound to change either as a result of personal or external conditions. Moreover, the approach also helps to dissect the relationship that exist between the livelihood strategies of people, people’s asset status and their way of utilizing available natural resources; this makes it a fundamental approach for understanding of both the predicament and capacity for promoting sustainable development at local level.
Peek (2008) postulates that the strength of the SLA is that it provides a comprehensive base for assessing the socio-economic impacts of programmes or projects that focus on poverty lessening as its overall goal or objective; this is because the approach offers a more practical environment for reviewing both the direct and indirect effects on conditions of living of the populace, for instance, one- dimensional productivity or income criteria. However, using this approach in understanding poverty reduction also comes with a number of difficulties as it raises both methodological and practical issues. For example, it is very difficult to define
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what constitutes poverty since poverty is multi-dimensional and cannot only be limited to reduced economic deprivation.
As much as the SLA is quite vital in the understanding of the intricacy of poverty and policy implementation, in the case of drought management and poverty alleviation, it does not dole out the aspect of addressing food insecurity that is widespread in drought-prone communities such as Mwenezi where the majority, if not all the population in this district, live under the Poverty Datum Line (PDM). It is common knowledge that agriculture forms the backbone of rural economy in African countries hence the need to develop this sector at a community level. However, the SLA is silent when it comes to the localization of development.
Another crucial criticism of the SLA is that it over-emphasizes the concept of the vulnerable people to whom it is usually applied, paying particular focus on their livelihoods. Political issues that influence people’s daily activities are not fully addressed by the approach.
It is in line with the above theory that a comprehensive approach that involves people with similar needs and goals in making decisions that affect their lives is ideal, especially in drought management and poverty alleviation. A direct relationship exists between disasters and poverty. A comprehensive disaster management model is crucial in poverty alleviation. According to UNISDR (2004), the correlation between disaster and poverty can be found in the definition of disaster. According to them, disaster can be defined as a severe disruption of a community or society which involves extensive human, material, environmental and or economic loss and impacts that stretch the capacity and capability of the affected community to cope with the resources at their disposal. In addition disasters have the potential to cause
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community disruptions, displacement, damage to property, economic loss, loss of agricultural production and environmental degradation, among other factors
Drought is one natural disaster that has left millions of people in the Horn of Africa and in the Sub-Saharan Africa plunged into poverty, making them dependent on handouts from the government and NGOs. As much as the donor community plays such an important role, it is quite crucial to have the people directly involved in efforts that are designed to bring about development and enhancing the social functioning of the people within a community or society. This is informed by the fact that development should be for the people and by the people. According to Goldman
(2010), community projects or programmes that are community-driven are a typical example of the localisation of development within the stipulated community, and people in the community should be fully involved in these projects. Community- driven development approach is quite crucial in managing drought and poverty alleviation.
2.4 Community Driven Development Theory
Community driven development is based on the idea of citizen empowerment. In this sense, it strives to place people at the heart of developmental projects within a community. Community driven development entails giving control of decision and resources to community groups. According to Reids (2000), community driven development is a crucial element of an empowered community, especially when it comes to managing their lives in the face of natural disasters. As mentioned earlier, community driven development can only transpire or is deemed successful when a community mobilizes itself and becomes accountable and responsible for managing its own problems.
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It is, however, worth mentioning that full responsibility does not mean that the community does not interact with other actors involved in mitigating the effects of natural disasters such as drought, in the case of Mwenezi District. Mwenezi district is drought-prone, and government and nongovernmental organizations have different programs and projects designed to help alleviate the potential effects of drought. It is in these projects that the communities should be fully engaged so as to ensure sustainability of the projects and programmes. Finsterbusch and Van Wickling (1987) are of the opinion that the communities should be empowered in a way that puts executive decision-making powers in the hands of the members of public and that the agencies should be ready to put into operation what the community decides and set up community management committees. Theron (2005) is of the opinion that community driven development should empower people by molding their skills and their abilities so as to relate to the system of rural development.
It is widely acknowledged that in developing countries where natural disasters such as drought cause untold suffering, engaging locals in programmes that are aimed helping them to recover from shocks as a result of drought is quite crucial. The notion of community driven development denotes that mostly people fail to recover from the shocks because they have little control over programmes designed to help them recover. By allowing people to participate in drought management and poverty alleviation in Mwenezi, the government and NGOs fosters people’s access to the required resources that will help them to sustain and improve their lives. According to
Van Heck (1991), non-governmental organizations do acknowledge that having people directly involved in programmes that affect their lives is crucial, especially when dealing with disaster management. Raham (1993) postulates that community driven development is a comprehensive approach to development in the sense that it
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captures all the elements that are crucial to development which other approaches to development fail to capture.
In 1979, the World Conference on Reform and Rural Development echoed the above, maintaining that participating in the organizations and systems that oversee their lives is a fundamental right which is quite crucial in the social and economic development. This entails being actively involved in policy formulation and implementation, especially in plans that directly influence their lives. Of importance in drought-prone continents like Africa is having people involved in the development of community risk strategies that help the people to recover from drought impacts. In this way, the community will be empowered to be prepared to manage drought. For example, in the Horn of Africa where 13 million are adversely affected by drought, involving them in drought management programmes is quite crucial. Building capacity with the affected communities can only be sustainable if they are actively involved (Alkire et al, 2001).
Developing of skills and abilities of community members to manage the resources cannot be overestimated in drought management and poverty alleviation. As mentioned earlier, the participation in developmental issues is empowerment. In tackling drought impacts, just like in tackling poverty, Drez and Sen (1989) argue that these two can be linked to the notion of freedom, which is promoting and stirring the opportunities available to the rural poor. Drought management and poverty alleviation calls for policies which not only focus on political engagement but also those that promote the rural populace to actively and directly take part in the development initiatives in their communities. Policies designed to help manage drought, therefore, should help improve the capacities of local people to cope with the stress and shocks triggered by drought. According Sachikonye (2003), most
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people in Zimbabwe, especially in the rural areas, are vulnerable to drought because they are not empowered when it comes to dealing with drought. The next section looks at vulnerability and drought.
2.5 Vulnerability and Drought
According to Bhatti (2003), vulnerability constitutes a set of adverse circumstances that severely affect the capacity of a population, community or a group to avert, alleviate, plan for and respond to hazardous events and recover from the shocks of natural hazards. Vulnerability is not only limited to physical factors but can also include social, economic, cultural and political factors. Hazards like drought turn into disasters through societal processes. For instance, drought is a metrological risk, but this can turn into a disaster when the structures and non-structural infrastructure designed to deal with disasters are not equipped enough to deal with the disaster.
This will, in turn, impact on populations who do not have the means and resources to mitigate the disaster and who are not capable to deal with the disaster.
UNISDR (2007) defines disaster as a function of the risk process which results from a permutation of hazards, vulnerability conditions and incapacity of strategies to lessen negative problems associated with the risk. Natural hazards are classified as disaster if they disrupt the functionality of the community, thereby causing economic, social or environmental loss far exceeding the capacity of the populace to cope using available resources. Bhatti (2003), echoes that a comprehensive disaster management plan calls for smart management of vulnerabilities and should include 5 basic stages namely, prevention, preparedness, emergency response, recovery and mitigation.
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Prevention, in this regard, refers to procedures put in place to obstruct the occurrence of a disaster (in this case, drought) although it is impossible to stop natural disaster from occurring fully. According to Ahmed (1994), preparedness, on the other hand, concerns activities specifically designed to deal with a disaster when it happens so as to ensure that the correct action is taken in advance. Kreps et al
(2006) explain that preparedness includes disaster plans, empowerment of responders, both financial and material resources, and the establishment of public education as well as information systems.
Emergency response entails activities that institutions embark on in order to prevent further impacts of the disaster. Kapucu (2008) elucidates that recovery in disaster management includes activities that are implemented after the impact so as to restore socio-economic and the environmental conditions that might have been destroyed by the disaster. Mitigation, conversely, according to Fernando (2001), includes measures to lessen the severity of the disaster. Drought is one natural disaster that makes people more vulnerable due to its impacts, hence comprehensive management strategies being required.
Wisner et al (2003) defined vulnerable people as those people who cannot reorganize their livelihoods following a natural disaster such as drought. It is common knowledge that the rural population, which happens to be poor, is the group that is adversely affected by drought. In Zimbabwe, particularly in Mwenezi, the rural population relies on rainfall for agriculture, and any disruption in the climatic pattern has a huge negative impact on their livelihood.
According to Downing and Bakker (2000), vulnerability is closely linked with socio- economic and infrastructure development. Drought vulnerability is relative, this
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means it differs from one region to another or from one nation to another. Developing countries regard vulnerability as constituting of threat to livelihoods as well as the ability to maintain very productive systems and health economies. However, in developed countries, drought poses a risk to the economic development of the country, living cost of individuals, public enterprises, commercial organizations and governments. Vogel (1998) recommends that drought vulnerability needs regular reviews so as to ensure that management strategies are still appropriate and whether or not post disaster relief measures are still relevant.
This is in line with the advancement in technology which helps to improve the vulnerability of the community or society to the impact of drought. In the past, vulnerability was only limited to exposure, enhanced coping capacity, strengthening recovery potential and minimizing the damage associated with a disaster. Although vulnerability is not always related to poverty, in this view, there is a close direct relationship between drought vulnerability and poverty in developing countries. The next section discusses poverty and poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe.
2.6 The Poverty and Drought in Zimbabwe
Poverty was part of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and is one of the
MDGs that world leaders unanimously agreed to decrease by half in 2015. According to the United Nations (2013), about 1.3 billion people across the world are immersed in extreme poverty.
Nkomo (2014) argues that the rate of poverty in Zimbabwe has been on the increase from year 2000 to date. The largest numbers of people affected by poverty in
Zimbabwe live in the rural areas. However, that is not to say there are no people affected by poverty across towns. Amongst the factors that contribute to poverty in
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Zimbabwe is drought, political challenges and economic instability. According to FAO
(2008), provinces that are adversely affected by poverty include Masvingo province,
Matabeleland South and Mashonaland East. This is attributed to the fact that these provinces experience long dry spells more often, which, in turn, affects crop production thereby reducing the consumption level of the people in these areas.
According to Chiripanhura (2010), Zimbabwe recorded a tremendous growth in poverty during the structural adjustment period between 1991 and 1995. He further argues that poverty in Zimbabwe increased during the crisis period between the years 1997-2008. According to the CSO (1998), about 76.2 percent of poor households were found to be in the rural areas, and about 50.4percent of people who were in abject poverty were found to be also in the rural areas. The research confirmed that about 86.4 percent of the poor were found in the rural area and that
62.8 percent of the people in extreme poverty are found in rural areas in Zimbabwe.
For the rural people in Zimbabwe, agriculture is their only means of production.
Failure in agricultural production due to unfavourable climatic conditions makes them vulnerable to poverty. Astronomical inflation rates experienced in the country between 2002 and 2008, coupled by shortage of farming inputs, saw production reaching an all-time low both in rural and urban economies. According to
Chiripanhura (2010), the invasion of commercial farms in 2000 resulted in reduced yields, especially on smallholding farmers as a result of the destruction of a hybrid seed. This led to food insecurity in rural areas and reduced effectiveness of agriculture as a tool to fight poverty. It is again imperative to mention that the farm invasions caused untold suffering on the rural population in Zimbabwe. About 350
000 people who were farm workers lost their jobs, and some of them, if not all, are still living in abject poverty.
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According to ZimVac (2012), Masvingo province is one province in the area that is affected by poverty. Its geographical location has been pointed as one of the major cause of poverty in this area. Districts such as Mwenezi in this province are located in region five, and this region experiences low rainfalls, and the soils in this region are not suitable for crop production. Considering the fact that most rural economies in Zimbabwe rely on agriculture, Mwenezi district experiences frequent droughts, and this further exposes it to food shortages. The ZimVac report of (2012/13) stated that malnutrition in this is district is still below the national threshold of 7 percent.
As mentioned earlier, the region experiences food shortages, and malnutrition in this region is also high. In 1992 when Zimbabwe experienced her worst drought in history, Mwenezi was one area that was hard hit by such a drought. A lot of people in this area lost not only crops but livestock as well, and this strained the people. Some families failed to recover from the 1992 drought and are still trapped in poverty as a result of the losses they suffered during this period. Population in areas like Neshuro,
Murove and Chizumba are in abject poverty, and the government tried to combat this through the land reform programme, but the people in this area continue to suffer from food insecurity, as shown in the fig 2.2 below.
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Figure 2. 2. Zimbabwe’s severity of food insecure by districts
Adapted from CFSAM (2008)
Malnutrition in the area, as a result of inadequate food supplies, is a result of poor harvest that usually characterizes this area. Despite Mwenezi being in region 5 where rainfalls are generally below 450mlm per year, according to Dube (2006), poor farming methods practiced in the area also contribute to chronic food shortages in this area. For far too long, this region relied on food subsidies from both the government and donor organizations. In his study, Kamanga (2007) summarized chronic poverty in Mwenezi as mainly accelerated by land invasions that took place in the country. People were allocated land for farming in areas that were previously used for ranching. The possibility of crop failure in this area is high resulting in generally poor yields.
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The land invasion, particularly in Mwenezi, affected the employment setup in the region. A lot of people who used to work in mostly whites owned farms and animal ranching farms lost their employment, and this further contributed to poverty levels in this area. The income levels of families were reduced, and the only source of income left was only from the agricultural proceeds. People who used to work in these farms, according to Kamanga (2007), used their income from their jobs in the farms to supplement the income they generated from farming. However, after losing jobs, their only source of income was only from farming, and with the area being prone to drought, most of their homes were left in poverty.
Shortage of money to pay school fees and to medical bills was the order of the day.
Consequently, this saw a number of people moving to neighbouring countries like
South Africa and Botswana in search of employment so as to support their families.
School dropouts in the region were high in the years between 2000 and 2006 as most young people in the area between the ages of 15-35 moved out of the area in search of green pastures (Kamanga, 2007).
Farming in rural areas being a labour-intensive process, most families found themselves on the receiving end of this massive exodus of youths. According to
Todaro (2009), rural areas’ economy depends on agriculture. Failure in the agricultural sector adversely affects the income levels of people within that area. As such, Mwenezi district is one district with economic activities mainly revolving on agriculture; as such, due to chronic droughts in the area, food supplies are always in the negative, and families end up relying on food handouts and other philanthropic activities of private organizations within this area.
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2.7 Poverty alleviation strategies
Poverty alleviation has always been at forefront of the Zimbabwean government since 1980 (Chinake, 2007). This has seen the government of Zimbabwe partnering with NGOs within the country in a bid to alleviate poverty. It goes without saying that the issue of poverty alleviation is not foreign in most if not all African countries; this is mainly attributed to the fact that Africa has the highest poverty rate in the world.
According to Craig and Porter (2003), most African countries, in a bit to reduce poverty, have developed policies and programmes directed at combating poverty.
Zimbabwe is one country that also adopted numerous policies and programmes aimed at poverty alleviation. The next section discusses the poverty alleviation and drought management strategies in Zimbabwe by both the government and NGOs.
2.7.1 Poverty Alleviation Action Plan (PAAP) of 1994 and drought management
In a bid to deal with poverty, the Zimbabwean government launched the Poverty
Alleviation Action Plan (PAAP) in 1994. According to Chinake (2007), the PAAP is a laudable gesture by the government of Zimbabwe to fight poverty from a broader conceptual level through targeted social reforms and restructuring of priorities. Social reforms have always been highlighted as critical factors in poverty alleviation. The
PAAP was meant to address food shortages that were rocking the country, especially after the 1992 drought. The main target of the PAAP was the rural poor who were severely affected by drought in the country.
According to Nkomo (2014), the severity of drought in the country affected the government’s ability to provide for its people. Rural people were mainly affected by drought because they lacked resources to increase food production as they are poverty-stricken. The World Bank (1997) concedes that PAAP sums up the
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government of Zimbabwe’s strategy to reduce poverty through targeted social reforms and restructuring of social reforms.
