Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report
Project Number: TA 7917 March 2013
Republic of Uzbekistan: Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation (Feasibility Study)
Annex 1: Irrigated Agriculture
Prepared by Lahmeyer International in association with Info Capital Group
For the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources
This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents. (For project preparatory technical assistance: All the views expressed herein may not be incorporated into the proposed project’s design.
Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
ANNEX 1
IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
ABBREVIATIONS
ABIS – Amu Bukhara Irrigation System ABISOA – Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Operating Authority ADB – Asian Development Bank AES – agro-economic survey BISA – Basin Irrigation System Administration BVO – River Basin Water Management Organization CC – climate change CDM – Clean Development Mechanism CRU-WG – Climate Research Unit – Weather Generator DMI – domestic, municipal, and industrial EA – executing agency FAO – United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization GDP – gross domestic product GHG – greenhouse gas ha – hectare HGME – Hydrogeological Meliorative Expedition I&D – irrigation and drainage IE – irrigation efficiency IEE – initial environmental examination IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IR – Inception Report ISA – Irrigation System Administration km – kilometer MAWR – Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources MCA – Main Canal Administration MOU – Memorandum of Understanding O&M – operation and maintenance NGO – non-governmental organization POW – productivity of water PPTA – project preparatory technical assistance PSE&C – Pump Station, Energy and Communications RP – Resettlement Plan RRP – Report and Recommendations of the President SA – Social Assessment SCADA – supervisory control and data and acquisition SPS – Safeguard Policy Statement SRES – Special Report Emissions Scenarios TOR – terms of reference UNFCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UZBS – Uzbek Soum (national currency) WUA – water users association
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
GLOSSARY
Bonitet Classification system for land productivity potential Dekhan Household plot used for households immediate food requirements and sale of surplus. Given to head of family for the livelong ownership. Size of dekhan farms: irrigated land 0.35 ha and 0.50 on non-irrigated area Glavgosecoexpertiza Main Directorate for State Ecological Expertise, or SEE Goskompriroda State Nature Protection Committee Khokim Province or District Governor Khokimiyat Local government authority Makhalla Collection of villages to create a community village Oblast Province (Russian version) Oblvodkhozy Province administration O’zuvnazorat Water inspectorate Rayon District (Russian version) Rayvodkhozy District administration Shirkat Cooperative farm, successor of former kolkhoz Turman District, smaller administrative unit of the viloyat Uzglavgidromet Chief Hydrometeorological Administration Viloyat Province administrative unit of Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan has 12 viloyats and 1 autonomous republic of Karakalpakstan
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
ANNEX 1 – IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
CONTENTS
I. IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ...... 1 A. Introduction ...... 1 B. Project Location and Population ...... 5 C. Agro-climatic Characteristics ...... 7 D. Land Resources ...... 9 1. Soil Types ...... 9 2. Mechanical Composition of Soils ...... 12 3. Salinity of Irrigated lands ...... 14 4. Qualitative Analysis of the Irrigated Lands ...... 20 E. Organizational Structure of ABIS ...... 20 1. Organizations supporting the Agricultural Sector ...... 22 2. Organizations supporting the Water Sector...... 22 3. Hydrogeological Ameliorative Expedition ...... 23 4. Water Users Associations and Farmers ...... 24 II. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ...... 26 A. General Information on Land Resources in the Project Area ...... 26 B. Cropping Pattern and Crop Rotations ...... 27 C. Planting of Winter Wheat over Growing Cotton ...... 32 D. Soil Treatment ...... 33 E. Land Levelling ...... 34 F. Fertilizing Rates and Terms ...... 34 1. Mineral Fertilizers ...... 34 2. Organic Fertilizers ...... 35 G. Crops Varieties and Sowing ...... 35 1. Winter Wheat ...... 35 2. Cotton ...... 36 H. Plant Protection ...... 36 I. Irrigation Methods and Techniques ...... 36 J. Crop Yield ...... 37 III. ASSESSMENT OF WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CROP IRRIGATION ...... 39 A. Overview ...... 39 B. Hydro-module Zoning of Territory in Respect to Calculation of Irrigation Demands ...... 41 1. Principles of Soil-meliorative Zoning ...... 41 2. Hydro-module Zoning ...... 43 3. Design Values of Irrigation Rates for Hydro-modules ...... 45
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
C. Crop Water Requirements ...... 46 IV. PERENNIAL TREE PLANTATIONS ...... 52 V. LIVESTOCK FARMING AND FISHERIES ...... 53 A. Livestock Farming ...... 53 B. Fisheries ...... 54 VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 56 A. Analysis of Outcomes of International Projects in Uzbekistan ...... 56 1. Benefits from the Improved Agronomic Measures ...... 57 2. Benefits from Laser Levelling and Deep Ripping ...... 58 3. Benefits from Integrated Land Management ...... 59 B. Conclusions ...... 59 C. Recommendations ...... 61 1. Recommendations on Improved Crop Rotations ...... 61 2. Irrigation and Drainage ...... 62 3. Land Preparation ...... 62 4. Possibilities for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation ...... 63
List of Appendices
Appendix 1: Institutional Setting and Issues Appendix 2: Groundwater Levels (2010-2011) Appendix 3: Groundwater Salinity (2010-2011) Appendix 4: Soil Salinity (2010-2011) Appendix 5: Soil Fertility (2011) Appendix 6: Availability of Agricultural Machinery Appendix 7: Agricultural Cropping Pattern by District (2011) Appendix 8: Allocated and Applied Fertilizer (2012) Appendix 9: Crop Yields for Cotton and Wheat (2008-2011) Appendix 10: Hydro-module Irrigation Norms by Crop Type and District Appendix 11: Demonstration Area for Pilot Project
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Location of Amu Bukhara Irrigation System ...... 6 Figure 2: ABIS soils map ...... 10 Figure 3: Saline land in the ABIS (%) by district ...... 16 Figure 4: Groundwater levels in ABIS (July 2011) ...... 18 Figure 5: ABIS groundwater quality map ...... 19 Figure 6: Organizational chart of water resources and agricultural management ...... 21 Figure 7: Organizational chart of Amu Bukhara BISA ...... 23 Figure 8: ABIS cropping patterns diagram ...... 28 Figure 9: ABIS crop trends (1990 to 2011) ...... 29 Figure 10: Long-term trend in ABIS cotton yields (1991-2011) ...... 38 Figure 11: ABIS hydro-modules ...... 44
List of Tables
Table 1: Long-term mean climate data ...... 8 Table 2: Soil map explanation ...... 11 Table 3: Nutrients and microelements content ...... 12 Table 4: Main water and physical properties of loamy soils ...... 13 Table 5: Hydro-module Guide ...... 14 Table 6: Characteristics of ameliorative condition of ABIS irrigated lands (2011) ...... 15 Table 7: Concentration of soil solution at field water capacity, g/l ...... 16 Table 8: Change of yield class compared to conditions in 1991 ...... 20 Table 9: Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs) of Amu-Bukhara Basin Irrigation System Administration (BISA) ...... 22 Table 10: Assessment of farmers’ education and agricultural capacity ...... 25 Table 11: Type of land use in ABIS, ha ...... 27 Table 12: Cropping pattern on arable lands (2011) ...... 30 Table 13: Cropping pattern on irrigated lands (2011) ...... 31 Table 14: Double crops after winter wheat in Bukhara region (2011) ...... 32 Table 15: Bulk weight and class yield ...... 34 Table 16: Average crop yield in АBIS area in 2009-2011 (t/ha) ...... 37 Таble 17: Comparison of ABIS crop yields with international norms (t/ha) ...... 38 Table 18: ABIS hydro-module zoning (existing and project conditions) ...... 43 Table 19: Cropping pattern on irrigated lands for calculating irrigation water requirements (%) ... 47 Table 20: Land areas irrigated by ABIS main pump station and by Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs) ...... 48 Table 21: ABIS crop water requirements during the vegetation season (2012) ...... 49 Table 22: ABIS crop water requirements during the non-vegetation season (2012) ...... 50 Table 23: ABIS annual crop water requirements by pump station (2012) ...... 51 Table 24: Livestock production in Bukhara region ...... 53 Table 25: Information about water bodies in the vicinity of the ABIS ...... 54
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
Table 26: Fisheries in the vicinity of the ABIS ...... 55 Table 27: Crop yield rise and overall benefits from improvement measures ...... 57 Table 28: Indices of economic efficiency of laser levelling ...... 58 Table 29: Comparative table of cotton budget on pilot (PF) and existing farms ...... 59 Table 30: Schedule of crop rotation for raising soil productivity ...... 62
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Annex 1 - Agriculture
I. IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
A. Introduction
1. During the last century, when cotton production reached its maximum scale in Uzbekistan, large pump stations were constructed that irrigated not only individual farms and districts, but entire regions of the country. Thus, after construction of the Amu Karakul Canal (1962) and Amu Bukhara Canal (1964-1965, 1975), the Bukhara Province and a portion of the Navoi Province came to be irrigated with water from the Amu Darya River.
2. Since the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System (ABIS) was commissioned, the main pumps, electric motors, and auxiliary systems have exceeded their design life span. Water supplies have become more unreliable due to increasingly expensive maintenance requirements of the aging pump stations, including several major failures of pumping equipment, and this poses a significant risk to agricultural production in the region and to the livelihood of local communities. Due to the potential for reduced diversions from the Amu Darya River, the ever present risk of drought, and future challenges related to global climate change, feasible adaptation measures are required, which first of all should involve better agricultural practice aimed towards increasing water productivity and preserving land fertility.
3. This annex discusses agricultural water management in ABIS, including existing land and water use practices at the farm level, based on current data, and reviews natural and economical restrictions that limit agricultural productivity. It also provides recommendations for improving the situation.
4. When preparing this information, available data from ABISOA, BISA, ISAs, HGME, the regional and district departments of the MAWR, and official published statistics, as well as discussions held with stakeholders, and personal experience and observations, were used.
B. Sector Performance, Problems, and Opportunities
3 5. Uzbekistan with an annual per capita water endowment of 1,850 m is approaching the threshold of water stress1. Uzbekistan’s water resources are over allocated with too much irrigated land presently withdrawing more than 100% of its supply.2 The country is also facing increasing water scarcity and salinity, poor service delivery and low agricultural productivity of water (POW). These interrelated problems occur at the river basin-level and require a challenging transition from development to integrated river basin management. At the system level a lack of adequate maintenance results in deterioration of irrigation and drainage infrastructure, organizational management capacity is limited, and agriculture faces a variety of environmental and policy constraints.
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6. Irrigated agriculture accounts for 90% of agricultural production and over 40% of employment in Uzbekistan, and remains a key economic sector. Together with agriculture-based rural small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)1, it is the main source of livelihood for rural communities. To further improve rural living standards, the government developed the Welfare Improvement Strategy2 and in 2011 launched the Integrated Rural Development Strategy. The key elements of these strategies are: (i) improved agricultural production, (ii) promotion of nonagricultural economic development in rural areas, (iii) upgraded rural transport networks, (iv) enhanced water supply services, and (v) strengthened education and health services in regions. Enhancing the productivity and sustainability of irrigated agriculture, which covers 4.3 million ha, is a central theme of both strategies as over 60% of the population live in rural areas and depend on irrigated agriculture for their livelihood. Irrigation and drainage (I&D) are also critical to agricultural productivity, competitiveness, and environmental management.
7. Compared with other countries, Uzbekistan’s irrigated agricultural sector has performed far below its potential. Uzbekistan was once a main producer of cotton and a large supplier of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables to other parts of the former Soviet Union. Since independence in 1991, the government’s quest for wheat self- sufficiency has had a significant effect on cropping systems and crop production. For many years, the sector has relied on large government subsidies resulting mainly from low fixed prices for cotton and wheat which have drained the sector of resources. Despite government resolutions on deepening reforms, the performance of the agriculture sector has experienced only margin improvement because of persisting rigid top-down management command and control systems. The government sets mandatory production targets and the farmers are subject to quotas to grow large areas with subsidized credits and inputs.
8. While Uzbekistan’s I&D infrastructure was built to sound technical standards, it has been in operation far beyond its economic life and is rapidly deteriorating. The outdated low energy-efficient equipment exacerbates the already high water application rates that lead to land salinization and degradation. The environmental consequences of land degradation and rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are likely to increase unless more is invested in I&D. Modernizing the deteriorating I&D infrastructure is therefore of paramount importance for the government to ensure sustained agricultural production and economic growth.
1 In 2011, the government launched a program to promote rural small and medium-sized enterprises. 2 Republic of
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9. The current major challenges for the sector include: (i) limited investment (agriculture’s hare in GDP has decreased from 3% in 1995 to 2% in 2002 and continues to fall); (ii) reduced agricultural productivity caused by low water-us efficiency (about 40% on average); (iii) deteriorating main and on-farm infrastructure that has outlived its economic life; (iv) reliance on pump irrigation that covers 65% of the irrigated area, absorbs 70% of the annual operation and maintenance (O&M) budget, and consumes 20% of the country’s electricity; (v) low pump station energy efficiency caused by the system’s poor state of repair and old designs; (vi) poor water management practices; and (vii) high climate sensitivity as 500% water deficit is projected by 2050, resulting in droughts and further desertification.3 Such drier environment is expected to be more reliant on already scarce water resources. Thus, substantial investments in I&D and water management will be required to maintain food security.
C. Government’s Sector Strategy
10. A lack of agricultural support/extension services has been identified as a major sector constraint on productivity in the country.4 This situation is particularly acute because of the limited capacities and minimal technical knowledge available within the established Water User Associations (WUAs), and the reliance on inadequate quasi-state institutions providing seeds, fertiliser and other support products and services.
11. Productivity of water (POW) is calculated, on a unit area basis, as the crop yield (T) divided by water consumption (m3) and has units of T/m3. Empirical analysis from the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) indicates that for Uzbekistan 20% more wheat could be produced on 25% less land (yield increased by 60%) while maintaining present total water consumption.5 This indicates that productivity is presently low because water is over allocated owing to over-extended irrigation areas and that optimum crop water requirements (consumption) are not met. Improvement and consolidation of existing areas should receive priority over new development.6 Improving agricultural POW is important: (i) to meet rising food demands, in light of increasing water scarcity; (ii) to respond to competing demands on water between agriculture, drinking water, industry and environmental uses; and (iii) to contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth including better nutrition for families, productive employment, higher incomes, and greater equity. Targeting high water productivity can reduce investment costs by reducing the amount of water that has to be withdrawn.7
3 World Bank. 2010. Climate Change and Agriculture – Uzbekistan Country Note. 4 ADB. 2008 Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loan to the Republic of Uzbekistan for Water Resources Management Sector Project (40086). Manila. 5 Figures 7.2 and 7.3, in CGIAR (2007) Water for Food, Water for Life – A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture: present winter wheat yield is 4.2T/ha, potential consumption 500mm, potential winter wheat yield, with full consumption, is 9.2T/ha, and crop water stress is assumed to account for half the yield gap. 6 ADB. 2012, Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia (draft). 7 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and Colombo: International Water Management Institute.
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12. In the future air temperatures owing to climate change are anticipated to result in less runoff owing to: (i) shorter winters; (ii) a higher percentage of precipitation in the upper catchment will be rain rather than snow; and, (iii) increased evapotranspiration. Glacier degradation is observed to be accelerating and by 2085 a notable reduction in glacier runoff is expected, which although not contributing highly to flow in the wet years, makes a major contribution in drier years. Climate models and river basin models suggest the changes in Amu Darya flows.8 These values agree with the Second National Communications (SNCs) of both Tajikistan and Uzbekistan that show a 10% to 15% decrease in annual runoff by the 2050s. In conditions of irrigation water deficit more frequent atmospheric drought would intensify negative impact on agricultural production, as extreme weather conditions (high temperatures, low humidity) has already increased a water consumption by crops, water losses in irrigation system and intensified salt accumulation in soil.
13. Rehabilitation needs are substantial, but funding from the government and its development partners is limited, and so investments must be prioritized. The government prefers to focus on rehabilitating pump stations, such as the main pump stations in the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System, and related inter-farm canals, and improving water management from the river basin to the WUA level.
D. ADB Sector Experience and Assistance Program
14. The ADB recognizes the need to maintain the water infrastructure and to strengthen water institutions and it continues to provide support to the rehabilitation and upgrading of irrigation and drainage infrastructure, capacity development and policy reforms. Since 2001, ADB has helped the government improve agriculture performance by implementing a number of projects and is the largest external supporter of the sector. The Ak Altin Agricultural Development Project,9 strengthened rural institutions and water- user associations (WUAs) and rehabilitated I&D systems. The Grain Productivity Improvement Project10 promoted sustainable wheat production, improved farm management, and developed input supply and processing enterprises. ADB is supporting three projects in the sector. The rehabilitation of Amu Zang Irrigation System11—one of the largest pump irrigation schemes in the country—will increase the reliability, efficiency, and sustainability of irrigation water supply. The Land Improvement Project12 is enhancing land quality and productivity by rehabilitating I&D infrastructure and improving water management practices. The aim of the Water Resources Management Sector Project13 is to sustain and increase agriculture productivity in the Zarafshan River Basin and Fergana Valley by upgrading pumping stations, canals, and structures, and improving water management.
8, Olsson, O. and Bauer, M., 2010. 9 ADB. 2010. Completion Report Uzbekistan: Ak Altin Agricultural Development Project. Manila. 10 ADB. 2004. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on a Proposed Loan to Uzbekistan for Grain Productivity Improvement Project. Manila. 11 ADB. 2004. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on a Proposed Loan to Uzbekistan for Amu Zang Irrigation Rehabilitation Project. Manila. 12 ADB. 2006. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loans andTechnical Assistance Grant to the Republic of Uzbekistan for Land Improvement Project. Manila. 13 ADB. 2008. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loan to the Republic of Uzbekistan for Water Resources Management Sector Project. Manila
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15. The World Bank is implementing three projects supporting rural finance and business planning, on-farm and inter-farm rehabilitation, and rural advisory services. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) provides assistance in water and farm management and farmers’ business training. The Swiss Development and Cooperation (SDC) Agency supports on-farm water management and canal automation.
16. The water resource sector, and the agricultural sector to which it is inextricably linked, are expected to remain the dominant sector in the economy, supporting the livelihood of the majority of the population and continuing to provide employment for over a third of the workforce. The government recognizes agriculture as an engine for growth for the economy, and acknowledges the importance of private and public investment in the sector in generating growth. The main objectives of Uzbekistan’s agricultural policy in recent years are to: (i) maximize and stabilize export revenues from agricultural outputs, (ii) achieve food security/ self-sufficiency ion wheat production, (iii) redistribute revenue from agriculture to other sectors of the economy, and (iv) Improve rural standards of living.
17. Through the ABIS Rehabilitation Project, ADB will continue to help the government raise agricultural productivity and rural incomes in a sustainable manner, and help meet rural nonfarm industries’ and communities’ demand for water, which is increasing as a result of the Rural Development Strategy. ADB’s long-term strategic framework for 2008–202014 recognizes that irrigation and water management are core areas for infrastructure investment and that tackling climate change is essential to securing sustainable development. ADB's country strategy and program for Uzbekistan15 prioritizes accelerated environmentally sustainable support for agricultural productivity and growth, specifically improved water management through the upgrading of water facilities and strengthening of water institutions. In line with ADB's Water Policy16 investments in the sector provide crucial assistance for: (i) improving and expanding the delivery of water services, and (ii) fostering water conservation and increase system efficiency.
E. Project Location and Population
18. The ABIS with a command area of 315,000 ha is located in the central part of Uzbekistan, on the right bank of Amu Darya River, and serves the irrigated lands of the Bukhara-Zarafshan and Karakul oases and the Karaulbazar massif (refer to Figure 1).
19. The ABIS includes five (5) ISAs providing water for irrigated agriculture in the Bukhara Province and part of the Navoi Province.
20. The population size within the ABIS command area is 1,788,000 people, including 1,550,000 in Bukhara and 239,000 in two districts of Navoi. It is impossible to overstate the importance of reliable water supplies for such a large and important region, 68% of which live in rural areas and fully rely on irrigated agriculture.
14 ADB. 2008. Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian Development Bank 2008- 2020. 15 ADB. 2006. Country Strategy and Program, Uzbekistan (2006–2010). Manila. 16 ADB. 2000. Water for All: The Water Policy of the Asian Development Bank. Manila.
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Figure 1: Location of Amu Bukhara Irrigation System
Source: Present Study, 2013
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F. Agro-climatic Characteristics
21. With regard to climatic conditions the territory of ABIS has a typical, although in a way mitigated by irrigation, climate of Central Asian deserts. It is characterized by slight precipitation, high temperature in the vegetation period and relatively low in winter, high air dryness and evaporation in summer.
22. Climatic conditions having an impact on agricultural production were assessed as agro-climatic resources in the region. The climate has an impact on soil formation, the water and salinity balance, crop selection, the chemical composition of water supplies, among other features of the local agro-hydrological environment.
23. According to the general soil and climatic zoning scheme accepted for the Aral Sea Basin, the ABIS is located in the desert area at the southern part of the Central Turan Region, which is characterized by a continental type climate. An extremely arid climate is attributed to the desert area as characterized by: large daily and annual temperature fluctuations; very hot summers with few cloudy days and low humidity; and low levels of precipitation in winter.
24. Dry air and intensive solar radiation cause a high evaporative potential of the surface layer of the atmosphere. Annual evaporation reaches 1,500 to 1,600 mm. That is, evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation, which is characteristic of the acute dryness of the Turan desert. According to UNEP aridity index (0.05-0.20 to 0.65), the area is continuously affected by air and soil droughts.
25. The irrigated oasis has a specific microclimate at the soil surface, which is formed by local soil surface evaporation and plant transpiration. Differences at the surface layer of the atmosphere, above the irrigated fields relative to the surrounding desert in the summer daytime, may reach 14-15ºС, and relative air humidity 60-70%. These differences resolve at 2 m above the soil surface. Thus, cultivated vegetation of the oasis is under milder climate conditions than could be seen by long-term meteorological records taken in the desert.
26. To assess climate conditions in the project area, annual average data of weather stations in Navoi, Kagan and Karakoul were used, which are summarized in the Table 1.
27. Table 1 provides climatic data from weather stations of Navoi, Bukhara and Karakoul during a long-term period. One can note the trend that in the western part of ABIS, the climate is more continental than in the eastern part. For example, annual precipitation according to the Navoi weather station is 216.9 mm and according to Karakoul weather station is 116.5 mm. Evaporability according to Navoi weather station is 1,406.3 mm and according to Karakoul weather station is 1,591.4 mm. The monthly distribution of precipitation is extremely uneven with the maximum in the winter-spring period. There is pronounced wind erosion. There are hot dry winds in the vegetation period, especially in summer months when the maximum air temperatures are 38-40ºC. Maximum wind velocity according to long-term observations is 20-25 m/s.
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Table 1: Long-term mean climate data
Weather Months station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Annual Average monthly and annual air temperature, C Navoi -0.4 2.6 8.9 15.7 21.6 26.7 28.0 25.4 19.4 13.2 8.1 3.1 14.4 Bukhara -1.1 1.9 8.7 16.1 22.3 26.9 28.0 25.3 19.7 13.0 7.3 1.9 14.3 Karakoul -0.4 2.5 9.2 16.7 23.1 27.8 29.0 26.6 20.7 13.8 8.1 2.4 15.2 Average monthly and annual relative air humidity, % Navoi 74 72 66 62 45 36 39 41 49 55 65 73 56.0 Bukhara 74 70 64 58 42 36 39 40 44 51 62 73 54.4 Karakoul 74 69 62 55 38 32 36 36 42 52 64 74 53.0 Average monthly and annual precipitation, mm Navoi 31.6 27.8 46.4 42.7 18.0 1.6 1.2 0.5 0.7 5.8 17.7 22.9 216.9 Bukhara 17.1 16.2 28.9 30.4 9.0 0.9 1.9 0.6 0.4 5.2 10.8 13.3 134.7 Karakoul 18.5 14.2 26.3 23.3 6.2 1.3 0.8 0.1 0.5 3.7 9.9 11.7 116.5 Evaporability according to Ivanov (with Molchanov factor 0.8), mm Navoi 22.7 30.7 56.3 90.6 171.9 246.3 246.7 215.7 144.8 94.6 55.2 30.7 1,406.3 Bukhara 21.4 31.3 58.9 102.2 186.8 248.2 246.7 218.6 161.1 101.9 57.1 28.1 1,462.3 Karakoul 23.0 34.0 64.0 113.0 207.0 273.0 268.7 245.4 174.4 104.0 56.8 28.1 1,591.4 Average monthly and annual wind velocity, m/s Navoi 3.5 3.7 4.2 3.7 3.3 3.3 2.9 2.9 2.1 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.2 Bukhara 3.0 3.3 3.7 3.6 3.5 4.2 3.8 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.5 2.9 3.4 Karakoul 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.9 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.5 Monthly and annual number of days with wind velocity over 15 m/s Navoi 0.9 1.0 1.8 0.9 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.3 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.5 12.5 Bukhara 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.4 5.2 Karakoul 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0.2 3.5 Source: Agroclimatic Resources of Bukhara, Navoi and Karakoul
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28. Air temperature in the summer is 27 to 29ºС, while absolute maximum reaches 43ºС. The average temperature in January is approximately 0ºС, while the absolute recorded minimum is -18.9ºС, which was recorded at Bukhara City. Annual rainfall is only about 120-200 mm on average.
29. Unfavourable weather conditions such as frost, hail and dry, strong winds (up to 15 m/s) may occur in entire area. Average wind speeds vary from 3-4 m/s to 6-10 m/s, causing severe dust storms, which is typical for such desert areas. The number of days with dust storms varies from 10 to 30 days per year.
30. The frost-free period is long (about 220 days). The high cumulative temperatures in the area (4600 to 4700ºС) allow for the production many heat-tolerant crops. In general the climate is characterised by hot summers. Even the spring and autumn periods have mostly warm days, but the nights are relatively cool, which is seasonal restrictive factor for heat-tolerant crops such as cotton.
31. National genetic selection work has resulted in new crop varieties, which are more adapted to the local conditions and have higher yield potential. However, to implement this potential, it is required to follow the appropriate agro-technical standards according to the specific variety.
G. Land Resources
1. Soil Types
32. The soil mantle was formed under conditions of the desert type soil formation. According to Uzbekistan’s soil and climatic zoning, the project area falls under the southern sub-area of central desert area (C-II-А). Hydrogeological and geomorphological features play a significant role in soil formation processes. Surface slopes range from 0.002-0.005 to 0.0005-0.001, creating complicated groundwater flow, and increase the soil’s susceptibility to salinity.
33. Soils are of the desert type (desert-sandy, grey-brown, and takyr). Commencement of irrigation raised groundwater levels up to 3-5m, 2-3 m and 1-2 m, depending on the location within ABIS, which resulted in the transformation of soils. Currently, the soil mantle is classified as meadow-desert, meadow-takyr and meadow type (depending on groundwater level). Meadow-bog soils are developed in areas with groundwater level of 0.5-1.0 m (refer to Figure 2 and the map explanations in Table 2).
34. Prevailing soils have poor fertility, and low humus content (< 1%) and nutrients, are affected by salt, and require treatment because of the high tendency to develop crust formation.
35. Soil absorbed base is less than 10 mg-eqv/100 g of soil, i.e., soil are not able to retain much nutrients. Under a GEF grant (ADB LIP Project, 2011) soil surveys were done on demonstration plots in Jondor, Bukhara, Romitan, and Kizil-Tepa Districts. The results showed low and very low content of Ca, P and especially humus; however, micro- elements (Cu, Zn, Mn, B, Mo) in all samplings complied or some exceeded the standards (refer to Table 3).
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Figure 2: ABIS soils map
Source: Uzsuvloyiha, 2012
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Table 2: Soil map explanation Groundwater No. of Hydro-module Gross area Soil Characteristics Level (m) soil Exist. Design Exist. Design ha % C-II-A – Central latitudinal desert area of Central Asia (Turan depression) D-7 – ancient valley of Zarafshan River, D-8 – 2nd terrace above flood-plain of Zarafshan River, D-9 – Karakul estuary, D-10 - 2nd terrace above flood-plain of Kashkadarya River «a» - area of easy outflow of deep groundwater not affecting the soil formation; 1 Irrigated meadow-takyr soils, moderate -, heavy- and light loamy, low and moderately saline 3-5 2-3 III III 56,375 11.3 «b» - area of difficult inflow and outflow of groundwater with unsustainable level, which are dependent on local conditions. Mineralization of groundwater is 1-3 g/l and 3-5 g/l 2 Irrigated meadow-takyr soils, moderate -, heavy- and light loamy, low and moderately saline 2-3 2-3 V V 171,577 34.6 3 Irrigated meadow-takyr soils, moderate -, heavy- and light loamy, low and moderately saline 2-3 2-3 V V 30,404 6.5 4 Irrigated meadow-takyr soils, heavy- and moderate loamy in the 1-st meter, and light loamy in the 2-nd 2-3 2-3 V V 16,400 3.3 m, low and moderately saline Irrigated meadow -takyr soils, moderate loamy in the 1-st meter, and light loamy in the 2-nd m, low and 5 2-3 2-3 V V 18,531 3.7 moderately saline Grey-brown irrigated meadow soils, moderate – and light loamy with sandy clay and sand layers, and 6 2-3 2-3 V V 28,052 5.7 pebble from 50-100cm, low and moderately saline Grey-brown irrigated meadow soils, light loamy, with sandy clay and sand layers, and pebble from 50- 7 2-3 2-3 IV IV 7,939 1.6 100cm 8 Irrigated meadow-desert sandy clay and sand soils, low and moderately saline 2-3 2-3 IV IV 12,000 2.4 Grey-brown meadow irrigated, sandy clay and sand soils with moderate loamy layers 0-30 cm thick, 9 2-3 2-3 IV IV 17,600 3.5 low and moderately saline, from 30-80 cm – with low gypsum content Grey-brown meadow irrigated, light loamy and sandy clay, low and moderately saline, from 30-100 cm 10 2-3 2-3 IV IV 8,800 1.8 – with low gypsum content Irrigated meadow-soils, heavy- and moderate loamy in the 1-st meter, and light loamy and sandy clay 11 1-2 2-3 VII V 21,464 4.3 in the 2-nd m, low and moderately 12 Irrigated meadow soils, heavy- moderate- and light loamy, low and moderately 1-2 2-3 VII V 40,612 8.2 Irrigated meadow soils, moderate- and light loamy with sandy clay and sand layers, and pebble from 13 1-2 2-3 VI IV 27,955 5.6 50-70cm, low and moderately saline Irrigated meadow soils, moderate- and light loamy with sandy clay, from 100 cm – with low and 14 1-2 2-3 VI IV 8,800 1.8 moderate gypsum content, low and moderately saline Irrigated meadow soils, light loamy in the 1-st meter, and sandy clay and sand in the 2-nd m, from 50- 15 1-2 2-3 VI IV 6,800 1.4 100 cm - with low and moderate gypsum content, low and moderately saline Meadow irrigated, moderate -, heavy- and light loamy, from 60-100 cm - with low and moderate 16 1-2 2-3 VII V 800 0.2 gypsum content, low and moderately saline Meadow irrigated, light loamy and sandy clay, from 30-100 cm – with low, moderate and high gypsum 17 1-2 2-3 VI IV 14,000 2.8 content, low and moderately saline Meadow irrigated, sandy clay and sand, from 30-70 cm - with low and moderate gypsum content, low 18 1-2 2-3 VI IV 6,400 1.3 and moderately saline Total: 496,329 100 Source: Uzsuvloyiha, 2012
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Table 3: Nutrients and microelements content
Sampling point, Movable forms, mg/kg Humus district Р2О5 К2О Cu Zn Mn B Мо % Very Below Above Above Characteristics Low Norm Norm Very low low norm norm norm P-6 Jondor 7.73 164 0.58 0.76 104.33 1.11 0.35 0.57 P-8 Bukhara 7.16 140 0.56 0.78 103.14 1.03 0.27 0.44 P-9 Kizil- 6.47 129 0.61 1.02 98.85 1.52 0.23 0.45 P-12 Tepa 5.21 101 0.82 0.94 144.88 0.51 0.24 0.34 Source: Prospecting expedition LLC. “Soil Survey on Demonstration Plots”. Final Report. 2011
36. Soil survey results show that soils have high water-retaining potential; however, due to compaction they have low water permeability -3 mm/h. To improve soil’s water and physical properties deep ripping up to 60-80 cm will be required.
2. Mechanical Composition of Soils
37. The mechanical composition of soils within the ABIS varies from sandy clay and sand to heavy loamy and clay. Takyr soils are characterized by: heavy mechanical composition; desert-sand soils consisting of sands and sandy clay; grey-brown soils with light mechanical composition; and including pebble of different sizes. Due to an increase of groundwater level and chemical properties of the soils were changed, but mechanical composition was not changed, as it is a constant characteristic of the soil (provided that there was no any intervention due land development, e.g. mulching with sand).
38. In the ABIS irrigated lands loamy soils prevail containing clay (particle size not less than 0.01 mm), from 20 to 60%.
39. Water and physical properties of local soils predetermine the salt movement and accumulation, intensity of plant nutrition, and receiving the air and water. Water and physical properties of loamy soils are given in Table 4.
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Table 4: Main water and physical properties of loamy soils
Mechanical % to volume
composition
s Specific Volume
Depth,
weight, weight,
cm
g/cm3 g/cm3
Total porosity Marginal field watercapacity Aeration porosity Max.Molecular WaterCapacity Moistureafter irrigation Moisture reserve Σ< % 0,01 Characteristic % Gypsum,
Bukhara region, Jondor district, Sardor farm Light 0-30 2.69 1.32 50.9 30.1 20.8 20.6 40.1 9.5 28.1 loamy 1.1 Light 30-45 2.64 1.41 46.6 30.2 16.4 21.5 40.2 8.7 27.5 loamy 0.75 Light 45-65 2.68 1.45 45.9 30.0 15.9 24.8 38.1 5.2 28.8 loamy 1.6 Sandy 65-85 2.68 1.48 44.8 24.0 20.8 11.6 44.0 12.4 16.9 clay 1.1 Sandy 85-110 2.64 1.48 43.9 24.0 19.9 13.2 42.9 10.8 19.7 clay 1.05 Bukhara region, Bukhara district, Zarum farm Moder ate 0-15 2.70 1.33 50.7 30.0 20.7 22.2 40.2 7.8 42.2 loamy 0.51 Moder ate 15-35 2.70 1.40 48.1 31.5 16.6 24.7 41.0 6.8 36.4 loamy 0.6 Moder ate 35-65 2.70 1.52 43.7 29.9 13.8 25.1 42.6 4.8 35.1 loamy 0.8 Moder ate 65-90 2.68 1.41 47.4 30.5 16.9 19.3 34.5 11.2 37.5 loamy 2.2 Heavy 90-115 2.68 1.45 45.9 32.2 13.7 19.9 32.5 12.3 50.4 loamy 1.6 Source: Prospecting expedition LLC. “Soil Survey on Demonstration Plot”. Final Report. 2011.
40. Soils are grouped into hydromodules according to the mechanical composition and considering groundwater levels (refer to Table 5).
