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Assessing the Evolvements and Impacts of Environmental Migration in Inner Mongolia

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Assessing the Evolvements and Impacts of Environmental Migration in Inner Mongolia HAN YANG Assessing the evolvements and impacts of environmental migration in Inner Mongolia Blue, blue appear the skies; Vast, vast the grassland lies. Winds blow, grass bows and we see the cattle roam. Folk Song of Bei Dynasty (534-589 AD) In the eyes of Chinese people, Inner Mongolia is an ecologically unique prov- ince that is knitted with double images. The shining side of Inner Mongolia attributes to its picturesque and endless grasslands. Yet, the dark facet of Inner Mongolia is notorious for being the source of dust storm sweeping over northern part of China. Due to climate change and excessive anthro- pogenic activities, environmental problems prevail in Inner Mongolia, including grassland degradation, sprawling deserts, water scarcity and soil erosion. In addition to environmental deterioration, poverty is prevalent for people living in environmentally undesirable areas. Worsening environment and Iaggravating poverty not only dismantle the tranquil lives of the indigenous people, but also require large-scale governmental interventions. Viewed as effective adapta- tion and mitigation measures to lift poverty and restore ecosystems, government-led resettlements have evolved from initially small-scale pilot projects to normatively mega-size strategic policies in Inner Mongolia. This paper will first summarize environmental migration and associated policies that occurred before 2013. The following section will focus on the latest Environ- mental Migration and Poverty Eradication Planning enacted in April of 2013 by the Inner Mongolia provincial government. The new migration strategy will be reviewed and compared with previous measures. The next section will examine the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts induced by environmental migration through a combination of questionnaire surveys and a literature review. The paper will be concluded with a summary of the factors contributing to migration patterns and policies. Information with is respects to subjective feelings and personal opinions on environmental migration are mainly collected from primary source, i.e. question- naire-based surveys. The paper is complemented by secondary data searched from journals, newspapers and the Internet will be used to conduct qualitative and quanti- tative analysis. Incomplete and are inconsistent statistics, together with well as a lack of official and recognized data is a major challenge identified in this paper. 1. THE CONTEXT OF INNER MONGOLIA 1.1. Introduction on Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia is the third largest province in China, accounting for 12 percent of China’s total land area. Stretching from the northwest to the northeast of China, the geographic location of Inner Mongolia is of significant importance because of its proximity to Beijing and borders with Mongolia and Russia. Inner Mongolia is one of Sem 2014 49 HAN YANG ASSESSING THE evolvements ASIA AND impacts OF environmental migration IN INNER MONGOLIA the five autonomous regions of China due to large concentrations of ethnic popula- tions, particularly the Mongols. While Inner Mongolia is home to 68.72% of the total Mongols in China, the Mongols only make up 17% of total population within Inner Mongolia. There are other ethnic groups residing in Inner Mongolia, for example Manchu and Evenki. Along with Mandarin, Mongolian is used as the second official language. Inner Mongolia is known for its picturesque scenery, indigenous culture and peaceful lifestyle. In addition to vast coverage of grasslands, there is large variety of land types in Inner Mongolia. According to 2013 Inner Mongolia Chronicles, Inner Mongolia consists of 59.86% grassland, 16.4% forest, 7.32% cultivated land and 13.85% barren lands; consisting of sands, Gobi desert and gravels). The map of land cover map is shown in Figure 1. The abundance of grassland fosters the long-lasting tradi- tion of herding and nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols and other ethnicities inhab- iting in Inner Mongolia. Some Mongols and the Evenkis living in mountain areas also depend on forestry and hunting for subsistence. The huge reserves of coal, natural gas and rare earth proliferates the surge of extractive industry in Inner Mongolia, which exerts immense economic, social and environmental effects. Due to the vast- ness and diversities of the territory, weather conditions are varying dramatically from the forested and mountainous region of the east to the sand covered and desert area of the west. Due to low precipitation, the majority of Inner Mongolia is under semi-arid or arid climates except for small semi-humid areas in the far Northeastern region (Figure 2). 