Community-based development programmes, in this regard, were meant to empower local people so as to be able to make ends meet during drought periods.
These programmes were to be implemented using the bottom-up approach so as to facilitate concrete poverty alleviation efforts that have the interests of the communities at heart. Chinake (2007) explains that PAAP also incorporated a number of activities in an endeavor to generate employment such as labour-based public works programmes and the facilitation of youths and women’s self-help projects.
All these programmes were designed to ensure that during drought, the vulnerable members in the community will not only rely on food handouts from the government or donors. The success of the PAAP depended on a number of factors such as the establishment of community-based organizations with people of exceptional qualities in mobilizing resources who were willing to participate in community based projects.
Capacity-building of community organizations, NGOs and local authority staff through training sessions as well as seminars and workshops was also a pre- requisite for successful implementation of the PAAP. However, the programme, despite being fertile with poverty alleviation strategies, failed to live up to the expectations.
2.7.2 Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation and drought management (ZIMASSET)
The Zimbabwean government, under the leadership of ZANU PF in 2013, developed an economic blueprint meant to curb the deteriorating economic and social environment. ZIMASSET is aimed at guiding the national development for the next
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five years up until 2018. The vision of the plan is ‘Towards an Empowered Society and Growing Economy’. According to Matutu (2014), ZIMAASET is underpinned by
Results Management System (RMS) which is set to be implemented in all departments of government and quasi government units so as to provide a performance management framework for the government work and its operations.
ZIMASSET is a cluster-based plan that reflects a strong need to utilize internal relationships and linkages that exist between the different aspects of the economy.
These clusters include food and nutrition, social services and poverty eradication, infrastructure and utilities as well as value addition. However, for the purpose of this study, cluster number one - which is food and nutrition - is discussed.
The food and nutrition cluster embraces the issue of drought affecting the country. It recognizes the relation that exists between insufficient agricultural production and poverty. Drought-prone countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are marked by high levels of poverty which manifests through malnutrition. ZIMAASET’s thrust under food and nutrition cluster is to create self-sufficient food surplus economy which will see
Zimbabwe re-emerging as the bread basket of SADC. The programmes that support the Cluster for Food and Nutrition (CFN) are associated and informed by the
Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP), the
Comprehensive Agricultural Policy Framework (2012-2032) as well as the SADC and
COMESA food and nutrition frameworks.
CFN has key result areas, but the researcher only discussed key result areas that are linked to drought management. Crop production and marketing is one of the key result areas. The country usually fails to handle drought due to poor crop production, which usually results in poor or no surplus food to be used during drought periods.
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As such, through crop production and marketing, the country aims to increase cereal production and minor crop production. In order to combat drought that usually leads to low agricultural production, the government put up some strategies that will see
ZIMASSET achieving its goal under CFN. These strategies include: provision of adequate agricultural inputs timeously, capacitating the agribank to provide concessionary loan facilities, implementing contract farming, providing smaller farmers with subsidized Agricultural Inputs and providing food relief to vulnerable social groups from stocks in Grain Marketing Board (GMB) depots. Other strategies include: starting a programme of rehabilitation of irrigation equipment and adopting low cost mechanization programmes and putting a livestock drought mitigation programme for drier regions such as Mwenezi, which lies in region 5 in the country.
However despite having such an encouraging vision, the ZIMASSET is often criticized for being too broad to achieve its ultimate goals. The implementation of this programme requires a lot of money and time and considering that it is a five year blueprint, it is very difficult to implement all the programs effectively. In areas like
Mwenezi, some of the strategies proposed under the CFN are yet to be implemented and usually during drought periods, the vulnerable people rely on the donor community for food assistance contrary to the receiving aid from the government.
ZIMASSET is also regarded as a political economic blueprint that is used to push the agenda for one political part in the country. It risks being abandoned if there is change of government (Newsday, 2013)
2.8 Drought management in Southern Africa
Southern Africa is one region that is adversely affected by drought. Change in climate is considered to be the main cause of drought in Southern Africa. Despite being frequently affected by drought, agriculture has always remained the most
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crucial sector in the African economy, let alone in Southern Africa. In Southern
Africa, disaster management has failed dismally to secure both financial commitment and policy stature in order to combat drought and other disasters (Halloway, 2003).
According to Halloway (2003), most African countries do not consider drought as a threat to the national security. Rather in Africa, issues concerning development and national security have been associated with struggle for independence and freedom from political, military and other forms subjugation. These concerns are a priority in
African countries ahead of the threats set off by nature. According to Holloway
(2003) as cited by Ndlovu (2012), as much as drafting swift drought management plans or any other disaster management plans is crucial to Africa’s development, it is imperative that such issues should be also included in regional security agendas. A comprehensive drought management strategy is, therefore, crucial in addressing drought. Donald White in 1991 developed a 10 step drought planning process which was mainly based on an interaction with different countries in the United States as a way of drought management mechanism.
As mentioned earlier, many developing countries have adopted the Donald White 10
Step in developing their drought management plans. With drought management and mitigation gaining more interest, the 10 step plan has developed to include more importance on risk appraisal and the mitigation tools. This planning process is more of a guideline when it comes to drought planning. According to Wilhite (1999), the challenge that most African countries face concerning drought management is planning on how best to deal with the drought in the event that it strikes; he further argues that in Africa, drought management is reactionary rather than being proactive.
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Figure 2.3 Ten Step Drought Planning Process
Source: National Drought Mitigation Centre University of Nebraska, USA (1999)
Step 1: Appoint Drought Task Force According to Wilhite (1999), this stage requires the person in a position of power, especially politically, to appoint a drought task force. The appointment of a drought task force can be done by the president or minister, provincial head or a mayor.
Once the task force is set up, it is mandated to oversee and coordinate the plan.
Furthermore, during drought periods, the task force is called in to coordinate actions, implements mitigation and response programmes and making appropriate policy recommendations to the government. The task force should include representatives from the government and private sector as well as all other concerned parties during drought periods.
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The Task force should also cater for a public information official who is well versed in the local media’s needs and predictions as well as a public practitioner who can represent the stakeholders involved in the process of drought planning despite their financial muscle.
Step 2: State the objective and purpose of the drought preparedness plan
Mainly the purpose of the plan should be defined. According to Hayes and Knutson
(2005), the government should lay out the principle duty or role that the government plays in drought management and its response efforts during the drought period.
When drafting the drought plan, the scope of the plan should be outlined. According to Wilhite (2000), a number of factors should be considered by the government when drafting the plan, namely: the historical impact of drought as well as historical response to drought, and the most susceptible and drought-prone areas.
Wilhite (2000) argues that once the plan has considered all these factors, it will provide the government with a comprehensive and effective systematic way of assessing drought conditions and coming up with drought management strategies and programs so as to minimize the risk of drought in advance, thus developing response options that lessen both economic and environmental stress as well as the social hardships that are associated with drought. However, according to Wilhite, it is imperative to put up with the fact that a drought plan’s objectives differ from country to country, and it should reflect on the socio-economic, political characteristics of the specific region as well as the environmental factors in that region.
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Step 3: Seek Stakeholder participation and resolve conflict It is also worth mentioning that during drought periods, there is always a conflict between economic, social and environmental values. Therefore, the taskforce should be called in to identify all stakeholders assumes a responsibility in drought management and planning and identify their interest so as to avoid duplication of duties and efforts. In Zimbabwe, NGOs and other Community Based Organisations
(CBOs) assume an effective responsibility in drought management hence the need to be continuously engaged for equitable representation in order to come up an effective drought planning and management system.
Early involvement of these stakeholders will help them to get to know each other’s view points and come up with collaborative solutions to drought management.
Chances are that if the role-players are sidelined in the process of drought planning, they might impede progress of the drought management plans. One way of ensuring that all the stakeholders are represented is through the establishment of an advisory council that is made of citizens as a permanent feature of drought planning so as to access information and resolve conflicts smoothly. States, on their part, should also consider establishing district or regional advisory councils.
Step 4: Inventory resources and identify groups at risk. This focuses on natural, biological as well as human resources that may affect the planning process. A full appreciation of these resources is crucial as it helps to assess the vulnerability of these resources in event of water shortages emanating from drought. The accessibility and quality of water during drought periods is of paramount importance. In this regard, the biological capital depicts the quantity and quality the rangelands, forests and wildlife, to mention a few.
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The planning process can be influenced by a host of factors notably physical, legal, financial as well as political factors. The main purpose of a drought plan is to reduce risks, such as: social, economic and environmental forces. Places prone to high risk are supposed to be identified, and appropriate action must be taken to minimize risks in these areas before the drought strikes. According to Blaikie (1994), risk can be understood by both exposure of a place to drought hazards and its vulnerability periods of water shortages as a result of drought. He furthers argues that drought being a natural experience, defining exposure such as frequency of drought
(intensity and duration), varies from region to region. Exposure to risk differs from one area to another. Increase in population, migration patterns, alterations in land use government policies and water uses tendencies, among other social factors, affects vulnerability.
Stage 5: Prepare and write the drought preparedness plan This step focuses on setting up relevant committees charged with developing and writing up of the drought plan. According to Wilhite (2003) as cited by Ndlovu
(2012), the drought plan should consist of three compulsory elements which are monitoring, early warning and prediction, risk and impact assessment and mitigation response. It is strongly advocated that the committee should that focuses on the first two elements should be established; the drought task force will look at the third one which is the mitigation and response.
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Figure 2.4 Drought Task force Organizational structure
(Source: National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC), University of Nebraska, and
Lincoln, Nebraska, USA)
The drought task force is usually made up of representatives of the state and departments, university researchers and also members of the NGOs standing in for primary industries as well as public interest groups. As mentioned earlier, the drought plan is composed of three compulsory elements. According to Wichita
(2003), monitoring is one of the elements of drought plan. This element is usually made up of state or university scientists. These groups are charged with assessing the recent and historical climate changeability as well instituting a system that gathers climate data and drought impact data. The impact assessment committee consists of government officials and personnel who commit their time in the field for example, agriculture extension personnel who collect data from the local agencies.
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The drought task force groups, namely, the monitoring groups and impact assessment committees make available and share information, and often respond to and support an executive branch of the state government for disaster declarations and also support legislation or special funding requests.
Step 6: Identify Research Needs and Fill Institutional Gaps During drought planning, the research needs and gaps become noticeable and as such, the drought task force ought to collect a list of these loopholes and present recommendations to the relevant persons or the government on how best to rectify them. In order to identify the research needs and institutional gaps the government should make funds available for disaster management. When carrying out step 6 it should be done concomitantly with Steps 4 and 5. As an example, the committee charged with monitoring may suggest setting up of a computerized weather station.
Step 7: Integrity Science and Policy A crucial part in the preparation process is incorporating science in drought management policies. One thing to note here is that understanding of scientific an issue by the policy makers charged with addressing problems linked with drought is limited. On the other side, scientists generally have a limited appreciation of existing policy constraints for responding to drought impacts. Communication and understanding between science and policy ought to be improved if the planning process is to thrive. Moreover, high-quality communication is essential between the two groups in order to differentiate what is practical from what is not attainable for a wide range of science and policy issues. The combination of policy and science through the planning process becomes handy in setting up research priorities and fusing existing understanding. For effective drought management, the drought task
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force should exploit all possible alternatives to bring these two groups (science and policy) together and uphold a solid rapport.
Step 8: Publicize the drought preparedness plan to build public awareness According to Wilhite (2000), constant contact with the public during the process of establishing a drought plan is quite crucial. This empowers the public and makes them aware of drought and drought planning and how the plan will lessen drought effects in long- and short-terms. When covering drought issues, it is crucial to determine how the environment, economy, farming families and particular industries are affected.
During drought periods, it is ideal that the drought task force work hand-in-glove with the public information personnel so as to keep the public well informed about water supplies, weather conditions and how the drought victims can access aid. All essential information on the drought task force should be publicized so that the public can get information directly from the task force without having to rely on mass media.
Step 9: Develop education programmes An effective educational programme that educates people on long- and short-term supplies of water is imperative. This will help people to be familiar with responding to drought when it strikes in an efficient way and will further ensure that the drought planning does not get derailed during non-drought y ears. The drought task force or other concerned parties should consider developing presentations and educational materials such as specialized workshops and other initiatives that focus on natural resource stewardship or management.
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Step 10: Evaluate and revise the drought plan In the planning process, the last step is the development of comprehensive set of procedures so as to ensure sufficient plan appraisal. It is recommended that episodic testing, evaluation, and continual updating of the drought plan should be imperative as the plan remains open to local needs of the specific region. Two methods of assessment should be adopted, namely, ongoing and the post-drought evaluation.
Continuous evaluation is meant to keep an eye on how changes in the society like as fresh research, technology and political leadership changes, among other things, could influence the drought risk and the operational aspects of the drought plan. A drought plan may possibly be evaluated less often compared to the drought risk.
Before the implementation of a drought plan it is recommended that appraisal under simulated drought conditions should be carried out.
A post-drought evaluation analyses the evaluation and response of the government,
NGOs as well as other stakeholders and recommends a mechanism to make the system efficient. Post evaluation helps people to gain knowledge from the successes and failures as the institutional memory weakens. An analysis of the climatic and environmental conditions aspect of the drought, coupled with the socio economic impacts and the importance of the effectiveness of drought planning in providing assistance in drought stricken areas, should be tackled by the post-drought evaluation.
Consideration should be given to conditions in which drought-coping efforts were successful and where people demonstrated resilience. Assessments ought to not only pay particular attention on situations in which coping methods were dismal.
Appraisals of preceding reactions to severe drought are also a useful planning aid.
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As a way guaranteeing unbiased appraisal, governments may assign the task for evaluating drought and societal reaction to NGOs and other organizations involved in drought management.
The above model is a crucial element in drought management. As such, the next section will look at how South Africa, Botswana and finally Zimbabwe manage drought.
2.9 South Africa and Drought Management
South Africa is one country in Southern Africa with a rich drought record. In 1991-
1992, South Africa experienced severe drought which affected the country both socially and economically. According to Vogel (1998), the South African government has made numerous efforts to manage drought. In 1992, the drought impact in South
Africa was mainly addressed by relief response. In the same period, South Africa shifted her national strategy to a more proactive response. According to Monnik
(2000), drought hazard management in South Africa has undergone a massive facelift from only focusing on commercial farmers to also catering for the rural poor and farm workers. According to Wilhite (2012), comprehensive drought management is crucial in managing drought.
Borrowing from the 10 step drought management model, one of the few countries in
Southern Africa that has managed to develop a comprehensive Drought
Management Plan (DMP) is South Africa. According to the White Paper on
Agriculture (1996), drought is a natural phenomenon which calls for an effective risk management system.
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South Africa’s Disaster Management Act (2002)
In 1997, the South African government, in a bid to manage drought and other disasters, efficiently started outlining a disaster risk management strategy. According to Vogel (1998), prior to this development, most of the policies in disasters management in South Africa were generally reactive. According Austin (2008), prior to the development of the DMA in 2002, there was lack of awareness and communication at the higher levels of local authorities hence the need to come up with a legislation that would be proactive in disaster management and have a mitigatory approach. According to Wilhite’s 10 step model for effective drought management, there is a need for a comprehensive drought plan if drought is to be managed. Unlike other countries in Southern Africa, South Africa has legislations which support their drought management plan. It is in line with this notion that South is proactive rather than being reactive when it comes to drought management.
According Wilhite, a drought task force team is charged with the formulation of policies concerning drought management and any other legislation that can be used to mitigate drought. In 2001, the Disaster Management Bill was presented at the
National Assembly. According to the Disaster Management Bill (2001-2002), the objective of the bill was to offer an integrated and coordinated disaster management policy that centers on prevention and reduction of disasters, mitigating the severity of the disasters, ensuring emergency preparedness, and guaranteeing rapid and efficient response to disasters as well as post-disaster recovery for the establishment of national, provincial and municipal disaster management centres and for matters of incidental thereto. Borrowing from the 10 step model presented above, South Africa has a drought task force. Since drought management is a complex task, there is need to appoint people in positions of power to oversee how a drought management
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plan is being implemented. The South African government appointed people with political power to be part of the Disaster task force just as Wilhite proposed in his drought management model. An inter-governmental Committee on Disaster
Management that would constitute MECs from each province as well as the representatives of organized local government was recommended.