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Table 5: Hydro-module Guide
Hydro-module Soil Characteristics Automorphous soils (formed without groundwater influence) I Shallow (0.2-0.5m) loamy with sand and pebble, and deep sandy II Moderate depth loamy with sand and pebble, and deep sandy clay III Deep loamy and clay Semi- automorphous soils (formed with minor groundwater influence at the level of 2-3 m) IV Light loamy and sandy clay V Loamy and clay Hydromorphic soils– meadow, (formed with moderate waters influence at the level of 1-2m) VI Light loamy and sandy clay VII Loamy and clay Bog-meadow (formed with excess waters influence at the level of 0,5-1m) VIII Deep heavy loamy and clay, homogeneous; varying by grain-size distribution, laminated IX Light loamy and sandy clay Loamy and clay Source: Design values of irrigation rates in Syrdarya and Amudarya River Basins. V. Schreder et al., 1970
41. Under existing conditions, hydro-module zones III, IV, V, VI and VII are in the project area, while V hydro-module prevails. With adequate operation of the drainage system capable to maintain groundwater at the safe elevation (2-2.5 m), VI and VII hydromodules are transferred into IV and V hydromodules.
3. Salinity of Irrigated lands
42. Arid climate pre-determines to an extent the current bioclimatic conditions of the region, established relict salt stocks, and salt accumulation. Mild slopes and absence of natural outflow for the groundwater system, along with extensive development of irrigation had an impact on soluble salts migration through the groundwater, mobilization, and shifting the salts to the surface.
43. Salinity of the root zone is not necessarily a natural process - it is often caused by the nature of anthropogenic and economic activity. The problem with deterioration of land conditions17 appeared in the ABIS in relation to natural hydrogeological features and was exacerbated by local farming and irrigation activities (e.g., canal seepage losses, excessive deep percolation from fields due to poor land levelling, missing of water measuring devices, inefficient irrigation etc.).
44. To improve the situation, in 2008 the national-level Amelioration Fund was established for rehabilitation of infrastructure and ensure design level of groundwater. Table 6 shows HGME data on ameliorative condition of the lands by administrative districts.
45. 76% of lands in the Bukhara region, and 97% in the Navoi region are in satisfactory condition, while 11.7% and 3% are in poor condition, respectively. The reason for the assessed poor condition is both salinity and water-logging.
17 Ameliorative condition of lands is determined by groundwater level, mineralization and soil salinity
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Table 6: Characteristics of ameliorative condition of ABIS irrigated lands (2011)
Area Good Moderate Poor District ‘000 ha ‘000 ha % ‘000 ha % ‘000 ha % Alat 21.5 3.6 16.8 11.9 55.3 6.0 27.9 Bukhara 30.5 3.2 10.5 18.6 61.2 8.7 28.3 Vobkent 21.5 2.3 10.7 13.4 62.2 5.8 27.1 Gijduvan 27.1 4.3 15.9 15.0 55.2 7.8 28.9 Kagan 18.6 2.1 11.3 11.6 62.6 4.9 26.1 Karakul 25.1 2.6 10.4 16.9 67.4 5.6 22.2 Peshku 22.7 3.1 13.7 12.5 54.8 7.1 31.5 Romitan 27.3 3.3 12.1 15.0 55.0 9.0 32.9 Jondor 33 2.6 7.9 19.4 58.9 11.0 33.2 Shofirkan 28.4 3.1 10.9 16.6 58.4 8.7 30.7 K-Bazar 19.3 4.2 21.7 10.1 52.5 5.0 25.8 Bukhara Total 274.9 34.4 12.5 161.0 58.2 79.5 29.3 Kizil-Tepa 32.4 0 0 24.5 75.6 7.9 24.4 Karmana 25.1 0 0 20.5 81.7 4.6 18.3 Navoi Total 57.6 0 0 45.1 77.8 12.5 22.2 Source: Present Study, 2013
46. On a national level, the salinity of irrigated lands is as follows:
31% - low salinity 15% - mean salinity 4% - severe salinity
47. Amu Bukhara and Kuyu Zarafshan HGME carry out a monitoring of groundwater (level and mineralization) and salinity of soils three times per year (beginning on 1 April, 1 July, and 1 October). Autumn soil salinity monitoring data give an opportunity to determine the amount of area to be leached and the leaching water requirements. Groundwater level and quality data are presented in Figures 4 and 5 and Appendices 1 and 2.
48. In the Project area groundwater depth is about 2-3 m, which does not pose a big problem to salinity of the root zone during crop production.
49. On a national level, groundwater levels of irrigated lands are as follows:
GWL = 0-1 m 1% GWL = 1-1.5 m 5% GWL = 1.5-2.0 m 21% GWL = 2-3 m 39% GWL more than 3 m 34%
50. According to HGME data low saline lands cover about 65%, moderately saline lands about 25-30% and severely saline about 3-4% of the irrigated lands (refer to Figure 3 and Appendix 3).
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51. Soil salinity affects crop yields. Soil concentration solution in the root zone depends on salt content in the soil and mechanical composition (refer to Table 7). As toxic salts affect the crops, then in order to determine yield losses due to salinity it is reasonable to use toxic salt concentration in the solution.
Figure 3: Saline land in the ABIS (%) by district
ABIS soil salinity (2011) 100 90 Non-saline 80 High saline 70 Medium saline 60 Slightly saline
50 (%) 40 30 20 10 0
Source: HGME, 2012
Table 7: Concentration of soil solution at field water capacity, g/l
Total concentration Toxic salt concentration Soils Non- Non- Low Moderate Severe Low Moderate Severe saline saline 1. Sands 4 24 40 56 3 8 20 40 2. Sandy clay 3 18 30 42 2 6 15 30 3. Light and moderate 2 15 24 34 2 5 12 24 loamy 4.Heavy and moderate 3 15 25 35 2 5 13 25 loamy (thick) 5. Clay 3 15 25 35 2 5 13 25 Source: Water Resources Management Project in Fergana Valley - Phase I. Feasibility Study. Soil Report, 2007
52. Considerable yield loss (25-30%) is observed at 10-14 g/l, which is equivalent to a moderate salinity level. With the same salinity level on light soils, concentration of toxic soils in the soil solution reaches 20 g/l, and losses increase up to 50%.
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53. Currently, the Land Improvement Project (LIP)18, funded by ADB and the Government of Uzbekistan reclaims on-farm irrigation and drainage systems, creates and manages pilot farms on which improved agro-techniques of previous projects’ experience are applied in the Bukhara, Navoi and Kashkadarya Districts. This project is scheduled from 2008 to 2016.
18 ADB. 2006. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on Proposed Loans and Technical Assistance Grant to the Republic of Uzbekistan for Land Improvement Project. Manila.
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Figure 4: Groundwater levels in ABIS (July 2011)
Source: Uzsuvloyiha, 2012
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Figure 5: ABIS groundwater quality map
Source: Uzsuvloyiha, 2012
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4. Qualitative Analysis of the Irrigated Lands
54. Low rates of applied organic fertilizers and other soil treatments, which are below the standard requirements, and inadequate irrigation methods have caused a reduction of soil’s agronomic capacity, which is integrated the indicator of yield class.
55. The soils are divided into 10 classes with the interval of 10 scores. Under existing conditions soil fertility within the ABIS varies from low to high (IV-VI classes). Soil distribution by fertility is as follows: 24% is low fertility (41-50 scores), 22% is moderate (51-60 scores), 21% is good (61-70 scores), and 7% is high (71-80 scores) (Appendix 4). Analysis of soil fertility for recent years shows a trend towards declining yield class as shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Change of yield class compared to conditions in 1991
1991 Current Reduction Bukhara Alat 60 51 9 Bukhara 60 54 6 Vobkent 67 54 13 Jondor 58 52 6 Kagan 55 49 6 Karakul 62 51 11 K-Bazar 42 Shofirkan 54 49 5 Gijduvan 67 58 9 Peshku 61 49 12 Romitan 61 49 12 Navoi Kizil-Tepa 53 49 4 Karmana 56 46 10
Source: State Land Cadastre, 2011
56. Since 1991 the yield class in ABIS has been reduced by 6-8 scores on average. The biggest reduction is observed in Vobkent district (13 scores), Peshky, Romitan and Karmana districts with a reduction of 10-12 scores.
H. Organizational Structure of ABIS
57. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR) is the Government’s water resources management body and plays a key role in conduction of policies in the water management sector, and coordinates the activities of all water management institutions in the country. Since 2003, when structural modifications within MAWR were undertaken, the total number of water management organizations has been reduced by 2.5 times, along with major changes of their functions, capabilities and responsibilities.
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58. The MAWR has two sub-sectors – agricultural and water. While agricultural issues are implemented through regional and district agricultural departments, water management sector is organized at Basin Irrigation System Administration (BISA) and regional levels. Figure 6 shows organizational chart of the agricultural and water sectors.
Figure 6: Organizational chart of water resources and agricultural management
Cabinet of Ministers
MAWR
Water Management Agricultural sector Sector (I&D, financed (self-financing) from the state budget)
BISAs Regional Khokim Agriculture and Water Resources Department
HGME
District Khokim ISAs, MCA Agriculture and Water Resources Department (район)
WUAs Хоким района
Farmers Хоким района Source: Present Study, 2013
59. The main tasks of the MAWR are as follows: (i) Development of policy in agricultural sector (ii) Introduction of new technologies in agricultural and water sector (iii) Coordination of service institutions activities (working on market economy principles) (iv) Investments in irrigation and drainage systems to improve water resources management (v) Development of policy for basin organizations (vi) Support to Water User Associations (WUAs) (vii) Introduction of integrated water resources management in river basins; (viii) Establishment of efficient research divisions and training courses to improve on-farm water use
60. BISAs are territorial divisions of MAWR. In addition, other self-financing, budget, construction, design and research organizations are accountable to the MAWR.
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61. The Governmental Irrigation and Drainage Committee is inter-agency and inter- regional body coordinating the work in the irrigation and drainage sector.
1. Organizations supporting the Agricultural Sector
62. Organizations within the MAWR supporting the agricultural sector are regional and district agricultural and water resources departments responsible for agricultural activity – crop production, livestock, rational use of land and water resources, use of machinery, fertilizers, and irrigation systems. They are also responsible for the work with farmers (agreement of requirements in fertilizers, signing of contracts and control over quotas for cotton and wheat). They control over water supply by BISA’s, management, rehabilitation and O&M of irrigation and drainage infrastructure.
63. Regional and district agricultural and water resources departments have a priority importance, therefore, a Deputy Khokim is a key member of each department. Each department is managed by the head and his four deputies. The first deputy bears overall responsibility, the second one is responsible for the agriculture sector, the third for financial issues, the fourth for the irrigation sector.
64. For irrigation and drainage sector, 38% of funds are allocated from the budget, and 62% are covered by self-financing.
2. Organizations supporting the Water Sector
65. As mentioned the water management sector in Uzbekistan has been restructured, and now includes BISAs with their respective divisions, Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs) and Main Canal Authorities (MCAs). One BISA can manage the irrigation systems of several districts.
66. Thus, the Amu Bukhara BISA has five (5) ISAs in two provinces; Bukhara and Navoi (refer to Table 9 and Figure 7).
Table 9: Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs) of Amu-Bukhara Basin Irrigation System Administration (BISA)
ISA Districts served Area, ha 1 Amu-Karakul Alat, Karakul and Jondor 79,606 2 Shokhrud-Dustlik Bukhara, Kagan, Karaulbazar, Bukhara city 65,240 3 Kharkhur-Duobin Vobkent, Peshku, Romitan 74,789 4 Tashrabat –Jilvon Gijduvan, Shofirkan 55,476 5 Tashrabat -Urtachul Kizil-Tepa, Karmana 39,889 Total for BISA: 315,000 Source: Amu Bukhara BISA, 2012
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Figure 7: Organizational chart of Amu Bukhara BISA
Amu-Bukhara BISA Amu-Bukhara Kui-Zarafshan HGME HGME
водохранилище Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs)
-
–
-
Duobin
-
Karakul
-
Dustlik Dustlik
Jilvon
Urtachul
Shokhrud
Amu
Tashrabat Tashrabat Kharkhur
Source: Present Study, 2013
67. The main responsibilities of the BISA and ISAs are as follows:
(i) Ensure timely water supply to the users (ii) Ensure reliable O&M of irrigation systems and structures (iii) Introducing advanced water saving technologies (iv) Control over water quota (limits) and water resources management within the basin (v) Installation of water measuring devices, introducing state-of-the-art automation systems for water management
68. The BISA works closely with WUAs, discussing water distribution, management, saving etc. issues.
69. Water delivery contracts are signed between district divisions of the MAWR and WUAs. BISA does not charge water delivery fees. BISA’s staff is financed from the national budget.
3. Hydrogeological Ameliorative Expedition
70. According to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers No. 320 dated 21 June 2003 (item 6), HGME is within the organizational structure of BISAs. The main tasks of HGME include responsibility for operation and maintenance of the main and inter-farm drainage infrastructure, monitoring of groundwater levels and quality, and salinity of soils, measurement of drainage flows. Based on the soil salinity analysis, HGME determines water requirements for leaching, and also for an additional payment on a contractual basis with the WUAs, it provides services for cleaning or repair of on-farm network.
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4. Water Users Associations and Farmers
Tasks and Responsibilities of WUAs 71. The Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers "On measures for restructuring of agricultural entities into private farms" (dated 5 January 2002) and Appendix 7 specify general provisions in respect to the relationship between water users and various government water management bodies. Since that time a campaign has been started on establishment and strengthening of WUAs. Most WUAs were established based on administrative districts, but not according to hydrographical boundaries.
72. WUAs are responsible for not only the water supply to their members, but also for operation and maintenance of their infrastructure, erosion preventive measures on the fields, salinity and water-logging issues, and any other services related to efficient water use.
73. WUA staff are compensated from the farmers’ fees. Although, there is a contract for water delivery, WUAs do not pay for irrigation water. WUAs members pay fees for on- farm operation and maintenance services. Currently, the fee rate is about 10,000-20,000 UZS/ha. However, the overall level of fee collection is low at only 25-27%. This amount is 3 to 4 times less than the WUAs’ requirements for operation and maintenance of its infrastructure. This is a bottleneck, as WUAs do not have sufficient funds to rent or purchase maintenance equipment.
74. To reduce operation and maintenance cost, WUAs apply the so-called “Khashar” method (this is an Uzbek word meaning that all local communities, in this case ‘farmers’, together implement some works free of charge). The farmers jointly implement cleaning and repair of canals and drains. If WUAs provide machinery, then the farmers’ contribution is to provide fuel. Such a method is efficient for minor and simple works, but cannot resolve all the problems related to maintenance. All equipment possessed by the WUAs is old, spare parts are not available, which creates major difficulties in maintaining the infrastructure at an adequate level.
75. WUAs water use plans are confined to their respective canal boundary only, after which there are diversion canals to the farmers’ fields. Due to the absence of functional water measurement devices, water discharge in each diversion canal is not recorded. This results in impossibility to control water delivery schedule and amounts of water used by the management organizations, and water users do not have opportunity to receive water on timely basis and in required amounts. This situation is worsened at the tail ends of the irrigation systems. Culture of water use is at very low level. Very often unauthorized water intake is observed.
WUA’s Staff Capacity Level 76. WUAs do not have enough experience and currently do not properly implement their responsibilities in relation to efficient and friendly water use management.
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77. Local agricultural divisions of the MAWR are responsible for agricultural extension services. Various relevant programs and projects currently implemented include training components, and all of them have different priorities and training materials. Only those WUAs that are involved in active loan projects get training at an adequate level.
78. The PPTA Consultant’s assessment shows that WUAs staff at all levels in ABIS do have the required qualifications. According to the government’s regulations, one irrigator should maintain 400-500 ha, but in fact, one irrigator usually maintains an area that is twice as large as prescribed. This is caused by the low level of fees collected, from which WUA staff salaries are paid. WUAs do not have an agronomist on staff. However, as per experience of SIC-ICWC and IWMI, a WUA agronomist plays an important role in increasing water and land productivity at the farm level.
Farmers’ Technical Capacity 79. An insufficient level of farmers’ technical capacity is included the list of factors affecting the productivity of agriculture in ABIS. Not all farmers have an agricultural background and requisite work experience.
80. Typically, farmers have a limited understanding of crop water requirements and the physical properties of the soils in their fields. Due to absence or not operating water measuring devices the water supply for irrigation is not recorded that often results in over-irrigation and big infiltration losses and surface release. Because of that the farmers say the tail ends of water sources suffer from water shortage.
81. In terms of agronomic production, farmers generally do not have sufficient knowledge as well, which is confirmed by non-compliance with prescribed agronomic standards, and incomplete regimes related land preparation and crop treatments.
82. Statistic data on the educational level and agricultural experience of 258 farmers of Alat District were processed by the PPTA Consultant. The results show that 38% of farmers have higher education, but only 23% have agricultural education, 28% have specialized secondary education, of which only 21% have agricultural education, and 34% have secondary education. Approximately 80% of farmers who do not have specialized agricultural education have more than 5 years of experience (refer to Table 10).
Table 10: Assessment of farmers’ education and agricultural capacity
Education % Experience in agriculture % Higher education 38 Secondary education (school) 34 Including higher agricultural education 23 Including those having more than 80 Specialized secondary education (college) 28 5 years experience in agriculture Including agricultural education 21 Source: Data of district agricultural and water management departments
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Availability of Agricultural Machinery and Equipment 83. District Machinery and Tractor Pools (MTP) provide services to the farmers by leasing machinery during periods of intensive fieldwork. There are farmers who provide similar services for certain fees lower than MTP. In terms of the availability of machinery and equipment: farmers are generally not able to purchase the required equipment for timely and comprehensive implementation of fieldwork, particularly, specific works like land levelling and deep ripping. Appendix 6 provides information on availability of agricultural machinery in Bukhara region and Kizil-Tepa district of Navoi region.
II. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
A. General Information on Land Resources in the Project Area
84. ABIS commands 315,000 ha of irrigated lands, including 274,900 ha in Bukhara, and 39,900 ha in Navoi Provinces, respectively.
85. In Uzbekistan, land resources belong to the government and are not subject to sale, exchange, grant, mortgage, except for those specific cases stipulated by law. The main land use form is long-term rent, on the basis of which the farmers use land for crop production, livestock and other agricultural activity. The right for land rent is provided in the Land Code of 1998 (Clauses 24, 53), and “Law on Private Farms" of 1998. The farms in the ABIS specialize in cotton and winter wheat production according to the state order.
86. The other primary land use form is Dehkan farms. Dehkan farms sizes do not exceed 0.35 ha. Land owners are free in crop pattern selection, and mainly involve orchards, vegetables, melons and gourds and potatoes.
87. Table 11 shows land distribution in ABIS by land use type.
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Table 11: Type of land use in ABIS, ha
District
farms
Total area irrigated Arable Planting Standby Pastures Total agricultural lands Dehkan Forests
Alat 21,465 16,095 957 125 0 17,177 4,103 185
Bukhara 27,822 19,307 3,009 674 0 22,990 4,677 155
Vobkent 24,792 18,550 1,623 66 0 20,239 4,483 70
Gujduvan 27,074 17,001 2,264 1,229 0 20,494 6,437 143
Kagan 18,643 15,393 1,212 319 0 16,924 1,701 18
Karakul 25,065 17,800 1,584 219 0 19,603 5,345 117
Peshku 22,756 16,688 1,813 287 0 18,788 3,841 127
Romitan 27,241 20,285 1,976 771 0 23,032 4,152 57
Jondor 33,029 24,103 2,601 1,401 0 28,105 4,600 324
Shofirkan 28,402 19,778 2,592 814 0 23,184 4,863 355
K-Bazar 16,108 14,275 179 970 0 15,424 483 201
Bukhara city 2,350 1,305 513 3 0 1,821 506 23
Kagan city 202 21 8 0 29 165 8
Bukhara Total 274,949 200,601 20,331 6,878 0 227,810 45,356 1,783
Kizil-Tepa 32,360 21,245 2,413 4569 0 28,227 3477 655
Karmana 7,529 5,575 406 264 0 6,244 839 446
Navoi Total 39,889 26,820 2,819 4,833 0 34,472 4316 1,101 Source: State Land Cadastre, 2011, updated
88. Arable lands within ABIS cover more than 70% overall, and 84-89% in Kagan and Karaulbazar Districts. Perennial plants cover 7%; household lands 16%, forests 1%, and standby lands 4%. 89. Standby lands occur due to various reasons including a shortage of water, reduced fertility, and unprofitable production, among other factors. Approximately 14% of standby lands are in Kizil-Tepa (4,448 ha), and in Gijduvan and Karaulbazar they represent 5-6% of the total irrigated lands.
B. Cropping Pattern and Crop Rotations
90. Figure 8 summarises the basic calendar schedule of the cotton-wheat cropping patterns over a typical 2-year period.
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Figure 8: ABIS cropping patterns diagram
Year 1 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Pattern I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 1 2 3 4
Year 2 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Pattern I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 1 2 3 4
Approx. Areas (2011, 2012) Irrigation Tillage, Leaching Cotton 53% irrigation season Wheat 35% Miscellaneous 12% (Soy, Maize, Green Gram, Melon, Beet, others)
Area (ha) 315,000
Source: Present Study, 2013
91. Since 1990, cotton as a mono-crop has been gradually reduced due an increase in the area programmed for winter wheat (refer to Figure 9). Cotton fields have been reduced by up to 55-60%, which is within the recommended range of cotton-wheat crop rotation. However, wheat production was increased not only by reducing cotton fields, but also alfalfa, which is the most important ameliorative and fodder crop, without which livestock development and soil fertility would be impossible. In many farms alfalfa areas were reduced from 15-20% to 3-5%, and in some farms this crop is not planted anymore. This aggravated the problem with maintaining acceptable levels of soil fertility.
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Figure 9: ABIS crop trends (1990 to 2011)
250
200
150
100 Area ha) ('000Area 50
0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2011 Alfalfa Winter wheat Cotton
Source: Data of district agricultural departments of Bukhara and Navoi
92. Currently, winter wheat and cotton prevail on arable lands. On average, within the ABIS the share of cotton and wheat is 88%. In some districts (Romitan and Peshku) these two main crops cover 91-92%. Winter wheat occupies about 35% (in Karaulbazar and Shofirkan 44%), and the average cotton share is 53% (in Jondor, Karakul, Peshku, and Gijduvan about 60%).
93. Tables 12 and 13 summarise the current cropping pattern distribution within the ABIS by arable and irrigated lands, respectively. Refer to Appendix 6 for the detailed cropping pattern data by district.
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Table 12: Cropping pattern on arable lands (2011)
(%) Vegetables, Arable Fodder District Cotton Wheat Melons, Alfalfa Area (ha) Crops Potatoes Alat 16,095 53.3 33.7 2.3 5.1 5.6 Bukhara 19,307 56.3 28.5 3.0 9.6 2.6 Vobkent 18,550 54.0 38.8 1.4 2.7 3.1 Jondor 24,103 59.1 25.6 2.1 6.5 6.7 Kagan 15,393 46.3 33.6 2.5 14.4 3.2 Karakul 17,800 57.8 34.4 1.5 5.5 0.9 K-Bazar 14,275 40.0 44.4 3.3 4.0 8.4 Peshku 16,688 59.1 32.9 2.6 3.6 1.9 Romitan 20,285 59.6 31.9 2.1 1.2 5.1 Shofirkan 19,778 51.7 33.6 2.2 11.2 1.3 Gijduvan 17,001 60.6 27.8 2.6 6.5 2.5 Bukhara city 1,305 23.0 25.3 27.3 14.9 9.6 Kagan city 21 0.0 0.0 52.4 47.6 0.0 Bukhara Total 200,601 54.6 32.7 2.5 6.4 3.8 Kizil-Tepa 9,131 42.9 49.4 3.8 2.1 1.7 Karmana 2,306 41.5 46.7 6.4 1.2 4.2 Navoi Total 11,436 42.3 48.3 4.9 1.8 2.8 ABIS Average 52.8 35.1 2.8 5.7 3.6
Source: Data of district agricultural departments of Bukhara and Navoi
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Table 13: Cropping pattern on irrigated lands (2011)
District
Unit Cotton Wheat crops Wheatdouble and Potatoes, vegetables, melons Maizelegumes (grain), Maize(silage) FodderLucerne & crops Orchardsotherand trees Standby Total ‘000 ha 8.6 2.6 2.9 3.9 0.1 0.0 1.7 1.6 0.1 21.4 Alat % 40.1 12.0 13.3 18.3 0.3 0.1 7.9 7.3 0.6 100 ‘000 ha 11.2 2.5 3.3 5.0 0.1 0.1 2.6 4.8 0.7 30.2 Bukhara % 37.0 8.3 11.0 16.4 0.4 0.2 8.6 15.8 2.2 100 ‘000 ha 10.0 4.6 2.6 4.1 0.1 0.0 1.1 2.4 0.1 24.9 Vobkent % 40.2 18.3 10.6 16.5 0.2 0.1 4.3 9.5 0.3 100 ‘000 ha 14.3 3.3 2.9 4.6 0.1 0.0 3.2 3.1 1.4 32.8 Jondor % 43.5 10.0 8.8 14.0 0.2 0.1 9.6 9.6 4.3 100 ‘000 ha 7.1 3.0 2.1 1.8 0.1 0.0 2.7 1.7 0.3 19.0 Kagan % 37.5 16.0 11.3 9.4 0.7 0.1 14.2 9.1 1.7 100 ‘000 ha 10.3 4.3 1.9 5.2 0.1 0.0 1.1 2.0 0.2 25.0 Karakul % 41.2 17.1 7.4 20.7 0.3 0.1 4.4 7.9 0.9 100 ‘000 ha 5.7 3.5 2.9 0.9 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.3 1.0 16.0 К.Bazar % 35.7 21.6 18.0 5.9 0.0 0.2 10.8 1.9 6.1 100 ‘000 ha 9.9 2.8 2.7 3.7 0.1 0.0 0.9 2.3 0.3 22.7 Peshku % 43.4 12.1 12.1 16.3 0.6 0.1 4.0 10.2 1.3 100 ‘000 ha 12.1 3.5 3.0 3.6 0.1 0.0 1.3 3.1 0.8 27.5 Romitan % 44.0 12.6 10.9 13.1 0.5 0.1 4.6 11.4 2.8 100 ‘000 ha 10.2 1.8 4.8 4.6 0.1 0.0 2.5 3.6 0.8 28.4 Shofirkan % 36.0 6.3 17.1 16.1 0.4 0.1 8.6 12.6 2.9 100 ‘000 ha 10.3 2.2 2.5 5.7 0.1 0.0 1.5 3.6 1.2 27.1 Gijduvan % 38.0 8.2 9.2 20.8 0.4 0.1 5.5 13.3 4.5 100 Bukhara ‘000 ha 109.6 33.9 31.7 43.0 1.0 0.3 20.2 28.5 6.9 274.9 Total % 39.9 12.3 11.5 15.6 0.4 0.1 7.3 10.4 2.5 100 ‘000 ha 9.1 6.3 4.2 3.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 3.3 4.6 32.4 Kizil-Tepa % 28.2 19.5 13.0 11.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 10.2 14.1 100.0 ‘000 ha 2.3 1.6 1.0 1.1 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.9 0.3 7.5 Karmana % 30.7 20.7 13.8 14.3 0.8 0.4 3.6 12.1 3.5 100.0 Navoi ‘000 ha 11.4 7.9 5.2 4.7 0.4 0.4 0.7 4.2 4.8 39.9 Total % 28.7 19.7 13.1 11.9 1.0 1.0 1.8 10.6 12.1 100.0 ABIS ‘000 ha 121.0 41.8 36.9 47.7 1.4 0.7 20.9 32.7 11.7 314.8 Total % 38.4 13.3 11.7 15.2 0.4 0.2 6.6 10.4 3.7 100.0 Source: Data of District Agricultural Departments of Bukhara and Navoi
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94. In ABIS the majority of the irrigated area is allocated for cotton and wheat (approximately 52% in 2011). Extensive crop diversification is only observed at the level of the household dehkan plots. In the farms, crop rotation is missing: several years of cotton is followed by cotton again, or wheat is followed by wheat, or wheat is planted after cotton. Such exclusive crop rotations as only cotton-wheat exhaust the soil and leads to gradual degradation.
95. However, in recent years some trend has been observed towards more crop diversification. In 2011 after harvesting almost half the area of wheat was planted by double crops, including vegetables, melons and gourds, legumes, maize etc. as shown in Table 14. About 10% of the area under double crops is covered by legumes. This is an important factor for improvement of soil fertility and nitrogen accumulation. Soil covered by vegetation is protected from drying up and salt transferring to the root zone, thus preventing from wind erosion and salinity of upper layers.
Table 14: Double crops after winter wheat in Bukhara region (2011)
Total including Winter Double Vegetables Melons Legumes Maize Others District Wheat Crops Alat 5,426 2,855 259 126 248 1,961 261 Bukhara 5,512 3,152 436 133 405 1,723 456 Vobkent 7,200 2,641 271 66 428 1,542 333 Jondor 6,164 2,896 373 115 450 1,502 456 Kagan 5,176 2,150 142 22 450 1,020 516 Karakul 6,116 1,858 378 116 248 993 123 К.Bazar 6,335 2,880 40 125 0 2,604 111 Peshku 5,486 2,736 415 166 293 1,360 502 Romitan 6,480 3,009 387 78 338 1,845 361 Shafirkan 6,644 4,849 271 47 360 3,612 559 Gijduvan 4,731 2,494 398 101 383 1,325 288 Bukhara City 330 181 129 5 13 34
Kagan City
Total 65,600 31,700 3,500 1,100 3,600 19,500 4,000
Source: Data of district agricultural departments of Bukhara and Navoi
C. Planting of Winter Wheat over Growing Cotton
96. The requirement in new technologies of wheat production occurred because of late harvesting of cotton, not allowing the planting of wheat within optimal periods, i.e., not later than 20-25th October. The prescribed production method of winter wheat is as follows: not waiting until all cotton is harvested, wheat is planted between cotton rows without soil special treatment, and applying with a special harrow.
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97. This minimizes soil treatment, which gives a number of advantages both for the farmer and land, i.e., reduced machinery use, reduced risk to soil compaction, reduced
СО2 emissions, savings in respect of fuels and depreciation costs. However, removing cotton stems is a negative factor in terms of soil nutrition.
98. Considering that a special sowing machine is not utilized for this technique, plants density is not homogeneous. Experience shows that the traditional planting method gives better yields compared to planting wheat over the cotton. However, with some improvements this method could be more efficient.
99. Advantages from the “wheat planting over the cotton” technique include:
(i) Allows the soil to be quite open and relatively easy for planting (ii) Allows optimal sowing schedules for winter wheat (iii) Crushing cotton stems after cotton harvesting allows mulching wheat plantlets providing additional protection for young wheat during winter (iv) Mulching also adds organic matters to the exhausted soils (v) Theoretically, less seeds can be used per ha (vi) Minimization of soil treatment reduces costs for wheat production
100. Disadvantages from the “wheat planting over the cotton” technique include:
(i) To make this system more effective, improved sowing machine is required, which can do direct sowing (although many farmers just spread seeds using old Russian sowing machine) (ii) Mulching can have an effect on wheat health causing additional deceases (iii) There is a requirement in better management control and better equipment
101. The Uzbek Research Institute has developed a complex soil treatment machine, combining soil ripping, planting of winter wheat, putting fertilizing and crushing stems. New wheat planting methods using this machine permit a reduction in the number of machines required, fuel and power consumption is cut by a factor over 2, and yields are increased significantly. Moreover, the machine can be used as both a sowing machine and stem crushing machine.
D. Soil Treatment
102. Soil preparation includes ploughing, harrowing, chisel ploughing. If soils are saline at moderate level or higher, in early spring leaching is done. Often, due to inadequate drainage, leaching is not effective.
103. Ploughing is done to the depth of 28-32 cm, sometimes 35 cm. Annually, one ploughing method is applied without a change of depth, which gradually forms a compacted layer starting from 30-35 cm. Compacted layers prevent development of root system and capillary rise, and reduces absorption of intensive rainfalls, resulting in water erosion. A soil compaction survey implemented under WUFMAS Subproject of TACIS WARMAP showed that in Uzbekistan 60% of lands are compacted; 36% have more than 1500 kN/m2, and 60% have 500-1500 kN/m2).
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104. The farmers in ABIS do not implement any effective measures to eliminate compacted layers because of a lack of machinery, as well as low awareness level.
105. Soil density and bulk weight have a direct correlation. Table 15 shows a summary of yield losses depending in bulk weight of arable layer.
106. In general, about 25% of crop yield can be lost due to severe compaction. It is known that bulk weight is inversely proportional to humus content in the soil; therefore, agro-technical appliances and treatments aimed to increase organic matter, may decrease soil compaction to some extent.
Table 15: Bulk weight and class yield
Bulk weight (g/cm3) Yield losses (%) >1.6 70-75 1.5-1.6 40-55 1.4-1.5 15-20 <1.4 0
Source: Annual Report of WUFMAS for 1997. WARMAP, TACIS.
107. To reduce soil compaction in ABIS selection of machinery should be done more carefully, and preference should be given to smaller machines with wider tyres. Minimal treatment and “zero tillage” practice give more successful results in this regard.
E. Land Levelling
108. Due to the lack of specialty machinery in ABIS, the current level of land levelling does not meet requirements. Farmers are carrying out this work to some extent but poor levelling does not eliminate individual depressions. This limits on-farm irrigation efficiencies, complicating the use of optimal irrigation techniques necessary for uniform application rates, and thereby, reducing losses of water. Water is accumulated in depressions and elevated spots are poorly irrigated. Uneven surfaces cause the formation of bare spots without plants. The crop yield on such lands is low and unstable.
F. Fertilizing Rates and Terms
1. Mineral Fertilizers
109. Farmers obtain mineral fertilizers (N:P:K) according to the allocations from state funds for cotton and wheat. The volume of allocated fertilizers and their optimal ratios are mainly applied subject to their availability in the country, rather than land fertility requirements.
110. The PPTA Consultant’s analysis of volumes of fertilizers allocated to farmers in 2012 showed that only nitrogen fertilizers have been applied according to prescribed rates, which is about 300 kg/ha for cotton and 200 kg/ha for wheat (in kg of reactant). Phosphorous fertilizers were 20-40% of the prescribed rate and potassium only 2-15%. In Karaulbazar District, potassium fertilizers for wheat haven’t been introduced at all. Appendix 7 provides information on the fertilizers used for staple crops in 2012.
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111. There are fertilizers available on the market and farmers can purchase them directly, but at higher price. As a rule, staple crops are fertilized with the allocated fertilizers from state funds, while the fertilizers for other crops are bought by farmers. Farmers generally report that they have no problems with mineral fertilizers, from which one can draw conclusions about their lack of knowledge regarding proper nutrient management. Micro-fertilizers are not used at all.
2. Organic Fertilizers
112. As an organic fertilizer in the ABIS, manure is introduced in small amounts and irregularly. After shutting down the majority of state livestock farms the livestock passed into the ownership of private households and the way of livestock keeping has changed. Livestock is grazed mainly on pasture and there is no possibility to collect manure in substantial volumes, and that which is picked up is used on household plots. The average rate of organic matter for cotton and wheat in the current practice does not exceed 2-3 t/ha, which at the current soil fertility levels is one tenth of crop requirements.
113. The situation is aggravated by removing from fields for household use all plant residues that could serve as the source of humus. On dehkan farms, land preparation is better due to the use of domestic organic waste.
114. Soil investigations carried out on selected farms in Jondor, Romitan, Bukhara and Kizil Tepa districts illustrated very low content of humus of approximately 0.30-0.50%. Following the reduction of humus in the soil profile, the environment of useful soil microorganisms worsens.
G. Crops Varieties and Sowing
1. Winter Wheat
115. In the ABIS service area, Krasnodar-99, Таnya, Моskvitch, Kouma, Pamyat and some new varieties of wheat are used. Despite the achievements of national institutes breeding programs for grain crops, which contributed considerably to the rise of grain quality, there is a lack of quality local varieties. This is one of the restraining factors on the crop yield potential in the ABIS. The insufficient number of late-ripening and early-ripening varieties limits the harvest period, and poor disease resistance causes large losses.
