CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 South Korean Culture

The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many changes especially in its capital city, , especially in economics and lifestyle sector. Historically, Korean culture is influenced by the RRC, but Korea was able to develop a unique identity and distinct culture. Although, South Korea and North Korea share the same traditional culture, since the division of Korea in 1945, each country manages to develop different forms of its culture.

Scientific progress and technology are consider important by the South Korea government. With the support of the government, South Korean is usually among the first to experience innovative technology. From technology side also give its contribution to South Korean culture development especially in scientific development. As reported in www2.cnrs.fr, “The priorities currently identified by the government for scientific and technological research are the fields of bio technology, healthcare, engineering sciences, new materials, aerospace, nuclear energy, oceanology, and advanced technologies. The country‟s long-term economic ambitions are now solidly anchored in a range of state-driven scientific R&D programs, and are generously funded by both the private and public sectors. Major part of South Korea‟s scientific development strategy was the creation in 1999 of the “21st Century Frontier R&D program”, launched as part of a national plan called the “Long-term Vision for Science and Technology Development toward 2025.” (Tearse, 2008)

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2.1.1 Demographics

According to www.cia.gov, by July 2013 South Korea has 48,955,203 populations while most of them live in the capital city, Seoul, with 9,778 million of the population live there. Other cities, Busan with 3.439 million; Incheon 2.572 million; Daegu 2.458. million and 1.497 million live in Daejon. They use as their national language and learn English in junior high and high school. South Korea is homogenous in ethnic groups. 43.4% of South Korean have no religion, while other 24.2% are Buddhist, 31.6% are Christian and 0.9% are other or unknown. The population is well balance between 24.475.182 of female and 24.480.021of male population.

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2.1.2 Literature

According to “Tale of Hong Gildong” by Kyun Ho, the Korean alphabet, also known as was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443. The modern name Hangul (한글) was created by Ju Sigyeong in 1912. Hangul is a featural alphabet of 24 consonant and vowel letters. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature (Ho, 2011).

2.1.3 Foreign Influences

Initially was influenced by the United States and Japan, mostly during and after the Japanese occupation, in recent years South Korea has been absorbed other foreign countries culture. Many people enjoyed other culture by accepting and doing it in daily basis, especially for films and foods. It is not hard to find kinds of western food and coffee chains in South Korea. As written in New York Times by Ben Schott, coffee shop is of the most favourite place for South Korean to work, study or socialise so the, to make it short they call it “Coffice‟. Furthermore, the Korean language has had a huge influx of English words, sometimes called as Konglish. Konglish is the use of English words in a Korean context. Moreover, South Korean has been highly influenced by foreign styles both in fashion and music (Schott, 2010).

2.1.4 Art

According to Asia Society, Korean art has been highly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, which can be seen in the many traditional paintings, sculptures, ceramics and the performing arts (, 2013). Moreover, according to Center of Foreign Languages and Culture, post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony between man and

9 nature was also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international events and exhibits in Korea, and with it brought more diversity (http://uic.edu.hk, 2014).

Korean television shows, especially the short form dramatic mini-series called "dramas", have also become popular outside of Korea, becoming another driving trend for wider recognition. The trend has caused some Korean actors to become better known abroad. The dramas are popular mostly in Asia. The stories have tended to have a romance focus, such as Princess Hours, Winter Sonata, Full House, and Secret Garden. Historical/fantasy dramas have included Dae Jang Geum, The Legend, and Dong Yi an.

Until the 1990s, trot and ballads are popular music that dominates South Korea (http://uic.edu.hk, 2014). According to “K-Pop: A New Force in Pop Music” by Yoon-mi Kim and Haeoe Hongbowon, as time goes by, pop music in South Korea keep growing and is much influenced by the western music. Korean pop music pre- modern first appeared in the 1930s due to the entry of Japanese pop music which also affect the initial elements of pop music in Korea. Japanese occupation of Korea also makes Korean music genre can‟t be evolving and just follow the development of Japanese pop culture at the time. In the 1950s and 1960s, the influence of western pop music started to go with the many musical performances held by the U.S. military bases in South Korea (Yoon-mi Kim, 2011). As South Korea music developing over time, in the 2000s RnB music as well as Hip-Hop mixed with American RnB and Hip-Hop elements is becoming a hits and it is the year also for the “Hallyu” wave, which is to the spread of Korean pop culture globally in various countries around the world, especially through music.