Furthermore, the Act stipulated that the appointed committee should develop a disaster management framework that should contain a comprehensive policy on disaster management suitable for the country. According to the Disaster
Management Bill (2001-2002), this policy should facilitate citizen participation in disaster management and provide a framework in which the government would finance disaster management and post-disaster recovery. Setting up of a National
Disaster Centre is a pre-requisite. According to the Disaster Management Bill (2001-
02) as cited by Austin (2008), the Centre would provide a well-coordinated system of drought management, paying particular attention on prevention and mitigation. One of the main duties of the Centre would be to give guidance to all stakeholders involved in disaster management mainly in determining the risk and vulnerability assessment. The government should make funds available for disaster management. In 2005, the government of South Africa introduced the Drought
Management Plan to complement the Disaster Management Plan. This plan specifically focuses on one disaster - drought.
South Africa’s Drought Management Plan (DMP)
As a way of managing drought, the South Africa government crafted a Drought
Management Plan (DMP). The plan, according to Ngaka (2012), seeks to reduce the impacts of drought by providing information management, monitoring and evaluating
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systems for drought management. According to the plan, reducing drought risk entails:
Compiling drought indicator maps to provide updated information on, for
instance, whether the drought is emerging or subsiding;
Implementing and improving early warning systems;
Creating awareness and preparedness in South Africa’s Agric Sector;
Emphasizing the joint responsibility of the government and farming sector as
well as redefine the role of drought assistance programmes; and
Clarifying the responsibility of the government and all other stakeholders.
An effective implementation of the DMP should, therefore, be underlined by a certain principles. The principles depict that the objective of the DMP should be in line with
DMA; the DMP should create awareness in the South African agricultural sector as well as emphasizing the joint responsibility of the government and other stakeholders. This typically shows how South Africa has successfully integrated the
10 step model in their quest to manage drought.
The DMP of South Africa has Key Performance Areas (KPA). According to step 3 of the drought management model, when crafting a DMP, there should be participation of all stakeholders involved in drought management. This is done so as to keep away from duplicating efforts in drought management. Hence management of drought, as outlined in the DMP of South Africa, is a shared responsibility amongst, provincial, national, local government, farming communities as well the private sector and the civil society. According to the 10 step model, step 6 institutions should fill the gaps that might impede drought management. As such, it is crucial to assign responsibilities to different governmental institutions charged with drought
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management. In line with this, the South African government has delegated tasks to different government departments. For instance, the National Department of
Agriculture is charged with number responsibilities in drought management. Some of the responsibilities include: establishing and preserving a comprehensive National
Drought Plan and a system of information management monitoring and appraisal; compiling veld-indicator maps to enable livestock farming communities to make informed decisions; conducting research in drought-prone areas; implementing and improving early warning systems; and obtaining allocated funds from National
Treasury for disaster drought assistance programmes and service delivery, among other duties.
Provincial Departments of Agriculture (PDA) also are assigned to carry a number of activities to manage drought. The 8th and 9th steps of the 10 step model stipulate that drought preparedness plans should be publicized and that education programmes should be developed. In South Africa, the PDA, according to the DMP lead education and awareness campaign on drought management; carry out drought assessments and compile reports; ensure enough capacity for drought disaster management operational plans; and design models to identify drought disasters within the Disaster
Management Framework prescribed by the Disaster Management Act (57 of 2002), among other responsibilities. Local government’s duty when it comes to drought management is critical, especially in the mobilization of local resources. Part of the duties the local government performs include: acting as an agent for disbursing information concerning drought disasters in the municipal area and acting as an advisory body on issues of drought, among other concerns.
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As much as South Africa has made strides in integrating the 10 step model, as
Wilhite (1999) mentioned, it is very difficult to say that they have successfully done so. This can be attributed to the fact that the integration of science and policy, as stipulated by step 7 of the model, is still lagging behind. Policy makers involved in drought management lack understanding of scientific issues hence the difficulty for them to fully appreciate the role of science in drought management. Evaluation and revision of the drought preparedness plan is still a challenge. According to the 10 step model, there should be a consistent periodic evaluation of the drought management plan; however, this is still a challenge due to limited financial resources.
2.10 Botswana and drought Management
Botswana is another country in the SADC region that experiences droughts.
According to Manamele (1994), as much as Botswana experiences severe droughts, it is one of the few countries in Africa that has been effective in drought management. Botswana’s climate is dry and semi-arid and as such, the country continues to experience several hazards, with drought being the most common and recurrent phenomenon. The worst droughts recorded in the Botswana’s history were recorded during the periods 1981-1987, 1990-1995, 1998-1999, 2002-2006 and the
2011-2013 season. According to Manthe-Tsuaneng (2014), the droughts in
Botswana dealt a huge blow on various sectors notably the agricultural, water and health sectors. Droughts in Botswana affect about 70% of its rural population which relies on rain-fed agriculture. Food and agricultural produce during drought seasons are seriously reduced.
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According to Oxford Food Studies Group (1990), droughts in Botswana affect a lot of people, with the destitute, elderly and children below the age of five are the most affected. According to Manthe-Tsuaneng (2014), malnutrition is aggravated in rural communities during the drought periods. Despite being a drought-prone country,
Botswana does not have a specific drought policy; however, despite the absence of this policy, the country is making strides in drought management through the implementation of various strategies aimed and ameliorating drought and its impact in this country.
Drought being a common phenomenon, according to Oxford Food Studies Group
(1990), drought in Botswana has two distinct outcomes. The first outcome of drought in Botswana is reduced household income resulting in a decrease in food entitlements. Due to drought, the poor lose income, and this affects their capability to obtain food. Rural families are more vulnerable to drought effects since they rely on rain fed agriculture. The poor are the most vulnerable because of their dependence on arable agriculture, either by working as agriculture laborers or production of their own crops, as such, drought if not properly managed, can adversely affect these vulnerable groups placing them below the poverty line.
The second outcome of drought in Botswana, as identified by the Oxford Food
Group Studies Volume 2 (1990), is that poor communities experience capital losses in situations where survival tactics of drought-affected families may result in the disposal of property, especially productive assets such as livestock. The dangers of this situation are that it further exposes these people to permanent poverty as they dispose their assets to supplement their incomes thus reducing their wealth. For the poor households, this form of disinvestment may become irreparable, thereby leading to further impoverishment of this group. It is against this background that the
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government of Botswana has implemented certain strategies in order to deal with drought. The next section discusses the strategies adopted by the government of
Botswana in drought management.
Drought monitoring and early warning system in Botswana
Government of Botswana has developed an Early Warning System (EWS).
According to Sear et al (1999), the EWS in Botswana was developed in the 1960s soon after the country had attained its independence. The driving force behind this set up was the country experiencing recurrent droughts. The system was established to become a decision means for the government of Botswana to facilitate drought preparedness, its mitigation as well as the management of drought.
Botswana is one country which has managed to take a proactive role in drought management to ensure that its population and livestock are spared by drought. Saer et al (1999) argues that this system and its participants use existing information flows. The EWS in Botswana has become one of the most efficient systems in the region and as such, once the President of the country declares drought, the government is very competent in delivering food relief immediately to affected population.
The EWS in Botswana is no longer static; it is now evolving as the country is now able to provide relief to the vulnerable members of the community. A number of stakeholders are involved in drought monitoring and alleviation. These comprise the
National Early Warning Technical Committee, the Inter Ministerial Committee as well as the Rural Development Council. The Ministries of Agriculture, Health, Rural
Development and Local Government, Environment, Wildlife and Tourism and
Minerals as well as Energy and Water Resource also monitor drought in the country.
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Provision of environmental information like rainfall and conditions on the ground is the responsibility of the Department of Meteorological Services (DMS). Botswana also has a number other programmes that they run as way of managing drought.
Supplementary Feeding in Botswana
Botswana pays particular attention to the vulnerable people during drought periods.
Its policy is constantly reviewed to cater for the individuals who are affected by drought. According to Thompson (1992), the policy defines the persons who need assistance for the longer term goal of poverty reduction and during drought periods.
Their development policy, as noted by Thompson (1992), recognizes that some of the people in the country still need government assistance during even the normal years. People recognized as vulnerable to drought and poverty are those with a number of children above five and children below the age of five as well as those above the age of five but below the age of ten who are no longer going to school.
Remote location dwellers, according to the Development Policy, as well as the severely malnourished children of primary age are also vulnerable to drought.
As such, according to Thompson (1992), schools in Botswana during the drought season provide a supplementary feeding system to its learners (at least a meal per day) especially those in the rural areas. Those without resources and assets during the drought period are given voucher so as for to afford buying certain food items to supplement their diet. The government of Botswana further introduced labour-based relief programmes, arable agriculture and credit facilities to the poor who are the most vulnerable population during drought periods.
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Labour-Based Relief Programmes, Arable Agriculture and Credit Facility
During the 1980s, the government of Botswana developed forms of rural job creation programmes. According to Thompson (1992), a number of labour-based relief programmes were developed. However, for the intention of this study, the 1991
Labour Based Relief programme is discussed. This programme was designed to help the poor in rural areas. Hand-stamping of sorghum for the expanded school feeding programme was the initial activity under the Labour Based Relief
Programme. This programme managed to create about 9000 jobs for women in almost all the corners Botswana. Other relief-based projects were based on a daily wage basis.
During drought periods, the government of Botswana provides smallholder farmers with input encouraging them to stay or return to their lands after drought periods.
According to Thompson (1993), draught power subsidies were also provided to facilitate the hiring of animals for those who do have the resources. This system has been effective and as such, agriculture demonstrators (Agriculture demonstrator is someone who is trained at an agricultural school and employed to teach improved farming methods especially in rural areas) were developed so that the system does not get abused. In the 1980s, the government of Botswana availed financial credit to drought-affected people. The primary target of this facility was the rural population, and the National Development Bank was responsible for the credit facility.
Botswana’s drought management approach is quite impressive. According to Ndlovu
(2012), the success of Botswana in drought management can be attributed to
Botswana’s economy which is very vibrant and as such, the government has resources to dedicate to drought management so as to limit the impact of drought to
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its population. Having discussed Botswana’s drought management approaches, the focus now shifts to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is also a country that is characterized by recurrent droughts in the region. The government of Zimbabwe, with the assistance of other stakeholders in the country such as NGOs, has been working together in order to manage drought in the country.
2.11 Zimbabwe and Drought Management strategies
As mentioned earlier in the study, Zimbabwe continues to experience severe droughts. This is evidenced by the reduction in the amount of rainfall that the country has been receiving in the past decade. According to the UNEP (2010), Zimbabwe is no longer receiving multi-decadal mean rainfall on regular basis. Nangombe (2012) argues that due to severe droughts that the country has been experiencing, life expectancy in the country is, currently, at its lowest, and emigration in drought-prone areas is even higher. In 1991-1992 when the country experienced one of the worst droughts in its history, it is argued that the country’s maize production fell by more than 75%, and this left larger number of people in the country in dire need of food support (Nangombe, 2012).
In 1992, the country only managed to produce 13 000 tons of maize which according to Sachikonye (2003), was only good enough to feed the nation for four days only.
The situation was even worse in region 5 of the country under which Mwenezi falls.
In this area, over a one million cattle were lost to starvation resulting from drought, and livelihoods in the area were again severely affected. According to FDI Global
Food and Water Security Research Programme (2012), in Zimbabwe the 2012 drought resulted in a 45% deficit in the country’s staple food (maize production), and this resulted in about 1.4 million people in the country facing famine. Zimbabwe, just
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like Botswana, has a rural population which relies on agro-based livelihood, and as a result, the 2012 drought resulted in a stagnation of the rural livelihoods. This saw rural poverty increasing in most rural areas, with Mwenezi District being one of these rural areas which saw an increase in poverty caused by a sharp decrease in crop yields, thereby decreasing the level of consumption per household level, as indicated by ZimVacc (2013).
Figure 2.5 Top 10 Natural Disasters in Zimbabwe
Source: Zimbabwe National Contingency Plan Paper (2012-2015.)
As indicated in the above diagram, drought in Zimbabwe is the major natural disaster which affects magnitudes of people in the country. The 1992 drought, which was the worst ever drought, forced the government of Zimbabwe to devise ways of managing drought. This can be attributed to the fact that drought had affected a large number
(above 4 million) of people. According to Chipindu (2008), the 80% of the people who were mostly vulnerable to the 1992 drought were the rural poor. The government of Zimbabwe forged partnerships with NGOs in the country in 1992 so as to deal with drought. This partnership, according to Zvingadza et al (2010), saw
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NGOs assuming a pivotal role in implementing some drought management programmes in the country. However, before exploring the drought management programmes implemented by NGOs in drought management, focus will be directed at the efforts done by the GOZ to manage drought.
2.12 Legal framework in disaster management in Zimbabwe
Most SADC countries have developed frameworks for drought management.
Nonetheless, these policies have been castigated for being fragmented, and implementation plans as well as the decision-making levels are often properly defined out. This simply means that implementation of these policies in these countries still remains in obscurity, especially in Zimbabwe, and this poses a serious challenge to the fight against drought in this country. This is based on the fact that throughout the history of Zimbabwean drought, the response by the Government of
Zimbabwe, local communities and authorities as well NGOs has merely paid particular attention to short-term emergency response. This calls for a comprehensive strategy to tackle both poverty and vulnerability in the context of drought management (Wilhite, 1994).
In many African countries, there is limited profile on drought management even though some regional blocks have made national and regional food security a priority. This can be said about SADC which established a Regional Early Warning
Unit (REWU) in Harare (Hays, UNISDR, 2002). The purpose of this unit was to evaluate and monitor combined data based on food security for each growing season in the region. The United Nations Statistical Office in 1997 compiled a report on disaster management with particular focus on drought management in SADC particularly Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Malawi, Lesotho, South Africa and Mozambique
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in order to establish the level of drought preparedness of these countries as well as their drought policy and planning needs including the challenges that affect these countries’ drought policy and plan development endeavours. A research was carried out rooted on three major components, namely: monitoring and evaluation; mitigation and response as well as vulnerability assessment. Findings of the study revealed that the capacity of local institutions to respond to drought emergencies in this region is limited (Ndlovu, 2012).
However, Wichita and Knuston (2005) made the conclusion that despite the fact that some countries in this region do have organizational structures designed to coordinate the efforts of the government at different levels and those of None-
Governmental Organizations, a large number of these countries have not yet established permanent institutional capacity to manage drought hence the prevailing challenge to alleviate poverty in areas that are drought stricken. It is still difficult to talk of poverty alleviation as long as drought is a chronic feature in this region. They are of the notion that a starting point to effective poverty alleviation is a well- coordinated process of both environment and drought management.
The 1989 Civil Protection Act is the major guiding framework to drought management in Zimbabwe. This framework is supported by other by laws in the country, as stipulated by Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and Urban
Development (MLGPW & UD). According to MLGPW & UD (2006), there are also other sections of the law which support Civil Protection Act. The Environmental
Management Act (Chapter 20:7) of 2002, the Regional Town and Country Planning
Act (Chapter 291:12), the Rural District Councils Act (Chapter 29; 13), the Police Act
(Chapter 11:11) and the Defense Act (Chapter 11:02), according to Ndlovu (2010),
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are some of the crucial legislations which have sections which address disaster management in Zimbabwe.
According to Marjanovic and Nimpuno (2003) as cited by Dube (2008), in Zimbabwe, disaster preparedness programmes are led by the Central Government with the help of other ministries relevant to disaster management, and the local management assumes the duty of implementing and maintaining the efficiency of disaster management programmes. In Zimbabwe, the Government works with NGOs whose main mandate is disaster risk prevention as well as community development.