116. Farmers receive seeds that have poor germination and a high content of extraneous material that causes the need for increased seeding rates. Typical seeding rates are approximately 250 kg/ha (in some cases even more), while the international standard is closer to 160 kg/ha. Two main reasons for the high rates have been identified: (i) ineffective seeders, and (ii) poor quality of seeds.
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2. Cotton
117. The main varieties of cotton in the ABIS are Bukhara-6, Bukhara-8, Bukhara-102 and some other new trials. Cotton seeds are treated with fungicides. The typical seeding rates are 50-58 kg/ha. The general absence of accurate, high-quality seeding equipment and the poor quality of seeds leads farmers to use abnormally seeding rates in many cases. Often the prolonged rainy spring is the reason for poor germination of cotton, and then reseeding is carried out. In optimal spring conditions, the significant plant vegetation growth occurs and manual thinning is required.
H. Plant Protection
118. Biological methods of pest control are on a rather high level. There are bio- factories and bio-labs in all districts targeting plant protection that farmers make agreements with. On the basis of these agreements, the staff from the labs regularly examine fields for timely discovery of pests and diseases. For example, after discovering such pests once in 1-2 weeks period golden-eyed flies are released, trichogramma and brachon chebethora are spread. Other chemical methods are applied in cases when biological methods are insufficient.
119. Chemical protection is used against thrips and the plants are treated with a solution of Cipermetrin as well as Nourin at a rate of 0.5 l/ha + 300 l of water, and also acephat, imidochloprid. Against homosis branapol, ammonium salicylate, carbaxine plus thiram are applied. Sprinkling with carbamide suspension, which serves as leaf-feeding, raises the resistance of plants against pests.
120. Cotton is a row crop, therefore weed control is rather successful, both mechanized and manual. In competition with weeds, wheat losses are more than with cotton. Herbicides are used by farmers rather seldom because of high cost and lack of knowledge. Due to the fact that the struggle against perennial weeds is carried out manually the effects are partial and limited. The most often used herbicides are tribenurol-methyl (typhoon, moerstar, entostar, granstar) for destroying annual weeds on wheat fields.
I. Irrigation Methods and Techniques
121. The main irrigation methods on farms in the ABIS are furrow and basin. Introduced some sixty years ago these methods of irrigation conformed to the requirements of mechanized agricultural production. However, unless done properly with high distribution uniformity they cannot achieve high levels of efficiency, and result in wastage of water, high surface drainage and groundwater table problems.
122. Today, improved irrigation techniques are not applied in the project area on a broad scale, except for international projects and research-production studies of national scientific/research institutes. Furrow irrigation done without using relevant facilities (siphons, gated pipe, etc.) has a low irrigation efficiency of 50-60%, which is in the range of the national level (about 58%). When properly implemented in the right conditions, surface irrigation system can attain efficiencies of 70-80% or higher. In 2010 the overall efficiency in the Bukhara region dropped to 50% and rose again to 61% in 2011, whereas in the Navoi region the efficiency is reported to remain constant at 58%.
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123. Irrigation water is provided to farmers free-of-charge and deliveries are only subject to an O&M-related payment. Farmers have to pay O&M charges of about 10-20,000 UZS per ha. However, this is not enough to support the canal system’ infrastructure in a proper state or keep up with preventative maintenance. Due to the lack of funds the farm canals have relative low conveyance efficiencies. Accounting for the irrigation water used by farmers is only possible on a very rough basis, and therefore, the distribution of water among farms is not as equitable as it should be. Many farms located at the ends of canals suffer the classic ‘tail-ender problem’ of having too little water when they need it or too much when they do not.
124. At the field level, water is used inefficiently, application rates are generally too high, and there are large losses due to deep percolation and excessive drainage.
125. General reasons for inefficient use of irrigation water in the ABIS:
(i) poor land levelling (ii) unreliability of water supplies due to problems with power supplies (outages) and maintenance of pumping equipment (iii) inefficiency of leaching irrigations due to poor drainage (iv) lack of water users’ incentives for saving water (absence of a real price for irrigation water and proper accounting) (v) lack of knowledge among farmers about the actual efficiency of irrigations and the associated negative consequences of over-irrigation (vi) lack of knowledge among farmers about water-saving irrigation techniques and the use of non-optimal irrigation techniques
J. Crop Yield
126. The Department of Statistics in regional and district offices of the MAWR have compile data for crop yields, which was obtained by the PPTA Consultant for the previous 3 years (2009-2011). The average yield for the major crops in the ABIS is summarised in Table 16. Over the recent 3-year period mean cotton yields were slightly over 3 tons per ha. Appendix 8 provides crop yield data for each administrative district.
Table 16: Average crop yield in АBIS area in 2009-2011 (t/ha)
atoes
Cotton Wheat Maize(grain) Maize(silage) Pot Vegetables Cucurbitaceous Fruits Grapes
2009 2.86 5.89 5.29 20.89 23.66 24.28 22.85 14.38 10.43 2010 3.10 5.94 5.31 21.61 32.17 42.99 35.57 14.88 12.06 2011 3.26 6.01 5.29 21.70 23.77 25.01 22.93 15.93 12.98 Source: Regional and District Departments of Statistics (MAWR)
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127. ABIS crop yields, especially of cotton and wheat, are rather high as compared with nation-wide statistics and other irrigated regions of Uzbekistan (refer to Figure 10). However, as compared with the international norms of irrigated farming, ABIS yields are relatively low (refer to Table 17). The comparison shows that the crop yields in ABIS area are in the range 43-59% for major crops.
Figure 10: Long-term trend in ABIS cotton yields (1991-2011)
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1
Cotton Yield, t/ha Yield, Cotton 0.5 0
Source: Regional and District Departments of Statistics (MAWR)
Таble 17: Comparison of ABIS crop yields with international norms (t/ha)
ABIS International* Ratio of ABIS Cotton 3.0 7 43% Wheat 5.9 9 59% Potatoes 26 50 52% Maize (silage) 21 40 52% Maize (grain) 5 9 56%
*Source: Justification of Model Farms. Land Improvement Project. 2005. (ADB). ULG Northumbrian/Mott Macdonald.
128. There are inter-related reasons for the low crop yields in the ABIS, but it is important to note the main ones: high soil salinity, compaction of soils, quality of water, poor water availability, poor field levelling, and non-observance of irrigation and agro- technological rates and regulations. Potential crop yields are partially restrained by factors independent of farmers. However, agronomic factors are considered to be the most significant.
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III. ASSESSMENT OF WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CROP IRRIGATION
A. Overview
129. The calculation of crop water requirements (evapotranspiration and leaching) for irrigation planning in the ABIS was determined on the basis of ‘hydro-modules’ (pre- defined tables of irrigation requirements) where soil-meliorative conditions of the irrigated lands in the service area were estimated and updated. The computational techniques used by the PPTA Consultant for estimating crop water requirements are based on national standards and procedures updated with recent works by relevant national institutes19.
130. Hydro-modules for cotton growing regions of Uzbekistan were originally prepared in the 1960s and 1970s by the Central Asian State Design Institute of Water and Cotton (formally the “Sredazgiprovodkhlopok” and now the “Uzgipromeliovodkhoz”). The published figures for irrigation requirements in each designated hydro-module are based on average climatic conditions of the particular area, soil type, depth to groundwater table, and crop water requirements.
131. However, their limitations to the accuracy of such a theoretical, formulaic approach for irrigation planning purposes, even though based on much empirical data, because the hydro-module technique relies on broad assumptions such as uniform crop growth and average climate conditions, rather than, for example, the non-uniform field conditions that are widespread in the ABIS due to bare spots and reduced vigour.
132. To further complicate matters, there are different sets of hydro-modules, and thus different recommended irrigation regimes and rates, in use in the country.20 Both are primarily for seasonal planning purposes rather than an operational tool management of either the water distribution system or for farm-level irrigation management. The different hydro-modules can have large differences in the irrigation rates.21
133. It is also important to note that derivation of irrigation water requirements using this approach incorporates district-specific loss factors for inter-farm and farm canals (ie, conveyance efficiencies), in addition to the farm-level irrigation rates.
19 Primary sources include published works and materials taken from: “Design Crop Irrigation Rates in the Basins of the Sirdarya and Amudarya” by V. Shredder et al. (1970); Uzbek Scientific-Research Institute of Grain and the Turkmen Scientific Research Institute of Crop Farming (for winter wheat); Institute Uzgipromeliovodhoz; “Recommendations on Getting High Cereal Crop Yields”, MAWR Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Galla (1996); and the Scientific Institute for Cotton (Soyuznikhi). 20 In this report the two sets of hydro-modules referred to are those used by (i) the Soyuznikhi, and, (ii) the Uzgipromeliovodkhoz. 21 For example, the irrigation rate for cotton during the vegetation season in hydro-module IV in the Soyuznikhi table is 8,100 m3/ha, while it is 6,500 m3/ha in the Uzgipromeliovodkhoz tables.
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134. The international standard for estimating the consumptive use of irrigation water by agricultural crops is the crop coefficient-reference evapotranspiration (Kc ETo) 22 procedure . Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is computed for a reference crop (usually grass grown in strictly prescribed conditions) and then is multiplied by an empirical crop coefficient (Kc) to estimate crop evapotranspiration (ETc). The technique has been used to provide very accurate estimates of crop water use in large irrigation projects such as the ABIS23. However, the successful application of this technique relies on the scientific expertise and experience of engineers, extensive data collection and analyses (assuming the requisite data is readily available), careful use of calculation methods or modelling of complex processes that are appropriate for specific spatial and temporal scales.
135. New computational modelling approaches using satellite images and weather data for estimating instantaneous and seasonal evapotranspiration have been developed in the last decade and applied in large irrigated areas such as the ABIS24.
136. Analysing of satellite images will provide the following data components per pixel:
(i) Actual Evapotranspiration (mm): Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of the water that is transpired by the crop, and the water that is evaporated from the soil. Water consumed by ET is the water lost in the crop production process and is no longer available for other uses downstream or to replenish the groundwater reserve. (ii) Potential Evapotranspiration (mm): Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) is the potential amount of water (e.g., in mm per week) that could be evaporated and transpired if sufficient water were. (iii) Biomass production (kg/ha/time): This includes all biomass produced per pixel during a certain time step of all different vegetation combined (trees, crops, shrubs, grass, weeds) both above and underground. (iv) Water Productivity (POW) (kg biomass per m3 water consumed by ET): Water productivity expresses the volume of water that is consumed by the crops by evapotranspiration for the production of a specific amount of biomass. (v) Irrigation performance indicators (vi) Saline waterlogged fields can be identified using remote sensing techniques
137. The proper use of a remote sensing monitoring system will contribute to higher crop production in the irrigated areas and increase the water productivity.
22 Refer to FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, Allen et al., 1998 23 Refer to “Prediction Accuracy for Projectwide Evapotranspiration using Crop Coefficients and Reference Evapotranspiration,” ASCE J. of Irrigation and Drainage, Allen et al., 2005 24 Refer to “Comparison of Evapotranspiration Estimates from Remote Sensing (SEBAL), Water Balance and Crop Coefficient Approaches,” ASCE World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, Thoreson et al., 2009
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138. Remote sensing for mapping ET (satellite-based) and water productivity would be especially beneficial in the ABIS for the following reasons:
(i) There is a significant amount of non-beneficial ET in the command area, which cannot be measured accurately using the available records. Non- beneficial ET refers to the amount of irrigation water lost to vegetation that is not within designated field boundaries or family plots. A rough initial estimate is that this non-agronomic ET may account for about 5% of the total water supply. (ii) There are only a few predominant crop types, mainly cotton and wheat, making the image processing and interpretation more straightforward. (iii) Even though there is a substantial record-keeping effort, it does not appear there is a comprehensive surface and groundwater water balance that is produced by the relevant engineering staff on a regular basis. In addition, the accuracy of the available flow records is typically only within ±10-20%, which will result in significant uncertainties in any computed water balance. The remote sensing data would provide a valuable double- checking of the available project records when they are compiled into a water balance framework. (iv) Salinity is a serious issue in the project area. Remote sensing is a useful tool for examining and quantifying the extent and location of the areas where salinity is adversely impacting plant growth. (v) Related to the above, there appears to be common problem of poor stands on many cotton fields. Thus, there is a substantial amount of bare spots and reduced plant vigour in fields that have to be taken into account in water balance calculations (i.e. a reduction to project-wide ET). Using remote sensing will provide a more accurate estimate of the extent of the problem than other methods such as manual assessment of aerial photos, assuming they exist, or ground-truthing so many fields. (vi) For a scheme as large as ABIS, with such a substantial amount of critical water supplies used for irrigation, one would expect to have at least several high-quality agricultural weather stations in the command area providing real-time and forecasted water use for project authorities and farmers. The knowledge gained from the remote sensing analysis would help better establish the need and scope for such a sub-project.
B. Hydro-module Zoning of Territory in Respect to Calculation of Irrigation Demands
1. Principles of Soil-meliorative Zoning
139. The soil-meliorative zone maps and related information used by the PPTA Consultant were provided by the Uzsuvloyiha (‘Design Institute’) in Tashkent and have been in regular use since the ABIS was constructed.
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140. In this context, ‘zoning’ refers to the spatial separation and demarcation of zones on the Earth’s surface in accordance with vegetation cover, elevation or other natural geographical characteristics. Soil-meliorative zones reflect mapping of a combination of several synthesised properties relevant for irrigated agriculture. Data from diversified map types, such as topographic maps, geobotanical (vegetation) maps, soils maps, climate maps, and litho-hydrogeological maps, were the basis for soil-meliorative mapping, which could then be organized into thematic zones.
141. The calculation of crop water requirements based on the soil-meliorative zoning of territory in the ABIS includes the whole complex of existing conditions such as basic climate, geomorphologic, hydrogeologic, lithologic, hydrochemical and soil-meliorative characteristics.
142. The structure of zoning accepted in Uzbekistan is as follows: Soil-climatic zone → Soil-meliorative region → geomorphologic-lithologic sub-region → soil area. In accordance with this structure the first taxonomic unit is Soil-climatic zone.
143. The territory of Central Asia is divided into three climatic zones – North (N), Central (C) and South (S) – and each of those is further sub-divided into northern (I) and southern (II) parts. The climatic zones are further distinguished vertically (altitude-based ‘belts’) according to quantitative indices related to the precipitation amount, temperature and air humidity (collectively grouped into a ‘natural moisture factor25’). The moisture factor represents the relationship between natural sources of water for plants and potential evaporation. The smaller this index, the more arid the climate is. In this case, the relevant belt is Desert (A). Therefore, the ABIS is in soil-climatic zone of desert soils of the central and southern part of the central climate zone, or C-II-А.
144. The soil-meliorative region, reflecting the trend of the meliorative complex, is determined by hydrogeologic conditions of inflow and outflow of groundwater. These regions are based on groundwater level, soil water capacity, and the volume of leaching and other meliorative elements:
a. region of secure groundwater outflow without the impact on soil formation. In this region soils are not subject to salinization and the soil-meliorative situation is formed by relief and lithologic structure of soil-forming rock; b. region of hindered inflow and outflow of groundwater with their unstable occurrence and regime depending on local conditions. Soils are subject to salinization and waterlogging.
145. Sub-regions and soil areas are determined by the geomorphologic-lithologic structure with similar values of soil thickness, mechanical composition and groundwater level.
146. There are six (6) geomorphologic areas within the ABIS command area. The smaller unit of zoning is the group. Altogether there are 18 soil-meliorative groups.
25 Moisture factor, Mf = (PO + Ws)/Eo; where PO is the long-term average precipitation for a year’s period with air temperature higher than +5ºC (mm); Ws is the moisture reserve in the top 1 m of soil layer (mm); and Eo is the potential evaporation (mm).
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2. Hydro-module Zoning
147. Once the soil-meliorative zone is established, hydro-module zoning is further carried out in order to differentiate areas with the same of irrigation rates and regimes.
148. In the ABIS command area, there are hydro-modules III, IV, V, VI and VII as summarized in Table 18 and shown in Figure 11. If drainage is adequate to keep groundwater levels at elevations of 2 to 2.5 m, through the following of better irrigation practices and the on-going drainage improvement works funded by the government’s Amelioration Fund, hydro-module VI and VII areas can be transformed into IV and V. Thus, with the project there will be a prevalence of areas with hydro-module V (78%), and then IV (22%).
Table 18: ABIS hydro-module zoning (existing and project conditions) Groundwater Mechanical Hydro-module Level Composition Ameliorative Area Existing Project Existing Project (0-100 cm) Group ha % III V 3-5 2-3 Medium and 1 56,375 11 heavy loamy soil V V 2-3 2-3 Medium and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 266,784 54 heavy loamy soil IV IV 2-3 2-3 Light loamy 7, 8, 9, 10 46,339 9 and sandy- loam soil VII V 1-2 2-3 Medium and 11, 12, 16 62,876 13 heavy loamy soil VI IV 1-2 2-3 Light loamy 13, 14, 15, 63,955 13 and sandy- 17, 18 loam soil Total 496,329 100 149. Source: ABIS soil-meliorative map. Uzdavsuvloyiha, 2012
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Figure 11: ABIS hydro-modules
Source: Uzsuvloyiha, 2012
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3. Design Values of Irrigation Rates for Hydro-modules
150. The detailed irrigation rates for each hydro-module by crop type in the vegetation and non-vegetation seasons are presented in Appendix 9 (for both sets of figures from both the Soyuznikhi, and the Uzgipromeliovodkhoz). The tables include prescribed irrigation values (m3/ha) pertaining to the: (i) crop, (ii) number of irrigations, (iii) irrigation period, and (iv) leaching requirement by salinity level.
151. The irrigation rates for a hydro-module are calculated using empirical factors according to different crop development periods. The formulas for the vegetation period are as follows:
М = 10 * K1 * K2 * (Е - О) (1) where: М – irrigation rate, m3/ha Е – potential evaporation in the period April-September, mm О – total precipitation in the period April-September, mm
K1 – crop factor depending on crop variety and soil-climatic zone K2 – crop factor depending on soil-meliorative conditions 10 – conversion factor for m³/ha
Evaporation is taken according to N. Ivanov with Molchanov’s factor:
Е = 0.00018 * 0.8 * (25 + t)2 * (100 - а) where:
Е – average monthly evaporability, mm t – average monthly air temperature, ºС а – average monthly relative air humidity,%
152. Non-vegetation period irrigations are divided into ‘moistening’ and leaching irrigations and the rate (m3/ha) set based on water-physical properties of soils, mainly salinity.
153. The formula for calculating the irrigation rate of moistening irrigations by hydro- module during the non-vegetation period is as follows:
М = (PPV - NW)*h + α (Е - О) (2)
where:
PPV – maximum moisture capacity, % of vol. NW - soil moisture reserve at the end of non-vegetation period, % of vol. Е and О – evaporation and precipitation in the non-vegetation period, mm h – thickness of moistened layer (1.25 – 1.5 m) α = 0.5 for the areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation in the period non-vegetation months, in the rest of time α = 1.0
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154. Leaching irrigation rates, which are at the same time moistening ones, are also calculated according to equation (2) above, but subject to soil leaching and salinization capability: an increasing factor of 1.5 is applied at a groundwater level of 2-3 m and 2.25 at a groundwater level of 1-2 m.
155. The leaching irrigation season is February to March for annual crops and November to December for perennial ones. The moistening irrigation of winter wheat is carried out in autumn right after sowing during September to October, and during October to November one vegetation irrigation is carried out.
C. Crop Water Requirements
156. This section presents estimates of crop water requirements based on planned figures for the 315,000 service area of the ABIS in 2012.26 The hydro-modules used by the Amu Bukhara BISA reflect both irrigation water requirements in the vegetation and non- vegetation seasons, plus leaching irrigations done in the non-vegetation season.
157. Calculation of the estimated crop water requirements at the field level for hydro- module areas was carried out subject to the cropping pattern summarised Table 19 and the irrigated areas shown in Table 20.
158. Tables 21 and 22 summarise the estimated 2012 crop water requirements for the vegetation (irrigation) and non-vegetation seasons, respectively. As shown in the tables, the required water supply within the ABIS27 is 3,704.73 Mm3 during the irrigation season and 1,537.30 Mm3 during the non-vegetation season. Annually, this is equivalent to a mean water requirement of 16,640 m3/ha, including 11,760 m3/ha in the irrigation season and 4,880 m3/ha in the non-vegetation season.
159. The weighted average values of irrigation rates for hydro-module areas with regard to the administrative districts in the ABIS are provided in Appendix 9 and summarised by pump station in Table 23.
160. Once the crop water requirement was determined, the water productivity could be calculated, which describes the ratio between the yield and the amount of water required.
161. Modern agriculture aims to increase yield production per hectare per unit of water used, which is commonly described by the term water productivity (POW). The lower the crop water requirement, e.g. due to more efficient water usage and less leaching, the higher the water productivity.
162. The POW in Uzbekistan is very low. The analysis showed that for 1 m3 of water only 0.21-0.22 kg of cotton or 0.79-0.80 kg of wheat is produced.
26 Based on the hydro-modules and irrigation regimes developed by the Soyuznikhi and approved by the MAWR in 1987. 27 This reflects the amount of water to be delivered from the ABMK to the combined service areas constituting the Amu Bukhara BISA, and therefore does not include losses from the main conveyance canal.
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163. For example, the Improved On-Farm Water Resources Management Project (WPI-PL) is being jointly implemented by International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Scientific and Information Center of Interstate Committee for Water Cooperation (SIC ICWC) with the financial support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). It covers 5 regions of the Fergana Valley in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. An increased POW was achieved by measures resulting in an efficient use of irrigation water and ameliorative conditions in the fields, which led to a POW of 1.5 kg/m³ for cotton and 2.2 kg/m³ for wheat.
Table 19: Cropping pattern on irrigated lands for calculating irrigation water
requirements (%)
tan rkan
koun
koul
hara kent
dor
douvan
gan
. . Bazar
Buk Vob Jon Ka Kara K Pesh Romi Shofi Gij Crop Аlat Cotton 40.1 37.0 40.2 43.5 37.5 41.2 35.7 43.4 44.0 36.0 38.0 Winter wheat 12.0 8.3 18.3 10.0 16.0 17.1 21.6 12.1 12.6 6.3 8.2 Winter wheat with 13.3 11.0 10.6 8.8 11.3 7.4 18.0 12.1 10.9 17.1 9.2 double crop Vegetables, Cucurbitaceous 18.3 16.4 16.5 14.0 9.4 20.7 5.9 16.3 13.1 16.1 20.8 potatoes Maize (grain), 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 leguminous crops Maize (silage) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Fodder and 7.9 8.6 4.3 9.6 14.2 4.4 10.8 4.0 4.6 8.6 5.5 lucerne Orchards and 7.3 15.8 9.5 9.6 9.1 7.9 1.9 10.2 11.4 12.6 13.3 vineyards Fallow 0.6 2.2 0.3 4.3 1.7 0.9 6.1 1.3 2.8 2.9 4.5
Note 1: The group ‘orchards and vineyards’ combines all tree plantations including household plot orchards and forests. Fallow land is also included in irrigation lands according to the land balance obtained from data provided by the regional and district MAWR offices. Note 2: Irrigation rates for fallow land are taken the lowest one corresponding to leguminous crops. Irrigation rates for the group ‘double crops after winter wheat’ are taken from published values for double crops after maize (in V. Shredder et al., 1970) due to the absence of winter wheat with double crops in the tables. Non-vegetation irrigations of vegetables include additional an graft-supporting irrigation before sowing.
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Table 20: Land areas irrigated by ABIS main pump station and by Irrigation System Administrations (ISAs)
ISA Area (ha) Pump Station Area (ha) Аmu Karakoul 79,606 Kizil Тepa 130,817 Аlat 21,475 Vobkent 20,225 Karakoul 25,065 Peshkoun 22,756 Jonjor 33,066 Gijduvan 27,074 Shakhroud-Doustlik 65,240 Shafirkan 28,402 Bukhara 27,967 Kiziltepa 32,360 Kagan 18,845 Kuyu Мazar 89,631 Karaulbazar 16,078 Vobkent 4,567 City of Bukhara 2,350 Romitan 27,241 Kharkhour-Douba 74,789 Bukhara 23,948 Vobkent 24,792 Kagan 18,845 Peshkoun 22,756 City of Bukhara 2,350 Romitan 27,241 Jondor 12,680 Toshrabad-Jilvan 55,476 Jondor 29,801 Gijdouvan 27,074 Jondor 20,386 Shafirkan 28,402 Аlat 3,821 Bukhara Total 275,111 Karakoul 1,575 Jondor 3 4,019 Тashrabad Urtachul 39,889 Droujba, M. K-Bazar 16,078 Kiziltepa 32,360 K-Bazar 16,078 Karmana 7,529 Karakoul 36,761 АBIS Total 315,000 Аlat 17,028 Karakoul 19,733 Yamanjar 4,383 Аlat 626 Karakoul 3.757 Navoi 7,529 Karmana 7,529 АBIS Total 315,000 Source: Amu Bukhara BISA, 2012
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Table 21: ABIS crop water requirements during the vegetation season (2012)
including: Alfalfa Vegetables, Orchards, Total Irrigated and maize melons and vineyards and Household Water Requirement District Area (ha) Cotton Wheat for fodder potatoes other trees plots (Mm3) Alat 21,475 9600 5,426 1,059 317 970 4,103 247.48 Karakul 25,065 10,800 6,116 983 237 1,584 5,345 283.87 Jondor 33,066 15,000 6,164 4,095 467 2,740 4,600 398.72 Bukhara 27,967 11,300 5,512 2,704 462 3,312 4,677 321.7 Kagan 18,845 8,200 5,176 2,119 272 1,212 1,866 230.5 K-Bazar 16,078 5,715 6,335 2,306 471 768 483 185.5 Bukhara City 2,350 400 330 260 341 513 506 47.0 Vobkent 24,792 11,400 7,200 514 227 968 4,483 299.5 Peshku 22,756 10,300 5,486 989 327 1,813 3,841 261.93 Romitan 27,241 14,000 6,480 759 295 1,555 4,152 326.17 Gijduvan 27,074 12,200 4,731 1,172 270 2,264 6,437 324.09 Shafirkan 28,402 11,700 6,644 2,285 308 2,602 4,863 331.05 Bukhara 275,111 120,615 65,600 19,245 3,994 20,301 45,356 3,257.51 Kizil-Tepa 32,360 8,980 10,224 1,885 490 2,166 8,615 366.12 Karmana 7,529 2,775 3,467 350 136 495 306 81.1 Navoi 39,889 11,755 13,691 2,235 626 2,661 8,921 447.22 Total 315,000 132,370 79,291 21,480 4,620 22,962 54,277 3,704.73 Source: BISA Amu Bukhara 2012
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Table 22: ABIS crop water requirements during the non-vegetation season (2012)
Leaching of saline lands Irrigation Total Irrigated Total Actual Total Water Area Area Area Pre- Area Area* Requirement District (ha) Severe Moderate Low (ha) (ha) Wheat Household Fodder irrig. (ha) (ha) (Mm3) Alat 13,849 1,830 5,490 6,529 22,999 7,618 5,426 1,347 3,940 845 21,467 30,617 104.7 Karakul 14,654 1,140 6,900 6,614 23,834 10,410 6,116 1,729 5,030 2,565 25,064 34,244 118.9 Jondor 23,790 2,300 9,930 11,560 38,320 9,237 6,164 1,331 5,020 1,742 33,027 47,557 160.4 Bukhara 19,402 1,300 7,517 10,585 29,519 8,483 5,512 2,503 5,040 468 27,885 38,002 125.3 Kagan 11,586 1,150 4,830 5,606 18,716 6,989 5,176 458 5,820 1,355 18,575 25,705 99.1 K-Bazar 7,867 430 5,420 2,017 14,147 8,209 6,335 202 2,790 1,672 16,076 22,356 83.9 Bukhara City 1,986 260 843 883 3,349 643 330 213 240 100 2629 3,992 28.2 Vobkent 15,233 1,210 5,460 8,563 23,113 9,558 7,200 1,454 4,420 904 24,791 32,671 116.2 Peshku 14,909 1,200 7,310 6,399 24,619 7,756 5,486 1,177 5,130 1,093 22,665 32,375 116.1 Romitan 19,068 910 9,600 8,558 30,488 8,190 6,480 1,264 3,980 446 27,258 38,678 138.9 Gijduvan 18,250 2,330 6,880 9,040 31,862 8,818 4,731 2,264 7,130 1,823 27,068 40,221 135.0 Shafirkan 20,042 1,460 8,900 9,682 29,790 8,359 6,644 498 4,960 1,217 28,401 38,608 138.7 Bukhara 180,636 15,520 79,080 86,036 290,756 94,270 65,600 14,440 53,500 14,230 274,906 385,026 1,365.4 Kizil-Tepa 10,500 1,700 5,500 3,300 19,400 20,823 10,224 8,885 4,275 1,714 31,323 40,223 142.2 Karmana 0 0 0 0 0 6,906 3,285 846 981 2,775 6,906 6,906 29.7 Navoi 10,500 1,700 5,500 3,300 19,400 27,729 13,509 9,731 5,256 4,489 38,229 47,129 171.9 Total 191,136 17,220 84,580 89,336 310,156 121,999 79,109 24,171 58,756 18,719 313,135 432,155 1,537.3 * includes very saline lands requiring double leaching irrigations and area under double cropping after wheat harvesting Source: BISA Amu Bukhara 2012
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Table 23: ABIS annual crop water requirements by pump station (2012)
including: Alfalfa and Vegetables, Orchards, Water Irrigated Maize for melons and vineyards and Household Requirement No Pump Station District Area (ha) Cotton Wheat Fodder potatoes other trees plots (Mm3) Vobkent 20,225 9,265 5,775 433 207 792 3,753 339.1 Peshku 22,756 10,300 5,486 989 327 1,813 3,841 378.5 1 Kizil-Tepa Gijduvan 27,074 12,200 4,731 1,172 270 2,264 6,437 459.1 Shafirkan 28,402 11,700 6,644 2,285 308 2,602 4,863 469.8 Kizil-Tepa 32,360 8,980 10,224 1,885 490 2,166 8,615 513.0 Sub-Total for 1 130,817 52,445 32,860 6,764 1,602 9,637 27,509 2,159.5 Vobkent 4,567 2,135 1,425 81 20 176 730 76.6 Romitan 27,241 14,000 6,480 759 295 1,555 4,152 465.0 Bukhara 23,948 9,640 4,701 2,335 408 2,842 4,022 383.1 2 Kuyu-Mazar Kagan 18,845 8,200 5,176 2,119 272 1,212 1,866 331.0 Bukhara City 2,350 400 330 260 341 513 506 72.2 Jondor 12,680 5,346 2,174 1,756 295 1,211 1,898 214.5 Sub-Total for 2 89,631 39,721 20,286 7,310 1,631 7,509 13,174 1542.4 3 Jondor-3 Bukhara 4,019 1,660 811 376 66 458 648 64.3 Jondor 20,386 9,654 3,990 2,339 172 1,529 2,702 344.8 4 Jondor Alat 3,821 1,657 1,498 109 33 100 424 62.7 Karakul 1,575 705 437 52 13 85 283 25.3 Sub-Total for 4 25,782 12,016 5,925 2,500 218 1,714 3,409 432.8 5 Drujba, K-bazar K-bazar 16,078 5,715 6,335 2,306 471 768 483 269.4 Alat 17,028 7,633 3,612 950 284 870 3,679 279.3 6 Karakul Karakul 19,733 8,551 4,571 797 192 1,285 4,337 317.1 Sub-Total for 5-6 36,761 16,184 8,183 1,747 476 2,155 8,016 596.4 Alat 626 310 316 0 0 0 0 10.3 7 Jamanjar Karakul 3,757 1,544 1108 134 32 214 725 60.4 Sub-Total for 7 4,383 1,854 1,424 134 32 214 725 70.6 8 Navoi Karmana 7,529 2,775 3,467 350 136 495 306 113.5 Total for ABIS 5,248.9 Source: BISA Amu Bukhara 2012
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IV. PERENNIAL TREE PLANTATIONS
164. Perennial tree plantations include forest belts, orchards, and vineyards of household land plots and farms, as well as tree plantations of the national forest fund. The total area of tree plantations in the ABIS is about 10% of irrigated lands.
165. Tree shelter belt plantations play an important role in irrigated farming by mitigating the impact of hot dry winds and forming more favourable microclimates for irrigated fields. During hot dry days, the relative air humidity is 5-10% higher than in open lands. Evaporation in the inter-belt fields can be reduced by 20-30%. An increase in crop yield in the inter-belt fields can be 10-15%.
166. In addition to their main purpose of mitigating the surrounding microclimate, the forest belts promote the health of ecosystems and improve the human environment, by change the monotonous appearance of agricultural landscapes, forming a new forest- agrarian landscape.
167. At the present time, the forest belts created in the intense period of land and irrigation development in the ABIS are degraded and unable to protect the large irrigated fields. Old trees are dying, new ones are not being planted, and the forest belts are not recovering. The prevailing tree species in the forest belts – mulberry tree – is used for the silkworm breeding and regularly dressed.
168. In the ABIS area all arable lands would benefit from shelter forest belts and, therefore, agrisilviculture should be broadly introduced to raise adaptive capabilities of arable farming, improve crop yields, change environmental conditions, and help form a qualitatively new environment.
169. The national scientific-production centre for ornamental horticulture and forestry has developed the technologies for creating forest belts and tree plantation species of fast-growing hybrid poplar trees to protect irrigated lands and get industrial wood. The creation of tree plantations enables the combined efforts of guarding against land degradation and increased CO2 content in the atmosphere. Their pilot project on shelter forest belts in the Djizak region in 2003-2006 demonstrated that shelter forest belts contribute considerably to the reduction of the global warming (1 ha of plantations sequesters up to 15 t of СО2-equivalent a year, and in addition 1 ha of plantations can clean in the course of the year 18 million m3 of air).
170. The technology of agrisilviculture is also applicable on the out-of-rotation (marginal) arable lands. The Restructuring land and water use in Khorezm region Project by ZEF/Bonn/UNESCО/Urgench University (2004-2012) has demonstrated successful reclamation of lands abandoned because of their high salinity and rehabilitation of their productive capacity. Their results have showed that after five years: the reserves of organic carbon in the 0-20-cm layer of topsoil have increased on the average by 20% (2- 7 t/ha); carbon sequestration in arborous biomass was 10-20 t/ha (deducting the biomass used as fuel). If such sequestration as a result of land improvement project was certified within the frame of CDM the concomitant costs could promote this alternative use of degraded arable lands.
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V. LIVESTOCK FARMING AND FISHERIES
A. Livestock Farming
171. Following the restructuring of national agricultural sector, the system of livestock farming has changed as well. The majority of large livestock farms were abolished and livestock farming has passed into the private sector. In this connection problems with the ready availability of organic fertilizers have emerged since livestock farming was transferred from stabling to grazing. In the irrigated areas of the ABIS there are no irrigated pastures specially for livestock farming, and animals mainly graze on acquisition lands: along roads, drains, marginal farming lands, or out-of rotation ones due to salinity or lack of water, and others.
172. The majority of cattle, small cattle and poultry are concentrated in dehkan farms, which are also the main suppliers of livestock produce: milk, meat, and eggs. Few cattle are kept in private farms, and are even less sparse in agricultural enterprises. For example, the cattle population of agricultural enterprises is 0.4% of the total livestock population (refer to Table 24).