Grooming and going to plastic surgeon is not a rare thing in South Korean society and also, it is not a hard thing in South Korea to find men dressed up. Most of South Koreans are tend to look for the best, as they think that appearance is the most crucial thing for any business. As reported in The Oxonian Globalist, the turning point is when the South Korean President, Roh Moo-hyun‟s 2005 operation to get a double-eyelid, has boosted up South Korean perception about being “pretty”,

10 especially men (Robb, 2012). They tend to look and follow their public figure style in order to look perfect and be acceptable in society.

2.2 Korean Pop Culture

In 1992 marks the beginning of modern pop music in Korea which gave a new color to the genre of rap music, rock, techno. This trend also produced many music bands and other quality musicians until now. Pop music 90s tends wing dance and hip hop. In the 2000s talented newcomers began to appear. R & B music as well as Hip-Hop is oriented to the American print artists sort of MC Mong, 1TYM, , , Big Bang is quite successful in Korea and overseas, not something that is rare for boy bands such as Big Bang or Super Junior had sold out shows in many oversees countries such as Japan, Indonesia, France, Peru, etc.

K-pop, stands for Korean Pop ("Korean Pop Music"), is a type of popular music that originated from South Korea. Hallyu or Korean Wave is the term given to the spread of Korean pop culture globally in various countries around the world, it also triggers people to learn the Korean language and Korean culture, especially in music. Many artists and groups have penetrated the Korean pop music in the country boundaries and popular in foreign. It is also reported in The Telegraph, that ‟s video became the most popular clip ever on YouTube with more than 900 million views (and still increasing at the rate of about nine million a day). It became the first Korean pop song to top the British charts, crossing over into mainstream culture as establishment figures jumped on to the bandwagon (McCormick, 2012).

K-Pop is known for its catchy tunes. It has various element of electronic dance music, such as dubstep, trance, and electro arranged in conventional pop song structure and it is well accepted by society. In addition to taking off in Asia in a big way, K-Pop has found some popularity in the United States, as proved by gaining millions of worldwide viewer each day through their video music on youtube.

Strongly promote the visual and performance of each member in a group, every girl or boy bands have their own management to manage and set them to be as perfect as possible as a public figure. Many of K-Pop fans have even made them as a role model or style icon in South Korea society. These icons go to gym or dermatologist to make them more perfect each day, and it is part from their daily life.

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Even then, many of those Hallyu Stars were willing to do several plastic surgeries in order to have perfect figure. Moreover, many male idols also done plastic surgeries.

Fig. 2.1 Super Junior‟s Kyuhyun has done several times of plastic surgery.

Fig. 2.2 Kwanghee of Idol group ZE:A has done a major plastic surgery to his face.

Fig. 2.3 ‟s Luhan has done plastic surgeries to his nose, chin, and eyelid.

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In terms of style, girl band or boy band has their own image of style. Each band is either represents the image of the band or the image of each member‟s individual personality. Furthermore, the style is also changing rapidly according to some specific requirement, generally for shows, releasing single, debut album or mini album. These pictures of Big Bang below are one example of K-Pop style transformation through their early career, 2006 until 2013.

2.2.1 Kkonminam

Kkonminam is a term used in South Korea since the mid-2000s that refers to Flower Boy. According to “The Effeminacy of Male Beauty In Korea” by Rald Maliangkay, kkonminam is a young men with a great sense of personal style and fashion, popularized by pop idols, who may seem effeminate, in part because they are often shown with make-up, such as eye-liner or lip gloss. Moreover, although they are sometimes regarded as Korean Bishōnen, their gender is not commonly questioned, nor their sexual orientation. Kkonminam was highly influenced by the Japanese Bishōnen (Maliangkay, 2010). According to “Contemporary Japanese Culture” by Sharalyn Orbaugh, Bishōnen is meaning "beautiful youth (boy)". The

13 term describes an aesthetic that is a young man whose beauty (and sexual appeal) transcends the boundary of gender or sexual orientation. It has always shown the strongest manifestation in Japanese pop culture, gaining in popularity due to the androgynous glam rock bands of the 1970s (Orbaugh, 2002).