Madamombe (2004) argues that these organizations are adopted, technically, materially and structurally so as to mobilize them to also undertake relief, protective and rehabilitation measures in periods of disasters like droughts. The Department of
Civil Protection working under the Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and
Public Housing are directed to deal with disaster risk reduction and response. The
Civil Protection System of Zimbabwe is composed of the Parliament (Legislative),
President (Head of the State) and Cabinet (Policy Formulation).
MLGP & UD (2006) argues that the current Civil Protection Act has some shortcomings. Zimbabwe has been in the process of reviewing its legislation with the aim of strengthening its disaster reduction. It is highly believed that the current system will be substituted by the Emergency Preparedness and Disaster
Management Act which, if it becomes adopted, will pave way for the establishment of an Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Management Authority.
According to Ndlovu (2012), district level there is about 55 Civil Protection Units. The
District which is smallest civil protection unit is headed by the District Administrator with the help of the District Civil Protection Planning Committee. Areas that are
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usually covered by this committee include public awareness, manpower and training, health and welfare, among others.
However, the current legislation and practice has a number of challenges (Dube,
2008). For instance, the GOZ has not developed a disaster risk reduction database.
Information concerning disaster is still being managed at institutional level through the use of reports, emails and minutes. The department that deals with disaster management in the country does not have modern infrastructure, and funding is another challenge affecting the practice of the legislation.
African countries are always criticized for having poor drought policies, and this makes it very difficult to manage drought. Despite the presence of legislation in the country that helps to manage drought, Zimbabwe prior to 1998 did not have a comprehensive drought policy. According to Wilhite (2006), comprehensive drought policies help to effectively manage drought. According to Thompson (2003), the government of developed its drought National Policy on Drought Management in
1998. The policy’s main focus was on drought preparedness, mitigation, early warning system, response and recovery.
2.12.1 Zimbabwe’s National Policy on Drought Management (NPDM)
Persistent droughts that kept on affecting the country necessitated the GOZ, through the Ministry of Economic Planning Commission, to craft a National Policy on Drought
Management in 1998 that was subsequently adopted in 1999. A number of organizations, both private and public, assumed a key responsibility in the establishment of the policy. According to the Economic Planning Commission
(2009), numerous factors which led to poor drought management in the country were noted, amongst these factors were: the absence of a national planning and policy
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framework to guide drought management, insufficient grain reserve capacity to meet emergencies as required, inadequate institutional capacity to effectively manage drought, lack of community participation and commitment in natural resources, heavy dependency on agriculture, which requires more water and inadequate capacities at community level to deal effectively with drought.
In Zimbabwe, as envisaged in the National Policy on Drought Management, drought has a number of impacts in the country. Chiefly amongst them are: water shortages, environmental degradation, poor economic performance, people’s vulnerability to disease, especially in the rural areas. Drought-related administration problems were also encountered. The NPDM objectives include: development of irrigation schemes in the rural areas and sustainable livelihood of people through enhancement of their adaptive strategies that lead to livelihood security, among other listed objectives. As much as the country developed NPDM, its effectiveness has remained a mystery.
In a related study by Dube (2008), it was established that some people were not even aware of this policy. Furthermore, the policy is said to be no longer used in the country due to Zimbabwe’s political problems which have resulted in implementation of programmes that are contrary to the policy, for example the land reform programme which to some extent, was implemented in a way that makes the policy irrelevant. As much as the policy had some sections which advocated for land re- distribution in the country, the way in which the programme was implemented left a lot to desire. Despite these challenges, GOZ has embarked on drought relief programmes which are discussed briefly below.
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2.12.2 Drought Relief programmes in Zimbabwe
To manage the past droughts that rocked the country in 1982, the government of
Zimbabwe established a Cabinet Committee on Drought relief. In the year 1991-
1992, the government established a drought relief management task force as a response to the severe drought. This task force would work with the Cabinet
Committee on Drought relief. This was done so that the government could be able to provide relief to all those in need of assistance. Some of the relief programmes that were implemented in the country include: food for work programme, rural drought relief, the grain loan scheme, land reform programme and irrigation development programme.
2.12.3 Food for Work Programme (FWP)
Food for Work Programme was adopted by the government in 1989 so as to replace free distribution of food during the 1982/81 drought. In 1982-1984, about 2 million people were surviving on free food relief. However, by 1992, the total number of people in need of free food had risen up to over 6million, and this saw the government suspending the free food programme and replacing it with FWP.
According to Moyo (1992), this was done so as to reduce dependency of people on free food. There was need for basing the country’s drought relief on employment as opposed to free supply of food.
A number of projects were implemented so as to create employment for people in need of food relief. These included dam construction, brick molding among other projects. Food for work programmes are still being done in the country, especially during drought periods. According to Sachikonye (1992), food for work helped to stop food scarcity in 1992 from cascading into famine in the country. However, this
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programme has been criticized for being capital-intensive and a burden on the country’s ailing economy. Lack of funding of the programme also affects its operational and planning activities. This programme is said to static in nature as well.
2.12.4 Rural drought relief
This was a social welfare response to poverty in the rural areas in 1992 whereby victims of drought were provided with drought relief (Chitongo, 2013). According to
Chitongo (2013), drought relief was specifically designed to address food requirements of the victims of drought. Drought relief was given to those people who were entirely depended on subsistence farming for their provisions and automatically excluded families whose breadwinners were employed in the formal sector.
According to Dixon and Macarov (1998), lists of eligible members for drought relief were compiled by the local community leadership. It was through the rural drought relief that the government then introduced the food for work programme. This was done so as to curb the dependence syndrome. As mentioned above, the community members who were meant to benefit from the rural drought relief were compelled to work in community projects in return for food.
Public works programme that was set up before the country attained its independence, that is prior 1980, was also utilized and allowed victims of drought to labor in community projects in some cases getting cash in return so that they would be able to supplement their consumption. People who were at risk such as the chronically ill as well as the elderly were spared from working for their food. The drought relief programme was, however, castigated on the basis of the incapacity of the government to monitor the implementation of the programme. The programme also ignored other areas of consumption. In 1994, the government then introduced
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the grain loan scheme as a way of managing drought in the rural areas as well as to increase agricultural production in the country (Chitongo, 2013).
2.12.5 The Grain Loan Scheme (GLS)
The Grain Loan Scheme is a system that was designed by the GOZ to target the needy of drought relief in 1992. The GLS is a system in which the government loaned grain to the rural poor on condition that they will repay the loaned grain in the next harvest. The GLS was designed to help rural farmers to recover from the shocks of drought. This scheme is, however, marred with a number of challenges.
One of the challenges of this scheme is its over-politicization. According to
Sachikonye (1992), there is great discontent amongst villagers in the rural areas concerning the effectiveness of the scheme. During the 2008 drought, grain was distributed on partisan basis, and this saw some people in the some communities failing to access grain during drought periods.
2.12.6 Land reform Programme
The GOZ in 2000 embarked on a Fast Track Land Reform prorgamme. According to
Mudefi (2011), the land reform programme saw a long overdue process which took the country by storm in 2000. This saw a number of commercial white owned farms being invaded by the locals, mainly by the war veterans who had no knowledge of farming and as such, this affected agricultural production in the country. According to
Moyo (2001), the issue of land was one of the main motives why people went to war.
Chitiyo (2004) argues that the way the land was allocated during the 2000 period affected the agricultural sector a great deal. Sachikonye (2003) describes the
Zimbabwean situation after the Fast Land reform Programme (FTLRP) as a hunger- stricken country. According to FAO (2000), as much as the sharp agricultural drop in
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2000 can be attributed to the muddled way in which Land Redistribution Programme was managed, short rains received by the country in 2002 worsened the situation.
The 2002 drought turned into a humanitarian disaster in the country.
The 1999 NPDM had recommended that a resettlement programme was necessary if the government was to reduce pressure on the land in rural areas. In order to increase food production, the policy recommended resettlement programmes.
According to Chitiyo (2004), land reform in Zimbabwe was supposed to address issues of agricultural production; however, this was not the case. According to
Mudefu (2011), land reform failed to improve agricultural production, thereby leading to food shortage in the country. People who benefited from the land reform had no farming expertise, and this caused a decrease in maize production in the country which is the staple food in Zimbabwe. Some of the reasons that attributed to the failure of the land reform programme to increase agricultural production include: lack of resources to help the newly resettled farmers to buy inputs; lack of knowledge on the part of farmers; and over-politicization of the programme, among other challenges (Moyo & Yeros, 2005).
2.12.7 Irrigation development in Zimbabwe
The GOZ, through the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation
Development have since realized irrigation importance in drought management.
According to FAO (2000) cited by Ndlovu (2012), GOZ with the help of private and donor organizations, managed to put more than 120 00 hectares (ha) under irrigation in 1999. According to the report released by the Department of Irrigation
(2013) under the Ministry of Agriculture, irrigation schemes in the country are bound to increase due to the benefits that are associated with these initiatives across the country, especially in the rural areas. With regions such as region IV and V receiving
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rainfalls below averages, most of the time, irrigation is the answer to manage drought in the country, specifically in these regions. According to FAO (2000), irrigation development helps to reduce dependency on food handouts amongst the rural poor. It also empowers the community members as it offers them with alternatives during drought periods.
Having reviewed drought management programmes implemented by the government of Zimbabwe, focus now shifts to the Roles played by NGOs in drought management in Zimbabwe.
2.13 NGOs and Drought Management
NGOs make critical differences in disaster management. Drought being a common disaster in Zimbabwe, the role of NGOs in drought management in the country cannot be overlooked. According to Nongombe (2012), the government of
Zimbabwe, through its partnership with NGOs, plays a crucial role in helping local people in managing drought. Usually in areas where the government’s efforts are limited during drought periods, NGOs are found at the forefront of providing relief to drought affected communities (Nongombe, 2012). It is worth mentioning that usually,
NGOs have direct contact with local people in a certain area and as such, this helps them to have grassroots relations which they, in turn, use to empower locals to deal with drought-related problems in a more coherent and efficient way (Bennet,1995)
NGOs have always assumed a critical l responsibility in the drought management in the country. According to Bennett (1995), in 1992 during drought, a lot of Non-
Governmental Organisations were at the forefront of providing assistance in rural areas in the country. These NGOs spearheaded development projects in the country as a way of managing drought. Bennett (1995) further argues that NGOs sponsored
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projects that focused on small scale farmers in the rural areas in a bid to improve food production. NGOs in Zimbabwe carried out a number of activities during drought periods, especially during the 1991/1992 drought period. These activities included: the rehabilitation of small dam structures; helping women to improve their household garden plots; creating community agribusiness dealer networks; and irrigation schemes, amongst other activities.
According to Ndlovu (2011), organisations such as Christian Care and World Vision are crucial players when it comes to management of drought in the country.
Bornstein (2005) is of the conviction that since 1990, Christian Care and World
Vision assisted rural people with drought relief programmes. Some of these programmes were implemented in partnership with the government. Feeding schemes, building of storage warehouses popularly known as “Matura” in Shona, food processing and production are some of the activities that these two organisations implemented in the rural areas during the drought period.
According to International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2006), NGOs can assume the role of policy and advocacy in disaster-prone areas. In African countries, lack of comprehensive policies in disaster risk reduction makes it very difficult to manage disasters when they strike. Zimbabwe is one typical country whose drought policy is not being implemented fully, and according to some studies done, as mentioned above, the Zimbabwean NPDM is not known, especially amongst institutions that are charged with drought disaster management. Therefore, NGOs are at the vanguard of advocating for the need to mainstream disaster management into development planning. UNISDR (2006) further postulates that some NGOs have managed to develop basic target indicators so as to assist in the integration of
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Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) initiatives into relief, management and as well as development planning.
If people are fully informed and motivated enough concerning drought prevention and resilience drought can be managed. Bornstern (2005) argues that this can only be done through providing education and knowledge on drought. This transfer of knowledge can be done through formal or informal channels so that the information can reach targeted people. NGOs assume a vital role in the spreading of information concerning drought in various countries, including Zimbabwe. NGOs implement a number of projects as well as programmes that are designed to caution local communities about the potential impacts of drought or any other natural hazard and how to minimise these impacts.
Droughts in Zimbabwe cause social, physical and economic dysfunction; as such, it is argued that NGOs can carry out community-based vulnerability and risk assessment activities. In this regard, NGOs encourage community participation for sustainable drought management. According to UNISDR (2006), NGOs involved in disaster management have developed specific toolkits for participatory vulnerability as well as risk assessment. The importance of these toolkits is that they help field workers as well as communities to evaluate the vulnerability of the people to drought, designing of action plans, mobilisation of resources and strategies to minimise community susceptibility to disasters. NGOs assume this role in the communities based on the supposition that communities are well versed with their situations and that any intervention or analysis should be founded on their knowledge of the indigenous conditions (Sinha, 1999).
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2.14 Conclusion
This chapter started by conceptualising drought and poverty before touching on the theoretical framework relevant to the study. It went further to discuss poverty in
Zimbabwe with particular focus on the study area, Mwenezi and the strategies that are used in Zimbabwe to alleviate the poverty. The Ten-Step Drought Planning model, which is crucial in drought management, was also presented and reviewed.
Furthermore, drought management in other countries was also reviewed in relation to the 10 step plan, specifically South Africa and Botswana before narrowing the discussion down to Zimbabwe. Roles of NGOs in drought management, as stipulated by Bornstein (2005), were also deliberated in this chapter.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an outline of the research methodology. Research methodology refers to how data was collected, analysed and examined. It, therefore, provides a description of data gathering instruments. More so, it provides the discussion of sampling techniques, the population under study and the justification for using such. It also provides an overview of the study area. More importantly, it gives an overview of research ethics adhered to in this study.
3.2 Qualitative Research
This study used qualitative method. According to Straus and Corbin (1998) defined qualitative research methodology as any form of research that generates findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or any other ways of quantification. This study used qualitative methods since this allowed the participants to give their experience of drought in Mwenezi and other issues underpinning their livelihoods which the researcher had limited knowledge of. Moreover, the qualitative methods gave the subjects the chance to communicate their feelings in their own words about the drought, drought management and mitigation programmes in Mwenezi (Kuada,
2012).
Qualitative research, unlike the quantitative method, seeks to acquire in-depth responses from the participants; as a result, it particularly focuses on the behaviour and experiences of the respondents, which is critical to this study. Contact with respondents in a qualitative research tends to be longer than in quantitative research, and this helped to gather detailed information necessary for this study.
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To elucidate further on the advantages of the qualitative approach and why the researcher preferred it is the fact that it produces more comprehensive information. It maximises subjective information and participant observation to explain the circumstances, thereby making the data comprehensive and descriptive. According to Murphy and Dingwall (1998: 168), “qualitative research involves broadly stated questions about human experiences and realities, studied through sustained contact with people in their natural environments, generating rich, descriptive data that help to understand their experiences and attitudes.”
The main purpose of qualitative study is to uncover people’s feelings and experiences from their own point of view rather than from that of the researcher. It has been supported that qualitative research has a better validity because it has a high degree of inclusivity when it comes to research that does not trim down the participants to functioning parts (Morse & Field, (1996). This justifies the adoption of qualitative method in this study.
3.3 Sampling and Population
Population in research means the aggregate or totality of subjects, projects or members that conform to a set of specifications of the study (Pilot & Hungler, 1999).
A population is made up of all the people that contain the characteristics a researcher wants to study. In this study, local people were interviewed to get their perception of drought and drought management mechanisms in Mwenezi. More so, it included government officials and NGO officials who were interviewed to get an insight of drought management and how they are contributing to poverty alleviation in the district.
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On the other hand sampling is a method of selecting a small number of subjects from the larger population, also referred to as sampling population, to form the basis for estimating or predicting the frequency of unavailable information, outcome or situation concerning the larger group (Kumar, 2011). Hence, in the selection of institutions, the researcher used purposive sampling. Purposive sampling was used to strategically identify NGOs and Governmental departments in the area that deal with drought management and relief. Only the personnel that provided detailed knowledge of drought management in Mwenezi were contacted. Moreover, purposive sampling was adopted in the selection of the residents of Mwenezi.