Table 24: Livestock production in Bukhara region Agricultural Dehkan Farms Private Farms Enterprises Item 2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2010 Meat (t) 127,455 135,355 2,622 3,183 2,162 1,673 Milk yield (t) 488,520 517,109 18,242 21,045 524 1,161 Eggs (thous. pcs) 96,755 104,975 1,915 2,405 64,066 66,315 Wool production (t) 2263.4 2339 158.6 167 292.6 269.5 Astrakhan sheep (pcs) 266,451 280,925 21,564 23,301 45,023 29,085 Cocoons (t) 2,885 3,107 Honey (t) 342 374 15 18 13 13 Cattle (pcs) 783,761 835,222 41,541 45,306 2,139 3,421 Milk cows (pcs) 328,769 349,840 13,566 15,347 471 846 Sheep and goats (pcs) 1,137,603 1,226,100 135,582 146,352 177,099 190,703 Pigs (pcs) 9217 9603 423 353 Horses (pcs) 3,110 3,364 515 475 404 311 Poultry (pcs) 1,240,046 1,393,993 82,575 92,742 340,658 466,771 Source: Department of Statistics, District MAWR
173. Sheep breeding, and particularly astrakhan sheep, is mainly concentrated in the non-irrigated area on natural desert pastures.
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B. Fisheries
174. Fish production in the ABIS area is mainly concentrated within saline lakes, which are fed with drainage waters from irrigated lands. There are seven (7) large lakes in the lower reaches of the Zarafshan Basin filled from drainage water. In addition, there is the Shorkul Reservoir that is filled with water from the Kizil Tepa Pump Station (and Auxiliary Pump Station), and partially from the Zarafshan River. The main features of these water bodies are unstable water supplies (inflow), high salinity, and the content of chlorides and sulphates several times greater than permissible maximum concentration for fish breeding as summarised in Table 25.
Table 25: Information about water bodies in the vicinity of the ABIS
Name Parameter Water Quality Productivity Note Water source – Parallel collector Salinity 20-25g/l In 1990-96 there were has been switched to GVST. The S=35,000 ha (norm 5-7g/l), 30 species of fish, lake is registered in the Dengizkul V=3,500 km3 chlorides and productivity was 600- International Ecological Н=18-20 m sulphates 1.5-2mg/l 700 t. Since 2000 Organization and UNESCO for (norm 0.1-0.2mg/l) fishing has stopped. preservation of microclimate and ichthyofauna
S=29,175 ha Salinity 20-25 g/l, 3 nitrogen 3.5-4.5 Karakir V=500 km Low: 1.0-1.2 kg/ha Water source – northern collector mg/l, phosphorus 0.5-1.3g/l Water source – Central Bukhara Zamon- Salinity 14-15 g/l, Collector. Due to the connection to bobo S=7,940 ha chlorides and Low: 1.8-2 kg/ha collector Kattakul-Gujayli water (Тuzkan) sulphates 1.5-2 mg/l surface has reduced by 2000 ha Water source - collector Ogitma Salinity 14-15 g/l, and collector-drainage system of Оgitma S=14,172 ha chlorides and 3-4 kg/ha Shofirkan district. Since 2008 water sulphates 1.5-2 mg/l practically no inflow Water source – old bed of the Devkhona S=1,716 ha Salinity 14-15 g/l 1.5-2 kg/ha Kashkadarya Salinity 18-20 g/l Water source – collector-drainage chlorides and Khadicha S=9,330 ha Low: 1.2-1.3 kg/ha system of Karaulbazar district and sulphates 2.5-3.3 old bed of the Kashkadarya mg/l Water source – old bed of the Zikri S=2,000 ha Salinity 14-15 g/l Low: 1.2-1.5 kg/ha Kashkadarya Salinity within the Water source – ABMK, partially the Shorkoul V=180 km3 Low: 5-6 kg/ha norm: 5-7 g/l Zarafshan 2430.5 ton in 1991 3 Water source – the Sirdarya (from Aidar- V=44.3 km Salinity within the 737.6 ton in 2004, Chardara reservoir) and collector- Аrnasai norm: 2 g/l which is 55.5 % fishing S=3,000 ha drainage waters in Uzbekistan Source: Bukhara Association of Fisheries
175. The main features of fisheries in the vicinity of the ABIS are shown in Table 26.
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Table 26: Fisheries in the vicinity of the ABIS
Number of Water surface Fish catch Stocking Year Fisheries area (ha) (t) (‘000 pcs) 2009 36 102,066 206 3,268 2010 64 102,675 433 4,877 2011 85 89,256 569 6,486 2012 109 89,309 850 7,000 Source: Bukhara Association of Fisheries
176. Based on the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan of 13 August 2003 “On measures for deepening demonopolization and privatization of fishing sector” the basins of Aidarkoul, Shorkoul and Tudakul have been leased to fisheries.
177. Lake Tudakul with the area over 21,000 ha has been leased to the firm Shams- Navoi located in the city of Navoi, which established the Uzbek-American joint venture Aqva Tudakul. To increase fish production, foreign investments of $500,000 have been spent. The nursery workshop for artificial culture of fish was equipped with imported technology and produces up to 10 million larvae per year. The joint venture has 100 ha of ponds near Tudakul reservoir and supplies annually 600 tonnes of fresh fish to the national market. Within the last years the productive capacity has increased tenfold.
178. The available data indicate the growth of fisheries, but the reduction of water surface area and worsening water quality testifies to the growing problems of the sector.
179. The Programme of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan of 26 February 2009 provides for the increase of fish resources in natural and artificial water bodies, their rational use, and trouble-free supply of consumer market with fish produce. To implement the Programme, the Bukhara Association of Fisheries has worked out the following proposals for developing Lake Dengizkul, which is in dystrophic condition:
(i) Clarify with the MAWR the allocation of 10 m3/s to Lake Dengizkul and other fisheries from ABMK (ii) Clarify with the MAWR the allocation 15 m3/s to Lake Dengizkul from the Parallelniy main drain collector (iii) With support from private investors construct a nursery workshop with a capacity of 50 million pcs/year for stocking Lake Dengizkul (iv) Procure fries from the Astrakhan region and stock Lake Dengizkul (v) Establish a scientific-research station
180. For farmers who are interested in fish production, the organization advises them to construct a 15 m3 pond on their cotton fields, near the supply canal for regular water circulation. The approximate estimated cost is 10-12 M UZS. The water from canal will pass through the pond and together with their regular crop yield this will allow the farmer to breed fish. The waste of wheat milling is a good feed supply for the fish.
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VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Analysis of Outcomes of International Projects in Uzbekistan
181. The low productivity of the agricultural sector in the ABIS is caused by: (i) an inadequate level of farming practices; (ii) poor crop rotations; (iii) insufficient application of fertilizers; poor field level water management (excessive application, poor timing, non- uniform application); and (iv) the negative consequences of salinization, waterlogging, drop of biological potency of soil. However, there are examples of successful technologies of land management both in our country and abroad with potential application in the ABIS.
182. To work out recommendations for improving the current situation in ABIS irrigated farming, the outcomes of best practices as implemented in international projects have been analysed. These projects have demonstrated measures such as improving water use through improved irrigation methods (improved furrow); inter-farm water distribution with broad participation of farmers, including training and strengthening of WUAs; introduction of water rotation schemes; enhanced record keeping; modern agro-technologies; and land preparation techniques (eg, deep ripping, levelling).
183. The following projects working with or implemented with respect to the above have been analysed: (i) Rural Enterprises Support Project, Phase-II (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and World Bank) (ii) Pilot Farm Case CNH in the Kuychirchik District of Tashkent Province (joint venture of Case New Holland, Uzselhozmash-Holding and Public Corp. BMKB-Agromash) (iii) Water Productivity Improvement on Farm Level (WPI-PL) (implemented jointly with IWMI and SIC ICWC) (iv) Integrated Management for Sustainable Use of Saline and Gypsiferous Soils (FAO ТСР/UZB/2901, 2002-2004) (v) Rehabilitation of I&D Infrastructure and Wetland Restoration in Southern Karakalpakstan (World Bank) (vi) Study on Sustainable Land Management (ICARDA jointly with national partners) (vii) Land Improvement Project: Justification for Pilot Farms and Agricultural Works (ULG Northumbrian Ltd., Mott MacDonald Ltd., 2005)
184. The costs and benefits from the above projects have been studied and alternative solutions of current problems have been proposed.
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1. Benefits from the Improved Agronomic Measures
185. Within the frame of the LIP Project: Justification for Pilot Farms and Agricultural Works (ULG Northumbrian Ltd., Mott MacDonald Ltd., 2005) the contribution of each aspect in improving crop yield has been assessed (refer to Table 27).
Table 27: Crop yield rise and overall benefits from improvement measures
Cotton Wheat
Improvement Tentative crop Tentative crop Net profit Net profit
Measures yield rise yield rise
Additionalcosts Costsfactor Additionalcosts Costsfactor % t/ha $/ha $/ha $/ha % % t/ha $/ha $/ha % Land 25 0.8 227 2 225 23 97.2 5 0.1 13 2 101 10 4.5 preparation Sowing 9 0.3 82 9 73 7 8.1 8 0.2 20 13 7 7 0.6 Quality of 5 0.2 45 7 38 4 5.3 3 0.1 8 -16 24 23 seeds Rates and sorts of 20 0.7 182 105 77 8 0.7 24 0.7 60 83 -23 -22 -0.3 fertilizers Fertilizer application 15 0.5 136 59 77 8 1.3 7 0.2 18 17 1 1 0.1 terms Inter-row 15 0.5 136 58 78 8 1.3 ------tillage Application of 8 0.3 73 48 25 3 0.5 9 0.3 23 21 2 2 0.1 herbicides Pest control 10 0,3 91 23 67 7 2.9 4 0.1 10 7 3 3 0.5 Observation of irrigation 25 0.8 227 -94 321 33 -3,4 10 0.3 25 -52 77 76 schedule Total 132 3.3 1198 218 980 100 4.5 70 2.8 176 75 102 100 1.4 Economic 275 $/t 90 $/t price Source: LIP Project. Justification for pilot farms and agricultural works (Uz, ULG Northumbrian Ltd., Mott MacDonald Ltd., 2005)
186. From the assessment of the LIP information it follows that the largest rise in crop yield and income for cotton is due to improved land preparation (25%), observation of irrigation schedule (25%), fertilizer application terms and rates according to crop requirement (20%). Tentative crop yield rise is assessed at $1,198/ha at additional costs $218/ha, net profit is $980/ha. (Negative figures mean that the proposed option is cheaper).
187. In the case of wheat, the importance of fertilizers outweighs the benefits of land preparation and improved irrigation schedules. An increase in wheat crop yield of $176/ha is reached at an additional cost of $75/ha, with a maximum benefit rise $102/ha and low production costs factor 1.4.
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2. Benefits from Laser Levelling and Deep Ripping
188. The experience of the Kuychirchik pilot project case and the USAID Project has demonstrated that laser levelling and deep ripping play a key role in structural changes necessary for improving water use and raising crop yield.
189. Deep ripping was carried out on pilot farms after laser levelling and rehabilitation of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure. As a result, wheat crop yield rose by 70% and cotton by 18%. Both projects report significant water savings: on pilot farm by 7% and in USAID Project by 30%.
190. From the experience of the Kuychirchik pilot project:
- cost of laser levelling – $370.27 ($0.5/m3 of bulldozed soil) - cost of deep ripping – $29.7/ha - construction of irrigation structures – $66.85/ha - construction of pumping station – $48.94/ha - Total = $515.76/ha
191. If the machinery operates 240 days per year, the cost of laser levelling will reduce by a factor of six. To cover the costs for the works, additional crop yields of 0.72 t/ha for cotton and 2.07 t/ha for wheat are required.
192. Table 28 summarises the outcomes of laser levelling and deep ripping on the pilot fields.
Table 28: Indices of economic efficiency of laser levelling
Reduction/ Reduction/ Traditional Laser Traditional Laser Indices increase increase method levelling method levelling % %
COTTON WHEAT
Total Costs 1,090.3 1,131.3 41 37 1,371.3 1,443.1 71.8 5.2 (‘000 UZS)
Water 5,725 4,011 -1,714 30 consumption, 10,000 8,000 -2,000 20 m3
Crop yield, t/ha 2.5 2.73 0.25 1.0 4.0 4.40 0.4 1.0
Income 1,260 1,386 126 10 1,508.5 1,659.3 150.8 10 (‘000 UZS)
Profit 169.7 254.7 85 50 137.2 216.2 79.0 58 (‘000 UZS)
Profitability (%) 10 15 5 15.5 22.5 7 Source: “Technical instruction on laser land levelling”, Urgench, 2010, NGО KRASS
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3. Benefits from Integrated Land Management
193. The current economic state of most farms does not allow them to invest in costly resource-saving technologies. However, there is a possibility to reduce non-productive water outlays on the field with simple and low-cost means. The sub-project WUFMAS (EU Tacis “WARMAP”) demonstrated that on 22 farms of five countries of the Central Asian region the productivity of water was increased by 80% and savings were 30% due to more thorough carrying out of appropriate technological processes, toughening distribution and supply of water. Similar outcomes have been reached within the frame of GEF Component А-2. As a result of the water users’ cooperation some 1 Bm3 of water were saved in the 10 participating regions.
194. The FАО and World Bank projects highlighted in the previous section successfully demonstrated integrated non-costly methods of raising land productivity, and saving irrigation water without recourse to large financial investments. The outcomes of the projects are summarised in Table 29.
Table 29: Comparative table of cotton budget on pilot (PF) and existing farms
Pilot Farm Existing Farm Seitjan-Gaip Rafael Seitjan-Gaip Rafael Indices UZS $ UZS $ UZS $ UZS $ Seeds 29,380 25.55 27,120 23.58 29,380 25.55 27,120 23.58 Fertilizers 200,825 174.64 250,429 217.77 58,294 50.69 79,672 69.27 Crop costs 168,715 146.72 129,507 112.62 158,715 138.02 114,507 99.58 Harvesting 69,832 60.72 88,160 76.67 46,864 40.75 50,112 43.58 Plant protection 20,500 17.82 20,500 17.82 20,500 17.82 20,500 17.82 Long-term costs: Deep ripping 18,725 16.28 30,000 26.09 18,725 16.28 0 0 I&D Rehabilitation 2,187.5 1.9 33,125 28.8 2187.5 1.9 0 0 Total costs 510,165 444 578,841 503 334,666 291 291,911 254 Crop yield, t/ha 3.01 3.80 1.85 2.10 Income 864,451 751.7 1,053,280 915.9 531,307 462.0 582,076 506.2 Маrginal Income 354,286 308 474,439 413 200,918 175 241,135 210 Source: WB Project “Rehabilitation of I&D infrastructure and wetland restoration.” (2005-2009). Annual Report. 2006.
B. Conclusions
195. The PPTA Consultant’s technical assessment and review of the available information regarding the current state of water and land use in the ABIS provides following conclusions:
(i) In accordance with government decree, 88% of irrigated farm areas are under winter wheat and cotton. Dehkan farms are free in selecting crops and are mainly occupied with orchards, vegetables and potatoes growing.
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(ii) Cotton mono-cropping has given way to wheat growing. However, there are no regularized, diverse crop rotations on farm fields: for several successive years cotton is followed by cotton, or wheat is followed by wheat, or cotton is followed by wheat.
(iii) Reduction of the area under lucerne in the cropping pattern up to 4% has aggravated the problem of maintaining soil productivity.
(iv) Non-observance of proper agro-technical rates and the full complex of land tillage measures has resulted in worsening soil properties (compaction, reduction of organic matter, loss of soil structure etc.).
(v) Requirement of crops in terms of mineral nutrition is supposed to be satisfied by introducing mineral fertilizers. However, the amount of mineral fertilizers programmed by the government fund for cotton and wheat does not meet biological crop requirements. Insufficient rates result in a deficiency of mineral nutrients.
(vi) Average manure application rate for cotton and wheat is about 1-3 t/ha, which is only one tenth of the requirement at the current crop productivity. On Dehkan farms the situation is better due to the use of domestic organic waste.
(vii) The lack of high-quality seeds is one of the factors restricting the potential of higher crop productivity. Farmers get seeds with low germinating capacity and high content of extraneous material which causes the use of increased seeding rates.
(viii) Biological methods of pest control are on a rather high level. Chemical methods are used in case where biological methods are insufficient. Weeds affect wheat loses more than cotton. However, herbicides on wheat fields are used by farmers very seldom because of their high cost and lack of information.
(ix) Farmers and dehkans are united in WUAs for facilitating water distribution on an equitable basis, but the existing technical designs and management, and poor condition of the infrastructure result in uneven service to all water users.
(x) WUA members do not pay for water, but instead pay part of the O&M cost of farm infrastructure. The payment is about 10,000 to 20,000 UZS/ha, and the average level of collection is 25-27%. This sum is 3-4 times lower than the actual requirement.
(xi) The irrigation water supplies to WUAs are ensured on the basis of the contracts between WUA and ABIS in accordance with the order for water subject to the source water content (limiting water use).
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(xii) Water use planning is only implemented on the part of WUA up to the points of water diversion to individual users. Due to the absence of or damage to water measurement devices, the diversion to each individual user is not accurately measured or recorded. Farms located at the tail end of the canal system suffer from poor service.
(xiii) Field irrigation is done by surface method (mostly furrow) with significant losses due to deep percolation and surface drainage. Improved techniques (siphons, gate pipe, etc.) are not applied.
(xiv) The causes of inefficient water use on fields include:
- poor land levelling - unreliability of water supplies due to problems with power supplies (outages) and maintenance of pumping equipment - inefficiency of leaching irrigations due to poor drainage - lack of water users’ incentives for saving water (absence of a real price for irrigation water and proper accounting) - lack of knowledge among farmers about the actual efficiency of irrigations and the associated negative consequences of over- irrigation - lack of knowledge among farmers about water-saving irrigation techniques and the use of non-optimal irrigation techniques
(xv) An assessment of farmer’s background and experience has showed that their insufficient technical capacity is among the factors preventing from the creation of sustainable, more productive agriculture.
(xvi) The assessment of WUA technical capacity has revealed a serious deficiency of qualified personnel.
(xvii) Lessons from international projects in the country have successfully demonstrated measures for developing recommendations for increasing crop yield and water productivity.
C. Recommendations
196. On the basis of the current performance related to land and water use, and the best practices demonstrated in international pilot and research projects, recommendations have been developed as follows.
1. Recommendations on Improved Crop Rotations
197. In modern irrigated agriculture the government decreed cropping patterns need to evolve from its classic understanding. To improve conditions in the ABIS, it is recommended to improve the current crop rotation with more diversification of crops. Crop diversification also implies that residues will cover soil during vegetation period and protect it from degradation (drying up, salinization).
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198. Improved crop rotations were successfully trialled on the pilot farm in Kuychirchik District and were demonstrated within the frame of the FАО/ТСР/UZB/2901 project in Sardob and Аk-Аltin Districts, and the Republic of Karakalpakstan within the framework of the World Bank project Rehabilitation of I&D infrastructure and Wetland Restoration.
199. Methods of improving soils have proved very effective, which can be recommended for broad inclusion in farmers’ management practices (refer to Table 30).
Table 30: Schedule of crop rotation for raising soil productivity Vegetation Crop rotation Period Measures Scattering of ground straw and ploughing (it Winter wheat X-VI is strongly advised to not burn the stubble) Mung bean and VII-X Ploughing of organic debris (plant tops) other legumes Winter barley or Ploughing of green mass instead of green X-IV green manure manure Cotton IV-X Ploughing of mulched cotton stalks
Source: MAWR ‘Standard Operating Process Chart’
2. Irrigation and Drainage
200. Recommended drainage measures consist of rehabilitation of the irrigation and drainage systems and adopting more efficient farm-level management practices with the aim of maintaining groundwater level at design elevations. The well-being of the ameliorative situation can be regulated by strict observance of normal and leaching irrigation rates.
201. For better accounting of delivered water and its more rational use, this is of special importance when introducing a system of volumetric pricing, WUAs and farmer need to arrange accurate water measurement devices.
202. Simple water measurement practices will also help farmers to determine the required volume of irrigation water depending on crop, phase of growth and water- physical properties of soil.
203. Remote sensing will be a key tool for future water management planning introduced in the ABISOA as part of modernising the project and improving efficiency and water productivity.
3. Land Preparation
204. Precise field land levelling carried out with the laser-equipped system plays a key role in the structural changes necessary for raising the efficiency of water use and the productivity of agriculture in the ABIS. The accuracy of laser system is up to 50 times greater than the accuracy of manual control of a tractor’s hydraulic system carried out by visual assessment.
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205. Deep ripping is recommended up to the depth of 60-80 cm on irrigated lands with over-compacted topsoil and gypsiferous layers for improving water-physical properties and creating favourable conditions for the full development plant’s root systems. The frequency and periodicity of the operation depends on the mechanical composition of soils.
206. Optimal irrigation regimes must consider local conditions such as soil susceptibility to salinization, water-physical properties and biological features of crops.
4. Possibilities for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
207. The content of carbon in soil is two-three times greater than of that in the atmosphere. As is generally known, the emission of the greenhouse gases takes place in the course of agricultural activity. Intense tillage results in the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and promotes global warming. Improved agricultural technologies have significant potential for increasing the sequestration of carbon and reducing emissions of other greenhouse gases. Soil can be turned into ‘carbon absorber’ when using improved methods of tillage and cropping. Changeover to resource-saving technologies (minimal and zero tillage) helps ensure the reduction of CO2 emissions both at the expense of stopping carbon emission from soil when ploughing and reducing the use of agricultural machines on fields.
208. In resource-saving technologies such as minimum and zero tillage great attention is paid to preserving plant residues on the topsoil, mulching, using manure and other livestock products. The soil organic carbon is the main indicator of soil quality both from the point of view of biological functionality and environmental importance.
209. The Clean Development Mechanism allows Uzbekistan, which is not included in Appendix 1 of Kyoto Protocol, to participate in international sequestering carbon through marketing the certified reduced emissions as a result of implementing agrisilviculture projects, for example, to the interested industrially developed countries. When applied to degraded arable lands, part of them are already lost for agricultural use, they can be transformed by afforestation. This will help promote the rehabilitation of marginal lands and create conditions for producing benefits for farmers, as well as contributing to the general effort in the struggle against climate change by means of sequestering carbon in biomass and soil.
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Appendix 1
Institutional Setting and Issues
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APPENDIX 1 – INSTITUTIONAL SETTING AND ISSUES
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 II. EXISTING CONDITIONS ...... 2 A. The Amu Darya Basin...... 2 1. The Regulatory Framework ...... 2 2. The Resources ...... 2 B. Irrigated Agriculture ...... 3 C. Allocations, Quotas and Claims ...... 4 III. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ...... 4 A. Transboundary Water Resources Management ...... 4 1. Legal/Institutional Framework ...... 4 2. Criteria for Allocation ...... 6 3. Implementation of Decisions ...... 7 B. National Water Resources Management...... 7 1. Institutional Framework...... 7 2. Criteria for National Allocation ...... 8 3. Implementation of Government Policies ...... 8 C. Analysis ...... 9 IV. IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT ...... 9 A. Abstraction and Conveyance ...... 9 B. Distribution among the Irrigation Districts ...... 10 1. The MWRA within MAWR ...... 10 2. The BISA ...... 11 3. The ABMK ...... 11 4. The ISA ...... 12 5. The HGME ...... 12 6. The Water Council ...... 12 C. Distribution among the Irrigation Water Users ...... 13 D. Distribution to the Fields ...... 14 E. Analysis ...... 14 1. General ...... 14 2. The MAWR ...... 16 3. The BISA ...... 16 4. The ISA ...... 16 5. The ABMK ...... 17
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6. The WUA ...... 17 V. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 20 A. International Water Resources Management ...... 20 B. National Water Resources Management...... 20 C. Regional Irrigation Management ...... 21 D. Local Irrigation Management ...... 21 E. Agricultural Management ...... 22 F. Legislation and Regulations ...... 22 1. A WUA/WCA law ...... 22 2. A Standard WUA/WCA Charter ...... 22 3. Regulations on Secondary Farm Activities ...... 23 G. Capacity Building ...... 23 1. Institutional Rationalization ...... 23 2. Manpower Rationalization ...... 23 3. Training ...... 23
List of Attachments
Attachment A: Draft Treaty on the Shared Water Resources of the Amu Darya Attachment B: Draft Resolution 320x Attachment C: Draft WUA Law
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I. INTRODUCTION
1. It is generally accepted that almost any undertaking, including economic projects and state enterprises, have a much greater chance of successful operation and completion when they can rely on a clear and efficient regulatory and institutional framework. Therefore it is the purpose of this report to assess the operation of the institutions that are expected to play significant roles in the rehabilitation and future operation and maintenance (O&M) of the entire infrastructure of the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System (ABIS).
2. The next segment, Chapter 2, presents a brief overview of the existing physical and regulatory conditions, as they appear to be of relevance today to the ABIS project.
3. In Chapter 3 the institutions dealing with the water resources and their distribution and allocation among the various potential users is highlighted and some weaknesses in the institutional structure are identified. Since the origin of all water for the ABIS is the transboundary Amu Darya river basin, this discussion has an international flavor.
4. Chapter 4 reviews the roles of the various national institutions that are involved in converting the water resources into irrigation water to be used on the farms within the ABIS.
5. As expected, a number of imperfections and inadequacies are identified in Chapters 3 and 4. Although they vary in importance and possible influence on the success of the ABIS, they have been summarized in Chapter 5 together with guidelines for correction. Some documentary support materials are provided in appendices.
6. It is noted that of necessity the institutional work has made use of documentation in several languages, much of which was translated by different individuals. Consequently there is no absolute consistency in some terms or names. For instance, in the following pages the letter “A” in BISA is taken, as standing for Authority, but other local practitioners have preferred the terms Agency or Administration, as in Basin Irrigation System Authority. Operation of the major conveyance canal is performed by the ABMK (standing for the Russian English transcription of Amu Bukhara Machine Kanal), although its official name was changed in 2003 to MCA.
7. In Uzbekistan the commonly used term Water User Association (WUA) has been replaced by Water Consumer Association (WCA). Hence the abbreviations WUA and WCA are used virtually in an exchangeable manner.
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II. EXISTING CONDITIONS
A. The Amu Darya Basin
1. The Regulatory Framework
8. The drainage basin of the Amu Darya is international in scope and covers parts of six nations: The Republic of Uzbekistan, The Republic of Turkmenistan, The Republic of Tajikistan, The Kyrgyz Republic, The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and The Islamic Republic of Iran.
9. From the perspective of international water law it is customary to have a management body with representation and active participation of all six basin states.
10. During Soviet times the management of the water resources was largely an internal matter, although an international agreement was reached with Afghanistan. However, when the Central Asia states regained their independence many internal administrative divisions were raised to the level of international boundaries, complicating the regime of international water resources allocation and management.
2. The Resources
11. Among the tributary rivers of the Amu Darya are the Vakhsh River, and the Pyandzh River.
12. The Amu Darya basin covers 86.5% of Uzbekistan. The main Amu Darya River can be divided into three reaches: the upper reach bordering Afghanistan and Tajikistan, where most of the water flow is generated; the middle reach which first borders Uzbekistan and Afghanistan and then enters Turkmenistan; and the lower reach in Uzbekistan, before it discharges into the Aral Sea. The main tributaries within Uzbekistan are the Sherabad, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya and Zarafshan rivers. These last two rise in Tajikistan. The total amount of flow produced in the Amu Darya basin is estimated at 78.46 km3/year; the 5% and 95% probabilities are estimated at 108.4 and 46.9 km3/year, respectively. Because of important losses in the desert part of its course, and because of major water withdrawals for agriculture, the flow reaching the Aral Sea is limited to a small percentage of this figure (less than 10% in the driest years). About 4.7 km3/year, or 6% of the average total surface water resources of the Amu Darya River basin, are generated within Uzbekistan.
13. The surface water resources allocated to Uzbekistan are calculated every year, depending on the climatic situation and the existing flows. However, on average, it can be considered that the estimated average surface runoff, which comes from the upstream countries, is 22 km3/year for the Amu Darya basin.
14. The Amu Bukhara Irrigation System (ABIS) is located within Uzbekistan, although the intake structure on the Amu Darya is outside the country.
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15. Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometers from west to east and 930 kilometers from north to south. Bordering Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea to the north and northwest, Turkmenistan to the southwest, Tajikistan to the southeast, and Kyrgyzstan to the northeast.
16. Uzbekistan is not only one of the largest Central Asian states but also the only Central Asian state to border all the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border (less than 150 km or 93 mi) with Afghanistan to the south.
17. The Amu Bukhara project site reportedly covers areas within the Jondor, Bukhara and Romitan districts of Uzbekistan, among others. The agricultural areas are served by the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System (ABIS) that includes on-farm canals and subsurface drains for about 274,000 hectares.
18. The MAWR carries out overall management of the whole system through its Main Water Resources Authority (MWRA) headed by a Deputy Minister. This Authority bears the sole responsibility for water sector performance, including annual planning of the works and acting as a coordinator of interstate relationships in transboundary basins. Besides, this Authority is entrusted with sector prospective development plans and attracting investments to develop and maintain irrigated agriculture
B. Irrigated Agriculture
19. In general, the organizational structure of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR) is quite complicated, where the rights and duties of all organizations within the Ministry, as well as their relationship are not clearly defined.
20. However, the general features of the Main Water Resources Authority (MWRA) could be identified as being related to the main functions of a water management institution. At lower levels there are some variations that vary depending on the morphology of each irrigation system and reflect complicated relationships at the lower level.
21. It has to be noted that the Main Department's personnel comprises very few employees, less than 50 persons, to implement their assignments (Local interview.)
22. According to a previous staffing schedule of the Ministry, more than 400 employees worked there, having in fact the same responsibility as those who currently work in the Ministry.
23. The main problem of the top management now is significant lack of financing both, for the Ministry itself and its site branches, which is aggravated by the situation when the Ministry's staff has to carry out multiple instructions mainly related to supervision of the local water management authorities and interventions into their work.
24. In the line of an abundant workload of the Ministry, it has established a number of specialized organizations, which undertake some of the Ministry's functions. However, this has created additional difficulties in coordination of work.
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25. For example, the State Water Management Inspection Agency has a supervision function, and has a number of branches at the regional and lower level. These functions include control over water use, compliance with water legislation and water use limits. Other organizations are dealing with implementation of donor projects (grants and loans) supervising investment cash flow.
26. Resolution 320 created a new concept with the name Main Canal Authority (MCA) to undertake many functions, some of which deal with the O&M of major canals, in the territories of the BISA where there exist such major canals.
27. This condition applies to the Amu Bukhara BISA and therefore it would have been reasonable to expect the emergence of an Amu Bukhara Major Canal Authority (ABMCA). In reality it appears that the ABMK continues to operate as before under its own name, but under the administrative supervision of the local BISA.
28. Apparently the distribution of water over the irrigated area is done administratively by orders from the BISA to the ABMK and physically by means of the ABMK delivering water in prescribed amounts to ISA, "sub-units" of BISA.
29. Apparently the ABMK also provides water to some non-agricultural water users, such as the City of Bukhara and some industries, but the total flows are less than 3% of the discharge of the main conveyor canal.
C. Allocations, Quotas and Claims
30. The procedure for the farmers to obtain a water allocation for irrigation is to process a request through the WUA, ISA, and BISA to the MWRA in Tashkent. Its head is a Deputy Minister, who formulates a claim to the International Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC). Once an allocation has been made it is distributed over the various irrigation projects through the same communication linkages. In practice, proposals for new allocations are initiated at a high level guided by earlier allocations and recent developments in the agriculture sector.
III. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
31. In common practice the term "water resources" refers to the water commodity regardless of the eventual use that is made of it. In Uzbekistan its management and allocation requires intervention on international and national scales.
A. Transboundary Water Resources Management
1. Legal/Institutional Framework
32. As far as the ABIS is concerned the only water resources of interest are those generated in the international Amu Darya basin. Hence the management of those resources, particularly the allotment of an adequate share, is of critical importance to the rehabilitation of this irrigation system.
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33. The proper allocation of water resources in a multi-state river basin, such as that of the Amu Darya, needs to be based on a treaty or international agreement accepted by all basin states that may establish an institution for the specific purpose of managing and allocating the water resources of the basin. Such a treaty does not exist at this time.
34. Since independence Uzbekistan has been a party to bilateral and multilateral agreements and it is a participant in regional initiatives in the area of joint water and energy resources management. A number of intergovernmental agreements have strengthened dialogue and cooperation amongst the countries that contribute water to the Aral Sea. In 1992, the Central Asian Republics established the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) to oversee water allocation within the Aral Sea region.
35. The ICWC executive bodies include:
(i) Secretariat in Tashkent; (ii) Basin water organization "Amudarya" (BWO "Amudarya") in Urgench; (iii) Basin water organization "Syrdarya" (BWO "Syrdarya") in Tashkent; (iv) Scientific Information Center for water related problems (SIC) and its national branches; (v) Coordination Metrological Center (CMC) and national organizations; (vi) Training Center (TC) and its branches.
36. The Deputy Minister of MAWR is the representative of Uzbekistan on the ICWC. At its main office in Tashkent the ICWC employs about 50 professional staff, but the field staff amounts to about 500.
37. With reference to the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System it is important to note that the BWO "Amudarya" operates intake structures, waterworks facilities, reservoirs and other interstate structures that are transferred to the BWO's responsibilities for temporary operation. It makes estimates of water use of the shared water resources and formulates annual proposals for water-withdrawal limits, depending on water availability from the resources for a planned period and ensures delivery of ICWC-set water limits to various economic sectors, including the population the environment, the Aral Sea and sanitary releases.
38. The SIC of the ICWC is charged, among several other tasks, with drafting international agreements on shared water management, a task that may arise in the future.
39. Another SIC function relates to the rationalization and creation of automated water management systems in river basins. This function could be utilized whenever the MAWR would decide to upgrade and modernize its data reporting and processing procedures.
40. The Training Center (TC) of the ICWC trains national water sectors' higher and medium level staff through training workshops in national and international water laws, irrigated agriculture and environmental management improvement. This function could benefit any future efforts by MAWR to establish a viable extension effort.
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41. In the current absence of permanent basin-wide water sharing agreements, allocation is decided annually on an ad hoc basis by the ICWC and managed by the two BWO.
42. In case the ICWC is unable to reach agreement on the sharing of water from either basin the matter is reportedly referred to the International Fund for the (protection of the) Aral Sea (IFAS) where final agreements are reached at the presidential level. It is noted that the ICWC and IFAS are bodies dealing with all drainage basins contributing to the Aral Sea and thus they include Kazakhstan.
43. The fact remains that there does not exist a treaty that binds all states with territories in the Amu Darya basin to one policy or strategy for the use of the water resources in that basin.
44. Uzbekistan has limited possibilities to directly influence the regime and volume of the water flowing across its borders, because the country is located in the middle reach of the Amu Darya and many of its irrigation policy decisions are driven by the actions of its neighbors. Water resources management challenges are also mounting because of the need for higher agricultural production and hydropower generation, and the increased uncertainty due to climate change. It is therefore important for Uzbekistan to have binding agreements concerning its most basic resource, water.
2. Criteria for Allocation
45. The irrigated agriculture sub-sector of Uzbekistan accounts for 90% of all agricultural production, and consumes 85% of all water resources. Total water demand for irrigation is about 57 km3 per year: runoff for water resources generated in Uzbekistan is about 11.5 km3 per year with the balance (80%) coming from upstream countries via the Syr Darya and Amu Darya. Since the time of the former Soviet Union, Uzbekistan has not had permanent agreement with its neighbors on energy and water allocation.