Fig. 2.4 X Japan circa 1990, one of the Japanese heavy metal band that was influenced by androgynous glam rock bands of the 1970s.

source: www.jpopasia.com

The raising of kkonminam itself came from the history of the ban on the import of Japanese media and culture in South Korea that happened in 1945. At the time, the Korean government banned all the Japanese culture that was coming to South Korea. According to “Control of Japanese Culture in Korea” by Tomoko Nakamura, the South Koreans had no access to Japanese media at all until the 1990s. Until then, for the first time in early January 1999 the product of Japan are acceptable in South Korea, many of South Korean teenager are able to read and watch cartoon or manga. Since the ban on the import of Japanese media was allowed, many of the teenagers were highly influenced by the character of manga. Manga has influenced the reader mainly is their appearance. Not only the Korean teenagers, the boy band and girl band and many actors in South Korea are being influenced by the bishōnen phenomenon. Mostly, the teenagers in South Korea are

14 really looking up to their favorite idol, the most common thing is that they like to follow their idols hairstyle. The South Korean actors that are well known for their „Kkonminam‟ label are Lee Min-Ho, Lee Jun Ki, Bae Yong Joon.

Fig. 2.5 Lee Min Ho

source : www.fanpop.com

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2.2.2 G-Dragon

Better known by his stage name, G-Dragon, Kwon Ji Yong is South Korean rapper, singer, producer, songwriter, dancer, and a model. According to All Kpop, recently he won the Style Icon Top 10 and the 2013 Style Icon of the Year Award at 2013 SIA that even made him as a fashion icon in South Korean fashion scene (http://www.allkpop.com, 2013). He began his music career at the age of 5 as one of the member of the kids group Little Lula, and when the contract was off, he moved to SM Entertainment which little Ji Yong was scouted while on ski trip with his family. He specializing dance for 5 years in SM Entertainment until the age of 13. Then, he began to gain some interest and learn in rap music, which inspired by American rap group Wu Tang Clan.

According to Asiae, he participated in the release of the Korean hip- hop Flex album in 2001, becoming the youngest Korean rapper at just 13 years old (http://www.asiae.co.k, 2012). He later got the contract to another label, YG Entertainment. As reported in Sports Chosun, he has been trained for five years, G- Dragon met his future fellow Big Bang member, Dong Young Bae better known by his stage name . Both began a hip-hop duo called “GDYB” and made several singles. According to Sport Chosun (2006) after six years of training, Kwon made several featured appearances on other artists' albums and even released several singles with Dong Young-bae under the name "GDYB". G-Dragon made his official debut as the leader of the group Big Bang in 2006, after six years of training under YG Entertainment, with Dong Youngbae and three other members, T.O.P, , (http://foto.sportschosun.com, 2006). He made several mini album and full album with Big Bang in the last 7 years, G-Dragon also made a solo career and had made some solo album in 2009.

Heartbreaker is his first solo album, and Korea reported that, the album sold over 200,000 copies and won as the Album of the Year from the 2009 (http://en.korea.com, 2014). In November 2010, YG Entertainment announced the collaboration album from G-Dragon and bandmate T.O.P. According to 10asiae, “GD&TOP” was released on Christmas Eve, and debuted at number one on the Gaon Chart with pre-orders of 200,000 copies, and eventually sold 130,000

16 copies (http://gaonchart.co.kr/, 2011). G-Dragon and fellow member T.O.P also featured in English artist Pixie Lott's upcoming Japanese album.

On August 24, 2012, G-Dragon released mini album “One of a Kind”. According to Billboard, the album also places first on the Billboard World Album Chart and entered the Billboard 200 Chart at 161 for the week (www.billboard.com, 2012). As of the end of 2012, the album has sold over 200,000 copies, making it the highest selling solo album in Korea since the release of Heartbreaker in 2009, also by G-Dragon. On November 30, 2012, he won as Best Male Solo Artist at the 14th Mnet Asian Music Awards. On January 31, 2013, he also won Record of the Year award for "One Of A Kind" at the 22nd . Moreover, in January 2013, he was the first Korean solo Artist to embark 4 dome tour in Japan (When before replace the 3 dome tour in March) and the 1st Solo World Tour.

Other than have interest in music, G-Dragon also famous for his love for fashion. He even interest in majoring fashion. Known as most fashionable one among his group in Big Bang, G-Dragon has influenced fashion trends in South Korea have garnered him awards such as the "Style Icon of 2008" and in 2008 he got the award by Arena Magazine for “Most Influential Men of 2008”. Also, as reported by Daily News (2011) the rapper also topped Forbes listing of "Most Hardworking Idol", and made into its list "Korea 2030 Power Leaders" (http://www.dkpopnews.net/, 2010).