According to Babbie (1997), purposive sampling entails selection of a sample based on the knowledge of the subjects (population), what the research aims to achieve and its elements. Frey et al (2000) argue that under purposive sampling, characteristics of individuals are considered for provision of essential questions concerning a particular subject, and in this study, characters that answer questions related to drought management strategies and poverty alleviation were considered.
According to McNealy (1999), purposive sampling enables the researcher to pick the participants based on internal knowledge of the supposed characteristics.
Babbie (1990) further argued that this sampling process is handy when a researcher wishes to study a small subset of the bigger population in which many members of the subset are easily identified but the counting of the entire is impossible. This method is particularly suited for this study considering that Mwenezi District is very large and has a larger population which the researcher cannot manage to interview one by one, so purposive sampling became an ideal method of sampling in conducting this research.
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Population sample of the study consisted of five governmental institutions, five
NGOs and 30 people representing the population of Mwenezi selected using purposive sampling.
According to Burns and Groove (2001), research design is a plan of carrying out the research which maximizes control over factors that may impede the authenticity of the findings. Research design is crucial to the researcher in the sense that it helped to plan and implements the study in a way that helped in obtaining desired outcomes, thus increasing the likelihood of obtaining what could be related to the actual situation.
A case study is usually defined as the implementation of a research method including an up-close, exhaustive, and detailed scrutiny of a subject of study as well as its related contextual conditions. It is very important in answering the why and how type of questions. This was critical in this study in terms of understanding why and how drought and drought management are perceived by the people themselves.
Thomas (2002) argues that case studies involves the analysis of individuals, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by either single or more methods. According to Creswell (2009), data collection in a case study happens over a sustained period of time. The importance of a case study is grounded in the fact that it examines a phenomenon within its real- life situation.
3.4 Data collection techniques
According to Pilot and Hungler (1999) data collection techniques refer to the instruments used to gather information during the period of the study. In this study,
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data was gathered through interviews and secondary sources. A brief description of the justifications for adopting these techniques is given below.
3.4.1 Interviews
As a way of obtaining detailed information on drought and drought management in
Mwenezi from five government officials, five officials from NGOs and 30 local people.
The rationale of the research interview was to investigate the views, their experiences, beliefs and/or motivations of individuals on drought management and poverty alleviation. Further it can be said that interviews were used because they offer a 'comprehensive and deeper' understanding of social phenomena (drought) than what would be obtained from only quantitative methods such as questionnaires.
In addition interviews are regarded as most suitable where little is already known about the study phenomenon or where in-depth insights are required from individual participants. In this study, the researcher had little information and knowledge about the drought phenomenon in Mwenezi, so he had to use interviews to get immersed in people’s knowledge and perception and to get deeper knowledge of the phenomenon under study through interviewing skills. Interviews considered suitable for exploring sensitive subjects where participants may not want to talk about such issues in a group environment.
3.5 Primary and Secondary Data sources
In research, there are two sources of data that are commonly used, that is, primary and secondary data. Primary data is collected by researchers or a research group for the specific analysis in question. According to Saunders et al (1997), primary data is directly collected from the affected population and in this study; the affected population are people from Mwenezi District in Zimbabwe. Therefore, data was
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gathered through face-to-face interviews or discussions with the members of drought prone community.
Mouton (2001) argues that secondary data is information which is characteristically gathered by researchers that are not involved in the current assessment. Secondary data used in this study comprised published research, internet materials and reports.
3.6 Data analysis
This study used the qualitative method of data analysis. This includes the identification, examination, as well as the interpretation of patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand. Welman et al (2005) argue that qualitative analysis is not directed by common rules, is a very fluid process that is highly dependent on the evaluator and the background of the study and is likely to change and adapt as the study changes and the data emerges.
Welman and Kruger (1992) argue that it is imperative to note that qualitative data analysis is an ongoing, flowing, and cyclical process that happens throughout the data collection stage of a research project and carries over to the data entry as well as to the analysis stages.
3.7 Description of the study area
3.7.1 Geographical Location
Mwenezi district is located in Masvingo province in the southern part of Zimbabwe. It shares boundaries with Chiredzi district on the eastern side and Beitbridge district on the northeast. On the south and west of Mwenezi, there is Mberengwa district and
Chivi district is in the north. Mwenezi is made up of Maranda and Matibi communal areas. Matibi is further subdivided into Matibi 1 and Matibi 2. Matibi 1 is in the north
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of Maranda, and in the southeast lies Matibi 2, which is adjacent to Chiredzi and
Gonarezhou National Park. Chitanga, Murove and Neshuro all fall under Matibi 1.
Matibi 2 is made up of Sengwe communal lands. Zimbabwe is made up of 59 districts and as shown in the Fig 3.1.
Figure 3.1: A Map showing the Zimbabwe Districts
Source: Google Maps (2014)
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Figure3.2: A Map showing the study area and adjacent districts
Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2008)
This study focused specifically on Mwenezi East which is a constituency that used to fall under the old Mwenezi Constituency. Mwenezi East consists of areas such as
Neshuro, Sarahuru and Chizumba and is made up of 8 wards. A large number of people in this district rely mainly on subsistence farming which is however not a reliable source of livelihood since this hampered by poor rains almost every year.
3.7.2 Agro-ecological conditions in the district
The country of Zimbabwe is split into 5 agro-ecological regions as reflected in figure
3.3 below. According to FAO (1996), an agro-ecological zone is usually a land mapping unit that is defined in terms of the climate, landforms, and soils, and or land cover and having a definite range of potentials and challenges for land use. Mwenezi is found in the agro-ecological region 5, which is predominantly dry and is a low rainfall area. Mwenezi receives about 400 mm per year, which is very low by any measure. It is subject to erratic rainfall and is prone to serious droughts and famine.
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Owing to the little and unpredictable rainfall in this area, the people of Mwenezi mostly depend on food handouts from government and NGOs.
Figure 3.3: Zimbabwe’s Agro- Ecological Regions/Zones
Source: FAO (2004).
Campbell et al (2002) argue that dry land farming is very unsustainable and uncertain. Usually, the district faces challenges of water for both people and animals.
In early 2000 during the epic of farm invasions, peasant farmers from Matibi, north of the Mwenezi River communal lands and Maranda communal invaded some of the arid ranches in the district, thereby altering the land use map. Some of the largest raches in Zimbabwe are found in Mwenezi. The largest unattached ranch in the province, if not the whole country, Nuanesti Ranch, is found in Mwenezi district. Crop farming is done at a subsistence level and usually, crops grown in this area include sorghum, rapoko, finger millet and maize although the latter is not common,
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especially in Maranda area as well as in Murove. Due to its poor soil and poor rainfall, it is very difficult to grow maize without irrigation in this area, with the result that many farmers in this area pay little attention to maize.
Despite the farmers being engaged mainly in subsistence farming, they, however, in small numbers, also grow cash crops such as cotton and sunflowers so as to supplement their income. It is quite crucial to mention that more often, agricultural crops usually fail in this area due to its erratic rainfall, and this has seen a few irrigation schemes being developed in this district so as to supplement food supplies.
According to the Parliamentary Report (2011), about five NGOs in this area are directly involved in poverty alleviation; this goes to shows the extent of food shortages in this area, and this makes Mwenezi East a high poverty incidence constituency. Poor rains and poor soil which are not good for crop farming characterised by poor rainfalls, as mentioned earlier, make drought a frequent phenomenon in this area; the participation of 16 NGOs in the constituency complement the government efforts to reduce the effects hunger and poverty in this area.
However, in this area, there are some areas such as Chizumba which have good red loam soil capable of producing good harvest, but as mentioned earlier, poor rains cause soil to be unproductive (Cousins, 1992). Dry land farming is a common practice in this area due to unreliable rainfalls. Despite the area having unreliable rainfall patterns, the area is also suitable for livestock farming. Before the Land reform, the area had one of the largest wildlife management farms. The inhabitants of this area rear goats, cattle and donkeys. Due to the vegetation in areas such
Mopane, most households find it more suitable and ideal to keep goats since they can resist drought longer than cattle. Donkeys are also used as sources of drought
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power and are more common since they too can resist drought more than cattle.
However this is not to say people in this area do not rear cattle. According to
Manganga (2005), Mwenezi is suitable for commercial and small scale livestock production of livestock such as sheep, goats and cattle.
3.7.3 Employment in the District
The cattle ranches used to employ many people prior to the invasion of commercial farms in year 2000. Sugarcane plantations in Rutenga, Triangle and Chiredzi are the district's main employers. Most of the bread winners’ especially males in the district had always flocked to the mines in South Africa. The number of migrant workers significantly increased in recent times owing to the economic turmoil Zimbabwe experienced.
According to the Parliamentary Report (2011), gold panning is also prevalent in the area as a source of income. In the past before the economy deteriorated, people in this area used to seek employment in Zvishabane as well; however, this is no longer possible since most of the mines in Zvishabane that used to absorb these people have cut down production, and some have since closed business. As mentioned prior, due to the area’s proximity to South Africa, South Africa has become a haven for most of the economically active age groups in the area who escape the dire conditions of drought and poverty in Mwenezi east. Due to the prestige associated with working in South Africa, youths in this area opt to go to South Africa for employment ahead of going to work in the sugar cane plantations in Chiredzi and
Triangle.
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3.8 Ethical considerations
According to Babbie and Mouton (2004), ethics is a moral matter that is concerned with what is right and what is wrong. It is usually defined as a professional adherence to the standards of conduct put forward by the profession that one finds him or herself in. In this study, before interviewing the respondents, they were educated about the details of the study and assurance about ethical principles such as anonymity and confidentiality was explained to them. This presented the respondents with some idea of what to anticipate from the interview boosted the likelihood of honesty and was also an essential feature of the informed consent process.
3.8.1 Avoidance of Harm
Strydom (2005) argues that it is the responsibility of the researcher to protect the participants from any form of harm whether it is physical and/or emotional harm. It is believed that no one suffered from any harm in the participation of this study.
Participants’ names were protected and did not appear in the study. The researcher also made sure that the study did not evoke any negative emotions. Moreover, the subjects were enlightened of their right to pull out of the study at any juncture.
3.8.2 Informed Consent
Getting informed consent from concerned participants, according to Strydom (2005), entails that one must enlighten the potential participants of the intention of the study, the merits and shortcomings of participating in the study as well as of possible threats that may be experienced as a result of participating in the study, prior to consent being given. The participants were enlightened on the aims and rationale of the study so as to assist them in making informed decisions whether to take part in
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the study or not. The participants were again informed that they are not obliged to take part in the study against their own will but have the right and option to pull out from the study whenever they wish to do so.
3.8.3 Confidentiality
Strydom (2005) defined confidentiality as a situation whereby no other person is able to trace information to a particular person. The identity of the participants is closely guarded by the researcher as he or she is the only one who knows people who would have participated in the study through informed consent forms. The names of the people who took part in this study did not appear in this study.
3.8.4 Plagiarism
The researcher acknowledges that plagiarising other persons’ work is wrong. The use of someone’s ideas or published work and pretending that it is one’s own is plagiarism; this therefore can be regarded as theft. Considerable contributions and quotations in this study that were acquired from other persons published works or unpublished sources were accredited, alluded to and fully referenced. The researcher is aware of what plagiarism is and as well as the University’s policy in this regard. This research, in this regard, is the researcher’s own original work.
3.9 Limitations of the study
The limitations in this study included the issue of time and cost. Time constraints also put some limitation on the collection of relevant and detailed information necessary in this research. More so, the costs of travelling to collect data were other limitations; however, efforts were made to overcome these challenges. In this case, data was collected during the vacation period when the researcher had time to do so.
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3.10 Delimitation of the Study
The study only focused on drought management and poverty alleviation strategies in Mwenezi District, and the results might not be generalised to all institutions operating in Zimbabwe. In research delimitations can be defined as those characteristics that limit the scope and define the boundaries of a study. Factors of delimitation include: objectives choice, the research questions, variables of interest and the population one chooses to investigate (Neuman, 2003). Therefore, this study did not seek to exhaust everything on drought management; rather, it sought to focus on local institutions’ (both governmental and non-governmental) implementation procedures of the drought policy and management in order to counteract the impacts of drought. In this study, only selected institutions that directly deal with drought-related issues in the district were included as well as selected population in this district, regardless of gender, religion or political affiliation.
3.11 Conclusion
The chapter delineated the research methodology implored in the study. The researcher adopted the qualitative methodology and reasons for using this method were outlined. This study used qualitative methods to allow the participants to share their experience of drought in Mwenezi and other issues underpinning their livelihoods which the researcher might have had limited knowledge of. Moreover, the qualitative methods give the participants an opportunity to communicate their feelings in their own words about drought, drought management and mitigation programmes in Mwenezi. Furthermore, different aspects of collecting comprehensive data based on research design, sample, methods of data collection and ethical considerations were also discussed.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter provides data presentation and analysis collected from the field. The researcher interviewed government officials from the Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanisation and Irrigation, Social Welfare, Ministry of Rural and Urban Planning,
Ministry of Lands and Rural Development as well as officials from the Mwenezi
District Council. The researcher also interviewed officials from 5 different NGOs in the district. Demographic characteristics of respondents such as gender, age, level of education, marital status are presented below.
Table 1: Demographic profile of local participants Participant Age Gender Occupation Marital Education
status
1 19 Male Unemployed Single Secondary
2 35 Female Self- Married Secondary
employed
3 44 Male Employed Married Primary
4 63 Female Unemployed Married None
5 37 Male Unemployed Married Primary
6 47 Female Employed Married Tertiary
7 23 Female Unemployed Single Primary
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8 59 Male Unemployed Married None
9 38 Female Self- Widowed Primary
employed
10 34 Male Employed Married Tertiary
11 45 Male Self- Widowed Primary
employed
12 55 Female Self- Married Tertiary
employed
13 24 Female Self- Single Secondary
employed
14 57 Female Unemployed Widowed Primary
15 40 Female Unemployed Married Secondary
16 49 Male Self- Married Tertiary
employed
17 58 Female Unemployed Married Primary
18 52 Male Employed Married Secondary
19 31 Female Unemployed Married Primary
20 28 Female Unemployed Married Tertiary
21 58 Male Unemployed Married Primary
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22 43 Male Self- Widowed Tertiary
employed
23 39 Female Unemployed Married Secondary
24 62 Male Unemployed Married None
25 57 Male Self- Widowed Secondary
employed
26 41 Female Unemployed Widowed Primary
27 27 Male Unemployed Single Secondary
28 51 Female Self- Married Secondary
employed
29 56 Male Unemployed Married Primary
30 64 Female Unemployed Widowed None
Source: Survey Data (October 2015- November 2015)
Table 2: Age of local respondents Number of Participants Age range (Years)
18 - 25 3
26 – 35 5
36 - 45 8
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46 - 55 5
56 – 60 6
61+ 3
Source: Own Calculations from Survey (October 2015- November 2015)
Table 2 shows that 22 out of 30 (73%) of the people interviewed during this study are between the ages of 36 and 65. This is basically credited to the fact that the bulk of the youths in this area are in South Africa, and some are working in other towns in the country. The age group between 36 and 65 are no longer in good physical health and to some extent; this contributes to food insecurity amongst households. One 57 year old participant said, “For the past year, I have been suffering from back pains and swollen legs. I cannot work in the field for a long time, and I am struggling to go to Neshuro to seek medical attention because I do not have the money.”
Neshuro is the general hospital found in Mwenezi District. Probably the immigration of the youths, as indicated by the small percentage of people below the age of 35
(27%), to towns or to other countries may have compromised agricultural production as the elderly cannot cope with the physical demands of farming in the rural areas.
This lowers agricultural production, thereby making the households in this district more susceptible to drought since there is no surplus agricultural produce to stock in cases of drought periods. A 59 year old participant who is a mother of five described how the absence of his children aged 23 and 25 at home has affected their agricultural production thus:
“Kana vangu vasipo chero kukanaya tinongoita nzara” (Without my children, even during a good rain season we do not produce enough).