46. Therefore, it is clear that Uzbekistan would benefit from a treaty setting forth a long-term water allocation mechanism among the countries in the region, particularly in the Amu Darya basin.
47. The allocation of water among competing basin states can be based on several criteria.
i. Hydrology
48. Some countries in a basin may claim ownership of all the water that falls on their territory, which usually favors the upstream basin states. The topography of such states often makes it difficult to introduce widespread development, particularly by irrigated agriculture. Hence, such countries have an incentive to trade their favorable water conditions against other economic benefits from the less endowed basin states.
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ii. Population
49. Countries with large populations may prefer to see a distribution in proportion to the number of people already using the resource, thus separating the use from the hydrologic facts. This criterion favors countries with large valleys and coastal plains where human settlements usually have been established first.
50. On a more modest basis the basin states may agree to allocate as a first priority at least enough water to each claimant to satisfy the legitimate demands of the people to meet the needs of the water supply and sanitation sub-sectors, usually known as the municipal demands.
iii. Economic potential
51. A more complicated criterion is based on an assessment of the economic contribution that water may make to various parts of the basin because of the favorable physical circumstances in those regions. This approach is desirable from the point of view of optimal basin development, because it will lead to the most benefits accruing to the basin as a whole. However, it will require agreements of an economic and political nature to ensure that the benefits will indeed be distributed over the basin states in an equitable manner.
3. Implementation of Decisions
52. The deliberations and decisions of ICWC and IFAS take place in an international environment without the benefit of staff and equipment to carry out allocation decisions. However, in view of the fact that the Deputy Minister of MAWR is a member of the ICWC there exists a direct channel for the implementation in Uzbekistan of ICWC decisions by the MAWR and the national entities reporting to MAWR.
B. National Water Resources Management
1. Institutional Framework
53. The economies of all nations may be seen as composed of several sectors, each with its own mandates, objectives and an accompanying bureaucratic and sometimes also a physical infrastructure. For instance, health matters are usually the responsibility of appropriately named Ministry, which oversees the medical profession and possibly numerous establishments such as hospitals, medical schools, and pharmaceutical industries. For the proper execution of all the functions in the sector there will be a need for a certain amount of water and financial resources.
54. Other sectors may have similar institutional frameworks, but the water resources they need may vary considerably, both in quantity and reliability of supply. The fact remains that there are several sectors that present competing demands for a share of a finite resource. In order to satisfy those competing claims it is common practice to assign the task of allocating water resources within a nation to an impartial body, for instance an inter-ministerial water commission, without a clear link to any existing sector within the economy.
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55. In Uzbekistan the MAWR has been given many tasks, including "the determination of conditions of water supply for the enterprises and organizations of all sectors of the economy of the Republic of Uzbekistan” (Order of the President P-1750 dated April 15, 2003).
56. Therefore, it appears that MAWR has sole responsibility for national water resources management and allocation to all sectors.
2. Criteria for National Allocation
57. When faced with the challenge to allocate scarce water resources among several competing sectors or enterprises in the national economy the relevant body needs to consider several options for setting allocation priorities.
58. It is commonly accepted that the use of water for municipal purposes receives first priority, because that normally includes the water supply and sanitation efforts to protect public health.
59. Thereafter it is commonly accepted that water should be allocated and used in a manner that will maximize returns to the national economy. Recognition of water as an economic commodity is the most important factor in deciding how water should be distributed amongst various sectors of the economy and various water users within each sector. This becomes especially important when a further increase in the volume of supply is impossible and water is a limiting factor to production. With this approach the highest priority should be given to projects that enhance water management and water use efficiency.
60. A slightly different criterion relates to the capability of different sectors to create employment by using water. In nations suffering from a population explosion and the mass unemployment that accompanies it this socio-economic criterion may exceed the strictly economic one in importance.
61. Another criterion that may be used is of a geographic nature. The Government may have decided that for certain strategic or socio-economic reasons various geographic regions require exceptional development support. This may mean that extra financial and water resources are allocated to such regions in preference to other allocations.
3. Implementation of Government Policies
62. According to Ministerial Resolution 320 of 2003 the responsibility for implementing water allocation decisions lies with the Basin Irrigation System Authorities. The resolution states that "a decision of a Basin Irrigation System Authority, taken in the framework of its competence, is obligatory for execution by Main Canal Authorities (MCA) and Irrigation system authorities, municipalities, as well as officials and civilians". This wording clearly puts the BISA, under guidance of the MAWR, in charge of implementing water resources allocation decisions on the national level.
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63. It is noted that in some oblasts there appear to exist a Water Council, reporting to the local Hakim, with an institutional membership that reflects the different interest in water matters. However, those councils reportedly are more concerned with solving water distribution problems rather than water allocations among users.
C. Analysis
64. On the international level there is a need for a comprehensive basin-wide agreement or treaty whereby all Amu Darya basin states accept a water allocation mechanism and process. This should include all basin states and provide for certain permanent allocation criteria such that future uncertainties are limited to those presented by nature rather than by politicians.
65. On the national level the assignment of the multi-sectoral water resources management and allocation function to a representative of one sector is institutionally awkward. However, the practice in Uzbekistan appears to invite no conflicts. This is probably due to the fact that the irrigation sub-sector is by far the largest water user and the demands from municipalities and industries are very small and do not materially interfere with irrigated agriculture. Nevertheless, it would be preferable if, in line with best international practices, a neutral body representing all sectors of the economy would be formally mandated with the allocation of water resources in Uzbekistan.
IV. IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
66. The transition of the irrigation water from the resource phase in the Amu Darya to the fields of the agricultural end user involves several stages. The latter require different technical infrastructure and in Uzbekistan they are also being managed by different institutions within the following framework.
A. Abstraction and Conveyance
67. The diversion of water from the resources in the Amu Darya is performed by means of an intake structure on the Amu Darya leading to a conveyance canal. In view of the topography that canal is equipped with a number of pumping stations with a combined lift of about 200 meters to create the conditions necessary for gravity flow in the canal to be maintained.
68. Most of the water conveyed by this canal within the territory of the Amu-Bukhara Basin Irrigation System Authority (ABBISA) is delivered to the various outlets along the canal in the ABIS project area under supervision of the local BISA. However, some of the conveyed water is made available to the City of Bukhara and to industrial enterprises in the region.
69. The raw water is fairly rich in silt and hence much of the maintenance of the canal capacity consists of silt removal, particularly in sections where the flow speed is decreased and deposition is increased.
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70. Operation and maintenance of the pumping stations forms a major part of the canal management. For example, the Kizil Tepa Pump Station includes a large structure housing 10 large pumps with a lift of about 60 meters. Reportedly there is a fairly small team of attendants present at all times, using a "1 day on - 3 days off" work schedule. This rotating team is supplemented by another 25 workers to ensure adequate maintenance of the grounds and performance of minor repairs. The Kizil Tepa Auxiliary Pump Station contains about 30 small pumps with a lift of about 6 meters. It has a station crew resembling that of the major pumping stations in view of the fairly complicated electrical network and plumbing.
71. Within the ABIS project area the responsibility for O&M of the conveyance canal and the large pumping stations along the canal lies with the ABMK, which was renamed by Resolution 320 as a Major Canal Authority (MCA) under supervision of the local BISA. In actual practice this organization is invariably still referred to as the ABMK, the initials of the original Russian name.
B. Distribution among the Irrigation Districts
1. The MWRA within MAWR
72. Within MAWR, the Main Water Resources Authority (MWRA) is the primary organization responsible for managing the international and national water resources as well as developing policies for O&M and management of the irrigation and drainage projects.
73. The MWRA in Tashkent is a relatively small organization with less than 50 staff members. However, some MWRA functions are performed by outsiders. For example, the processing of the voluminous flow of data from the various BISA on water use and other conditions is processed under contract by an outside entity and reported to the MWRA.
74. The MWRA has departments dealing with Amelioration, Water Balances, Water Resources, Operation of Irrigation Systems, Pumping Stations, Capital Construction and Civil Works, Design, Technology Development and Investment, and Finance. (Source: local interview)
75. MWRA was reorganized by Resolution 320 of June 21, 2003. The limits of the irrigation districts were changed from administrative district to hydrographic boundaries. Thereafter irrigation and drainage are managed by Basin Irrigation System Authorities (BISA) under MWRA. The territory of each BISA is organized into a Main Canal Authority (MCA), where needed, and in Irrigation System Authorities (ISA).
76. The same Resolution lists a number of tasks and functions that refer to:
(i) market principles, (ii) water saving technologies, (iii) uninterrupted provision of water, (iv) reliable irrigation systems, (v) irrigation efficiency, (vi) reliable calculation of water use, (vii) means of private ownership.
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2. The BISA
77. With reference to the Amu Bukhara project the local operating entity is the Amu- Bukhara Basin Irrigation System Authority (BISA) as created by Resolution 320.
78. The BISA is the organization with responsibility for operating the irrigation system. It obtains water through the ABMK from the Amu Darya resource and distributes it among the ISA and thereafter among the Water User Associations (WUA).
79. The organizational structure of the BISA reflects a number of departments corresponding to the usual functions of an entity involved in irrigation activities. There are departments for personnel, finance, pumps, transportation, and communication. The latter is very significant since the BISA maintains an elaborate network of data gathering points about many aspects of the irrigated agriculture sub-sector covering information on water flows, production statistics, budgetary data and environmental observations. Most of this information is not processed at the BISA but communicated to MAWR in Tashkent.
80. Most departments are very small and some exist in name only, leading to a BISA workforce in Bukhara of less than 50. The 5 ISA physically distribute the water among the 118 WUA in the project area. For this work they employ about 200 people each, for a total of about 1000.
81. According to Ministerial Resolution 320 of 2003 "a decision of a Basin Irrigation System Authority, taken in the framework of its competence, is obligatory for execution by Main Canal Authorities (MCA) and Irrigation system authorities, municipalities, as well as officials and civilians".
82. The same resolution also spells out in Appendix 5a, in detail the various functions to be performed by the BISA. There is a remarkable resemblance between the tasks of the MWRA and the BISA. Those tasks and functions amount to operating instructions for the Amu Bukhara Irrigation System, thus establishing the BISA as the operating authority. Its formal name according to Resolution 320 is the Amu-Bukhara Basin Irrigation System Authority, located in Bukhara City, with an authorized staff of 27.
83. Apparently the secondary canals that carry the water from the main conveyor to the territories of the WUA do not all permit reliable gravity flow. Moreover, several land parcels are located at elevations slightly above the canals. In order to overcome those problems there has been established a network of about 50 small pumping stations distributed over the irrigation system. The BISA department dealing with pumps maintains those small pumping units with the associated power supply facilities using a staff of about 700.
3. The ABMK
84. The main role of the ABMK is the maintenance and operation of the major conveyor that transports the water from the Amu Darya to the secondary canals of the ABIS. The conveyor includes an intake structure where much river sediment accumulates. Along the conveyor there are several pumping stations where the water is lifted from one segment to the next, thus permitting gravity flow to deliver the water to the ABIS.
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85. The tasks of the ABMK are considered to be:
(i) management of pump stations (ii) scheduled maintenance and repair of pumps (iii) scheduled maintenance and repair of all ancillary systems (iv) operation of pump stations (v) canal system repair and maintenance (vi) reservoir control (vii) site security (viii) control of water quality and flow (ix) regulation of water use
4. The ISA
86. According to Appendix 3 of Resolution 320 there were created, within the territory overseen by the Amu-Bukhara BISA 5 Irrigation System Authorities (ISA) with the following names, locations, and authorized staff:
(i) Amu-Korakul Irrigation System Authority, Alat City, 19 (ii) Shokhrud-Dostlik Irrigation System Authority, Kagan City, 16 (iii) Kharhur-Duoba Irrigation System Authority, Vobkent City, 17 (iv) Toshrabot-Jilavon Irrigation System Authority, Gijduvan rayon, 14 (v) Toshrabot-Ortachol Irrigation System Authority, Kiziltepa rayon, 12
87. The Resolution does not spell out the tasks of the ISA, but it is generally understood that they perform, under supervision of the BISA, the fieldwork required to implement the tasks specified for the BISA.
5. The HGME
88. There exists a Hydrogeological Amelioration Expedition (HGME), which is operationally part of BISA, but for budgetary reasons it falls outside the organizational structure of BISA. This entity is involved in monitoring soil and water salinities, and groundwater levels. The information thus gathered is communicated to MAWR in Tashkent, but the staff also informs farmers when it appears that leaching is required. The staff also involves itself in maintenance of drainage canals to ensure that irrigation return flows reach the natural depressions where all drainage is collected. No water returns to the Amu Darya. The staff numbers about 240 and serves all of the irrigation system.
6. The Water Council
89. According to Appendix 5a of Resolution 320 there was established, at the BISA level, a Water Management Council, consisting of the Head of the BISA (chairman), heads (or deputy heads) of oblast Agricultural and water resources authorities located within the BISA territory, heads of MCA, ISA, and other corresponding water management organizations, as well as experienced and qualified employees. Members and rules of the Council are subject to approval by the MAWR.
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90. The existence of such a Council for the Bukhara region was confirmed in the field, although it was suggested that this Council is in fact under supervision of the Hakim of the Bukhara Oblast and is chaired by the Deputy Hakim. Its function is to address water problems of any kind and it meets whenever the need arises. Its membership includes representatives of the entities within the oblast with interests in water matters such as the Hakimat, BISA, ABMK, HGME, ISA, and WUA (Source: local interview)
C. Distribution among the Irrigation Water Users
91. The farmers in the Amu Bukhara project area are the final water users, or consumers, and they have associated themselves in about 118 Water User Associations (WUA), more recently called Water Consumer Associations (WCA). The number 118 suggests that the average WUA covers about 2500 ha and with memberships of around 30 the farms cover about 80 ha.
92. The creation of WUA is in line with the Government policy of Private sector development. The WUA are private institutions operating under the rules set forth in their Charters.
93. The WUAs are autonomous, private, and financially self-supporting institutions. They obtain water from the ISA in accordance with agreements that spell out the water allotment and the penalties for violating the water use limits. The WUA commit themselves to the performance of identified O&M activities, but there are no financial promises made.
94. The WUAs are legally established by registering their Charter with an office of the Ministry of Justice. For tax purposes there is also a link with some office of the Ministry of Finance, but there is no institutional link with MAWR. This may explain that several WUA have a limited capacity in the area of irrigated agriculture.
95. Although the WUA rank low in the water management hierarchy, because of their number and the fact that they represent the actual water consumers and agricultural producers, their importance is very large. As a result, many donors and funding agencies have undertaken projects aimed at guiding the WUA in the right direction. A major effort has been the preparation, as an ADB initiative, of 5 WUA guidebooks.
96. Uzbekistan does not benefit from special WUA legislation. Therefore, the process of establishing a legal basis by registration of a Charter with the Ministry of Justice may introduce weaknesses in the existence, commitments, and capabilities of the WUA. Without technical and professional links to capable entities in the agricultural sector the WUA will continue to need training and capacity building to support them in carrying out their responsibilities.
97. As an illustration of the need for support and uniformity it is noted that in some WUA/NGO charters there appears to have been introduced confusion about the distinction between legal and natural persons as potential members of a WUA. Specific enabling legislation for WUA would avoid confusion.
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98. The WUA receive irrigation water from the ISA under instructions from the BISA in amounts decided by MAWR. They distribute this water among their members, the farmers, in accordance with contracts. In return the farmers keep records of the water received and they help the WUA with the maintenance of the inter-farm and on-farm canals. Farmers measure the water they receive and report this to the WUA, which provide water usage data to the BISA. The combined information is sent to the MWRA in Tashkent.
99. A typical WUA budget may show the following categories: about 50% labor, 10% measuring devices, 10% canal and distribution materials, 15% taxes, and 15% for miscellaneous items such as reserve fund, depreciation, and office expenses.
100. Among the activities of the WUA those dealing with the monitoring of the various water flows may require capabilities not easily available among farmers or laborers. The operation of certain measuring devices requires some training and dedication to accuracy.
101. Concerning taxes, this item may include income tax payable by the laborers but withheld by the WUA. It may also include social security contributions for the WUA staff and the laborers. If properly registered as non-profit entities the WUA should not be liable for income taxes.
D. Distribution to the Fields
102. The WUA have a key role to play in delivering water to farms and maintaining the on-farm I&D infrastructure. The WUA enter into contracts with the members that spell out amounts of water to be delivered and amounts of money to be paid. The WUA encourage farmers to use resources more efficiently. They also maintain the canals that deliver water to the individual farms.
103. With reference to those farms of the members of the WUA, there exist many small units and land holdings making the distribution and management of irrigation water more complicated. At present the on-farm and field distribution is poorly developed leading to poor water control and reduced field efficiency.
104. In terms of farmer capabilities it is noted that some farmers have not traditionally worked in agriculture but they are newcomers. Gaps in their knowledge need to be filled by an extension service of the MAWR.
105. Some farmers may need assistance, either from their WUA or from the MAWR in the proper collection of basic data by reading the measuring devices correctly.
E. Analysis
1. General
106. From an institutional point of view there are several issues that concern to some extent all institutions or the relationships between them.
i. Data Management
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107. The irrigated agriculture sub-sector is characterized by a very large data collection effort that covers information on water distribution, water use, and soil and water conditions. It is not clear whether the mass of data is properly collected and then analyzed by professionals in various fields such that the operation of the irrigation system will receive immediate benefits from the data collection and reporting efforts. Reportedly summaries of the data reach the upper echelons of the institutional network, where they form the basis for subsequent instructions, but lower level officials play almost no role in data management. This results in a loss of potential benefits from the use of the extensive experience of the middle-level professionals and technicians.
ii. Level of Decision-making
108. The operation of the irrigation system is to a large extent routine and repetitive without a need for major decisions concerning the distribution amounts, the system assets, or the staff. Nevertheless, from time to time there are occasions where managers at the lower or middle levels are expected to make decisions in order to assure that the system operates at optimal performance levels. Current practice appears to be to refer all but the slightest issues to MAWR in Tashkent. This has the effect of discouraging initiatives and the taking of responsibilities. Moreover, decisions will require more time.
iii. Communications
109. Reportedly the ADB recently financed a railway project that included installation of a fiber-optic telecommunications network as well as computerized financial accounting systems. Such readily available technology is largely absent from irrigated agriculture and the institutions still communicate usually by means of telephone contacts or paper records, thus failing to benefit from modern telecommunication options.
iv. Capacity Building
110. Invariably the inadequate performance of various institutions is linked to the caliber of the human resources and calls are made for enhancing their qualifications and capabilities by means of training/education. It is noted that in Uzbekistan there exist numerous universities and institutes that are ready and willing to provide any type of training. Moreover, many NGOs and donor-funded projects have undertaken training projects. However, such efforts are often limited in time and space and they are not part of a training network, a comprehensive set of training opportunities at all levels and at different costs.
111. Among the entities available to build capacity are: (i) The Association of Private Farmers (ii) Rural Business Advisory Services (RBAS) (iii) Agricultural Business Center (iv) Agro-Firms (v) Rayon Agriculture and Water Resources Authorities (vi) District Polygons initiated by MAWR (vii) Alternative Machine Tractor Pools (viii) Academic and Research institutes (ix) Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Amelioration, (x) Tashkent Agrarian State University
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112. The greatest need appears to be for one office, department, or person to serve as a coordinator or reference point to make links between the users and the suppliers of the training resources. In fact, such a role could be seen as part of a larger extension effort and its logical place would therefore be in the MAWR and its regional offices. It is noted that there appears to be an extension effort on the agricultural side of MAWR. (Source: local interviews)
2. The MAWR
113. Resolution 320 of 2003 renamed the water segment of MAWR as Main Water Resources Authority (MWRA) and gave it broad powers. Internally the MWRA has sections that deal with major water issues, but several functions were delegated to outside agencies that now perform MWRA functions under contract. Some MWRA administrative functions are being performed by the agriculture-related segment, such as human resources and extension, but cooperation between the two segments of the MAWR appears to be difficult. (Source: local interview)
114. The mandates given to the MWRA are very broad and vague, such that it is difficult for the MWRA to execute them in a precise manner. Moreover, almost identical mandates were given to lower level institutions thus leading to institutional deadlocks and lacks and lack of transparency result of overlaps and duplications.
115. The outsourcing of several functions to various institutes and organizations has the effect of decreasing advancement and promotion prospects within the MAWR environment, thus discouraging professional staff members.
116. The outsourcing of functions, sometimes to distant locations, results in poor quality control over the performance of various entities.
117. The MWRA provides some free advice to farmers in the field of irrigation technologies, but the agricultural segment does not engage in free agricultural extension work.
3. The BISA
118. The BISA is the institution most directly associated with management of the ABIS. It communicates to the ISA the water according to Resolution 320. The BISA also supervises the ABMK operations, but in practice the ABMK maintains a direct link with the MWRA in Tashkent.
119. In terms of the collection of data on water use and salinity the BISA assembles the data from the entities below and transmits them in several ways to the responsible agency in Tashkent. There does not appear to be any data analysis at the BISA level. (Source: local interviews)
4. The ISA
120. The ISA are the lowest level public entities that deal directly with the WUA according to the instructions from the BISA. In the implementation of the distribution of the irrigation water they maintain the secondary canals with funds obtained from the national budget. There is anecdotal evidence that the ISA operations might benefit from
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5. The ABMK
121. The main role of the ABMK is the maintenance and operation of the major conveyor and most functions of the ABMK are indeed directly related to the major infrastructure under its supervision. However, there are some concerns.
122. In view of the fact that the operation of the pumping stations is largely routine, it appears that the number of technical staff of about 80 on average may be too high.
123. It is not clear how the ABMK is in a position to regulate water use by the end users, the farmers, since they have no contacts with them, nor do they have field knowledge of irrigated agriculture.
6. The WUA
124. The conglomerate of Water User Associations (WUA), more recently called Water Consumer Associations (WCA) constitutes a major part of the institutional framework of irrigation management in Uzbekistan. According to data from the MAWR, 562 WUA have already been formed in Uzbekistan and they serve over 56,000 farms, about half of the entire area served by irrigation and drainage systems.
125. WUA formation is in harmony with the privatization of the agricultural sector.
126. The WUA have generally been established under the provisions of the NGO law, Law of April 14, 1999 N 763-I, "On non-governmental organizations", as amended and supplemented by Law XVIII N 621-II of 30.04.2004. There are a few items of concern.
127. In Article 2, the concept of the NGO, it appears that the non-profit organizations do not distribute income or profit among the members. The concern here is with the fact that the law does not seem to differentiate between income and profit.
128. The same Article 2 also suggests that an NGO are created for the achievement of social, cultural and educational purposes, to meet the spiritual and other non-material needs of its members. Those objectives do not match the purpose of a WUA, which is material in nature and seeks to enhance the economic and financial status of its members.
129. Article 7 allows NGO to create business structures to meet the statutory objectives, and Article 31 confirms that NGO may engage in business activities. Nevertheless, the fact that Article 32 states that NGO pay unspecified taxes, fees and other payments to the budget has a discouraging effect on the WUA.
130. The issue of the business activities of the WUA, and of its members, may assume greater significance whenever the Government decides to introduce free market principles into the irrigated agriculture sub-sector in an effort to shift the O&M costs of the irrigation systems from the Government to the farmers.
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131. Related to the above it is noted that Article 10 of the "Law on Water and Water Use" of 1993, as amended in 2009, opens the possibility of WUA to participate in the implementation of measures for the management and protection of water and water bodies. This clause is interpreted by some experts as giving the Government authority to introduce charges for the delivery of irrigation water by holding the WUA responsible for the O&M of the infrastructure.
132. Concerns such as those mentioned above, may be resolved by the promulgation of specific WUA or WCA legislation.
133. All of the WUA in Uzbekistan, both old and new, appear to be in need of assistance for successful operation.
134. For that reason the ADB commissioned the preparation of several Guidebooks for Water Users' Associations in Uzbekistan (ADB, 2006), but it is not likely that this large source of information is readily available to the farmers in the field.
135. The farmers in the Amu Bukhara project area are the final water users, or consumers, and they have associated themselves in about 118 Water User Associations (WUA), more recently called Water Consumer Associations (WCA). The number 118 suggests that the average WUA covers about 2500 ha and with memberships of around 30 the farms cover about 80 ha. The WUA are private institutions operating under the rules set forth in their Charters, which are registered with the local office of the Ministry of Justice.
136. There is no enabling law for WUAs in Uzbekistan - There is no mention about WUA rights and responsibilities in the law - "On Water and Water Use". Most legal aspects pertaining to WUA are associated with Civil Codes, associations, enterprises, legal entities, and the NGO Law that is used by most WUA.
137. In order to assess the need for support it is useful to adopt some performance indicators in the following areas:
(i) irrigation management and technology (ii) canal maintenance (iii) financial management, budgeting, and accounting (iv) agricultural expertise and practices (v) environmental protection
138. The capacity building of WUA and their members should take place in several areas of interest.
i. Legal/institutional Issues
139. Current practice is that farmers wishing to establish an association rely on the provisions of the NGO Act, in the absence of specific WUA legislation. The farmers adopt a Charter that spells out the operation and structure of the WUA as well as the rights and obligations of the members. Establishment of the WUA is completed by registration of this Charter with the local office of the Ministry of Justice.
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140. Reportedly most WUA are operating without major legal problems, but several issues have been highlighted by practitioners in the field.
141. Reliance on the NGO Act and on private initiatives in drafting Charters has resulted in some Charters being less than perfect. This can be corrected by the encouragement of the use of a standard Charter, preferably linked to WUA legislation that spells out the requirements of the Charter.
142. If and when the Government will decide to introduce a free market in agriculture and then shift the burden of financing the O&M of the ABIS to the farmers, legal issues concerning ownership of infrastructure and rights to water may require legal attention.
ii. Business Advice
143. Many WUA experience problems related to Financial Management, for which many farmers and WUA managers are not trained. Financial problems arise not only because some farmers are unable to pay the fees to the WUA, but also because complications arise related to:
144. Basis for WUA Budget, Determination and Payment of the Irrigation Service Fee, Contract Provisions on WUA Infrastructure, Taxation, Accounting, Auditing, and Financial Reporting.
145. Separate from the routine financial activities the WUA may wish to undertake new outside business activities to boost their revenues in line with governmental privatization policies. Such activities require new skills not widely available among farmers and specialized extension efforts are required.
iii. Agricultural Advice
146. Many WUA members do not have a solid background in agriculture and they are not familiar with the best practices in cultivating the required or chosen crops. They need to be introduced, or brought up to date, on agronomy and on the use of fertilizers, irrigation equipment, machinery, and any other easily available support materials.
147. Routine extension efforts are required.
iv. Technical Support
148. The Government is keen on upgrading the agricultural sector by introducing modern technology, which would affect irrigation and communication activities on the WUA territories. Presumably the WUA and their members are interested in adopting such technologies, but access to information in remote rural areas is limited. Development of some pilot farms for demonstration purposes will help solving this problem, but in addition specialized extension efforts are required.
v. Financial Support
149. In line with private sector encouragement some farmers may wish to explore options in agro-business enterprises. They may not have available the necessary
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendix 1 – Institutional Setting and Issues financial resources and therefore temporary governmental support for the establishment of micro-finance facilities will be needed.
150. Even when a WUA enjoys sound internal financial management, the need may arise for outside funding to undertake new outside business activities or to implement periodic rehabilitation of the WUA infrastructure. Such efforts may exceed the financial capacity of the WUA and outside funding is needed.
151. Government support is required for the establishment of rural finance and lending facilities that provide credits for agro-service.
152. It is noted that WUA development in Uzbekistan has already benefited from extensive donor support, but those efforts and projects usually were of a local and temporary scope and the demand for development support is still growing.
V. RECOMMENDATIONS
153. The following paragraphs will summarize, largely on a hierarchical basis, the recommendations that will enhance the prospects for the rehabilitation of the Amu Bukhara Irrigation system (ABIS).
A. International Water Resources Management
154. It is recommended that, in harmony with international practice, Uzbekistan pursue an international Treaty among all states with territories in the Amu Darya basin in order to establish a permanent allocation mechanism for the basin states and for enterprises such as the ABIS.
155. It is recommended that, with immediate effect, Uzbekistan pursue consultations with upstream states to determine the effects of planned power generation projects and the effects they may have on the Amu Darya flow regime at the time of irrigation demand from the ABIS water users. (See Attachment A. Draft Treaty)
B. National Water Resources Management
156. It is recommended that, in view of rising demands by non-agricultural water users such as municipalities, industries, fisheries, and tourism, the function of national water resources allocation among sectors of the Uzbekistan economy be assigned, in line with international best practices, to a neutral inter-ministerial body, perhaps called Water Management Council.
157. It is recommended that, for the sake of transparency and efficiency, the Government consider a decree to amend the Decree 320 of 2003. The objective would be to confirm the existing institutional framework, but to introduce modifications of the tasks of the institutions in order to introduce more clarity by removing overlaps and conflicts in the existing tasks. (See Attachment B. Draft 320X Decree.)
158. It is recommended that, for the sake of increased transparency and efficiency, all tasks related to data collection and processing are assigned to institutions at the lowest
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C. Regional Irrigation Management
159. It is recommended that, for the sake of efficiency, the Basin Irrigation System Authorities are made responsible for all tasks related to the operation of the irrigation systems, specifically including:
(i) Data processing and analysis (ii) Review of matters dealing with design, operation and maintenance (iii) Appointment of support staff (iv) Implementation of equipment and supplies procurement 160. It is recommended that, for the sake of efficiency, the Irrigation System Authorities are made exclusively responsible for the field tasks related to the operation of the irrigation systems, specifically including:
(i) Data collection related to water flows and discharges, agro-meteorology, soil and water salinity (ii) Implementation of the operation and maintenance of the secondary canals and the associated instrumentation and equipment 161. It is recommended that, for the sake of efficiency, the Basin Irrigation System Authorities are made responsible for the introduction, operation, and maintenance by the Main Canal Authorities and the Irrigation System Authorities of modern remote control operating and reporting systems for the pumping stations and the major flow control devices.
162. It is recommended that, for the sake of efficiency, the Basin Irrigation System Authorities are made responsible for the, acquisition and analysis by the Irrigation System Authorities of modern remote sensing information including the observation of crop evapotranspiration and yields, and the monitoring of saline and waterlogged affected fields.
163. It is recommended that, for the sake of efficiency, the Basin Irrigation System Authorities are made responsible for the introduction, operation, and maintenance by the Main Canal Authorities and the Irrigation System Authorities of implementing a sediment monitoring system. Cost: Acquisition of hardware and software $ 200,000/year.
164. It is recommended that the Basin Irrigation System Authorities create a monitoring and evaluation program such that the impact of various rehabilitation measures on agricultural productivity can be measured and quantified.
D. Local Irrigation Management
165. It is recommended that, in support of the establishment and operation of Water Users Associations (WUA), the Main Water Resources Authority actively pursue the promulgation of a specific WUA Law such that future WUA will not rely on the NGO Law. (See Attachment C. Draft WUA Law)
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166. Although the concept of the WUA/WCA is fairly well known in Uzbekistan, there is still a lack of understanding of their function and organization. This may be a result of the fact that they are not institutionally part of the Ministry, and they sometimes have troubles communicating with entities outside the agriculture sector, such as judicial authorities, banks, and tax offices.
167. Therefore, it is recommended that the Ministry create a WUA/WCA institutional support infrastructure, an offices or official within the various Ministry establishments. This office would support all existing WUA/WCA and improve communications with agencies within and outside the Ministry, together with a better understanding of the operation, limitations, and purpose of a WUA/WCA.
168. It is recommended that, with a view to the introduction of free market and associated privatization principles, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources implements a program to familiarize the farmers and the WUA with the prospect of the introduction of cost recovery within the next five years to compensate for reduced government subsidies. Cost: The tasks are already covered by the State Budget.
E. Agricultural Management
169. It is recommended that, with a view to improving the agricultural performance of the farmers, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources implements an extension service that will prepare and implement training programme in order to familiarize the farmers with modern concepts and technologies such as:
(i) modern techniques and equipment for land levelling and farming (ii) comprehensive drainage improvements (iii) improved leaching methods and scheduling (iv) crop diversification (v) crop and water management (vi) climate change adaptation technologies
F. Legislation and Regulations
1. A WUA/WCA law
170. As stated earlier, it is recommended that a standard WUA Law is promulgated.
2. A Standard WUA/WCA Charter
171. Regardless of whatever enabling legislation is used to establish a WUA, it is recommended that all WUA use a standard Charter to facilitate better institutional communications.
172. Such a document should:
(i) Clarify the legal basis (ii) Introduce uniformity in all terminology (iii) Clarify the issue of legal or natural persons (iv) Clarify the tax liabilities (v) Clarify the registration requirement
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173. Although farmers would still be free to create a WUA/WCA as a private entity with a different charter, they would most likely adopt the standard version since it would facilitate their communications with others in their field of work.
3. Regulations on Secondary Farm Activities
174. The enabling legislation of MWRA, BISA, and MWC includes the need for certain on-farm activities that are most likely to be performed by the WUA/WCA or by their members. For instance, the MWRA is mandated to organize on-farm water assessment, which presumably includes a program of periodic measurements at strategic points within the irrigated areas. In order to be successful and useful as a factual basis for irrigation water distribution to the WUA/WCA within each ISA such a program needs to be carefully designed and regulated. The actual monitoring measurements could be implemented by existing institutions, either those that fall within the MWR or the WUA/WCA under contract with the MAWR. However, the BISA may have to devote extra time to the data analysis.
G. Capacity Building
1. Institutional Rationalization
175. The Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers dated July 21, 2003, No. 320, provides in its appendices detailed information on tasks and functions of the major water-related subdivisions of the MAWR: MWRA, BISA, and MCA.
176. Close examination of the task distribution shows that certain tasks were assigned to entities that are not expected to have the necessary qualifications. Other tasks were assigned to more than one entity, while other tasks are not clearly related to either water resources management or irrigation water management. As a result there is institutional overlap, conflict, and confusion that together reduce the capacity of MAWR to perform its functions.
177. Therefore it is recommended that a careful review is conducted within MAWR of all necessary functions and of the capabilities of the MWRA, the BISA, the MCA, and ISA. On that basis the MAWR may decide, in the absence of an amendment of Resolution 320, to rearrange several tasks among the entities within MAWR and thus create more clarity and enhance the capacity of MAWR.
2. Manpower Rationalization
178. Once the designs of the rehabilitated intakes, pumping stations, and canal improvements have been completed it will be possible to determine with some reliability and accuracy how many employees will be needed for future O&M. On that basis it is recommended that a gradual program of employment rationalization is undertaken to ensure high efficiency in the financial management of the ABIS.
3. Training
i. Farmer Training
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179. There are several activities mandated to the BISA and the MCA that are not part of the regular scope of work of those agencies, but that should be performed on the farms by the farmers. This refers particularly to the measurements of water use by the farmers and the introduction of new technologies in irrigation techniques or agronomy by the farmers. Although it may be assumed that farmers are familiar with the basic practices of traditional farming, it is unlikely that they have knowledge of various techniques and instruments that have been developed to increase water use efficiency and agricultural productivity.
180. Therefore, the MAWR should, through the various agencies within its organization, establish a program of farmer training that will help those agencies perform the mandates given to them.
ii. Technician Training
181. Although it may be assumed that the technicians operating the current infrastructure of pumping stations, major and minor canals are familiar with the O&M of the relevant equipment, those same technicians will be expected to operate new equipment once rehabilitation has been completed.
182. Therefore, the MAWR should, through the various agencies within its organization, establish a program of technician training to ensure that all new equipment will be operated in the best possible manner.
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ATTACHMENT A – DRAFT TREATY
Note: This draft is intended as a basis for discussion in case the Amu Darya Basin States decide to pursue a basin-wide approach to joint water resources management.