1.2. Environmental problems in Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia’s susceptibility to environmental disruptions partially stems from its inherent climatic and geographic constraints of being dry, arid and landlocked. As presented in Figure 3, the majority of Inner Mongolia lies in No.1 and NO. 2 Ecologi- cally Fragile Zones, meaning the ecosystem is not resistant to external disturbances and sensitive to population pressure and therefore has low capacity to support human settlement (Tan 2008). Aside from natural conditions, to large extent the speed and scale of environmental deterioration in Inner Mongolia is due to excessive human activities that exceed the carrying capacities of ecosystem. In recent decades Inner Mongolia face a wide range of environmental problems, among which desertifica- tion, rangeland degradation, soil erosion, drought and water scarcity are extremely detrimental. Figure 1. Land Cover Map of Inner Mongolia Figure 2. Level of Precipitation in Inner Mongolia Source: Bagan & Yamagata 2009 Source: Meteorological Bureau of Inner Mongolia 2014 Sem 2014 50 Figure 3. Distribution of Ecologically Fragile Zones in China 1. : Semi-arid and semi–humid areas in northern China. 2: Semi-arid areas in northwestern China) Source: Tan & Fei 2007 Inner Mongolia has been plagued by prolonged drought and water depletion in recent decades. Since the 1980s, the number of dry days per year has significantly increased. The 21st century has witnessed a rapid surge of dry weather spells in Inner Mongolia. 2005 has been recorded as the driest year in the past 50 years (Wang & Wu 2013). Population growth and economic development has resulted in soaring water consumption and overexploitation of water resources. Those problems lead to many consequences including dropped river runoffs, shrank lakes and declined underground water levels. The interplay of the ecosystem and water-related issues in return give rise to a series of other environmental problems, including soil erosion and land degradation. Both the size and gravity of desertification of Inner Mongolia are the highest among all Chinese provinces. Since the 1990s, desertification has incrementally progressed throughout in Inner Mongolia. On average, desertification expands at the speed of 2,460 km2/year (Liu & Zhao 2009). Up to the end of 2009, 52.2% of Inner Mongolia’s territory has been considered as desertification, amounting to 6,177,700 km2 Forestry Bureau of Inner Mongolia 2011. Desertification and soil erosion have resulted in frequent dust storms, hazarding local economy, daily livelihoods and public health. Based on historical records, there was, on average, one big dust storm (10.8m/s ≤wind speed ≤ 24.4m/s, 200m ≤visibility≤ 500m) every three decades in the 2000-year time frame prior to 1949. Between 1950 and 1990, the frequency of large dust storms increased to once biennially. In the 1990s, Inner Mongolia and other cities experienced dust storms on yearly basis (Yi & Zhang 2011). Furthermore, extreme dust storms have extended to the entire northern China affecting up to 12 cities and provinces. Dust storms blew away loose sands and fine soil particles from Sem 2014 51 HAN YANG ASSESSING THE evolvements ASIA AND impacts OF environmental migration IN INNER MONGOLIA Inner Mongolia, and 45.2% of those sands and soils were transported to Beijing and Tianjin, two of the most important and vibrant cities in China (Wang & Wu 2013). Dust storms produced from Inner Mongolia even transcended national territory reaching Japan and the Korean Peninsula. Yellow and dusty sky in Beijing was broadcasted worldwide, which partially triggered large-scale movements to curb dust storms and restore ecosystems in Inner Mongolia. Among various measures, relocating popula- tions living in impoverished, fragile and harsh environments are widely used and highlighted by central, provincial and local governments. Environmental relocation and resettlement in China refers to moving populations inhabiting in ecologically fragile regions into areas with preferable environmental conditions (Wang 2013). 2. HISTOry OF ENVIRONMENtaL MigratiON IN INNER MONGOLIA 2.1. Evolvement of environmental migration in Inner Mongolia Historically, population movements between Inner Mongolia and the rest parts of China feature in inflows of Han Chinese from mainland cities to Inner Mongolia. As early as the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), thousands of Han people have been relocated to Inner Mongolia to take up farming according to History of Yuan. Immigration to Inner Mongolia increased again after the birth of new China for purposes of reclaiming the lands and building a new Inner Mongolia. At the onset of 2000, the Chinese Central Government’s West Development strategy marked a new wave of immigration of Han people into Inner Mongolia (NDRC, 2000). In contrast, the mobility of Inner Mongolia natives to other cities and provinces
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