Furthermore, famous by his chameleon style, G-Dragon began to get public attention since the beginning of his debut album Heartbreaker by dyed his hair to blond. Many fans are going all G-Dragon, and the other breaking style that caught people‟s attention is his “Seaweed” hair as fans called it while promoting the Big Bang‟s 2012 album, Alive.

Fig. 2.6 G-Dragon‟s blond hair in his early solo career.

source: www.allkpop.com

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Fig. 2.7 G-Dragon‟s “seaweed” hair.

source: www.subeta.net

G-Dragon‟s style has changing rapidly, time by time, both his fashion and hair style. In his early career as seen photo below, he was more into RnB to Hip-Hop style and his style develop over time into more various kind of style, mostly influenced by street style to dandy, punk rock star, a bit Hip-Hop, etc.

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Fig. 2.8 G-Dragon on Dazed&Confused Korea cover

source: www.sourcherry.com

Fig. 2.9 Vogue Korea anniversary issue

source: www.bigbangupdates.com

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Fig. 2.10 G-Dragon on his music video “Coup d‟etat”

source: www.xiahpop.com

Fig. 2.11 “Crooked” music video that shoot in London, UK

source: www.bigbangupdates.com

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2.3 Dandy According to Dandyism: Beyond Fashion by Chevalier d‟Hamilton, Dandy or dandyism first appear historically in late 18th- and early 19-th century in Britain. By definition the dandyism is a man who takes an excessive interest in their physical appearance as an important thing to be kept, in a cult of self, as well as talks softly in refined language to others and carry themselves in nonchalance attitude. This modern practice of dandyism first appeared both in London and in Paris right in the revolutionary era of 1790s. Despite coming from a middle-class background, a dandy who was self-made gentleman likes to dress elegantly and tried hard to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle (http://www.gbacg.org/, 2012). According to the “Beau Brummell: This Charming Man” movie by Philippa Lowthorpe, it is a trend that doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status (Lowthorpe, 2006). Furthermore, according to “On Englishness in Dress” by Aileen Ribeiro, dandyism is including nostalgic adherence to pre-industrial values, such as the ideals of “the perfect gentleman” or “the autonomous aristocrat”, therefore, the connection between clothing and political protest had become an English characteristic, in particular (Ribeiro, 2002). Charles Beaudelaire who was a French poet in his essay “The Painter of Modern Life” said, "These beings have no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons, of satisfying their passions, of feeling and thinking .... Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of his mind." (Beaudelaire, 2010)

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2.3.1 Early Dandyism

Dandyism had been influencing man all around London and Paris. Some public figures were notably known for brought this social trend to political protestation. Beau Brummell is one iconic and an original dandy in British society, which he was not born from the aristocratic background. According to The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm by Ellen Moers, he established the mode of dress for men that rejected overly ornate fashions for one of understated, but perfectly fitted and tailored clothing. This look was based on dark coats, full-length trousers rather than knee breeches and stockings, and above all immaculate shirt linen and an elaborately knotted cravat (Moers, 1960). Moreover, according to “, he is famous for introducing and establishing as fashion, the modern men's suit, worn with a necktie (Cassin-Scott, 2006).

Fig. 2.12 Picture of Beau Brummell by Richard Dighton (1805).

source: www.commons.wikimedia.org

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According to “Menswear” by John Hopkins, among the most notable dandies of their ages are George „Beau‟ Brummell, Oscar Wilde and Robert de Montesque. Closely associated with the wearing of fine tailored clothing, contemporary dandies proudly continue a long-standing tradition of sartorial individuality (Hopkins, 2011).

2.3.2 Dandy’s Signature Style

According to “Dandyism: Beyond Fashion” by Chevalier d‟Hamilton there are three types of dandy, the Classical Dandy, the Romantic Dandy, the Sportive Dandy. The Classical Dandy applies Brummelian techniques to his dress, which is following the step by step on how Beau Brummell set up his dress. The Romantic Dandy dresses illustrate a particular mood to his audience, and the Sportive Dandy incorporates elements of sports such as riding or hunting into his daily ensemble (http://www.gbacg.org/, 2012).