DRAFT
TREATY ON THE SHARED WATER RESOURCES OF THE AMU DARYA
CONTENTS
PREAMBLE
ARTICLE 1 Interpretation of Terms
ARTICLE 2 General Principles
ARTICLE 3 Establishment of River Basin Commission
ARTICLE 4 Objectives of the River Basin Management Institutions
ARTICLE 5 Functions of River Basin Commission
ARTICLE 6 Financial and Regulatory Framework for River Basin Commission
ARTICLE 7 Settlement of Disputes
ARTICLE 8 Signature
ARTICLE 9 Ratification
ARTICLE 10 Entry into Force
ARTICLE 11 Accession
ARTICLE 12 Amendments
ARTICLE 13 Withdrawal
ARTICLE 14 Termination
ARTICLE 15 Savings Provision
ARTICLE 16 Annexes
ARTICLE 17 Depositary
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PREAMBLE
The Republic of Uzbekistan, The Republic of Turkmenistan, The Republic of Tajikistan, The Kyrgyz Republic, The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, The Islamic Republic of Iran
BEARING in mind the Helsinki Rules on uses of the waters of International Rivers and the work of the International Law Commission on the non-navigational uses of international watercourses;
RECOGNISING the relevant provisions of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the concepts of environmentally sound management, sustainable development and equitable utilization of shared watercourse systems in the drainage basin of the Amu Darya;
CONSIDERING the existing and emerging socio-economic development programs in the drainage basin of the Amu Darya and their impact on the environment;
DESIROUS of developing close cooperation for judicious and coordinated utilization of the shared water resources of the Amu Darya system;
CONVINCED of the need for coordinated and environmentally sound development of the water resources of the Amu Darya system in order to support sustainable socio- economic development;
RECOGNISING that there are as yet no regional conventions regulating common utilization and management of the water resources of the Amu Darya system; and
MINDFUL of the existence of other Agreements in the region drained by the Amu Darya system regarding the Common utilization of certain watercourses, have agreed as follows:
ARTICLE 1 INTERPRETATION OF TERMS
1. For the purposes of this Treaty the following terms shall have the meanings ascribed to them hereunder:
"Agricultural use" means use of water for irrigation purposes.
"Basin" means the Amu Darya drainage basin.
"Basin State" means a State part or all of whose territory is within the Amu Darya drainage basin.
"Domestic Use" means use of water for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, sanitation and stock watering purposes.
"Drainage Basin" means the geographical area determined by the watershed limits of the Amu Darya system of waters including underground waters flowing into a common terminus.
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"Emergency situation" means a situation that causes, or poses an imminent threat of causing serious harm to Basin States and which results suddenly from natural causes, such as floods, landslides or earthquakes, or from human conduct.
"Industrial use" means use of water for commercial, hydropower, manufacturing and mining purposes.
"Member State" means a State that is a party to this treaty.
"Navigational use" means use of water for sailing, whether it be for transport, fishing, recreation or tourism.
"Riparian Land" means land contiguous to, abutting on or overlying waters of the Amu Darya system.
"Riparian State" means a State through whose territory or along whose border the Amu Darya passes.
"Shared watercourse system" means the Amu Darya system.
"Watercourse State" means a State in whose territory part of the Amu Darya system is situated.
"Watercourse system" means the inter-related hydrologic components of the Amu Darya system, including tributary streams, rivers, lakes, canals and underground water which constitute a unitary whole by virtue of their physical relationship.
2. For the purposes of this Treaty "the Council", "the Secretariat", and any other term defined in this treaty shall have the meaning as ascribed to them in this treaty.
ARTICLE 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
For the purposes of this Treaty the following general principles shall apply:
1. The utilization of the waters of the Amu Darya shall be open to each riparian or basin State, in respect of the segment of the Amu Darya drainage basin within its territory and without prejudice to its sovereign rights, in accordance with the principles contained in this Treaty. The utilization of the resources of the Amu Darya shall include agricultural, domestic, industrial, and navigational uses.
2. Member States undertake to respect and apply the existing rules of general or customary international law relating to the utilization and management of the resources of the Amu Darya system and, in particular, to respect and abide by the principles of community interests in the equitable utilization of that system and related resources.
3. Member States lying within the Amu Darya basin shall maintain a proper balance between resource development for a higher standard of living for their peoples and conservation and enhancement of the environment to promote sustainable development.
4. Member States within the Amu Darya drainage basin undertake to pursue and establish close cooperation with regard to the study and execution of all projects likely to have an effect on the regime of the watercourse system.
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5. Member States within the Amu Darya drainage basin shall exchange available information and data regarding the hydrological, hydrogeological, water quality, meteorological and ecological condition of said watercourse system.
6. Member States shall utilize the Amu Darya drainage basin in an equitable manner. In particular, the Amu Darya drainage basin shall be used and developed by member States with a view to attaining optimum utilization thereof and obtaining benefits there from consistent with adequate protection of the watercourse system.
7. Utilization of the Amu Darya drainage basin in an equitable manner within the meaning of paragraphs 4 and 6 requires taking into account all relevant factors and circumstances including:
(i) Geographical, hydrographical, hydrological, climatological and other factors of a natural character; (ii) the social and economic needs of the member States concerned; (iii) the effects of the use of the Amu Darya drainage basin in one watercourse state on another watercourse state; (iv) existing and potential uses of the Amu Darya drainage basin; (v) guidelines and agreed standards to be adopted.
8. Member States shall require any person intending to use the waters of the Amu Darya drainage basin within their respective territories for purposes other than domestic use or who intends to discharge all types of wastes into such waters to first obtain a permit from the relevant authority within the State concerned. The permit shall be granted only after such State has determined that the intended discharge will not have a detrimental effect on the regime of the Amu Darya drainage basin system.
9. Member States shall, without delay, notify other potentially affected States and competent international organizations, of any emergency originating within their respective territories.
10. In the event that implementation or execution of any planned measures is of the utmost urgency in order to save life, or to protect public health and safety, or other equally important interests as a result of an emergency situation, the Member State planning the measures may, notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 9, immediately proceed with implementation or execution, provided that in such event a formal declaration of the urgency of the measures shall be communicated to the other Member States.
11. Member States shall take all measures necessary to prevent the introduction of alien aquatic species into the Amu Darya drainage basin, which may have detrimental effects on the ecosystem.
12. Member States shall maintain and protect the Amu Darya drainage basin and related installations, facilities and other works in order to prevent pollution or environmental degradation.
13. The Amu Darya drainage basin related installations, facilities and other works should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes consonant with the principles
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ARTICLE 3 ESTABLISHMENT OF RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS
14. The Member States hereby undertake to establish appropriate institutions necessary for the effective implementation of the provisions of this Treaty.
15. Without prejudice to paragraph 1 above, the Member States undertake to establish the following institutions:
(i) An Amu Darya Council (ADC) in charge of defining the principles and criteria for allocating water rights among Member States and among different sectors. Its members will be the Ministers responsible for water resources management in the Member States. The chairmanship will rotate among the members on an annual basis. (ii) An Amu Darya Basin Commission (ADBC) with responsibility for carrying out the directives of the Council. Its Secretariat will be the executive body of the Council, with representation of all Member States at a level to be decided by the Council. (iii) An Amu Darya Monitoring Unit, with responsibility for carrying out the directives of the Commission in the area of water resources data collection, analysis, and distribution. (iv) The Council may assign any of the above-mentioned functions to existing institutions.
ARTICLE 4 OBJECTIVES OF THE RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS
16. The River Basin Management Institutions shall have as their main objectives within their respective areas of expertise and responsibility:
(i) To develop a monitoring policy for the Amu Darya basin; (ii) To promote the equitable utilization of the water resources of the Amu Darya basin; (iii) To formulate strategies for the development of the Amu Darya basin; (iv) To monitor the execution of integrated water resource development plans in the Amu Darya basin.
ARTICLE 5 FUNCTIONS OF THE RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS
17. In order to attain the objectives set out in Article 4, the River Basin Management Institutions shall, in consultation with the Member States, perform the following functions:
(a) With regard to National Water Resources Policies and Legislation;
i) Harmonization of national water resources policies and legislation,
ii) Monitoring compliance with water resource legislation and, where necessary, recommending amendments thereto and the introduction of new legislation.
(b) With regard to Research, Information and Data Handling;
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i) Collecting, analyzing, storing, retrieving, disseminating, exchanging and utilizing data relevant to the integrated development of the resources within the Amu Darya basin and assisting member States in the collection and analysis of data in their respective States,
ii) Reviewing the provisions of National Development Plans relating to the water resources in the Amu Darya basin,
iii) Designing and conducting studies, research and surveys relating to the environmentally sound development and management plans for the Amu Darya basin,
iv) Stimulating public awareness and participation in the sound management and development of the environment including human resources development,
v) Promoting in accordance with the national development plans of the Basin States, the formulation of integrated master plans for the Amu Darya basin.
(c) With regard to Water Control and Utilization in the Amu Darya basin,
i) Recommending regulation of the river flow and of any drainage inflow,
ii) Promoting measures aimed at flood and drought mitigation,
iii) Recommending and promoting measures to control desertification, soil Erosion and sedimentation
iv) Monitoring the utilization of water for agriculture, domestic, industrial and navigational purposes,
v) Monitoring the establishment of hydro-electric power installations,
vi) Monitoring the generation of hydro-electric power, d) With regard to Environmental Protection;
i) Promoting measures for the protection of the environment and the prevention of all forms of environmental degradation arising from the utilization of the water resources of the Amu Darya basin,
ii) Assisting in the establishment of a list of substances whose introduction into the waters of the Amu Darya basin is to be banned or controlled,
iii) Promoting environmental impact assessments of development projects within the Amu Darya basin,
iv) Monitoring the effects on the environment and on water quality arising from navigational activities,
(e) With regard to a Hydro meteorological Monitoring Programme; Promoting a hydro meteorological monitoring programme in consultation with the relevant authorities in the Member States.
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ARTICLE 6 FINANCIAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS
18. A financial and regulatory framework for the River Basin Management Institutions referred to in Article 3 shall be annexed to this Treaty and shall constitute part of the Treaty.
ARTICLE 7 SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
19. In an effort to avoid disputes the Member States will at all times adopt the application of the principle of reasonable and equitable use.
20. Without prejudice to paragraph 1 above, any dispute between two or more Member States arising from the interpretation or application of this Treaty shall be referred to the following dispute settlement mechanisms:
(i) Amicable settlement by the Council members of the relevant Member States; (ii) Amicable settlement by the heads of state or government of the relevant Member States; (iii) Adjudication by the full Council sitting as a Court of Arbitration; (iv) The International Court of Justice.
ARTICLE 8 SIGNATURE
21. This Treaty shall be signed by duly authorized representatives of the Member States.
ARTICLE 9 RATIFICATION
22. This Treaty shall be ratified by the signatory States in accordance with their constitutional procedures.
ARTICLE 10 ENTRY INTO FORCE
23. This Treaty shall enter into force thirty (30) days after the deposit of the instruments of ratification by two thirds of the Member States.
ARTICLE 11 ACCESSION
24. This Treaty shall remain open for accession by any Member State.
ARTICLE 12 AMENDMENTS
25. An amendment to this Treaty shall be adopted by a decision of three quarters of the Member States who are already party to this Treaty.
26. Proposals for amendments to this Treaty may be made to the Executive Secretary of the Commission by any Member State for preliminary consideration by the Council, provided however that the proposed amendment shall not be submitted to the Council for preliminary consideration until all Member States have been duly notified of it and a period of three months has elapsed after such notification.
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ARTICLE 13 WITHDRAWAL
27. Any member State may withdraw from this Treaty upon the expiry of six months from the date of giving a written notice to that effect to the Secretary of the Commission.
28. Such a State shall cease to enjoy all rights and benefits under this Treaty upon the withdrawal coming into effect, but shall remain bound to its obligations hereunder for a period of twelve months from the date of withdrawal.
ARTICLE 14 TERMINATION
29. This Treaty may be terminated in accordance with a decision to that effect by two thirds of the Member States.
ARTICLE 15 SAVINGS PROVISION
30. Nothing contained in this Treaty shall derogate or be construed to derogate from existing agreements entered into between two or more Member States or a Member State and a State that is not a Member State concerning the utilization of the water resources of the Amu Darya, provided that Member States shall endeavor to give effect to such agreements and any rights acquired or obligations assumed there under in conformity with the general principles prescribed in Article 2.
ARTICLE 16 ANNEXES
31. Any agreement that may be entered into between two or more Member States or between a Member State and a State, which is not a Member State, concerning the utilization of the water resources of the Amu Darya shall be in conformity with the provisions of Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this Treaty.
32. Such Agreement may be adopted as an Annex to this Treaty by a decision of two-thirds of the Members who are party to the Treaty.
ARTICLE 17 DEPOSITARY
33. The original of this Treaty and all instruments of ratification and accession shall be deposited with the Secretary of the Commission, who shall transmit certified copies to all Member States.
34. The Secretary of the Commission shall register this Treaty with the Secretariat of the United Nations Organization.
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ATTACHMENT B - DRAFT RESOLUTION 320X
Note: This draft resolution is modeled after the existing resolution or decree 320. It covers approximately the same subject material, but the tasks and objectives have been reduced and simplified in order to avoid overlaps and possible conflicts in the irrigation water management institutions.
Decree of Cabinet of Ministers January 1, 2013, Tashkent city. No. 320X
IMPROVEMENT OF IRRIGATION AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
1. All Authorities identified in this Decree are judicial persons, possessing a stamp with the image of the State Emblem of the Republic of Uzbekistan and they have a bank account with their name.
2. Decisions of all Authorities identified in this Decree, when made within their competence are compulsory for fulfillment on corresponding organizations as well as officials and civilians.
9. The realization of the current decree is the responsibility of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
3. In accordance with the decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan of March 24, 2003 UP - 3226 "About significant directions of intensification to carry out reforms in Agricultural Sector" transferring from administrative-territorial boundaries to the hydraulic basin system boundaries for improved irrigation water management, and with reference to the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of July 21, 2003, No. 320 "On improvement of water resources management", the Cabinet of Ministers is issuing the following decree:
4. The establishment of the Main Water Resources Authority within the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources is confirmed.
The Main Authority is managed by a Head, who is also the first deputy Minister of Agriculture and Water Resources and is appointed to the position by the Cabinet of Ministers of republic of Uzbekistan. At the same time the Head of the Main Authority is the Chairman of the Republic Committee on Irrigation and Drainage and a member of the Interstate Commission for water coordination in Central Asia.
The Deputy Head of the Main Authority, according to the social and common service level, is equal to the Deputy Minister and appointed to the position by the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
5. The following are the tasks of the Main Water Resources Authority:
The negotiations concerning the allocation of international water resources from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya basins within the framework of international treaties and the existing hydrologic and climatic conditions.
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The analysis of existing water use in the Republic of Uzbekistan and the estimation of future water needs of all economic sectors.
The supervision of the work of the Basin Irrigation System Authorities to ensure that those authorities implement on time and within budget the necessary activities related to:
(i) the management of complex use of water resources
(ii) the exploitation of waterworks facilities
(iii) the capital works construction conducted with effective investment policy and provide optimal combinations of centralized capital investments and owner funds of enterprises for production and social development
(iv) the field of external economic affairs
(v) the field of training, retraining and increasing the specialist's skills
The determination of future policies in the area of irrigated agriculture.
The determination, in cooperation with the State Nature Committee, the Council of Ministers of Karakalpakistan, Oblast municipalities, of riparian and water protection zones near water development works facilities.
The arrangement of the necessary financial resources as needed for the construction, operation, rehabilitation, and maintenance of the infrastructure used by irrigated agriculture in the Republic of Uzbekistan.
6. The establishment of the following Basin Irrigation System Authorities is confirmed.
* 1. Norin-Karadarya basin irrigation system authority
* 2. Norin-Sirdarya basin irrigation system authority
* 3. Sirdarya-Soh basin irrigation system authority
* 4. Lower Sirdarya basin irrigation system authority
* 5. Chirchik-Akhangaran basin irrigation system authority
* 6. Amu-Surkhan basin irrigation system authority
* 7. Amu-Kashkadarya basin irrigation system authority
* 8. Amu-Bukhara basin irrigation system authority
* 9. Lower Amudarya basin irrigation system authority
* 10. Zarafshan basin irrigation system authority
7. The Basin Irrigation System Authorities are directed by a Head, who is appointed to the position by a decree of the Minister of Agriculture and Water Resources based on
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8. The Head of the Basin Irrigation System Authority has at most two deputies, who are appointed on a competitive basis by the Minister of Agriculture and Water Resources.
9. The Head of the Basin Irrigation System Authority:
Guides the activities of the Authority and bears personal responsibility for performance of the assigned tasks and functions. He presents the candidates to the Main Water Resources Authority of Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources for appointments to the positions of Deputies and heads of Main canal authorities and Irrigation System Authorities based on competition.
Introduces proposals about list of members of staff of authority for approval by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources.
In accordance with established procedures he approves the list of members of staff of Main Canal Authority and Irrigation system Authorities and has the right, when it is necessary, to introduce modifications to the approved structure in the framework of established list of members of staff and funds of payments of labors.
Appoints to the position based on competition of employees of Authority.
(i) Based on agreement with Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (ii) Appoints deputy heads of Main Canal Authorities and Irrigation System Authorities. (iii) Approve the rules about structural subdivisions of Authority. (iv) Cancels decisions and orders taken by lower organizations in violation of Legislation. (v) Exercises other powers in the framework of its competence, established by legislation.
10. The following are the tasks of the Basin Irrigation System Authorities
(i) The analysis of water use data obtained from the Irrigation System Authorities in order to calculate a request for a water allocation for the next growing season and transmittal of that request to the Main Water Resources Authority in Tashkent. (ii) The timely transmittal to the Irrigation System Authorities of the water allocations received from the Main Water Resources Authority in Tashkent. (iii) The adjustment, within the range of 10% of the allocation approved by the Main Water Resources Authority taking into account unexpected developments in the irrigation or water resources sectors. (iv) The supervision of the work of the Main Canal Authority, the Irrigation System Authorities, and the Hydrogeological Amelioration Expeditions operating within its hydrographic area. (v) Participation in the work of the local Water Council.
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(vi) Preparation, through the Water Users Associations, of the agricultural water users for the introduction of free market principles and mechanisms. (vii) Encouragement of the introduction of advanced technologies in the area of irrigated agriculture. (viii) Request and receipt in accordance with established procedure from the enterprises, associations and organization the materials, necessary means for solving the questions, which are in Authority's competence.
11. The establishment of the following Main Canal Authorities is confirmed:
(i) The Amu Bukhara Main canal authority (ii) Main canal authority for Fergana valley with unified dispatch center
12. The Main Canal Authorities are directed by a Head, who is appointed to the position by a decree of the Minister of Agriculture and Water Resources based on competition. The procedure of holding the competition is approved by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources.
13. The head of the Main Canal Authority Guides the activities of the Authority and bears personal responsibility for performance of the assigned tasks and functions.
14. He has the right, when it is necessary, to introduce modifications of the organizational structure and of the established list of members of staff and of the funds for payments of the laborers.
15. The following are the tasks of the Main Canal Authorities:
(i) The maintenance and operation of the entire infrastructure associated with the canals, including desilting facilities, pumping stations. Storage reservoirs, and flow measuring instrumentation. (ii) The execution of major and minor repairs of all infrastructure items related to the main canal. (iii) The delivery of water for irrigation purposes to the Irrigation System Authorities connected to their canal in quantities determined by the local Basin Irrigation System Authority. (iv) The delivery of water for municipal, industrial, and other purposes by water users connected to their canal in quantities determined by the Main Water Resources Authority in Tashkent. (v) The monitoring and measurement, with the necessary quantity of flow measurement devices, of the amounts of water delivered to the Irrigation System Authorities and any other water users in their region. (vi) The conclusion of contracts with the energy supply organizations to enable the pumping stations and communications facilities to operate in an efficient manner. (vii) The introduction, operation, and maintenance of a modern communication system with remote control and reporting capabilities.
16. The Main Canal Authorities are responsible for their work to the relevant Basin Irrigation System Authority in their region with reference to the management of the irrigation water in appropriate main canals.
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17. The establishment of Irrigation System Authorities is confirmed. The boundaries and areas of the Irrigation System Authorities are determined by the Director of the Basin Irrigation System Authority within which the Irrigation System Authorities are located.
18. The Irrigation system Authorities are directed by a Head, who is appointed to the position by a decree of the Minister of Agriculture and Water Resources based on a proposal of the Head of the relevant Basin Irrigation System Authority and by competition. The procedure of holding the competition is approved by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources.
19. The Head of the Irrigation System Authorities guides the activities of the Authority and bears personal responsibility for performance of the assigned tasks and functions.
20. The following are the tasks of the Irrigation System Authorities.
(i) The maintenance and operation of all the infrastructure associated with the secondary irrigation canals connecting the Main Canal with the Water User Associations, including gates, and flow measuring instrumentation. (ii) The delivery of water for irrigation purposes to the Water User Associations according to the approved water allocations. (iii) The monitoring and measurement of the amounts of water delivered to the Water User Associations. (iv) The calculation of water needs for irrigation purposes of the Water User Associations as a basis for future water allocations. (v) Request and receipt in accordance with established procedure from the enterprises, associations and organization the materials, necessary means for solving the questions, which are in Authority's competence.
21. The Irrigation System Authorities are responsible for their work to the relevant Basin Irrigation System Authority in their region.
22. The establishment of private Water Users Associations and Water Consumer Associations in harmony with current legislation as participants in the irrigated agricultural sector is recognized. In support of those associations the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources will establish an Association Extension Office in Tashkent and in its branch offices to support those associations.
23. The following are the tasks of the Association Extension Office in support of the Water User Associations.
(i) The provision of advice in the establishment and operation of an Association. (ii) The introduction of the Associations to best practices for growing crops. (iii) The provision of business advice on the introduction of free market principles in the production and sale of agricultural and horticultural products. (iv) The introduction of the Associations to micro-finance facilities in support of their adoption of free market principles.
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24. All Authorities below the Main Water Resources Authority, identified in this Decree are managed by a Head, who is appointed to that position by the order of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of Republic of Uzbekistan on a competitive basis. The competition is carried out by the Main Water Resources Authority.
25. The Deputy Heads are appointed to their positions on a competitive basis by an order of the relevant Head of the Authority, based on approval from the Main Water Resources Authority. The method of carrying out the competitions is approved by the Main Water Resources Authority.
26. The Head of each Authority performs the following functions:
(i) Be in charge of Authority's activities bearing personal responsibility for the implementation of the entrusted task and duties. (ii) Provides the Authority with candidates to be approved by the Main Water Resources Authority for appointments to the position of Deputy Heads of Authority. (iii) In accordance with established procedure makes suggestions about list of members of staff of the Authority for approval. (iv) Appoints to their positions, or dismisses, the workers of the Authority. (v) Appoints the heads and specialists of subdivisions on a competitive basis. The procedure for carrying out the competitions is approved by the Head of the Authority based on agreement with the Main Water Resources Authority. (vi) Implements any other powers within the framework of its competence, established by legislation.
27. In the implementation of their activities all Authorities identified in this Decree are guided by the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan, decrees and decisions of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, orders and decrees of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan, decrees of boards, commands and other decisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, the Basin Irrigation System Authorities and other legislative acts, as well as current Rules.
Otkir Sultonov State Advisor of President of Republic of Uzbekistan
Djurabekov I. H. Chairman of Cabinet of Ministers Islam Karimov
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ATTACHMENT C – DRAFT WUA LAW
Note: This draft law is an updated version of the draft law that was included in the recent WUA Guidebooks prepared under sponsorship of ADB.
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS
CHAPTER 2. FORMATION AND MEMBERSHIP
CHAPTER 3. GOVERNING AND MANAGEMENT BODIES AND THEIR POWERS
CHAPTER 4. FINANCES AND PROPERTIES
CHAPTER 5. REGULATION AND SUPPORT OF THE WUA
CHAPTER 6. FINAL PROVISIONS
= = =
LAW OF UZBEKISTAN "ON WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS"
# .... Of .... 2013
The present Law determines the procedures of the formation of Water Users Associations, their activities, their legal basis of their rights and obligations, and it regulates relations with other juridical and physical entities.
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS
Article 1. Legislation Concerning Water Users' Associations
The legislation of Uzbekistan concerning Water Users' Associations consists of this Law, the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Civil Code, the Law on Non- Governmental, Non-Commercial Organizations, the Law on Water and Water Use, the Land Code, the Tax Code, and other legislative enactments, as well as the international legal treaties and protocols ratified by the Republic of Uzbekistan.
This law shall supersede the Law on Non-Governmental, Non-Commercial Organizations and Attachment No. 7 to Decree No. 8 (5 January 2002) "On Measures Concerning the Restructuring of Agricultural Enterprises," in instances where the provisions of these legal enactments do not conform to the present law.
Article 2. Definitions
The following definitions refer to the terms used in the present Law:
Water Users Association (WUA) - is a nongovernment, noncommercial organization, established on a voluntary basis by physical and juridical entities in accordance with this law in order to protect the interests of water users, to regulate water use relations between members, nonmembers, and outsiders, and to render services to them.
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Water Users - are leasehold farmers, dehkan farmers, and other natural or legal persons, who are involved in irrigation, drainage, and other rural water uses and are conducting related activities within the constraints of limited water allocations from the available water resources.
General Assembly - is the supreme governing body of the WUA, which consists of all WUA members and establishes mandates and makes decisions concerning the WUA policies, management, and operations, on an open, fair, and democratic basis.
Representative Assembly is an assembly of WUA members who are appointed from each Representation Area to provide the same functions as the General Assembly, in accordance with the mandates and procedures established by the General Assembly.
Representative Zone is a segment of the WUA Service Area, occupied by water users with the legal right to land use, who are WUA members and elect one or more of the members to be representatives to WUA Representative Assembly.
Water Users' Group (hereinafter referred to as WUG) - is a group of water users within a certain Representation Area of the WUA.
WUA Infrastructure is the irrigation infrastructure in the possession of the water users within the WUA service area, such as irrigation and drainage canal networks, hydro- technical structures, measuring devices, pump stations and associated facilities, irrigation and drainage wells together with associated electrical transmission lines and additional transformer stations, and other infrastructure required for operation and maintenance within the WUA Service Area.
Water Use Allocation is the limited volume of water fixed by the appropriate Irrigation System Authority for the WUA such that the WUA members will have adequate water to meet their needs by using the water in an efficient manner.
Water Use Plan is a schedule of water distribution developed by the WUA to meet the needs of the water users, based on the size of the cultivated agricultural land, the types and water requirements of the crops, and the location of the water user.
Service Fee is a fee imposed by the WUA on its members to cover the expenses associated with the performance of infrastructure operation and maintenance and other services provided by the WUA for the benefit of its members.
Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property are excavators, bulldozers, scrapers, closed drain cleaning equipment, means of transport, cranes or lifting equipment, buildings located within these territories, and other properties utilized by the WUA in order to fulfill the mandates established by its members.
Water Supplier is the Irrigation System Authority, on behalf of the Basin System Authority in the territory of the WUA that operates the canals outside the WUA service area and supplies water to the WUA in bulk.
WUA Service Area is the defined geographical area served by the irrigation and drainage systems of a WUA.
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Hydraulic Unit is a specific land area, which can receive water for irrigation from one single source, headwork, or outlet.
Regulatory Authority - is the entity, which ensures that the WUA function in accordance with this and other legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and is identified in Article 25.
WUA Charter provides the objectives, rights and obligations of members and governing and management bodies, and details of governance and management, in accordance with the relevant legislative enactments.
WUA Formation Agreement is the agreement of the founding WUA members to establish the WUA.
Management Transfer Agreement is an agreement between the WUA and the Basin Irrigation System Authority identifying the irrigation and drainage systems to be transferred to the WUA providing property rights, detailed terms of the transfer, rights and obligations of both the Basin Irrigation System Authority and of the WUA, and terms of termination of the Management Transfer Agreement.
Article 3. Objectives of the WUA
The objectives of a WUA, established in accordance with this law as a non- governmental, non-commercial organization, are:
(i) The management of the distribution of irrigation water among the members within the WUA Service Area in a transparent manner (ii) Maintenance of the WUA irrigation Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance of Equipment and Property (iii) Increased member negotiation capacity (iv) Equitable water distribution among farmers regardless of their location, type of farm, size of the farm, or status as a WUA member or nonmember (v) Increased reliability of the water supply, in accordance with the amount of water allocated to the WUA (vi) Protection of the interests of WUA members related to water use (vii) More efficient use of irrigation water (viii) Prevention of illegal withdrawals of water (ix) Resolution of disputes arising among WUA members, as well as nonmembers, concerning the distribution and use of water. (x) Protection of the environment (xi) Improvement of on-farm water use (xii) The implementation of other ancillary activities for the benefit of WUA members.
Article 4. Activities
In the pursuit of its objective a WUA may undertake the following activities:
(i) Facilitation of a fair and democratic decision-making process, as well as the full participation of all members.
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(ii) Withdrawal of irrigation water from main canal systems on the basis of contracts or agreements with the Irrigation System Authority, as well as the abstraction of water from rivers, lakes, or groundwater sources in accordance with permits and contracts. (iii) The distribution of water in an equitable and timely manner on a contractual basis to persons, WUA members or not, who require water for irrigation, leaching of soils, or for other purposes within the WUA service area. (iv) The resolution of disputes on the basis of information-sharing and mutual agreement, whenever this is possible. (v) Drafting of short- and long-term estimates and plans for maintenance and development of the irrigation and drainage system. (vi) Maintenance of the WUA irrigation Infrastructure in accordance with long- term needs. (vii) The rehabilitation and improvement of the irrigation and drainage system within the WUA Service Area and the undertaking of construction works, as necessary. (viii) The procurement, replacement, operation and maintenance of Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property. (ix) Drafting of an annual budget and work plan for the WUA activities. (x) Collection of membership fees to sustain the WUA activities in operation and maintenance. (xi) Management of the WUA finances. (xii) The training of WUA members in the governance, management, and operation of the WUA and in sustainable irrigation and drainage practices. (xiii) Introducing new irrigation and drainage methods and technologies to WUA members. (xiv) Implementation of environmental protection measures. (xv) Monitoring and evaluation of the WUA performance and development. (xvi) Submit reports concerning the WUA activities to the Regulatory Authorities and other bodies specified in the present law and the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (xvii) Other activities for the benefit of WUA members that are not forbidden by the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
Article 5. Rights of the WUA
The WUA shall possess the rights:
(i) To be a juridical entity, which shall entail the rights to have symbols and stamps, to open and maintain a bank account without interference by public or private outsiders, and to participate in the judicial process. (ii) To represent and defend the rights and lawful interests of its members and participants including the prohibition of interference by public or private entities in the bank accounts of the members. (iii) To be free from interference into its internal affairs on the part of public authorities and administrative agencies, in accordance with the Constitution of Uzbekistan.
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(iv) To present initiatives and to introduce proposals related to irrigated agriculture and water use to the public authorities and administrative agencies. (v) To participate in developing the decisions of public authorities and administrative agencies in accordance with the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (vi) To distribute information about its activities. (vii) To establish ownerships in order to carry out the statutory purposes of the WUA. (viii) To organize meetings and conferences related to its activities. (ix) To establish affiliations and to open representational offices in compliance with the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (x) To negotiate and conclude a Management Transfer Agreement, on equal terms with the Irrigation System Authority. (xi) To create a federation with other WUA on the basis of an indivisible Hydraulic Unit. (xii) To obtain permits for special water use. (xiii) To be a primary water user with the right to conclude water delivery and other contracts with secondary water users, both WUA members and nonmembers. (xiv) To collect fees in cash and in kind from members, in accordance with the Foundation Agreement and the Charter, and to obtain funds from other sources not forbidden in the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (xv) To propose changes in the irrigation water allocations, based upon available water resources, on the amount of annual rainfall, and on water supply shortfalls, after coordinating with the water users. (xvi) To allocate water to water users by turns in case of shortage. (xvii) To reduce the amount of delivered water if a water user through his fault exceeds his water use allocation. (xviii) To halt the delivery of water and other services to water users who have not paid their fees in a timely manner, and to abrogate the membership of those who are delinquent for two or three years. (xix) To sanction members for violation of the WUA Formation Agreement, Charter, and mandates of and decisions made by the General Assembly or Representative Assembly. (xx) To resolve disputes among members that pertains to operation and maintenance and other services of the WUA. (xxi) To recruit outside contractors for maintenance and other services. (xxii) To have access to all the lands within the Service Area, upon which are located the WUA irrigation Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance Equipment of Property. (xxiii) To exercise other rights, which are not in conflict with the provisions of other legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
Article 6. Obligations of the WUA
The WUA is obligated:
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(i) To abide by the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (ii) To ensure its members access to information concerning the usage of its property and monetary assets. (iii) To ensure access about its activities to the authority that is charged with its regulation. (iv) To submit annual reports about its activities to tax and statistical agencies. (v) To assure the full participation of all WUA members in the governance of the WUA through fair, open, and democratic decision making processes. (vi) To draft water use plans within the established allocation. (vii) To deliver water in a fair, equitable, and timely manner to water users in accordance with their water use schedule and allocations. (viii) To report to the Irrigation System Authority on a fourteen-day basis the water deliveries to the WUA for the purposes of monitoring. (ix) To enter into agreements with the Irrigation System Authority for the supply of water to the WUA and to adhere to the established water allocations. (x) To ensure that water is used effectively. (xi) To maintain the WUA Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance Property in adequate condition, to the best of its abilities. (xii) To utilize property and funds in accordance with the WUA statutory purpose.
CHAPTER 2. FORMATION AND MEMBERSHIP
Article 7. Formation
The purpose of the establishment procedure is to define relations between the WUA and its members and other entities and persons, and to enable its members to undertake various activities, which are not in conflict with the law.
The establishment of a WUA shall take place on a voluntary basis. Citizens possess the right to become a member or remain a nonmember.
Juridical or physical entities who possess the right to utilize agricultural lands, and desire to establish a WUA shall form an Initiative Group which may propose the Service Area of the proposed WUA and organize the creation of a Formation Committee, which shall consist of no more than ten (10) potential members of the WUA.
The Initiative Group may contain persons other than potential WUA members who will provide outside support to the Initiative Group. These persons are forbidden to interfere with the activities of the Formation Committee.
The Formation Committee shall elect a Chairman and it shall elaborate rules and procedures for itself.
The Formation Committee shall prepare the foundation documents, consisting of a draft Charter for the WUA, a draft Formation Agreement, a plan of the Service Area of the
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WUA defining the size and location of any Representative Zones, a complete list of potential members of the WUA, and a draft budget and draft work plan.
In defining the Service Area of a proposed WUA the Formation Committee shall prepare a map indicating the agricultural lands, farm boundaries, and the WUA irrigation and drainage Infrastructure. The Service Area must be a Hydraulic Unit, which may be comprised of several smaller Hydraulic Units. Each Hydraulic Unit must be fully included into the Service Area of the WUA in order to conform to the principle of indivisibility of each Hydraulic Unit.
The Formation Committee may send a copy of the draft WUA Charter to any outside body for advice and recommendations prior to the Formation Meeting.
The Formation Committee shall call a Formation Meeting, to which the Formation Committee shall invite all potential members of the WUA for consideration of the proposed Charter.
The Chairman of the Formation Committee shall chair the Formation Meeting.
The Formation Meeting shall approve or reject the Foundation Agreement, draft Charter, draft budget, and draft work plan. These founding documents shall be considered to have been approved if at least fifty-one (51) percent of all of the potential members of the WUA vote to approve it.