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The small percentage (27%) of active population as inadequate human capital in the rural areas, therefore, poses a serious challenge to drought management. During the study, five of the youths interviewed indicated that they were not interested in farming, citing unpredictability of rainfall in the area as the main reason why they do not come back home during the season. One of the elderly men aged 63 highlighted that his 27 year old son who is in South Africa only visits him during Christmas and does not have time to help him with farming when he visits home:
“My son who is in South Africa has never helped me with farming for the past three years. He only comes back during Christmas and only stays for two weeks. Before he moved to South Africa, we used to have good yields especially during good rain seasons because he helped us a lot, but now that is a thing of the past. As you can see my son, I am very old; I can’t work in the fields for more than 4 hours. The harvest we make these years can only last us for less than six months, and when there is drought, we suffer a lot because we cannot afford to stock anything. I only have one son and three girls who are all married”
Table 3: Gender of participants (household respondents) Number of participants Gender
Male 13
Female 17
Source: Survey Data (October 2015- November 2015)
The study established that of the 30 local people interviewed, 17 were women and only 13 were men. This shows that more women than men were more willing to open up during the interviews. This is also a clear sign that women were always at home
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and as such, it was not difficult to reach them for the purposes of this study.
Furthermore, women are more affected by drought because they are left behind as men migrate to other countries or towns in search of employment. According to
Keeley (2009), some men, when they settle in other countries, do not send enough money to take care of the families they left behind, and women in this district are left to bear the brunt of having to take care of the children during drought periods.
Table 4: Education level of respondents (household respondents) Level of education Number of Participants
Primary 11
Secondary 9
Tertiary education 6
None 4
Source: Survey Data (October 2015-November 2015)
The local respondents were asked to specify their education level. Three categories were used to distinguish the levels of education, namely, primary, secondary and tertiary. In Zimbabwe, the primary education ends at grade seven; the secondary level includes both ‘Ordinary’ and ‘Advanced’ level; and the tertiary includes polytechnic colleges, teacher colleges or university education. From this study, it was found that all the 30 respondents have attained some education. In addition, 11 out of 30 of the local respondents indicated that they attained primary education whereas 9 indicated that they obtained secondary education, with 6 out of 30 indicating that they obtained tertiary education. Moreover, 4 out of 30 of the local respondents highlighted that they have never acquired any form of education at all. It
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was observed that many of the rural inhabitants lack the opportunity to advance to tertiary education partly because of financial reasons. Attaining secondary education is considered a big achievement (Ndlovu, 2011).
Table 5: Employment status of household respondents Occupation status Number of participants
Employed 4
Unemployed 18
Self employed 8
Source: Survey Data (October 2015- November 2015)
In order to investigate how people in Mwenezi obtain their income, it was established that 60% (18 out of 30) of people mentioned farming as a major source of livelihood and income in rural economies. Those who mentioned farming as their source of income are the ones that are not employed. However, this activity is affected by periodic droughts in the area. Of the local respondents, 8 indicated that that they are self-employed and are mainly involved in informal trading and cross-border trading as the basis for living. Additionally, 4 out of the 30 interviewed local people indicated that they are reliant on ‘non- farming’ activities as their basis for survival, and these 4 highlighted that they are involved in ‘other’ forms of employment, including teaching.
They take these other non-farm activities to supplement their household incomes.
Table 6: Key informants
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Organization Number of Informants and Gender
NGO Officials 5 (Male)
Government Officials 5 (Male)
Key informants in the study included officials from the NGOs and Government. There were 5 participants from NGOs and 5 from government. 3 of the NGOs officials interviewed were field officers/field coordinators, and two of them were managers.
Out of the 5 Government officials interviewed, 3 were directors and 2 were field researchers. All the participants were males. 2 key informants did not have tertiary education. Lastly, 80% of the participants highlighted that they have degrees and diplomas from different universities in the country.
4.2 Drought coping strategies of local people in Mwenezi
4.2.1 Growing of drought resistant crops
The study established that local people in Mwenezi District grow drought resistant crops most of the time. Of the 30 households interviewed, all indicated that they grow drought resistant crops such as sorghum and rapoko (also known as finger millet). However despite growing these drought resistant crops during drought periods, these crops fail.
4.2. 2 Food aid as a strategy to drought management
The most common strategy for drought mitigation amongst households in Mwenezi
District is food aid. The research established that the people in Mwenezi rely on food aid from both NGOs and Government. All 30 participants acknowledged that food aid in the district helps them to supplement their consumption levels during droughts.
People in this district collect these food handouts at different centres; for example,
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people in Murove usually collect from Sarahuro Growth point; those from Neshuro collect their food aid at Neshuro Growth Point; those in Rutenga collect their food aid from Rutenga; and those in Maranda collect their food aid at Dinhe Growth point
Machokoto Growth point. Christian care is the most active NGO in the area when it comes to provision of food handouts. Government also plays partakes a crucial role in the provision of food aid in the area. One of the participants reiterated that had it been that there was no food aid in the district, a lot of people in the district would have suffered a great deal during drought periods, especially during the 2007-2008 droughts when he noted:
“During the 2008 drought, we were only surviving on food aid from the government and NGOs. Had it been that the government and NGOs did not provide with food aid, many lives could have been lost in this area.”
The study also revealed that as much as the food aid is quite crucial in drought management in the area, it is, however, not enough for the people in the area. One of the participants who is a father of 11 acknowledged that food aid only helped him and his family for a short period. He cited his big family as the reason why food aid does not last long at his house.
“I have 11 children and usually when we are getting aid whether it is maize or beans, we usually get 5 bags, and these bags are too few to last us even a month.
Sometimes we end up skipping meals so as to save up the little that we get from
NGOs and Government”.
Food aid in the district is proving to be crucial. One participant in Mazvinika ward under Chief Murove admitted that had it not been of food aid from the Government, the district would always have food crises every year. He cited low rainfalls received
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in the area as the reason why almost every year, they supplement their agricultural outputs with the food aid that they get from the government and NGOs. One government official from the Ministry of Agriculture highlighted that in 2015, the district had poor rains and generally, the harvests in the district were poor and as such, NGOs and government have started rolling out food aid in the district. He revealed that although the situation was not that as bad as in the 2002 and the 2007-
2008 drought periods where the crops in the fields failed completely and left a lot of people with food aid as their only source of hope for survival. The most active NGO in the district that provides people with food aid is Christian Care International. One of the participants said “CARE is the only organisation that always provides us with food aid during drought periods.
4.2.3 Livestock selling
Amongst the 30 households interviewed, 13 of them highlighted that they rely on selling their livestock during drought periods. The study revealed that almost every household that was interviewed had cattle and goats. These are the common livestock in the district. People in this district sell their livestock so as to supplement their food sources. The prices at which livestock are sold at during drought periods are very low. Some participants highlighted that during drought periods, they usually sell their livestock at a give-away price just to feed their children. Some highlighted that sometimes, they are forced to do barter trade. One participant echoed:
“Sometimes we trade our cattle for maize during drought periods. During the previous drought of 2008, we ended up trading an ox for only five 50kg bags of maize. We had no option even though this did not represent the true value of our cattle, but I could not let my family starve. Sometimes it feels like the people we are
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trading with take advantage of the drought situation in the district as this is now a common practice during drought periods.”
One participant also reiterated that selling of livestock proved to be a God sent strategy during drought period. Although he acknowledged that the prices at which livestock such as cattle are sold at are always pathetic during drought periods, he stressed how handy livestock keeping is so important. He highlighted that had it not been that he sells his cattle during drought periods, it would be difficult for him and his family to put food on the table. He reckons that during the 2002 and 2008 drought period, he sold almost the entire herd of cattle that he had so as to make ends meet.
This, however, later affected him the following farming season since he had sold the cattle that he uses to cultivate his fields. Most of the people in the district rely on drought animal power to cultivate their fields, hence during drought when they sell their livestock, they always find it difficult to plough the fields.
4.2.4 Growing of drought tolerant crops and change of farming methods
From the study, 17 of the 30 participants acknowledged growing of drought resistant crops in the district as one way of managing drought. Growing of drought resistant crops or drought tolerant crops helps most local people to improve their yields even when there are low rains in the district. One participant affirmed that he cannot afford to plant any other type of crops other than drought tolerant crops because the rainfall in the area is quite unpredictable. Sometimes the district can receive a lot of rainfall just for a short period and then there afterwards, it becomes erratic hence growing drought tolerant crops is quite crucial in the district.
Another participant said, “We only grow small grain crops such as rapoko and sorghum since most of the time we grow maize we always risk having low yield or no
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yields at all when the rains become erratic since maize requires a lot of rains”. The government and NGOs provide people in the area with drought tolerant seeds in the district.
Changing farming methods is another strategy used by locals in the district to manage drought. The study revealed that most of all the households interviewed have since improved their farming methods. One participant revealed that he never wanted to use fertilizer or manure in his fields prior, but he has since accepted the use of fertilizers and manure in his field. About 34% of the households interviewed, however, highlighted that they would rather continue with their traditional farming methods.
However, those who have impressed changes in farming methods such as crop rotation and use of fertilizers confessed to having improved yields and sometimes having surplus food which they tend to store for consumption during drought periods.
One of the participants declared that although he is not spared by drought during drought period just like everybody else in the district, due to his improved farming methods, he is able to stock more food with the sole purpose of using it during drought period.
He noted, “this year even though the rains were erratic, I have managed to produce enough to see me through the year but as you might have noticed, some families are already starving and are already relying on food aid”. However, one participant echoed that it was because of these changes in farming methods that the people in the district are always affected by drought.
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4.2.5 Informal Cross border trading
Drought in the area has seen people embarking on informal cross-border trading so as to make ends meet during drought periods. Most of the people engaged in informal border trading during drought are women. One participant reiterated that women risk their lives as they cross into the neighbouring South Africa through undesignated areas risking either being robbed or killed in the process or swept by away the Limpopo River. One participant highlighted that during the 2002 and 2008 drought period, informal cross border trading helped her a lot as she frequently crossed the border into South Africa to buy foodstuffs to feed his family.
When asked how they afford to travel to South Africa during drought periods, one woman highlighted that they sell their chickens in Musina first before they proceed to buy food stuff. This, however, is not an easy task as one woman said, “Mwanangu taitoita vhiki tichitengesa huku muBeitbrigde tichirara panze kuti tiwane mari yekunotenga chikafu kuSouth” (with my son, we used to spend a week selling chickens, sleeping in the open so as to raise money to buy foodstuff in South Africa).
One participant said she bought clothes in South Africa and exchange them for maize in Zimbabwe.
The study revealed than most men were not involved in informal cross-border trade; rather, they preferred to stay at home with the children as their wives went about the informal cross-border trading. One participant said, “Ndini ndinosara nevana kana mai vaenda kuSouth” (I stay behind with the children when my wife goes to South
Africa). Cross-border trading is one strategy all the interviewed households claim as quite handy during drought periods.
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4.2.6 Gardening Plots
Gardening is another strategy that locals in the area use to manage drought. The majority of the participants in Murove, Chizumba and Neshuro had small garden plots where they grow vegetables and tomatoes. During drought periods, families grow vegetables and tomatoes for family consumption and for sale so as to raise money to purchase maize. These gardens are usually found close to the rivers; for example, people who are in Murove in Muputirwa and Dzingatira village have their gardens close to Mwenezi River. This is attributed to the fact that Mwenezi River is always flowing with water coming from Manyuchi Dam hence even during drought periods, people can still access water for their gardens.
The study further revealed that women are the ones that own most of the gardens in the district. Most women in the district concur that gardens help them a lot during droughts. Teachers were said to be the main customers by most women interviewed, and other local people who do not own gardens also buy vegetables from those with gardens. One participant narrated how gardens helped her to survive droughts from
1992 up to 2014. She further hinted that she will always resort to gardening every time drought strikes because it is more reliable and sustainable. Some women in
Muputirwa Village have since joined a gardening project implemented in the area by one of the local NGOs in the area. Most women who are in this project whom the researcher had the privilege to interview described the project as very vital to their livelihoods as it also helps them to raise money to send their kids to school as well as supplementing their diet.
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4.2.7 Remittances
The study revealed that some households in the district rely on remittances to keep food on the table during drought periods. Households interviewed indicated that most families have some family members working in Triangle, Chiredzi or South Africa.
These send money, groceries and food back home during drought periods. Of all the households interviewed, about 85% of them indicated that they either have a relative or child working mostly in South Africa and or in Chiredzi/ Triangle who send remittance back home during drought period.
During the course of interviews, at one household in Zvinonyanya village, a car offloading groceries could be seen at one household, and the participant confirmed that his son in South Africa had sent them groceries through people who run delivery business in the local area popularly known as “Malaicha”. One participant was on record for saying that his children working in South Africa make sure that during drought, he lacks nothing as they send money and groceries to her every month.
Although she could not say how much she gets in terms of money from her children, she, however, was confident that during drought, she always has money to buy food as a result of remittance from her children. Interestingly, some families said they end up selling some of the groceries and foodstuff that they get as remittance to local people at a higher price as during drought periods, people in the area are always stranded.
4.2.8 Access to and reliance on credit
Participants highlighted that borrowing is a regular activity in Mwenezi District. Of the people interviewed, 63% expressed that they usually borrow cash and or at times receive credit in kind. In times of drought, people’s reliance on borrowing tends to
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increase. They usually borrow cash, maize and other food crops for consumption.
Nevertheless, dependence on borrowing as a strategy to manage drought differs across the district. Reliance on borrowing was found to be high in areas like Murove,
Gwamatenga, Neshuro and Rutenga where severe impacts of drought are usually experienced. However, the challenge with borrowing is that lenders increase interest rates, and at times, demand additional payment, which further strain the borrowers. It was stated by the participants that the interest rate increases during drought years, which forces poor farmers into a perpetual debt trap.
4.2.9 Seasonal migration
Seasonal migration is quite common in Mwenezi during drought periods. A 45 year woman was on record for saying, “Kana kune nzara ndinomboenda kuSouth Africa kana Botswana kunotsvaga basa asi manje handina mapaper akakwana.” (During drought periods, I go to South Africa or Botswana to look for employment, but I do not have a passport or work permit). In most cases, this constitutes forced migration.
Usually, people migrate from Mwenezi to South Africa to look for temporary employment.
Young people seldom return even after the drought period is over. Some people or families migrate within Zimbabwe to look for greener pastures elsewhere. Thus, this activity can help households to manage drought, but can culminate in adverse long- term socio-economic consequences. One of the participants indicated that households that migrate to far places do not always come back in time to continue their regular farming activities in the district. Furthermore, these migrant labourers normally end up in physically demanding jobs and with long hours of hard work. As a
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result, they suffer from underprivileged living standards like those in high density suburbs, and lack social integration into local societies.
4.3 Drought strategies employed by both Government and NGOs
As much as it was difficult to schedule interviews with all the NGOs involved in drought management in the area, the researcher managed to contact interviews with five NGOs. It was highlighted by NGO officials in Mwenezi that they sometimes work together during drought periods implementing programmes designed to manage drought in the area. The findings are presented starting with the roles being played by NGOs first and lastly, the role played by Government in the district.
NGO officials said they employ a number of strategies to manage drought and alleviate drought in the district. NGOs have a number of programmes that they implement in the area during drought periods. Some of these programmes include: conservative farming, livestock rearing, provision of seed packs and supplementary feeding.
4.3.1 Conservation farming
A field officer from one of the interviewed NGOs in Mwenezi highlighted that NGOs in the area implement conservation farming. Christian Care is one of the organisations spearheading conservation farming in the district. Conservation farming includes husbandry practices that, together, constitute a complete farming system. Conservation farming involves the planting of crops without turning or moving the soil. This is an effective farming method as it saves time and minimises labour. According to one of the field officers interviewed, conservation farming is a crucial practice in the region considering that the region receives erratic rainfalls, which is what conservation seeks to improve. Conservation farming targets all the
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rural farmers in the district. According to him, the district has since improved agricultural production and increased maize production in the district as an outcome of this programme. This farming method is said to be a success story in the region.