Fig. 2.13 Lord Byron set the example for Romantics, as Brummel did for dandies.

source: www.audio-poems.com

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2.3.2.1 Men

According to Colin McDowell “The Man of Fashion: Peacock Males and Perfect Gentlemen”, George Bryan (Beau) Brummel brought a new ethic of taste and restraint. In a word: refinement. “The prototype of modern dress, if the Beau was plain, he was perfectly plain.” said Colin McDowell. Moreover, the original style of dandy came from Beau Brummel‟s aesthetic. Brummel brought to the masculine essentials; an unadorned blue jacket with brass buttons, waistcoat, breeches, shirt and neck cloth, the emphasis was on cut, fit, style and cleanliness. His only complexity was in his laboriously tied white muslin, (not silk) cravat (McDowel, 1997).

Figure 2.14 The Beau Brumell way of dressing up according to “Beau Brumell: This Charming Man” movie by Philippa Lowthorpe (Lowthorpe, 2006).

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2.4 Unisex Apparel

Unisex apparel is clothing which can be worn by both male and female genders, and is to eliminate sexual distinctions in terms of clothing by not distinguishing between male and female. The pattern and the silhouette of the clothes have to having both male and female characteristics. Basically, the common apparel of unisex apparel are shirt and pants. According to, Victoria and Albert Museum, during the mid-1960s Clothing became increasingly unisex as men and women shopped at the same boutiques for similar items and also, the term "unisex" was coined in the 1960s to describe a new style of clothing that specially designed to be worn by both genders. This term was initially born along with the rise of “Peacock” revolution (http://www.vam.ac.uk, 2011). According to “Costume History and Style” by Douglas A. Russell, although, there was French designer Paul Poiret to be one of the first designer who design pants for women, the rise of women wearing men‟s clothing became more popular in the 1920s when corset was rejected by women and they transformed more into masculine look, the women‟s right movement had a strong effect on it (Russell, 1982). According to “Women Who Changed the World” by Ros Horton and Sally Simmons, Coco Chanel is one example of strong figure in this movement by wearing trousers, did not wear corset and cut her hair. It made her to be the most influential woman in fashion, and the icon of emancipation and freedom of women‟s fashion (Ros Horton, 2007).

Fig. 2.15. Coco Chanel with Duke Larino

source: www.missyvintageblog.com

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Moreover, according to “Fashion: The Whole Story” by Marnie Fogg, the trend began during the early 1900s and continued to grow until by the late 1990s. Women wearing pants is not only for daily or casualwear but also to work. Some iconic figures who wearing pants, regularly, are Katherine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich (Fogg, 2013).

Fig. 2.16 Katherine Hepburn (left) and Marlene Dietrich (right).

The trend women wearing menswear nowadays has become more common, as the increasing number of public figure especially in K-pop waves, many of the girl idols often seen wearing some piece from designer‟s menswear collection. For instance, 2NE1‟s leader, CL was wearing piece from Versace‟s menswear collection spring/summer 2013 and Givenchy‟s Rottweiler sweater from its fall/winter 2011 menswear collection.

Fig. 2.17. CL was wearing designer‟s menswear collection on-and-off screen.

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As well as for men, wearing opposite‟s gender wardrobe or wearing piece that can be worn for both men and women was already appeared since ages ago. For instance, leggings have been worn by both men and women throughout the centuries in various forms. According to “Patterns of Fashion: The Cut and Construction of Clothes for Men and Women 1560-1620” by Janet Arnold, from the Renaissance period in 13th to 16th centuries, the hose which were a form of leggings were commonly worn by men around Europe. The used of legging throughout the years are for protection and warmth. In the 1960s legging became more popular, as trousers but much tighter (Arnold, 1985).

Fig. 2.18. Sir Walter Raleigh in paned trunk hose, 1602.

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Some of the popular celebrities such as Kanye West and G-Dragon are also wearing designer‟s womenswear collection.

Fig. 2.19. Kanye West in Celine‟s Womenswear Spring/Summer 2011 collection.

Fig. 2.20. G-Dragon rocked the stage in Marc Jacobs‟s Womenswear collection.

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Moreover, as fashion influenced by the increasingly advanced era, the number of unisexwear designer has risen over time. Celebrity like Lady Gaga is one who wears unisexwear couture collection by Rad Hourani.

Fig. 2.21. Lady Gaga in Rad Hourani Unisexwear couture collection.