In the Formation Meeting, the potential WUA members shall elect a WUA Council consisting of five (5) persons and an Audit Commission consisting of three (3) persons.
The Formation Meeting may also elect a Dispute Resolution Commission consisting of three (3) persons and other internal bodies, if the potential members deem these bodies to be necessary.
When the WUA covers much irrigated land, the Formation Committee may also decide, on the basis of a majority vote, to create a Representative Assembly that will fulfill the functions of the General Assembly, in accordance with its mandates.
In the approval or rejection of the founding documents and the election of internal bodies, voting procedures shall be as follows: one vote is granted to each potential member, in the case of leasehold farms. one vote is granted to a representative of each rural municipality, who must be a potential member, in the case of dehkan farms.
The Formation Meeting shall set the date of the first General Assembly.
Article 8. State Registration of the WUA
Registration of the WUA as a nongovernmental, noncommercial organization and juridical entity shall be made exclusively with the Ministry of Justice or its branch office at the local level in the oblast.
The Ministry of Justice shall refuse registration of the WUA in the event that the by-laws of the WUA do not conform to the provisions of this law.
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Any WUA established before entry into force of the present law shall re-register in accordance with the provisions of this law within 12 months from its promulgation.
After the WUA has been registered, it shall be considered as an established nongovernmental, non-commercial organization and a juridical entity, which provides the WUA with the rights to open accounts with banks and to create an official seal.
Article 9. Management Transfer Agreement
The WUA shall begin its activities only after state registration and the conclusion of a Management Transfer Agreement.
The WUA Council shall negotiate the Management Transfer Agreement with the Irrigation System Authority.
The General Assembly shall vote to ratify or reject the Management Transfer Agreement at its first meeting. In the event that the General Assembly rejects the Management Transfer Agreement, it shall be re-negotiated and ratified or rejected in the next meeting of the General Assembly.
Article 10. WUA By-laws
The by-laws of a WUA are the Foundation Agreement and the Charter. All founders shall sign the WUA foundation agreement. The Chairman of the Formation Meeting signs the Charter of the WUA, following its approval by the Formation Meeting.
The Formation Agreement shall include:
(i) The place and time of the formation of the WUA. (ii) The area served by the WUA. (iii) The rights and obligations of the WUA. (iv) The terms of transfer of member properties to the WUA. (v) The terms of member participation in the activities, governance, and management of the WUA. (vi) The terms of termination of membership. (vii) Other provisions as agreed by the founding members.
The Charter shall include:
(i) The name and objectives of the WUA. (ii) The legal form of the WUA (non-governmental, non-commercial organization). (iii) The territory within the limits of which the WUA carries out its activities by reference to plans and maps. (iv) The WUA internal structure and governing and management bodies, the authority and the procedure of forming governing and management bodies, their decision-making procedures, and the terms of their offices. (v) The location of the permanently operating governing body (vi) The terms and procedures for acquiring and terminating membership. (vii) The rights and duties of the members. (viii) The sources of monetary funds and other property.
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(ix) The provisions for setting the level of the membership fees and of the penalties. (x) The rights of the WUA (xi) The procedure for WUA property management, (xii) The procedure for reorganization and liquidation of the WUA. (xiii) The procedure for introducing changes and amendments into the Charter. (xiv) Other provisions related to the WUA activities that do not contradict the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
Article 11. Acquisition and Termination of Membership
Any physical or juridical entity that possesses the right to utilize a plot of agricultural land within the WUA Service Area for a term of more than three (3) years can be a member of the WUA. The right to utilize a plot of agricultural land shall be proven by a leasehold contract or other appropriate documentation that does not contradict the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
The acquisition or termination of membership shall be decided by a vote conducted in a meeting of the General Assembly. The WUA Staff shall forthwith amend the register of members accordingly.
Founding and new members shall contribute to the WUA their initial share of the property contribution of the WUA irrigation Infrastructure and of any Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property. In the case of members of a liquidated production cooperative, this share shall be the property share. In the event that the WUA is created on the basis of pre-existing leasehold and dehkan farms, either within or outside of the boundaries of a production cooperative, whether liquidated or not, this share shall be determined in proportion to the amount of land utilized by each member, as well as the land plot's fertility coefficient and location with relation to the WUA irrigation Infrastructure.
WUA membership shall be terminated in the event of a desire on the part of the member to cease to be a member, of the member's loss of the right to utilize agricultural land, of the members' delinquency over a period of three years to pay fees specified agreements with the WUA, and of repeated violation by the member of the provisions of the Charter and other rules of the WUA.
If a member decides to cease being a member of the WUA, the initial property share contributed by the water user to the WUA shall not be returned to the water user. However, in case of liquidation of a WUA due to bankruptcy the initial property share, which was contributed in order to become a member of a new WUA, shall be returned to the former members.
If a WUA member ceases to be a member of the WUA on his or her own initiative or by a decision of the WUA, that water user shall be paid in cash or in kind for his or her share in the Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property, which were purchased with fees paid by the member.
Article 12. Rights of WUA Members
Each WUA member possesses the following rights:
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(i) To participate in the decision-making processes of the WUA. (ii) To vote in the General Assembly. (iii) To propose agenda items for discussion at the General Assembly. (iv) To nominate candidates for, to elect, and to stand for election to the WUA governing bodies. (v) To request and obtain information concerning the WUA's activities. (vi) To check the accounting books and other records of the WUA. (vii) To benefit from the services provided by the WUA. (viii) To enjoy a fair and equitable share of the irrigation water that the WUA distributes. (ix) To demand from the WUA timely compliance with the stipulations of water supply and other agreements. (x) To independently decide how irrigation and amelioration services are to be rendered within the boundaries of one's own farm or plot. (xi) To appeal for dispute resolution to the bodies specified in the WUA Charter. (xii) To exercise other rights, as specified in the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
Article 13. Obligations of WUA Members
Each WUA member is obligated:
(i) To observe the provisions of the Charter and of any internal rules made by the General Assembly. (ii) To promptly pay any charges and fees in accordance with the Charter, decisions of the General Assembly, and agreements with the WUA. (iii) To promptly enter into agreements concerning water delivery and other services, provided that these are negotiated and concluded on a fair and equitable basis. (iv) To comply with the schedules and agreements concerning water delivery and other services, and to obtain irrigation water and other services in accordance with those schedules and agreements. (v) To not cause damage to the WUA irrigation Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property, which is used or owned by the WUA. (vi) To pay for the repair or replacement costs of any to the WUA irrigation Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property, which is damaged as a result of any willful or negligent act, or omission by the member. (vii) To provide information to the WUA concerning land and water use within the boundaries of one's own farm or plot. (viii) To provide access and right of way to the WUA for the utilization of the WUA Irrigation Infrastructure and Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property.
Article 14. Nonmembers
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A WUA may supply irrigation water to the owners or users of land plots within its service area who are not WUA members. Charges to users who are not WUA members shall be defined by the General Assembly of the WUA.
The rights and responsibilities of nonmembers shall be protected, as specified in the law on Water and Water Use and other legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
CHAPTER 3. GOVERNING AND MANAGEMENT BODIES AND THEIR POWERS
Article 15. Governing and Management Bodies of the WUA
Governing bodies shall provide representation of the members.
Management bodies shall implement the mandates established by governing bodies in order to ensure adequate, efficient, reliable, and equitable provision of irrigation, drainage, and other services to all members.
The General Assembly shall be the supreme governing body of the WUA.
The WUA Council shall be the chief governing body during the periods between meetings of the General Assembly.
The WUA Staff shall be the management body of the WUA.
The Audit Commission and, in the event that provision is made for such in the Charter, the Dispute Resolution Commission shall be governing bodies.
The competencies of the internal bodies of the WUA are specified in this law, as well as in the WUA Charter.
Members of the WUA Council, Audit Commission, Dispute Resolution Commission, Staff, as well as other bodies listed in the Charter, are forbidden to hold more than one position at the same time. Provided that they are members of the WUA, members of governing and management bodies have the right to participate and vote in General Assembly meetings.
Only the WUA Staff may receive a salary. All other members of internal bodies shall perform their functions without monetary or other compensation. No salaried employee of the WUA has the right to stand for election to the WUA Council, to the Audit Commission or to the Dispute Resolution Commission.
Article 16. The General Assembly
The exclusive competencies of the General Assembly are:
(i) To define and approve the main directions of the WUA activity. (ii) To amend the Charter and Formation Agreement. (iii) To approve or reject the Management Transfer Agreement. (iv) To approve or reject the entrance of new members and termination of membership.
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(v) To establish and alter the organizational structure of internal governing and management bodies of the WUA and determine their mandates, rights and responsibilities, terms of office, and procedures for decision- making, in accordance with the provisions of this law. (vi) To nominate, elect, ratify appointments, and dismiss members of internal governing and management bodies of the WUA, in accordance with the provisions of this law. (vii) To approve or reject annual and long-term policies and plans of the WUA in operation and maintenance and other activities not forbidden by the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (viii) To delegate specific competencies to the WUA Council for immediate implementation and to disapprove and reject the actions taken in accordance with these competencies by the WUA Council. (ix) To set the annual fees for water delivery and other services payable by members and nonmembers, and to determine the procedures for their payments. (x) To determine sanctions and fines of members for violations of the terms of the Charter and water delivery and other agreements, as well as the method of their implementation, in accordance with the provisions of this law. (xi) To approve or reject the annual budget, annual work plan, the irrigation schedule, and annual report and accounts of the WUA. (xii) To empower the Manager of the WUA Staff to enter into agreements with secondary water users on behalf of the WUA (xiii) To make decisions concerning the acquisition of funds and credit from banks and other sources not forbidden by the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (xiv) To review the reports of the Audit Commission and to determine measures to correct any irregularities in the financial management of the WUA. (xv) To appoint an outside auditor and approve the contract with this auditor. (xvi) To make decisions concerning the liquidation or re-establishment of the WUA, the appointment of a liquidation commission, and approval or rejection of the interim and final liquidation balances.
The WUA Council shall call a meeting of the General Assembly of the WUA when necessary, but not less than twice in a year. An extraordinary meeting of members is conducted upon a decision of the WUA Council, upon the request of the Audit Commission, and upon the request of one fifth (1/5) of the members of the WUA.
The WUA Council shall, no less than 30 days before the meeting of the General Assembly, notify every member by all available means of the date, time, and agenda. Members of the WUA have the right to make proposals within the competence of the General Assembly for inclusion in the agenda no later than 10 days before the General Assembly meeting. The body which calls for a meeting of the General Assembly shall make available to the members of the WUA an opportunity to familiarize themselves with all materials prepared according to the agenda of the meeting and to propose amendments to the agenda during twenty (20) days before the General Assembly.
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The quorum for a General Assembly is sixty (60) per cent of the members of the WUA.
Each member who is the head of a leasehold farm shall possess one vote in the General Assembly. Members who are the holders of dehkan farms within a rural municipality shall jointly possess one vote per municipality.
Decisions on amendments of the Charter and on reorganization, liquidation, and reestablishment of the WUA are ratified by majority of two thirds (2/3) of the total number of votes of WUA members.
Decisions of the General Assembly concerning other affairs are ratified by a simple majority of all WUA members.
Voting in the General Assembly shall be made by a show of hands or, in the event that it is requested by one third of the members participating, by secret ballot.
The decisions taken by the WUA Council in accordance with special competencies granted by the General Assembly are subject to automatic review by the General Assembly at its next meeting.
In the event that the General Assembly removes a member of the WUA Council or a member of a Commission from office it must elect a replacement at the same meeting.
Meetings of the General Assembly shall be chaired by the Chairman of the WUA Council or in his absence by a member of the WUA Council appointed by the Chairman.
The Chairman and Secretary of the WUA Council must sign the protocols of the General Assembly and have them stamped and kept in the permanent archives of the WUA. All WUA members shall possess the right to have access to and to obtain copies of these documents, at their own expense. The same procedure applies to protocols, minutes, and documents of other internal bodies of the WUA.
Article 17. The Representative Assembly
A WUA with a large number of members, such that it is impractical for all members to attend and participate in meetings of the General Assembly, may provide in its Charter for the establishment of a Representative Assembly in accordance with the provisions of this article. A Representative Assembly shall exercise all of the powers of the General Assembly as set out in the present law, with the exception of amendment of the Charter and reorganization, liquidation, and re-establishment of the WUA, which shall be the exclusive competence of the General Assembly.
In order to establish a Representative Assembly, the Charter shall provide for the WUA Service area to be subdivided into Representative Zones that conform to Hydraulic Units within the Service Area. The WUA members who own or use land plots within each Representative Zone shall elect one or more Zonal Representatives to represent them at the meetings of the Representative Assembly. The Representative Zones of the WUA shall be clearly indicated on the plan of the WUA Service area.
The Charter shall specify the terms and conditions of office of each Zonal Representative, the number of Zonal Representatives in respect of each Representative
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Zone, and the procedures for their election, and it shall specify the number of votes each Zonal Representative is to exercise at meetings of the Representative Assembly.
The principles for decision-making by the General Assembly described in the preceding article shall be applied to decision-making by the Representative Assembly.
WUA members who are not Zonal Representatives shall have the right to attend meetings of the Representative Assembly but shall not have the right to vote.
WUA members in representative zones may form Water User Groups for the purpose of discussing their zonal water issues and electing representatives. They may formulate their own rules, provided that they do not contradict the provisions of the present law and the Charter.
Article 18. The WUA Council
The WUA Council shall consist of not less than 5 persons, all of whom must be members of the WUA. The number of members of the WUA Council shall be specified in the Charter.
The members of the WUA Council are elected by the General Assembly and serve for a term of no more than 3 years, after which they must stand for reelection.
The Charter defines the powers of the Chairman, who also serves as Chairman of the WUA. The Chairman of the WUA Council shall be in charge of the timely implementation of all the tasks entrusted to the WUA Council. The Chairman of the WUA Council shall report to the General Assembly about the WUA Council activities in all meetings of the General Assembly.
The WUA Council shall meet at least once a month. If necessary the WUA Chairman may call extraordinary meetings of the General Assembly.
Decisions of the WUA Council shall be made by a simple majority vote, with one vote granted to each member. The Charter may provide that the Chairman is to have a deciding vote in the event of a tie. A quorum for a WUA Council meeting is a majority of the Council members. The WUA Council shall formulate its own rules of procedure and shall keep minutes of its meetings.
The competences of the WUA Council are:
(i) Governing the WUA activities, in accordance with the mandates established by the General Assembly and the Charter, during periods between General Assembly meetings. (ii) Enforcing compliance with the rules, made by the Foundation Agreement and by the WUA Charter, and General Assembly. (iii) Approving temporary cut-offs of water supply to members and nonmembers who are delinquent in the payment of water delivery and other service fees. (iv) Making decisions on issues within the framework of the General Assembly competences in urgent cases, subject to the automatic review and
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approval or rejection of such decisions at the next meeting of the General Assembly. (v) Calling for and managing General Assembly meetings and preparing related materials for those meetings. (vi) Appointing the WUA Manager, Operation and Maintenance Engineer, and Accountant, subject to ratification in the next General Assembly meeting. (vii) Preparing the annual balance report, budget, service fee amounts, and work plan at least at least 20 days before the year-end meeting of the General Assembly, and presenting them to the General Assembly for approval or rejection. (viii) Supplying any information requested by members of the WUA. (ix) Approving or rejecting reports of the WUA Manager. (x) Receiving and considering written requests, complaints, and suggestions from the WUA members, other water users and members of the WUA Staff, and taking the necessary measures, subject to automatic review and approval and rejection at the next meeting of the General Assembly. (xi) Implementing other tasks as mandated by the General Assembly or by the present law.
The Chairman of the WUA Council chairs meetings of the General Assembly of the WUA and meetings of the WUA Council, and represents the WUA in all aspects of its relations with external bodies, in accordance with the mandates of the General Assembly.
Article 19. The WUA Staff
The WUA Staff shall consist of a Manager, an Operation and Maintenance Engineer, and an Accountant appointed by the WUA Council and subject to confirmation by the General Assembly, as well as other staff appointed by the WUA Manager. The terms of reference of the Director and the Accountant are defined by the WUA Council and incorporated in labor agreements signed by the WUA Chairman.
The Manager is in charge of the execution of the tasks entrusted to the WUA. The Manager shall report to the WUA Council concerning the execution of the WUA activities.
The obligations of the WUA Staff shall include:
(i) Preparing the draft budget, work-plan of operation and maintenance of irrigation systems and other required documents for presentation to the Council of the WUA. (ii) Keeping a register of members and nonmembers, which should be reviewed and updated every year, and which shall contain a description of the size and location of each member's and nonmember's land plot within the WUA service area, a record of the quantities of water received by the WUA, a record of the requests for irrigation water from WUA members and nonmembers and the number of irrigations they receive. (iii) Preparing contracts for approval by the WUA Council in accordance with the approved budget and work plan for operation and maintenance of the irrigation and drainage systems.
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(iv) Receiving water from the Irrigation System Authority and distributing it equitably to water users in accordance with the water allocations. (v) Providing operation and technical maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems. (vi) Proposing to the WUA Council the levels of the service and other fees, and estimating other tariffs for WUA members and other water users for water delivery or for the use of Operation and Maintenance Equipment and Property. (vii) Receiving the payment of service and other fees from members and nonmembers of the WUA in accordance with the terms of the WUA Charter and mandates of the General Assembly. (viii) Providing for the accounting and other daily financial management functions of the WUA. (ix) Opening and managing bank accounts of the WUA. (x) Reporting and providing data in accordance with procedures established to the internal bodies of the WUA, WUA members, and other relevant organizations concerning the activity of the WUA. (xi) Securing appropriate use of the WUA funds and property. (xii) Managing the daily activities of the WUA.
The WUA Staff has the following rights:
(i) Drafting agreements on behalf of the WUA and supervising their execution. (ii) Developing staff proposals for the WUA Staff and issuing instructions and orders, which are necessary for the proper performance of all functions of the WUA Staff. (iii) Executing cut-offs of water and other sanctions of members and nonmembers who are delinquent in the payment of service and other fees or who have violated other terms of water delivery and other agreements, in accordance with the mandates provided by the WUA Council. (iv) Managing the bank accounts of the WUA in accordance with provision approved by the WUA Council. (v) Executing other daily activities defined by the WUA Council or by the present law.
Article 20. The Audit Commission
The Audit Commission provides supervision over the financial and economic activities of the WUA.
The Audit Commission shall have no less than three members, who are elected by the General Assembly from among the members of the WUA by direct ballot for a 3-year term.
The Charter and General Assembly define the work of the Audit Commission.
An audit of the financial and economic activities of the WUA shall be conducted no less than one time per year on initiative of the Audit Commission. A more frequent audit shall
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The WUA Council and the WUA Staff shall provide all documents on financial and economic activities of the WUA at the request of the Audit commission.
The Audit Commission is responsible to the General Assembly.
Re-election of the Audit Commission can be conducted before expiry of its term on request of one forth of the members of the WUA, and also at the request of the WUA Council.
The Audit Commission upon its own initiative or on the demand of one-fifth of the members of the WUA has the right to engage independent auditors to audit the financial operation of the WUA.
On request of the WUA Chairman, the Audit Commission shall analyze any problems that may have occurred during the work of the WUA Staff and it shall formulate recommendations for their resolution.
Article 21. The Dispute Resolution Commission
A WUA may have a Dispute Resolution Commission that shall consist of three persons elected by the General Assembly for a 4-year term. The members of the Dispute Resolution Commission shall elect one of their members to be the Chairman.
The Dispute Resolution Commission shall attempt to settle disputes concerning water use, distribution, and maintenance between members of the WUA or between the WUA and its members.
A WUA member who alleges that another member has violated the WUA Charter, rules, or watering plan may lodge a written complaint with the Chairman of the Commission.
After accepting the complaint the Chairman shall schedule a hearing of the Commission within 10 days.
Both parties to the dispute shall attend the hearing which shall be held in public and which shall be chaired by the Chairman of the Commission. Another member of the WUA may represent an interested party when he is unable to attend.
The Commission shall hear evidence from both parties to the dispute, which may include documentary evidence, and it may undertake inspections. The Commission shall hold its deliberations in private and shall announce its verdict within 10 days of the hearing or of completion of its investigation.
If the Commission considers that the complaint is false it shall dismiss the complaint. If the Commission is satisfied that the complaint is true it may take a decision to impose sanctions on the unsuccessful party in accordance with the Charter.
A decision of the Commission to impose sanctions may be appealed to the courts.
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If the Commission cannot settle disputes by negotiations and discussions, those disputes shall be settled by the court in accordance with the rules in force.
CHAPTER 4. FINANCES AND PROPERTIES
Article 22. Sources of Property
Sources of income of the WUA may include:
(i) Initial property shares of the WUA Founders. (ii) Fees and charges payable to WUA by its members. (iii) Income received from nonmembers for the supply of irrigation water on a contractual basis. (iv) Interest on bank accounts. (v) Donations, other legal assets, and grants from the state and other sources (vi) Securities and associated incomes. (vii) Gifts obtained from banks and other organizations. (viii) Gratuitous funds and properties allocated by international donor and state agencies. (ix) Credit obtained from banks and other sources. (x) Income received from entrepreneurial activities, but only if this income is utilized in accordance with the statutory purpose of the WUA. (xi) Other sources which are not in contradiction with laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
A WUA is the owner of any property legally transferred to it, including irrigation and drainage systems within its Service Area, as specified in the Management Transfer Agreement.
Article 23. Fees and the Reserve Fund
The Charter of the WUA or the General Assembly shall define the various types of fees and charges that are payable to the WUA by the water users in the Service Area, as well as the method of their collection.
The level of internal fees and charges is set by the General Assembly on the basis of recommendations by the WUA Council.
The amount of the water supply service charges should cover the internal expenses incurred by the WUA for operation and maintenance of the irrigation and drainage systems within the WUA service area.
If there exists an agreement to that effect with the Irrigation System Authority, the amount of the water supply service charges should also cover the expenses for operation and maintenance of the main canal outside the WUA service area.
In order to protect the ability of the WUA members to pay to the WUA the water supply service charges established by the General Assembly no public or private entity shall at any time interfere with the bank accounts of the WUA or of the WUA members.
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The WUA shall establish a Reserve Fund to cover the cost of future replacement of the infrastructure, to undertake major repairs to the irrigation and drainage systems within the WUA Service area, and to cover the cost of emergency situations
The Reserve Fund shall be maintained separately from the operating funds of the WUA.
The Charter of the WUA shall provide that following the preparation of the annual accounts, any surplus funds accruing to the WUA at the end of each financial year shall not be distributed among the members of the WUA, but shall be paid into the Reserve Fund. Other contributions to the WUA may also be deposited in the Reserve Fund.
Article 24. WUA Financial Management
A WUA shall maintain financial, statistical records, and books in accordance with the National Standards of Accounting of Uzbekistan and other relevant legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
A WUA shall have an independent balance. A WUA shall carry out its activities on the basis of the fees payable by members and other water users, and of other income that is not in conflict with the laws in force.
The WUA financial year starts on 1 January and ends on 31 December. For its own internal purposes, the WUA may develop reports on a different time basis.
The WUA shall independently create and manage its own budget.
The WUA shall determine the value of expenses to be included into the budget independent of state-specified norms and indexes of values.
The WUA shall possess the right to tax exemptions provided for nongovernment, noncommercial organizations in the Tax Code of Uzbekistan and benefit from other incentives stipulated in provisions of the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
The WUA shall conduct annual reporting to the tax and statistical agencies, in accordance with the Law on Non-Governmental, Non-Commercial Organizations.
The WUA shall maintain all financial records in its permanent archive and shall provide to all members access to these records upon request.
CHAPTER 5. REGULATION AND SUPPORT OF THE WUA
Article 25. Administrative Regulation
An independent Regulatory Authority with no external relationship with WUAs other than regulation shall exercise state regulation of the activities of the WUA.
This body shall be The Ministry of Justice, which is responsible for the regulation of nongovernmental, noncommercial organizations in the Republic of Uzbekistan, has the right:
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(i) To approve or reject registration of the WUA, in accordance with the provisions of this Law. (ii) To provide advice and recommendations concerning Draft Charters proposed by WUA Formation Committees, if such advice is solicited. (iii) To provide advice to the WUA with respect to legal issues. (iv) To monitor the activities of the WUA in order to ensure that they are carried out in accordance with the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (v) To demand accurate and timely submission of annual reports and other documentation in accordance with instructions issued by the Ministry. (vi) To conduct audits or invite independent auditors to conduct an audit upon receipt of a written application from one third of the WUA members. (vii) To provide an initial warning to WUA concerning violations of the law, to establish a reasonable timeframe for correction of the violations, and to prove repeated violations of the law before suspending some or all of the activities of the WUA. (viii) To suspend some or all of the activities of WUA those have repeatedly violated the legal enactments of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (ix) To permit the resumption of some or all of the activities of the WUA which have been suspended in the event that violations of the law have been corrected. (x) To ensure that Ministry staff charged with regulation are competent in legal affairs and the governance and management of WUA.
Article 26. State Support
The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources shall be responsible for providing methodical and practical support in the organization and development of the WUA, as well as in the organization of on-farm water delivery reporting.
The support of WUA shall consist of:
(i) Providing support, advice, and baseline data to Initiative Groups that seek to form a WUA. (ii) Helping WUA Formation Committees prepare the Draft Budget. (iii) Obtaining data concerning water deliveries and other activities within the area of the local Irrigation System Authorities in order to assist the WUA in improving its water use efficiency. (iv) Helping WUA prepare Water Use and Maintenance Plans. (v) Advising WUA concerning financial management. (vi) Identifying training needs and conducting subsequent training concerning operation and maintenance, financial management, legal matters, and on- farm water management. (vii) Assisting WUA in the creation of designs for the rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage systems, as well as rendering aid in quality control and quantity surveys before and during construction.
The support of WUA shall be either solicited by the WUA or proposed by the Ministry and agreed to by the WUA.
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CHAPTER 6. FINAL PROVISIONS
Article 27. WUA Federations
WUA are permitted to form federations within an indivisible Hydraulic Unit only after all WUA have collected 80% of all fees payable by water users for a period of 3 years prior to the formation of the federation.
All WUA within the Hydraulic Unit shall agree to the formation of the federation.
The objectives and activities, terms of formation and membership, and mandates and procedures for the governance and management of WUA federations shall be agreed to by all WUA intending to join the federation. The relative documentation shall be submitted to the Ministry of Justice for approval.
Article 28. Reorganization and Liquidation
Reorganization of a WUA is accomplished by a decision of the General Assembly or a Court in accordance with the rules established.
Property and financial assets remaining after satisfaction of all liabilities during liquidation of a WUA, except for assets that were received free of charge from the state, are subject to distribution among the members of the WUA by a decision of the liquidation commission or the organ, which was created to execute the liquidation in accordance with conditions foreseen by the Charter of the WUA.
Reorganization of a WUA is accomplished by the amendment and re-registration of the Charter of the WUA in accordance with the relevant provisions of this law
Article 29. International Agreements
If provisions of the present Law are in conflict with the provisions of International Agreements of the Republic of Uzbekistan then the provisions of the International Agreements shall prevail.
Article 30. Entry into Force
The present law shall enter into force on the day of its official publication.
The Government of Uzbekistan shall:
(i) Prepare proposals to bring existing legislation in harmony with the present law. (ii) Bring decrees and regulations issued by bodies of the Government of Uzbekistan, ministries, state committees and departments in harmony with the present law.