Farmers are encouraged to begin land preparations soon after harvesting so that once the rains start falling, they can start planting. Conservation farming minimizes crop loss during droughts, thereby improving food security.
Conservation farming has since been adopted by a number of families in the area and during years which the metrological department might have predicted low rainfall farmers who adopt this farming method always get better yields. Conservative farming is popularly known as “digger udye” in the district. To promote this conservative farming in the district, Christian care provides farmers with digging hoes and seeds.
The field officer interviewed highlighted that by implementing this programme, they have managed to reduce drought effects as well as poverty. In 2002, it was established that the programme targeted 400 families in Chizumba and Murove, and about 360 families benefited from this programme. According to the survey, out of
360 beneficiaries, 315 reported that they received a significant increase in their harvests. However, one of the field officers interviewed acknowledged that compiling the success rate of such a programme on a yearly basis was quite difficult considering the limited resources that the organisation has.
4.3.2 Livestock Rearing
Mwenezi District is located in region 5 and as such, the probability of crop failure is high, resulting in common agricultural drought; as such, NGOs in the area are using livestock rearing as a drought management strategy. An official from an organisation
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(Heifer international) that specialises in livestock rearing in the area indicated that they have embarked on livestock rearing programme as a way of managing drought because the area is specifically suitable for livestock rearing/cattle ranching, therefore, the probability of cattle ranching being successful in the area were high.
Under this programme, mostly people in Ward 1, 2, 3 and 5 are provided with cattle popularly known as heifers due to their huge sizes. Usually, three people are given one cattle and after it gives birth, it is given to the second person and then passed on to the third person in rotation. By virtue of doing this, everyone in the community gets an opportunity to own livestock. This is done to ensure that during drought periods, these locals are able to sell the livestock so as to buy food.
Furthermore, NGOs are able to empower local communities by running such a programme as the community takes full responsibility of their livestock. This programme targets every family in the district. However, it was reported that in ward
3, only few families benefited from the programme as some of the cattle died before they reached the next person. On the other hand Christian Care informed the researcher that they provide goats and chickens to people in the district depending on the number of dependants in the household so as to help them manage the effects of drought in the area.
In 2008, the project targeted 300 families, but only 150 benefited from the programme. One field coordinator from one of the organisations involved in livestock rearing in the area revealed that the programme has been effective, as witnessed by the reduction in number of people who starve even during short drought periods in the area. He further highlighted that as an organisation, by implementing this programme, they wanted to promote mixed farming in the area whereby people do
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not only concentrate on growing crops only, as crops in this area usually fail. Hence by having livestock, people in the area would have something to turn on during drought periods. According to the officials from three NGOs interviewed, livestock rearing is one of the strategies yielding best results when it comes to drought management.
4.3.3 Provision of seed packs/ Input aid
NGOs in the area are also involved in the provision of seed packs to the people in this district. The director of one of NGOs indicated that as a way of managing drought NGOs target two groups of people in the area. The first group of people targeted with the input aid scheme are those farmers who cannot afford to purchase seed inputs on the market, especially after drought periods. This group includes
HIV/AIDS affected households.
The second group of people targeted by the input scheme are those farmers who have complimentary inputs to make sure that once they are given the seeds, they put the inputs to better use. The field coordinator of an NGO called Christian Care, mentioned previously, highlighted that the provision of seed inputs to farmers has contributed to increased yields in the district, especially during good rain seasons.
He further highlighted that Mwenezi being a drought-prone area, farmers need to be provided with inputs on time so that they can start their farming earlier hence the aid scheme. He also informed the researcher that in 2013, 60% of the beneficiaries of the programme registered a bumper harvest. NGOs in the area provide farmers with sorghum and pearl millet seeds mostly since these tend to do well in the district this because they are drought tolerant. In addition, farmers are also provided with maize seeds. One field officer hinted that the provision of inputs to farmers by his
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organisation is mainly done to restore the productive capacity of farmers after drought. He further highlighted that as a way of ensuring that these seeds are put to good use, they also provide training to all farmers in the district on soil and water management. However, field officers complained about the complexity of implementing such a scheme in the district. Furthermore, a Christian Care field officer highlighted that making a follow up to establish whether farmers are implementing the training that they received in their farming is a mammoth task which NGOs in the area cannot afford to carryout due to limited human resources.
4.3.4 Supplementary feeding programme
During drought periods, children are the most affected. The field coordinators of
Christian Care and Plan International highlighted that they offer supplementary feeding to children, especially children coming from disadvantaged families and those from child headed families as a result of HIV/AIDS. Supplementary feeding is done so as to ensure that during drought periods, children are able to attend schools. In some Wards such as Ward 1, 2 and 3, supplementary feeding is quite common, and some children even go to school during school holidays during drought periods just to get fed. Supplementary feeding is crucial during drought periods as it helps to prevent malnutrition. One field coordinator from Christian Care highlighted that supplementary feeding in the district has helped more than 2000 children in the district since the programme started. According to him, supplementary feeding is a success story in Mwenezi as all primary schools in the area and crèches benefit from this scheme.
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4.3.5 Agricultural research
One government official reiterated that the government is concerned about improving technologies that aid to lessen drought losses and assumes a major responsibility in drought mitigation in the long run. The official responsible for agricultural research from the Ministry of Agriculture interviewed indicated that significant scientific progress has been witnessed in Mwenezi in terms of understanding the physiological mechanisms that help communities to cope with drought. Likewise, there has been progress in developing and identifying drought-resistant crops for the region. It was expressed by an official from the Ministry of Agriculture that there is a lot being done in terms of complementary research in crop management aimed at maximising crop production to avoid drought stress. Notwithstanding the possible role of improved technologies in drought management, as indicated by the absence of agricultural research centres in Mwenezi, the quality and quantity of agricultural based research in Mwenezi is generally minimal. This leaves local farmers basing their agriculture on traditional farming methods which contribute to poor agricultural production.
4.3.6 Irrigation and Water resource development
Developing water resources in Mwenezi is very crucial in the protection against drought in the District. The official from the Department of Irrigation pointed out that the development of irrigation schemes has been welcomed in Mwenezi as a noble idea for increased productivity. The government managed to provide substantial opportunities for drought management through irrigation schemes like Murove
Irrigation Scheme which relies on the Water from one of the biggest Dams in the district called Manyuchi, Chizumba irrigation Scheme and Dinhe Irrigation that generally enhance water retention. About 75 families benefitted from the irrigation
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scheme in Murove and a further 100 benefitted in Chizumba from the irrigation schemes.
However, it was stated by government officials from the Department of Irrigation that continued support for the public sector to further develop some irrigation schemes as well as the proper maintenance and rehabilitation of these schemes could irrigation efficiency during drought periods. Local participants highlighted that the management of these schemes should be left in the hands of the local communities while public sector support should be restricted to the provision of technical support to local communities.
4.3.7 Zunde RaMambo (Grain Support Scheme)
One practice that the government is implementing to mitigate and manage the impact of drought in Mwenezi is Zunde RaMambo (Grain support scheme). However, very few people benefit from it. In this study, 25 out of 30 participants cited ignorance concerning how the Zunde RaMambo is administered. The 25 respondents highlighted nepotism as one of the major stumbling blocks hindering effective targeting of beneficiaries. Zunde is a scheme administered by the chief; the Chief receives inputs from the government through the Grain Marketing Board.
The Chief organises his village heads for land preparation, and this continues until the harvesting period. Community participation is generally high in this activity. The harvest is kept in a grain reserve (dura) for distribution by the chief to affected families during periods of drought. However, there were reported problems faced in the implementation of Zunde RaMambo which emanates from poor organization and delayed inputs from the community. At times, village heads fail to organize their own people, and this renders Zunde RaMambo ineffective.
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4.4 Challenges faced by Government and NGOs in drought management
4.4.1 Lack of Funds
All the 10 interviewed NGOs and government departments operating in Mwenezi highlighted that they are facing the challenge of scarcity of funds. NGOs are finding it difficult to secure sufficient and continuous funding for their programmes in Mwenezi.
They rely on donor funding for their activities, but due the political climate in
Zimbabwe, it is very difficult for NGOs to operate. At the same time, government institutions in the district are also financially strained and have limited resource mobilization skills. Local people interviewed bemoaned corruption by NGOs and government officials as they lamented that many of them have made fortunes by siphoning NGOs and government institutions for their personal gains. This has rendered these institutions ineffective in terms of managing drought and providing support to the majority of needy people in Mwenezi.
4.4.2 Lack of Coordination
From the responses obtained from the 5 NGOs, it was indicated that there is lack of coordination amongst NGOs operating in Mwenezi in terms of their programmes.
Government officials who participated in the study cited lack of funds and lack of cooperation from NGOs as a major stumbling block impeding effective coordination.
They further highlighted that some of the NGOs operating in Mwenezi were bent on pushing political agendas that are not, in any way, related to their core mission.
Government officials further reprimanded NGOs for not honouring meetings or conferences designed to discuss roles and duties expected of them. It was established that this has created problems such as service duplication and overlapping, among many others. This has created gaps in drought management
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and poverty alleviation across the geopolitical spectrum. The absence of such a common setting also weakens NGOs’ capacity to effectively deliver their services and to stand against the government when necessary. Moreover, the situation also limits the exchange of information and training which might be necessary in drought management for poverty alleviation. More so, it was established that there is no coordination between the government and NGOs. Consequently, poor networking was identified as a major challenge faced by NGOs and the government in their operations in Mwenezi. Therefore, this lack of coordination limits the capacity of institutions to share and learn from mutual experiences and to address local structural causes of deprivation, poverty as well as under-development.
4.4.2 Political Interference
Four of the NGO officials interviewed highlighted the interference of politicians and local leaders as a major deterrent to their progress in mitigating drought and alleviating drought in Mwenezi. The officials further lamented that in cases where
NGOs are involved in sensitive issues or disputes, local leaders and government officials usually threaten NGOs with de-registration. More so, political interference has also weakened government institutions alike, as many government services are now being accessed by the people on partisan lines. These had led, in many cases, to the needy people failing to get assistance. Opposition members are usually barred from obtaining both government and NGO services as village heads that are responsible for identifying beneficiaries are politically affiliated.
4.4.3 Development Approaches to drought management in Mwenezi
A director of one of the NGOs who participated in the study revealed that NGOs and government institutions in Mwenezi are focusing on what can be referred to as the
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‘hardware’ approach to development. This means that institutional actions are geared much towards infrastructure building and the service provision instead of empowering local people and institutions to manage and take charge of their own affairs (software approach), as stipulated by the community development theory.
Some NGOs seems to be ignorant of the changes in development approaches. At the same time, the government officials interviewed seemed to be unaware of the changing aid paradigm as well as the efficiency and efficacy of a rights-based approach compared to welfare approach in drought management and poverty alleviation programmes. This leads to lack of ownership and sustainability of development interventions in Mwenezi by local people. Furthermore, 80% of the people and households who participated in the study showed that they have been ruined by dependency-creating interventions and are not inclined towards empowering them.
4.5 Analysis of Research Findings
The impact of drought management strategies was evaluated basing on the potential to alleviate poverty in different families. From the study, it emerged that food aid was cited as the strategy that was most effective in place to deal with the perceived impacts of drought in Mwenezi. It was also established that all the 30 household participants acknowledged that food aid was the main source of aid that they use to supplement their diet during drought periods. The benefits of food aid in Mwenezi could not be underestimated.
In this regard, Anderson (2001) established that the most vulnerable households in
Zimbabwe have benefitted from food aid. This is grounded in the reality that food aid reduces the extent of hunger and starvation although some of the households stated
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that they face challenges in accessing the aid (World Bank, 2005). However, this strategy has been criticised for creating a dependency syndrome for the recipients, making it very difficult to sustainably manage drought and to alleviate poverty in the district. The community development theory stipulates that a community should be self-reliant, and any form of projects designed to help people within a community should be sustainable.
Although it emerged that selling of livestock was one of the drought management strategies used by local people in Mwenezi, as indicated by Heifer International, this strategy is not effective in mitigating the impacts of drought and contributing to poverty alleviation efforts. This is so considering the fact that this strategy is not profitable during drought, as indicated by the number of beasts which die during drought periods due to lack of adequate pastures. The poor and most vulnerable have no cattle and at times, their herds are too small to allow them to re-stock. The same can be said about irrigation schemes in the district.
It can be deduced that most of the households in Mwenezi are not benefiting from irrigation schemes in Mwenezi because only a few have access to land or plots in the irrigation schemes. The schemes have managed to help only very few families.
For example, Murove Irrigation Scheme mainly helps people from Bhasikiti village, a few from Dzingatira village and another few from Muputirwa village. Moreover, some beneficiaries of these schemes are failing to fully utilize the plots due to lack of farming techniques and inputs. Thus, these coping strategies cannot effectively help to alleviate poverty in the district.
The study also deduced that conservation farming is not effective in mitigating drought and alleviating poverty in Mwenezi District. Despite the fact that some
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organisations do participate actively in conservation farming, it is also true that some of the programs demands a long period of time and require a lot of labour, as reflected by “the digger udye” programme implemented by Care before the benefits can be enjoyed (FAO, 2008). This observation can be supported by similar conclusions that were obtained by Roncoli (2001) who argues that labour constraints hindered conservation farming implementation by NGOs in Burkina Faso.
Consequently, this has negative effects on poverty alleviation efforts sustainability in the District.
The study further revealed that only a few participants and households claimed that they were benefiting from drought mitigation programs. About 64% of respondents pointed out that the drought management strategies were generally not effective in reducing food shortages and hunger. Thus, recurrent droughts in Mwenezi District continue to exacerbate rural poverty in the region despite the fact that NGOs and government continue to provide food handouts and other welfarist programs which are effective only during drought periods. These welfarist programs have however seen to be creating a dependency syndrome among households in the District. This implies that most of the drought management strategies are helpful only in the short- term while in the long-term, hunger and starvation will persist, thereby making it very difficult to sustainably alleviate poverty (Gautam, 2006). Therefore, there is need for new ways of drought management and mitigation in Mwenezi District if significant strides are to be made in reducing poverty in the district.
The study realised that most of the drought management strategies were not sustainable due to lack of integration and cooperation among stakeholders and the households in the district. This is based on the premise that lack of creativity and willingness to work in projects usually renders these programs ineffective. It is very
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surprising to note that a significant number of households argued that the drought mitigation strategies especially coordinated by NGOs in Mwenezi District have created conflicts and hatred among the community, especially regarding selection criterion. Although this is a result of complex issues amongst them, political interference has resulted in social exclusion, especially of the poor. Thus, the drought management strategies in Mwenezi are not convincing in dealing with the impacts of drought and in alleviating poverty in the region.
In addition, poor households are forced by shortage of supplies to supplement their diet to sell their assets such as livestock, farm and household implements; this implies that these households will, in future, suffer productivity losses. Moreover, it will take them a long period of time to re-acquire those assets. These challenges are likely to impact household income in future, and carry over to future generations, thus perpetuating a cycle of poverty and vulnerability. Morduch (1994) argues that the loss of assets and income can transform transient poverty into chronic poverty, thus derailing the possibility of overcoming this poverty trap. Therefore, drought impacts and poverty will continue to wreak havoc on their families.
It is thus clear from the study that incidences of poverty in Mwenezi increased substantially during periods of drought. The majority of people in Mwenezi became poor as a result of drought. Usually, the increase in the frequency of poverty at district level transforms into a proliferation of rural poverty across the country.
Although a certain percentage of the escalation in poverty may be temporary, with families being able to eventually escape from poverty on their own, Barrett (2005) argues that households whose assets and income are below a certain threshold may end up being chronically poor.
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In essence, the impact of drought in Mwenezi calls for management and mitigating strategies that enhances the capacity the people to prevent major deterioration in well-being. Thus, drought management strategies should make people to recover from the adverse impact of shocks (World Bank 2001). Consequently, approaches to manage drought should focus on identifying vulnerable households and endeavour to increase the degree of accessibility, affordability and availability of knowledge, technologies and resources that are necessary in addressing the negative effects of drought and in alleviating poverty. These include not only financial, physical, social capital, but human capital as well.
It should also be noted that the relative importance of the strategies identified by this study varies across the region. However, these strategies are insufficient in preventing a decline in consumption and income, especially among vulnerable groups of people. As a result, it is clear in Mwenezi that drought directly contributes to an intensification of the incidence and ruthlessness of poverty. Moreover, most of the people who fall into poverty during drought periods are unable to escape this scourge once the situation becomes normal. Furthermore, the already poor people get pushed deeper into poverty in drought periods
Socio-economic costs of drought in Mwenezi continue to be odd regardless of considerably high expenditures made in the provision of relief and agricultural development in areas affected by drought to lessen the vulnerability to drought. The provision of relief in Zimbabwe has been proven to be the key government drought management approach. However, it is becoming crystal clear that although this approach is important in reducing hunger among the people affected, it is true that the provision of relief alone is obviously not an ineffective response for achieving long term drought alleviation. This is a serious development challenge considering
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the strong linkage between poverty and drought. Therefore, it is equally critical to embrace drought management as the fundamental part of general development strategy in Mwenezi District and in many other drought-prone areas in Zimbabwe.
The study found that there is actually inadequate consultation and engagement with politicians and local leaders in the process of policy formulation. This has resulted in inadequate political will and move for the adoption and appreciation of the very comprehensive policy proposals for effective drought management. Despite the government according the main priority to drought, this has not turned into priority action for government institutions in Mwenezi. The slow pace of implementing different drought policies is clear evidence that drought has not been practically given main priority at district level, and this has made efforts to combat poverty in the district very futile. Thus, it can be said that although Zimbabwe has made significant strides towards developing drought management strategies and programmes within the main sectors of the rural economy, these policies appear to have been suffering at the implementation front.
The fact the government continues to repeat the same strategies time and again is a clear indication that there are shortfalls in monitoring and evaluation of drought management practices in the district. As a consequence, it is also plausible to conclude that the effectiveness of drought management strategies for poverty alleviation have been hindered by insufficient stakeholder involvement and appreciation of indigenous knowledge, loopholes in the capacity for implementation of the drought related programmes and inadequate financial and technical resources. This is intensified by the constraints in institutional capacity for coordination between and among the significant institutions when it comes to drought management in the district.
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The study also found that Zimbabwe adequately identified its short and long-term priorities in the management of drought, climate change and other natural disasters.
Therefore, it is apparent that Zimbabwe needs must encourage the accumulation of regional and national capacities to implement drought obligations without compromising the emerging priorities such as climate changes. Evidently the understanding of the state of drought impacts and their severity have not yet been fully assessed and established in Zimbabwe. This has consequently hindered the assessment of national vulnerability, the promotion of environmentally sound technologies and awareness-raising for sustainable development.
Therefore, there are loopholes in political commitment to address drought issues.
There have been clear observations concerning the critical need for drought management for vulnerable societies. Unfortunately, there is lack of longer-term development plans established for long-term development that embraces both drought management and poverty alleviation. The political sector in the country has limited their efforts to emergency drought life disregarding sustainable drought management approaches. Thus, the need to reduce the inherent risks and to build a framework for the funds disbursements for the longer-term drought management and improvement is more urgent than ever.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the summary of the study findings. The aim is to establish whether the study has answered the research questions and has met the objectives of the study. This chapter discusses and establishes whether issues raised in the problem statement have been addressed or not. It also provides a way forward in terms of managing drought and alleviating poverty in future.
5.2 Summary and Conclusion
In this study the objectives were to establish drought coping strategies of local people in Mwenezi, to assess the responsibility of local institutions in drought management and poverty alleviation and to establish the challenges faced in the drought management and poverty alleviation and a way forward. The major objective of the study was to explore the effects of drought management strategies on poverty alleviation. The sub-objectives were to establish drought coping strategies of local people in Mwenezi, to assess the role played by local institutions in drought management and poverty alleviation, to establish the challenges faced in the drought management and poverty alleviation and a way forward. All these objectives were largely achieved.
The study employed qualitative methodology in investigating the effects of drought management strategies on poverty alleviation. Based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that droughts have had serious impacts on people’s livelihoods in
Mwenezi. However, the extent of the impact depends on certain aspects of the
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households involved, their assets, institutions and policies that operate within their community. It can also be concluded that while the drought management strategies adopted in Mwenezi are numerous, they have not considerably reduced the risks to which individuals are exposed. In essence, some of these strategies have been accused of generating a dependency syndrome for most of the beneficiary households.
It is also imperative to mention that labour shortage owing to: migration, problems of availability and access to markets, economic environment, and lack of community ownership of some initiatives undermine drought management strategies for poverty alleviation. If not carefully considered, some of the drought management strategies used by communities can the potential to increase droughts. For instance, food aid people’s vulnerability to drought in the future and selling of crucial assets like livestock also diminishes the asset base that is valuable in minimising future drought possibilities. Thus, challenges in drought management can be summarized as being the consequence of factors such as economic conditions, climate unpredictability and HIV/AIDS. These dynamics have aggravated the drought impacts as well as impacting negatively on drought management strategies in Mwenezi, thereby rendering poverty alleviation efforts futile.
The study can also conclude that a lot of institutions are involved in drought management of drought and poverty alleviation in Mwenezi. However, the level of intervention in the district varies from institution to institution. Some prefer to help the needy people on an individual basis whereas other institutions provide aid to a particular area as a whole. It is also plausible to conclude that inadequate financial and material resources constrained government departments to implement programmes for drought management and poverty alleviation. Challenges common
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to both NGOs and the Government, as identified in this study, affect the implementation of drought management and risk reduction programmes and activities. Moreover, the frequency of recurring droughts has made it complicated, if not impossible, for the concerned communities to recover from their vulnerability, thus ensuing in a constant need for drought relief for poverty alleviation. These institutional challenges increase the vulnerability of people in the district. Therefore programmes for poverty alleviation in the district should aim to address people’s vulnerability to drought.
A number of drought mitigation strategies in Mwenezi District are heavily anchored upon drought relief from NGOs and Government. Such drought response measures often make positive livelihood contribution in the short-term. Nevertheless, these efforts and programmes are also creating dependency and other new vulnerabilities and might not decrease the underlying vulnerabilities. It can be said, therefore, that the drought mitigation strategies have not been fully effective in Mwenezi District.
The study, consequently, concludes that most of the strategies have not been sustainable as they are inclined towards short-term objectives. Thus, despite such efforts, vulnerability remains high in the district.
A number of challenges which include continued poverty, increased drought frequency and selection criterion for beneficiary of relief programs have contributed greatly to the perceived ineffectiveness of drought mitigation strategies in Mwenezi
District. Therefore, there is need for new ways of drought management and mitigation in the district as will be discusses in the following section.
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5.3 Recommendations
The frequency of drought and the ineffectiveness of drought management strategies call for new ways of intervention. The study recommends drought scientific characterization and analysis of its impacts. Stakeholders at both local and national level should be included in the development and implementation of appropriate short-term and long- term strategies for drought management. This will enable officials to give relevant and accurate information regarding drought. Moreover, it is crucial that provision of aid be supported by a long-term strategy of investment in people’s livelihoods as well as policy support. This is grounded on the reality that the reactionary approach that informs the basis of the provision of drought relief cannot help to manage drought in the long run.
The study proposes the need for a decentralized institutional set-up for drought management in Mwenezi District that encourages greater participation and decision- making by local people in order to improve the overall efficiency of drought management programmes that seem to be top-down in nature. It is, therefore, recommended that organizations outside the community must have a full appreciation of the local coping and drought management strategies, or else their anthropological involvement will not succeed in addressing the plight of people in
Mwenezi District, thereby promoting aid dependency syndrome and all manner of unintended negative outcomes. Moreover, it is important that people must not be taken as passive recipients of aid, but as very resourceful in programme implementation. Hence their views and participation must be solicited. There is also a need for increased coordination and networking between and among institutions, for example NGOs and government departments, so that there is reduced replication of activities and programmes in the same area.
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It is further recommended that in order to develop interventions that are suitable for drought-prone areas of Zimbabwe, a local and participatory agro-ecosystem appraisal should be implemented. Additionally, it is a fact that the most effective interventions are those that enhance household coping strategies. Robust committees such as the District Development Rural Council and the Civil Protection
Committee should be set up from village level where the victims of drought are found. In the same manner, there is need to promote policies for rural income diversification for efficient risk management. In essence, income diversification should be encouraged to circumvent the risk linked with relying on farming only. This is, ideally, efficient for dissipating risk and to advance farmers’ capacity for drought management through comprehensive income and consumption-smoothing strategies.
In the long-term pursuit for a sustainable drought management strategy, there is need to improve rural infrastructure and marketing facilities in the district and to promote rural and agro-processing industries that permit farmers to promote income and crop diversification in Mwenezi so as to reduce the overall income risk. Similarly, the government should priorities investing in rural education to assist in diversifying rural income. Additionally, such investments directly contribute to income growth and further increase the capacity of farmers to cope with agricultural risk.
More so, given the anticipated risk posed by climate change that is set to further interrupt the rainfall patterns in Mwenezi, making rain-fed agriculture even unreliable and risky, there is need to scale up irrigation infrastructure in the district. This also implies that the government should urgently and effectively deal with the challenges extension agencies face in their day-to-day interaction with farmer. It is important
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then that understanding crop failures in Mwenezi be part and parcel of a functioning early warning system that helps in drought proofing. In this regard, the government is charged with the responsibility of promoting the farming of drought tolerant crops like sorghum and millet through the provision of ready markets the above mentioned crops or grain exchange programmes at Grain Marketing Board.
There is urgent need for sustainable development and drought to be put close to the centre of risk reduction priorities in order to enhance resilience to the effects of drought, while promoting other development goals directed at sustaining and improving the wellbeing of the susceptible population. Further, the study also recommends the need to reinforce efforts to scientifically incorporate drought adaptation priorities into a development framework in order to mobilize resources needed for implementation, promote medium and long-term policy and political dedication to drought alleviation programs and to intensify support and scale up the performance of drought strategies and plans.
It is also recommended that the government should continuously liaise with donor community and other development stakeholders for support in the management of drought for the overall alleviation of poverty. The government should also strengthen its role in creating partnership with public and private institutions as well as with the local community through capacity-building, promotion of broad-based stakeholder representation and participatory approaches, as well as means for the implementation of programmes for decreasing the hazards caused by drought.
Efforts of such nature also need to be given the relevant and adequate political support for them to thrive and produce the perceived effect.
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In order to ensure sustainable effective resource mobilization and building drought resilience, drought management concerns should be incorporated in government policy documents for development. The GOZ should offer sufficient financial support and budgetary allocations to ensure effective drought management. Moreover, comprehensive steeps should be considered in order to strengthen early warning systems so as to provide precise information that is useful in the planning of drought management programmes and in national development planning ventures.
The government should put in place a policy to strike a balance between the short- term drought relief and longer-term livelihoods support and environmental management interventions. In reducing levels of intervention in drought mitigation, it is crucial to establish and understand which aspects of people’s livelihoods are exposed to certain risks as well as the nature of people’s vulnerability. Land degradation, climate change and HIV/AIDS policies are some of the socio-economic factors that need to be mainstreamed in drought alleviation interventions for sustainable poverty alleviation.
Most importantly increasing the district’s capacity to respond to drought swiftly should be prioritised so that the inhabitants may become proactive. Capacity-building can be done in the mobilization of resources and training. Drought management structures are critical in ensuring that drought reduction and management initiatives are people- driven and centred. This is motivated by the fact that top-down drought management programs does not adequately address the needs of the local of communities at risk, thus disregarding the potential of local capacities and resources and may even exacerbate the vulnerabilities of families.
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Thus, it is important that additional stakeholders be embraced to undertake more practical, problem-solving research which is needed. Agriculture research must be intensified in order to address drought related challenges.
5.3 Areas for further research
Due to the study limitations already mentioned, the study was not able to address various possible questions and therefore the researcher is suggesting that:
There is need for research to further the understanding of the types of food
security decision-making by rural households.
There is a need for research that looks at how vulnerability maps can be
designed and be employed in targeting improved cost effectiveness of
resource allocation.
More research needs to be carried out to investigate other sustainable
sources of income beside agriculture in the rural areas.
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Appendices
Introductory Letter
153
Ethical Clearance
154
155
Interview Guide for Local People
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND COMMERCE
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS IN MWENEZI (LOCAL PEOPLE)
I, David F Magaisa (201013374), a Masters of Social Science in Development
Studies is hereby carrying out a study on the drought management and poverty alleviation. I, therefore, kindly request you to assist with information that will help in the analysis of drought management and its implications on poverty alleviation in the district. The data collected will be strictly for academic purposes and will be treated with confidentiality.
The specific objectives of this research are:
To establish the effectiveness of drought management policies and
programmes in alleviating in Zimbabwe.
To assess the role of local institutions in drought management and poverty
alleviation.
To establish the challenges faced in the drought management and poverty
alleviation and a way forward.
156
Please note that there is no benefit or incentives being given to participate in this interview now or in the future.
Also note that you are free to decline to be interviewed and you are also entitled to refuse to answer any particular question you wish not to answer.
The details of interview
Date
District and Ward
1. Demographics
a) Sex of respondents
Male Female
b) Education Level of Respondents
Primary Secondary Tertiary
c) Marital Status
Married Divorced Single Widowed
d) Occupation
Employed Self employed Unemployed
e) Major Source of Income
157
Peasant Casual Remittances Formal farming Labour Employment
f) Age of Respondents
18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-60 61+
2. Agricultural production a. What type of crops do you plant every season, and how many hectares do you plant? b. During the drought period how do manage the impacts of drought?
(i) Do you sell your livestock?
(ii) Do you get food aid from NGOs or Government? c. What is your major source of income? d). During drought, what strategies do you adopt as a way of adapting to the impacts of drought?
3. Institutional Aid
a) Which institutions offer you support during drought?
b) How often do personnel from institutions charged with drought management in the district advise you on drought management and poverty reduction?
158
c) Have you ever been involved in any drought management programmes in your community? d) What has been your major source of food in the past decade? e) What do you think is contributing to the frequency of drought in your area? f) What do you think needs to be done to improve drought management in the district? g) Are you consulted in the design and implementation of programmes by NGOs?
Thank you for taking your time to participate in this study
159
Interview Guide for NGOs and Government Officials
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND COMMERCE
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR LOCAL INSTITUTIONS IN MWENEZI DISTRICT (NGOs
GOVERNMENT)
I, David F Magaisa (201013374), a Masters of Social Science in Development
Studies is hereby carrying out a study on the drought management and poverty alleviation. I, therefore, kindly request you to assist with information that will help in the analysis of drought management and its implications on poverty alleviation in the district. The data collected will be strictly for academic purposes and will be treated with confidentiality.
1. What is your perception of drought in Mwenezi?
2. What mechanisms do you have for drought assessment?
160
3. How do you ensure that people have access to relevant information concerning
drought at the right time?
4. Do you have specific programmes that educate people on drought resilience?
5. How would you describe your disaster preparedness as an agency?
6. What is your perspective on the relationship between drought and poverty
alleviation?
7. How do you ensure that your drought management programmes are sustainable?
8. How do your coordinate with other agencies that are also involved in drought
management so as to avoid duplication of programmes?
9. Is there a policy framework that guides your intervention strategies? If yes, what
are your policy priorities and what do you aim to achieve in the long run?
10. What challenges do you face in your efforts of managing drought in the area?
11. Do you think intervention strategies are addressing the real impacts of drought
and the multiple livelihood needs of the poor?
12. What do you think can be done to improve your capacity or government capacity
for sustainable and equitable distribution of resources and services?
13. Do you think their efforts are enough to address poverty and its related health
challenges in your area?
Thank you for your cooperation
161