President of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov
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Appendix 2
Groundwater levels (2010-2011)
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Appendix 2. Groundwater level (2010-2011) а) 1 October
Observed Areas (ha) with groundwater level (meter): District Years Total area (ha) 0-1 1-1,5 1,5-2 2-3 3-5 >5
2010 30511 30511 2032 25284 3195 Bukhara
2011 30511 30511 2049 25145 3317
2010 21536 21536 1079 18859 1598 Vobkent
2011 21536 21536 1020 18460 2056
2010 33027 33027 62 5521 27189 255 Jondor
2011 33027 33027 82 1449 31386 110
2010 18575 18575 925 4610 12470 570 Kogon
2011 18575 18575 481 2968 14898 228
2010 21467 21467 16 473 10666 10135 177 Alat
2011 21467 21467 346 9357 11627 137
2010 22665 22665 567 19005 3093 Peshkun
2011 22665 22665 486 17138 5041
2010 27258 27258 1326 25464 468 Romitan
2011 27258 27258 1028 25709 521
2010 28401 28401 426 7765 18387 1823 Shafirkan
2011 28401 28401 161 6522 15591 5935 192
2010 25064 25064 35 1913 8485 13715 916 Korakul
2011 25064 25064 16 1461 7694 15022 871
2010 19331 19331 19331 Koraul bozor
2011 19331 19331 19331
2010 27068 27068 8 614 5524 18885 2037 Gijduvan
2011 27068 27068 134 3209 21431 2294
2010 274903 274903 59 4413 47575 208724 14132 Bukhara region 2011 274903 274903 16 2665 35782 215738 20510 192 Source: HGME data
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b) 1 July
Areas (ha) with groundwater level (meter): Observed District Years Total area (ha) 0-1 1-1,5 1,5-2 2-3 3-5 >5
Bukhara 2010 30511 30511 1251 24663 4597
2011 30511 30511 3580 22514 4417 Vopkent 2010 21536 21536 900 18121 2500 15
2011 21536 21536 50 16979 4507 Jondor 2010 33027 33027 203 5999 26698 127
2011 33027 33027 318 4850 27734 125 Kogon 2010 18575 18575 266 5969 12065 275
2011 18575 18575 230 5651 12403 291 Alat 2010 21467 21467 3163 11562 6637 105
2011 21467 21467 1785 8599 10919 164 Peshku 2010 22665 22665 948 18789 2928
2011 22665 22665 325 16177 6163 Romitan 2010 27258 27258 159 26583 516
2011 27258 27258 326 26464 468 Shafirkan 2010 28401 28401 591 3916 20723 3171
2011 28401 28401 75 3637 18288 6401 Korakul 2010 25064 25064 3727 13362 7723 252
2011 25064 25064 3072 11125 10266 601 Koraul bozor 2010 19331 19331 17449 1882
2011 19331 19331 19331 Gijduvan 2010 27068 27068 248 5299 20837 684
2011 27068 27068 157 3088 21763 2060
Bukhara region 2010 274903 274903 8198 49365 200288 17037 15
2011 274903 274903 5637 41231 202838 25197 Source: HGME data
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c) Average for the vegetation period
Areas (ha) with groundwater level (meter): Observed District Year Total area (ha) 0-1 1-1,5 1,5-2 2-3 3-5 >5
Bukhara 2010 30511 30511 2600 22800 5111
2011 30511 30511 2156 24088 4267
Vopkent 2010 21536 21536 900 17600 3036
2011 21536 21536 115 16464 4957
Jondor 2010 33027 33027 3800 29100 127
2011 33027 33027 25 3798 29029 175
Kogon 2010 18575 18575 2800 6400 7100 2275
2011 18575 18575 767 8030 9626 152
Alat 2010 21467 21467 667 10200 10600
2011 21467 21467 1911 11285 8158 113
Peshku 2010 22665 22665 800 19100 2765
2011 22665 22665 1184 18244 3237
Romitan 2010 27258 27258 1300 23000 2700 258
2011 27258 27258 1289 20489 5138 342
Shafirkan 2010 28401 28401 600 8900 17800 1101
2011 28401 28401 674 8661 15363 3703
Korakul 2010 25064 25064 3600 13500 7800 164
2011 25064 25064 2869 13539 8509 147
Koraul bozor 2010 19331 19331 300 15400 3631
2011 19331 19331 19331
Gijduvan 2010 27068 27068 500 5200 20500 868
2011 27068 27068 316 4634 20003 2115
Bukhara region 2010 274903 274903 8167 53900 190800 21778 258
2011 274903 274903 6562 54691 189304 24004 342 Source: HGME data
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Appendix 3
Groundwater Salinity
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Appendix 3. Groundwater salinity (2010-2011) а) 1 October
Areas (ha) with ground water salinity (g/l) : Observed District Years Total area (ha) 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-10 >10
2010 30511 30511 23033 7224 254 Bukhara
2011 30511 30511 22386 7870 255
2010 21536 21536 100 16027 5409 Vobkent
2011 21536 21536 16502 5022 12
2010 33027 33027 27928 5099 Jondor
2011 33027 33027 26887 6140
2010 18575 18575 149 14348 3986 92 Kogon
2011 18575 18575 77 16568 1893 37
2010 21467 21467 113 6970 9001 5383 Alat
2011 21467 21467 114 7251 10054 4048
2010 22665 22665 15686 6979 Peshkun
2011 22665 22665 15572 6956 137
2010 27258 27258 26645 613 Romitan
2011 27258 27258 26769 453 36
2010 28401 28401 11 26229 2161 Shafirkan
2011 28401 28401 26026 2375
2010 25064 25064 413 13178 10375 1098 Korakul
2011 25064 25064 30 13229 10603 1156 46
2010 19331 19331 2644 16356 331 Koraul bozor
2011 19331 19331 3072 15946 313
2010 27068 27068 26240 828 Gijduvan
2011 27068 27068 25262 1746 60
2010 274903 274903 786 198928 68031 7158 Bukhara region 2011 274903 274903 221 199524 69058 6054 46 Source: HGME data
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b) at 1 July
Areas (ha) with ground water salinity (g/l) Observed : District Years Total area (ha) 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-10 >10
Bukhara 2010 30511 30511 23845 6589 77
2011 30511 30511 18959 11534 18 Vopkent 2010 21536 21536 14396 7140
2011 21536 21536 14243 7048 245 Jondor 2010 33027 33027 26914 5989 124
2011 33027 33027 22109 7381 3537 Kogon 2010 18575 18575 13350 5024 201
2011 18575 18575 10025 8310 219 21 Alat 2010 21467 21467 7575 10878 3014
2011 21467 21467 4636 10000 5673 1158 Peshku 2010 22665 22665 13672 8819 174
2011 22665 22665 13371 9154 140 Romitan 2010 27258 27258 25128 2130
2011 27258 27258 24282 2680 296 Shafirkan 2010 28401 28401 23354 4757 290
2011 28401 28401 21381 6863 157 Korakul 2010 25064 25064 32 15966 8054 963 49
2011 25064 25064 11062 10197 3770 35 Koraul bozor 2010 19331 19331 3660 15080 591
2011 19331 19331 5250 14081 Gijduvan 2010 27068 27068 26416 652
2011 27068 27068 25508 1215 334 11
Bukhara region 2010 274903 274903 32 194276 75112 5434 49
2011 274903 274903 170826 88463 14389 1225 Source: HGME data
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c) Average for the vegetation period
Total Observed Areas (ha) with ground water salinity (g/l) : District Year (ha) area (ha) 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-10 >10
Bukhara 2010 30511 30511 23845 6589 77
2011 30511 30511 18959 11534 18
Vopkent 2010 21536 21536 14396 7140
2011 21536 21536 14243 7048 245
Jondor 2010 33027 33027 26914 5989 124
2011 33027 33027 22109 7381 3537
Kogon 2010 18575 18575 13350 5024 201
2011 18575 18575 10025 8310 219 21
Alat 2010 21467 21467 7575 10878 3014
2011 21467 21467 4636 10000 5673 1158
Peshku 2010 22665 22665 13672 8819 174
2011 22665 22665 13371 9154 140
Romitan 2010 27258 27258 25128 2130
2011 27258 27258 24282 2680 296
Shafirkan 2010 28401 28401 23354 4757 290
2011 28401 28401 21381 6863 157
Korakul 2010 25064 25064 32 15966 8054 963 49
2011 25064 25064 11062 10197 3770 35
Koraul bozor 2010 19331 19331 3660 15080 591
2011 19331 19331 5250 14081
Gijduvan 2010 27068 27068 26416 652
2011 27068 27068 25508 1215 334 11
Bukhara region 2010 274903 274903 32 194276 75112 5434 49
2011 274903 274903 170826 88463 14389 1225 Source: HGME data
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Appendix 4
Soil Salinity (2010-2011)
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Appendix 4. Soil salinity (2010-2011)
including Area, Non-saline Saline Medium Slightly High saline District Year ‘000 saline saline ha ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 ‘000 % % % % % ha ha ha ha ha 2010 30.51 2.81 9.2 27.7 90.8 1.1 3.61 7.8 25.6 18.8 61.6 Bukhara 2011 30.51 3.01 9.9 27.51 90.2 1.02 3.34 7.64 25 18.85 61.8 2010 21.54 2.4 11.1 19.1 88.7 1.1 5.11 5.1 23.7 12.9 59.9 Vobkent 2011 21.54 2 9.3 19.5 90.5 0.87 4.04 4.97 23.1 13.61 63.2 2010 33.1 2.5 7.6 30.8 93.1 1.8 5.44 9.2 27.8 19.8 59.8 Jondor 2011 33.1 2.61 7.9 30.49 92.1 2.23 6.74 8.76 26.5 19.51 58.9 2010 18.58 2.58 13.9 16 86.1 1 5.38 4.5 24.2 10.5 56.5 Kogon 2011 18.58 2.78 15 15.79 85 0.58 3.12 4.28 23 10.93 58.8 2010 21.47 3.37 15.7 18.1 84.3 1.7 7.92 5.5 25.6 10.9 50.8 Alat 2011 21.47 3.57 16.6 17.89 83.3 1.38 6.43 4.61 21.5 11.91 55.5 2010 22.6 3.4 15 19.2 85 0.9 3.98 6.7 29.6 11.6 51.3 Peshkun 2011 22.6 3.6 15.9 19 84.1 0.54 2.39 6.57 29.1 11.99 53.1 2010 27.26 3.66 13.4 23.6 86.6 0.6 2.2 8.6 31.5 14.4 52.8 Romitan 2011 27.26 3.82 14 23.44 86 0.31 1.14 8.68 31.8 14.45 53 2010 28.4 3.1 10.9 25.3 89.1 1.2 4.23 8 28.2 16.1 56.7 Shafirkan 2011 28.4 3 10.6 25.4 89.4 0.85 2.99 7.88 27.7 16.61 58.5 2010 25.06 2.76 11 22.3 89 0.9 3.59 5.5 21.9 15.9 63.4 Korakul 2011 25.06 3.1 12.4 21.98 87.7 0.57 2.27 4.99 19.9 16.43 65.6 2010 19.33 4 20.7 15.3 79.2 0.3 1.55 5 25.9 10 51.7 Koraul bozor 2011 19.33 4.1 21.2 15.15 78.4 0.13 0.67 4.85 25.1 10.18 52.7 2010 27.07 3.97 14.7 23.1 85.3 2.1 7.76 6.5 24 14.5 53.6 Gijduvan 2011 27.07 4.3 15.9 22.82 84.3 1.81 6.69 6.02 22.2 14.99 55.4 Bukhara 2010 274.92 34.55 12.6 240.5 87.5 12.7 4.62 72.4 26.3 155.4 56.5 region 2011 274.92 35.89 13.1 238.97 86.9 10.29 3.74 69.25 25.2 159.46 58 2010 25.1 0 0 25.1 100 0.7 2.8 4.3 17.1 20.1 80.1 Karmana 2011 25.1 25.1 100 0.6 2.4 4.0 15.9 20.5 81.7 2010 32.4 0 0 32.4 100 1.2 3.7 9 27.8 22.2 68.5 Kiziltepa 2011 32.4 0 0 32.4 100 1.1 3.4 6.8 21.0 24.5 75.6 Source: HGME data
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Appendix 5
Soil Fertility (2011)
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Appendix 5. Soil fertility (2011) a) Bukhara region
I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI Class VII Class VIII Class IX Class X Class Total area, Average, District Bonitet ha (2011) 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100
Bukhara 77.49 3291.81 5586.65 3031.08 9140.86 1202.0 22989.9 54
Vobkent 179.5 2959.5 4673.0 5767.0 6127.0 433.0 81.0 20220.0 54
Jondor 244.1 6728.7 7427.1 5223.5 5121.8 3360.4 28105.6 52
Kogon 945.8 3181.6 4334.8 5920.8 2605.2 117.5 17102.7 49
Alat 789.7 4116.9 3719.0 3716.4 1440.5 3386.6 17169.1 51
Peshkun 304.1 5920.7 5132.9 3223.3 5113.1 298.2 20010.9 49
Romitan 1300.6 5130.0 5082.1 6414.0 4126.8 894.5 22948.0 49
Shafirkan 1448.54 5503.63 5719.05 5024.59 4636.61 817.65 23150.1 49
Korakul 1412.0 4317.2 4049.9 4905.9 1846.5 3068.1 19599.6 51
Koraul bozor 18.6 1301.1 4373.6 6765.6 2811.0 143.0 15394.3 42
Gijduvan 181.2 1916.3 2911.8 5016.9 7997.5 2496.7 20520.4 58
Bukhara city 63 680.0 585.0 356.0 214.0 1898.0 46 Bukhara 18.6 8907.13 48119.94 55983.9 51410.47 48512.87 16074.65 81.0 229109.0 51 region
Source: State Committee for Land Resources
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b) Navoi region
I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI Class VII Class VIII Class IX Class X Class Total Average, District, farms Bonitet area, ha (2011) 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Navoi 390 140 33 567 1130 53 Toshrabot 197 565 247 82 889 50 2030 53 Uzbekistan 46 405 104 308 586 1448 53 Bukhara 382 301 579 990 2252 55 Warozun 244 337 345 658 1584 61 Al-bukhoriy 70 724 754 1548 39 Zarmetan 533 150 44 153 569 1449 59 Dehkonobod 323 178 87 205 398 1191 46 Mekhat-Rokhat 136 1085 278 81 32 1612 38 Urtachul 3051 39 Yulduzi 269 1805 633 344 K.Kobilov 18 196 106 218 473 561 1572 61 Kh. Sulaimonov 106 476 1141 781 768 3272 42 Tavois 259 213 48 493 49 1062 50 Malikchul 100 239 63 51 453 39 Kuimozor 148 509 31 688 42 Zarafshan 49 799 125 40 1013 29 Lochin 35 53 88 35 Kiziltepa 72 49 parranda 72 Navoi region 155 2728.12 8425.9 4649.64 2399.74 5269.95 1318.0 569.0 25515 49
Source: State Committee for Land Resources
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Appendix 6
Availability of Agricultural Machinery
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Tractors, pieces
2,4, 2,4,
-
4, pieces 4,
-
KPI
1,5, 1,5,
s
-
District 255
-
4Б, pieces 4Б,
-
machine, pieces machine,
KIR
-
240
-
KXU
МХ
150 pieces machine,
-
- -
80
140
793, piece 793,
80
-
-
-
4 , pieces
-
, pieces ,
-
type tractor type
4
-
-
600, pieces 600,
50
Х
100 60
-
-
-
- -
135
-
700, Т 700,
28
- ChKU hisel cultivator
-
PTS
Track ТТЗ ТТЗ МТЗ Т Magnum МХ K Transport Other pieces picker, cotton pieces harvester, combine machine, Hay pieces pieces Ripper, Deep Plough Seeding Grain seeding C Cultivator 2 pieces machine, Harrowing pieces sprayer, Fertilizer ОВХ pieces , Excavator Grader Bukhara 66 89 149 110 208 14 24 12 523 8 3 16 25 82 79 103 15 77 291 436 1902 23 18 9 1
Vobkent 51 76 151 137 231 14 23 8 94 8 1 19 8 69 69 97 14 61 242 429 1543 14 18 13
Jondor 86 31 191 179 323 15 22 19 615 10 3 13 21 62 105 101 14 95 373 390 1653 13 20 1
Kogon 51 28 40 176 123 6 18 8 415 6 1 14 22 47 55 21 12 66 154 266 1023 16 21 5 1
Alat 24 50 133 126 201 14 15 3 298 5 2 17 23 52 29 25 16 31 231 240 954 10 19 11 1
Peshkun 42 72 137 111 174 10 18 4 453 3 1 18 19 45 72 34 11 69 247 363 1108 21 20 10 1
Romitan 56 14 196 148 368 11 24 10 578 13 3 20 46 55 82 42 3 87 316 517 2010 24 22 1
Shafirkan 53 44 116 173 224 15 25 12 469 2 2 19 33 41 69 60 17 82 276 324 1581 11 18 16 1
Korakul 36 67 152 78 233 12 16 3 590 4 1 18 33 64 58 67 16 55 294 337 1536 12 20 3 1
Koraul bozor 10 4 76 66 55 6 4 13 130 4 1 3 28 57 23 36 84 75 286 19 14 9 1
Gijduvan 51 42 132 132 268 13 29 7 632 9 2 16 18 104 73 76 14 61 285 417 1622 14 22 7 1
Bukhara City 9 5 13 17 57 5 26 250 1 1 5 6 8 4 4 9 12 163 115 4 5 1 Bukhara 545 522 1486 1453 2465 130 223 125 5347 73 20 174 281 684 722 666 136 693 2805 3957 15333 181 217 84 10 region Source: Bukhara Province Agricultural Department of MAWR
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Appendix 7
Agricultural Cropping Pattern by District (2011)
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Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
including: including:
including: including:
, ha ,
District ha land, arable
atoes
Total irrigated area irrigated Total irrigated Total Cotton wheat Winter w. after crops Secondary ha , wheat vegetables melons beans Maize Other vegetables melons legumes (corn), Maize Pot total crops fodder alfalfa (silage) Maize Other lands homestead orchards other and vegetables land fallow vineyard and orchards forests
Bukhara 27822 19307 10870 5512 3152 436 133 405 1723 456 340 42 125 65 2353 505 60 1788 4677 911 3766 674 3009 155
Vobkent 24792 18550 10010 7200 2641 271 66,4 428 1542 333 110 37 50 56 1087 581 15 491 4483 576 3907 66 1623 70
Jondor 33029 24103 14250 6164 2896 373 115 450 1502 456 315 72 50 65 3187 1622 27 1538 4600 1134 5303 1401 2601 324
Kogon 18643 15393 7120 5176 2150 142 22 450 1020 516 165 47 129 50 2706 485 17 2204 1701 319 1382 319 1212 18
Alat 21465 16095 8580 5426 2855 259 126 248 1961 261 215 37 72 46 1719 897 29 793 4103 483 3620 125 957 185
Peshkun 22756 16688 9855 5486 2736 415 166 293 1360 502 195 62 125 50 915 316 18 581 3841 831 3321 287 1813 127
Romitan 27241 20285 12100 6480 3009 387 78,4 338 1845 361 151 65 144 62 1283 1035 22 226 4152 470 4130 771 1976 57
Shafirkan 28402 19778 10220 6644 4849 271 46,7 360 3612 559 225 56 100 60 2473 267 17 2189 4863 637 4226 814 2592 355
Korakul 25065 17800 10280 6116 1858 378 116 248 993 123 135 22 75 40 1132 154 22 956 5345 382 4963 219 1584 117
Koraul 16108 14275 5715 6335 2880 39,9 125 0 2604 111 241 205 0 18 1761 1192 36 533 483 7 476 970 179 201 bozor
Gijduvan 27074 17001 10300 4731 2494 398 101 383 1325 288 250 40 100 60 1520 423 18 1079 6437 1134 5303 1229 2264 143
Bukhara 2350 1305 300 330 181 129 5,04 12,6 34 313 15 0 28 319 125 0 194 506 119 387 3 513 23 City Kogon 202 21 11 10 165 30 135 8 8 City
Total 274949 200601 109600 65600 31700 3500 1100 3600 19500 4000 2666 700 970 600 20465 7602 281 12572 45356 6348 39008 6878 20331 1783
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including: including:
including:
, ha ,
District
arable land, ha land, arable
and other and
lfalfa
Total irrigated area irrigated Total irrigated Total Cotton wheat Winter after crops Secondary , ha w.wheat vegetables melons (corn) Maize Potatoes total crops fodder a (silage) Maize Other lands homestead orchards vegetables land fallow vineyard and orchards forests Kiziltepa 31501 20681 8880 10224 5112 319 90 350 20 798 354 372 72 3385 239 3146 4448 2349 638
Karmana 20784 15389 6390 7181 3590 744 55 160 20 839 650 90 99 2315 729 1120 1231
Source: Bukhara Province Agricultural Department of MAWR
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Appendix 8
Allocated and Applied Fertilizer (2012)
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a) Bukhara region
(in tons of active substance) Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
District Winter wheat cotton Winter wheat cotton Winter wheat cotton
Plan Actual Plan Actual Plan Actual Plan Actual Plan Actual Plan Actual
Bukhara 1421 1504 2761 3284 105 122 779 804 17 2 207 237
Vobkent 1356 1409 2739 3150 153 179 702 757 19 2 186 332
Jondor 1204 1347 3308 3769 123 141 944 961 15 3 249 448
Kogon 1034 1094 1829 2175 110 128 569 587 13 1 126 144
Korakul 1105 1274 2562 2869 114 125 675 705 14 0 175 305
Koraul bozor 1169 1480 1235 1453 202 238 313 333 12 1 54 168
Оlot 1051 1060 1924 2303 107 127 578 581 13 9 151 197
Peshkun 1065 1127 2227 2648 109 127 671 692 15 1 165 188
Romitan 1583 1602 3099 3457 159 180 917 969 20 1 220 501
Shafirkan 1400 1514 2480 2779 95 98 738 766 18 1 183 269
Gijduvan 1086 1093 2737 3149 92 97 803 820 13 5 194 333
Total 13476 14504 26902 31036 1370 1564 7690 7976 168 27 1910 3123
Source: Bukhara Province Agricultural Chemistry Administration
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Appendix 9
Crop Yields for Cotton and Wheat (2008-2011)
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2008, ton 2009, ton 2010, ton 2011, ton District Cotton Cotton Cotton Cotton area, Plan c/ha Actual % area, Plan c/ha Actual % area, Plan c/ha Actual % area, Plan c/ha Actual % ha ha ha ha Bukhara 11450 37000 29.94 34285 93 10870 35100 29.31 31855 91 10870 35100 29.49 32059 91 10870 35100 35.24 38310 109
Vobkent 10500 35000 32.17 33777 97 10010 33300 33.22 33257 100 10010 33300 37.83 37866 114 10010 33300 37.34 37382 112
Jondor 15175 47500 26.35 39982 84 14250 44600 25.19 35897 80 14250 44600 27.18 38734 87 14250 44600 30.57 43566 98
Kogon 7520 22000 29.23 21980 100 7120 21150 29.05 20686 98 7120 21150 30.23 21526 102 7120 21150 32.11 22862 108
Karakul 10800 32900 28.46 30739 93 10280 31300 26.55 27290 87 10280 31300 31.57 32458 104 10280 31300 31.06 31926 102
Koraulbozor 6015 9600 15.97 9604 100 5715 9600 14.83 8478 88 5715 9600 19.86 11351 118 5715 9600 18.71 10690 111
Alat 9050 28500 28.61 25892 91 8580 27000 28.25 24238 90 8580 27000 31.32 26873 100 8580 27000 32.05 27500 102
Peshku 10400 33900 26.82 27889 82 9855 32100 28.60 28189 88 9855 32100 32.10 31633 99 9855 32100 33.01 32533 101
Romitan 12700 41400 31.31 39762 96 12100 39400 31.32 37892 96 12100 39400 35.07 42432 108 12100 39400 35.50 42961 109
Shofirkan 10900 35000 26.00 28339 81 10220 32800 31.00 31678 97 10220 32800 30.77 31451 96 10220 32800 31.01 31693 97
Gijduvan 10845 37000 28.58 30994 84 10300 34800 33.30 34295 99 10300 34800 33.57 34582 99 10300 34800 35.90 36975 106
Bukhara City 45 200 226.67 1020 510 300 850 30.13 904 106 300 850 34.57 1037 122 300 850 35.87 1076 127
115400 360000 28.10 324263 90 109600 342000 28.71 314659 92 109600 342000 31.20 342002 100 109600 342000 32.62 357474 105
Source: Bukhara Province Agricultural Department of MAWR
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Total crop area, ha Productivity, c/ha Total harvest, ton District difference, difference, difference, 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 +/- +/- +/-
5512 5512 0 58.4 58.9 0.5 32210 32468 258 Bukhara 7200 7200 0 58.6 59.1 0.5 42186 42523 337 Vopkent 6164 6164 0 58.3 58.7 0.5 35920 36207 287 Jondor 5176 5176 0 57.6 58.0 0.5 29792 30030 238 Kogon 6116 6116 0 57.7 58.2 0.5 35291 35573 282 Karakul 6335 6335 0 51.0 52.6 1.6 32305 33322 1017 Koraulbozor 5426 5426 0 58.0 58.5 0.5 31487 31739 252 Alat 5486 5486 0 59.0 59.5 0.5 32380 32639 259 Peshku 6480 6480 0 58.0 58.5 0.5 37595 37896 301 Romitan 6644 6644 0 57.1 57.6 0.5 37970 38274 304 Shofirkan 4731 4731 0 59.1 59.5 0.5 27937 28168 231 Gijduvan 330 330 0 64.8 60.0 -4.8 2139 1980 -159 Bukhara City Total 65600 65600 0 57.5 58.1 0.5 377212 380819 3607
Source: Bukhara Province Agricultural Department of MAWR
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Appendix 10
Hydro-module Irrigation Norms by Crop Type and District
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Uzgipromeliovodkhoz m3/ha Crops Irrigation Vegetation period Irrigation Non-vegetation period Total Non- Period III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Period II III IV IX X XI XII veg. Year C-II-А III hydromodule
Winter wheat 13.III-20.V 289 831 580 25.IX-5.XI 340 1380 280 2000 3700
W. wheat with 13.III-20.V 289 831 580 900 1500 525 25.IX-5.XI 340 1380 280 2000 6625 secondary Cotton 16.V-15.IX 560 1470 2310 2030 630 21.II-10.IV 360 1170 270 1800 8800
Maize(corn), 6.V-25.VIII 960 1792 2112 1536 1.II-31.III 360 1170 270 1800 8200 legumes Maize (silage) 1.V-20.VII 1200 1875 1500 1.II-31.III 360 1170 270 1800 6375
Vegetables, 1.IV-5.X 1772 1395 1767 2325 1860 1395 186 1.II-31.III 360 1170 270 1800 12500 melons, potatoes Fodder and 11.XI- 1.IV-25.IX 570 1235 1995 2375 2090 1235 1050 1050 2100 11600 alfalfa 20.XII Orchard s and 26.IV- 11.XI- 130 975 1560 1820 1560 455 1050 1050 2100 8600 vineyards 15.IX 20.XII 11.V- 11.XI- Fallow lands 504 972 1152 972 360 1170 270 1800 5400 31.VIII 20.XII IV hydromodule
Winter wheat 11.III-20.V 288 942 570 28.IX-5.XI 160 1300 240 1700 3500
W. wheat with 11.III-10.X 288 942 570 897 1518 215 160 1300 240 1700 6130 secondary Cotton 21.V-10.IX 390 1365 2275 2015 455 1.II-31.III 920 1380 2300 8800
Maize(corn), 11.V- 767 1770 2124 1239 1.II-31.III 920 1380 2300 8200 legumes 20.VIII Maize (silage) 1.V-15.VII 1173 1863 1104 1.II-31.III 920 1380 2300 6440
Vegetables, 16.IV-5.X 1658 1204 1634 2236 1978 1118 172 1.II-31.III 920 1380 2300 12300 melons, potatoes Fodder and 6.IV-25.IX 522 1131 1827 2262 2001 957 6.XI-20.XII 1210 990 2200 10900 alfalfa Orchard s and 1.V-10.IX 900 1440 1740 1500 420 6.XI-20.XII 1210 990 2200 8200 vineyards 11.V- Fallow lands 462 891 1056 891 1.II-31.III 920 1380 2300 5600 31.VIII
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Irrigation Vegetation period Irrigation Non-vegetation period total Crops Non- Period III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Period II III IV IX X XI XII veg. Year V hydromodule Winter wheat 15.III- 20.V 256 754 590 26.IX -6.XI 250 1360 190 1800 3400 W. wheat with secondary 15.III-20.V 256 754 590 660 1518 396 250 1360 190 1800 5974 Cotton 26.V-10.IX 310 1364 2232 1922 372 11.II- 31.III 1040 1560 2600 8800 Maize(corn), 16.V- legumes 20.VIII 560 1736 2128 1176 11.II-31.III 1040 1560 2600 8200 Maize (silage) 6.V-16.VII 1056 1848 1122 11.II-31.III 1040 1560 2600 6626 Vegetables, 21.IV- melons, potatoes 30.IX 1464 1148 1640 2214 1968 1066 11.II-31.III 1040 1560 2600 12100 11.IV- Fodder and alfalfa 20.IX 336 1092 1848 2268 2016 840 6.XI-20.XII 1375 1125 2500 10900 Orchard s and vineyards 6.V-10.IX 741 1425 1710 1482 342 6.XI-20.XII 1375 1125 2500 8200 16.V- Fallow lands 25.VIII 384 928 1088 800 11.II-31.III 1040 1560 2600 5800 VI-VII hydromodule Winter wheat 11.III- 20.V 53 1208 840 26.IX- 30.X 290 1210 1500 3601 W. wheat with secondary 11.III-20.V 53 1208 840 594 1404 162 26.IX-30.X 290 1210 1500 5761 Cotton 1.VI-5.IX 1200 1950 1700 150 6.II-25.III 2000 2000 4000 9000 Maize(corn), 21.V- legumes 15.VIII 322 1564 1932 782 6.II-25.III 2000 2000 4000 8600 11.V- Maize (silage) 10.VII 810 1728 702 6.II-25.III 2000 2000 4000 7240 Vegetables, 16.IV- melons, potatoes 30.IX 1200 938 1407 1876 1675 804 6.II-25.III 2000 2000 4000 11900 21.IV- Fodder and alfalfa 15.IX 138 897 1587 2001 1725 552 1.XI-20.XII 1260 840 2100 9000 Orchard s and vineyards 11.V-5.IX 517 1222 1457 1316 188 1.XI-20.XII 1260 840 2100 6800 21.V- Fallow lands 25.VIII 208 806 910 676 1.XI-20.XII 2000 2000 4000 6600
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
District Hydro- Vegetation period Total Non-vegetation period Total Non- module III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Veg. II III IV IX X XI XII veg. year
IV 73 583 683 1109 1761 1649 522 31 6413 547 820 0 41 330 245 151 2133 8546 Alat V 65 486 630 1111 1707 1609 488 0 6096 618 927 0 63 345 257 171 2382 8478
average 70 552 666 1110 1744 1636 511 21 6312 570 854 0 48 334 249 157 2212 8524
IV 56 499 708 1189 1812 1672 524 28 6488 517 776 0 31 251 342 242 2160 8648 Bukhara V 50 415 641 1190 1763 1632 483 0 6173 585 877 0 48 263 372 275 2421 8594
average 50 418 643 1190 1764 1633 484 1 6183 583 874 0 48 263 371 274 2413 8596
V 74 475 605 1041 1601 1491 436 0 5724 596 894 0 72 394 244 155 2355 8079 Vobkent
average 74 475 605 1041 1601 1491 436 0 5724 596 894 0 72 394 244 155 2355 8079
IV 54 459 662 1178 1815 1663 506 24 6362 570 855 0 30 244 278 190 2168 8530 Jondor V 48 379 601 1181 1772 1617 460 0 6057 644 967 0 47 256 300 216 2430 8487
average 49 385 606 1181 1775 1621 463 2 6081 639 958 0 46 255 298 214 2409 8491
IV 79 488 672 1086 1679 1559 475 16 6054 455 682 0 44 355 347 231 2113 8167 Kogon V 70 392 619 1088 1633 1522 436 0 5759 514 771 0 68 371 372 262 2358 8118
average 72 416 633 1087 1645 1531 445 4 5833 499 749 0 62 367 366 254 2297 8130
IV 71 597 678 1110 1721 1571 510 36 6294 581 871 0 39 318 209 123 2141 8434 Karakul V 63 502 623 1111 1679 1529 467 0 5975 656 985 0 61 333 217 139 2392 8366
average 64 523 635 1111 1689 1538 477 1 6038 640 960 0 56 330 215 136 2336 8375 Koraulbozor V 101 420 568 869 1389 1367 363 0 5078 497 746 0 99 538 249 142 2271 7350
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
District Hydro- Vegetation period total Non-vegetation period total Non- module III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Veg. II III IV IX X XI XII veg. year
Peshku V 62 434 592 1101 1701 1587 451 0 5929 641 962 0 60 329 241 159 2392 8321
average 62 434 592 1101 1701 1587 451 0 5929 641 962 0 60 329 241 159 2392 8321
IV 68 463 636 1098 1735 1605 462 23 6088 556 835 0 38 306 250 158 2143 8230 Romitan V 60 385 574 1098 1685 1559 424 0 5785 629 943 0 59 320 264 180 2396 8180
average 60 386 576 1098 1686 1560 425 0 5791 628 941 0 58 320 264 179 2391 8181
IV 67 532 695 1126 1785 1695 516 28 6444 509 764 0 37 304 313 211 2138 8583 Shofirkan V 60 441 636 1128 1723 1656 489 0 6132 576 863 0 58 318 337 239 2392 8523
average 61 454 644 1128 1732 1661 492 4 6176 566 849 0 56 316 334 235 2356 8532
IV 50 539 705 1199 1824 1671 534 36 6558 587 880 0 28 227 269 186 2177 8735 Gijduvan V 45 455 639 1200 1780 1628 492 0 6238 663 995 0 44 237 292 212 2442 8680
average 45 461 643 1200 1783 1631 495 3 6260 658 987 0 42 236 290 210 2423 8684
IV 93 501 627 910 1406 1310 339 20 5205 515 772 0 52 422 218 115 2094 7299 Kiziltepa V 83 415 573 914 1362 1267 324 0 4938 582 873 0 81 441 221 130 2329 7267
average 89 466 605 911 1388 1292 333 12 5096 542 813 0 64 430 219 121 2190 7286
IV 100 581 666 946 1493 1406 415 25 5632 458 687 0 55 449 273 155 2077 7709 Katmana average 100 581 666 946 1493 1406 415 25 5632 458 687 0 55 449 273 155 2077 7709
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Soyuznikhi (vegetation season)
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hydromodule II 1 800 16.V 31.V 16 2 900 1.VI 15.VI 15 3 900 16.VI 25.VI 10 Cotton 4 900 26.VI 10.VII 15 3-5-1 5 900 11.VII 20.VII 10 7900 6 900 21.VII 31.VII 11 7 900 1.VIII 10.VIII 10 8 900 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 9 800 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 900 1.V 15.V 15 2 900 16.V 31.V 16 3 900 1.VI 15.VI 15 4 900 16.VI 25.VI 10 5 900 26.VI 5.VII 10 Alfalfa 6 900 6.VII 15.VII 10 10900 12 7 900 16.VII 25.VII 10 8 1000 26.VII 5.VIII 11 9 900 6.VIII 15.VIII 10 10 900 16.VIII 31.VIII 16 11 900 1.IX 15.IX 15 12 900 16.IX 30.IX 15 1 800 1.V 15.V 15 2 800 16.V 25.V 10 3 800 26.V 5.VI 11 Maize 4 800 6.VI 15.VI 10 7200 5 800 16.VI 25.VI 10 9 6 800 26.VI 5.VII 10 7 800 6.VII 15.VII 10 8 800 16.VII 25.VII 10 9 800 26.VII 10.VIII 16 1 500 6.III 15.III 10 2 500 16.III 25.III 10 Potatoes, vegetables 14200 3 500 26.III 5.IV 11 27 4 600 6.IV 15.IV 10 5 600 16.IV 25.IV 10 6 600 26.IV 5.V 10
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 600 6.V 15.V 10 8 600 16.V 25.V 10 9 600 26.V 5.VI 11 10 600 6.VI 15.VI 10 11 500 16.VI 25.VI 10 12 500 26.VI 5.VII 10 13 500 6.VII 15.VII 10 14 500 16.VII 20.VII 5 15 500 21.VII 25.VII 5 16 500 26.VII 31.VII 6 17 500 1.VIII 5.VIII 5 18 500 6.VIII 10.VIII 5 19 500 11.VIII 15.VIII 5 20 500 16.VIII 20.VIII 5 21 500 21.VIII 31.VIII 11 22 500 1.IX 10.IX 10 23 500 11.IX 20.IX 10 24 500 21.IX 30.IX 10 25 500 1.X 10.X 10 26 500 11.X 20.X 10 27 500 21.X 31.X 11 1 500 21.IV 5.V 15 2 500 6.V 20.V 15 3 500 21.V 5.VI 16 4 500 6.VI 20.VI 15 Melons and gourds 5 500 21.VI 5.VII 15 5100 10 6 500 6.VII 15.VII 10 7 600 16.VII 25.VII 10 8 500 26.VII 10.VIII 16 9 500 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 10 500 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 600 16.IV 10.V 25 2 700 11.V 31.V 21 Orchards and vineyards 3 700 1.VI 20.VI 20 5500 4 700 21.VI 10.VII 20 8 5 700 11.VII 25.VII 15 6 700 26.VII 10.VIII 16 7 700 11.VIII 31.VIII 21
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 700 1.IX 20.IX 20 1 800 20.IX 10.X 20 2 900 11.X 31.X 21 Winter wheat 3800 3 1100 6.IV 30.IV 25 4 4 1000 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule III 1 900 21.V 10.VI 21 2 900 11.VI 25.VI 15 Cotton 3 1200 26.VI 10.VII 15 2-4-1 4 1200 11.VII 25.VII 15 7500 5 1300 26.VII 10.VIII 16 6 1200 11.VII 25.VIII 15 7 800 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 1100 6.V 20.V 15 2 1100 21.V 5.VI 16 3 1200 6.VI 20.VI 15 Alfalfa 4 1200 21.VI 5.VII 15 10400 5 1200 6.VII 20.VII 15 9 6 1300 21.VII 5.VIII 16 7 1200 6.VIII 20.VIII 15 8 1100 21.VIII 5.IX 16 9 1000 6.IX 20.IX 15 1 1100 11.V 25.V 15 2 1200 26.V 10.VI 16 Maize 3 1200 11.VI 25.VI 15 6900 6 4 1200 26.VI 10.VII 15 5 1100 11.VII 25.VII 15 6 1100 26.VII 10.VIII 16 1 600 11.III 25.III 15 2 600 26.III 10.IV 16 3 600 11.IV 20.IV 10 4 700 21.IV 30.IV 10 Potatoes, vegetables 5 700 1.V 10.V 10 13500 20 6 700 11.V 20.V 10 7 700 21.V 31.V 11 8 700 1.VI 10.VI 10 9 700 11.VI 20.VI 10 10 700 21.VI 30.VI 10
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 11 700 1.VII 10.VII 10 12 700 11.VII 20.VII 10 13 700 21.VII 31.VII 11 14 700 1.VIII 10.VIII 10 15 700 11.VIII 20.VIII 10 16 700 21.VIII 31.VIII 11 17 700 1.IX 10.IX 10 18 700 11.IX 25.IX 15 19 600 26.IX 10.X 15 20 600 11.X 25.X 15 1 600 26.IV 15.V 20 2 600 16.V 31.V 16 3 600 1.VI 15.VI 15 Melons and gourds 4 600 16.VI 30.VI 15 4900 8 5 600 1.VII 15.VII 15 6 700 16.VII 31.VII 16 7 600 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 8 600 16.VIII 5.IX 21 1 800 21.IV 20.V 30 2 800 21.V 15.VI 26 Orchards and vineyards 3 900 16.VI 10.VII 25 5300 6 4 1000 11.VII 31.VII 21 5 1000 1.VIII 20.VIII 20 6 800 21.VIII 15.IX 26 1 900 20.IX 10.X 20 Winter wheat 2 1000 11.X 31.X 21 4000 4 3 1100 6.IV 30.IV 25 4 1000 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule IV 1 900 16.V 31.V 16 2 900 1.VI 15.VI 15 3 900 16.VI 30.VI 15 Cotton 4 900 1.VII 10.VII 10 3-5-1 5 900 11.VII 20.VII 10 8100 6 900 21.VII 31.VII 11 7 900 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 8 900 16.VIII 31.VIII 16 9 900 1.IX 15.IX 15
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 800 1.V 15.V 15 2 800 16.V 31.V 16 3 800 1.VI 10.VI 10 4 800 11.VI 20.VI 10 5 800 21.VI 30.VI 10 Alfalfa 6 900 1.VII 10.VII 10 9900 12 7 900 11.VII 20.VII 10 8 900 21.VII 31.VII 11 9 800 1.VIII 10.VIII 10 10 800 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 11 800 26.VIII 10.IX 16 12 800 11.IX 30.IX 20 1 700 1.V 10.V 10 2 700 11.V 20.V 10 3 700 21.V 31.V 11 4 800 1.VI 10.VI 10 Maize 5 800 11.VI 20.VI 10 7600 10 6 800 21.VI 30.VI 10 7 800 1.VII 10.VII 10 8 800 11.VII 20.VII 10 9 800 21.VII 31.VII 11 10 700 1.VIII 10.VIII 10 1 500 6.III 15.III 10 2 500 16.III 25.III 10 3 500 26.III 5.IV 11 4 600 6.IV 15.IV 10 5 600 16.IV 25.IV 10 6 600 26.IV 5.V 10 7 600 6.V 15.V 10 Potatoes, vegetables 8 600 16.V 25.V 10 14500 27 9 600 26.V 5.VI 11 10 600 6.VI 15.VI 10 11 500 16.VI 20.VI 5 12 500 21.VI 25.VI 5 13 500 26.VI 30.VI 5 14 500 1.VII 5.VII 5 15 500 6.VII 10.VII 5 16 600 11.VII 15.VII 5
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 17 600 16.VII 20.VII 5 18 600 21.VII 25.VII 5 19 500 26.VII 31.VII 6 20 500 1.VIII 5.VIII 5 21 500 6.VIII 10.VIII 5 22 500 11.VIII 20.VIII 10 23 500 21.VIII 31.VIII 11 24 500 1.IX 15.IX 15 25 500 16.IX 30.IX 15 26 500 1.X 15.X 15 27 500 16.X 16.X 16 1 400 21.IV 5.V 15 2 400 6.V 20.V 15 3 500 21.VI 5.VII 16 4 500 6.VI 20.VI 15 Melons and gourds 5 500 21.VI 5.VII 15 5300 6 500 6.VII 15.VII 10 11 7 500 16.VII 25.VII 10 8 500 26.VII 5.VIII 11 9 500 6.VIII 15.VIII 10 10 500 16.VIII 25.VIII 10 11 500 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 500 16.IV 5.V 20 2 500 6.V 25.V 20 3 600 26.V 10.VI 16 4 600 11.VI 25.VI 15 Orchards and vineyards 5 600 26.VI 10.VII 15 5700 10 6 600 11.VII 20.VII 10 7 600 21.VII 31.VII 11 8 600 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 9 600 16.VIII 31.VIII 16 10 500 1.IX 20.IX 20 1 800 25.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 2800 2 1000 6.IV 30.IV 25 3 3 1000 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule V Cotton 1 1100 6.VI 25.VI 20 1-3-1 2 1100 26.VI 15.VII 20
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 5500 3 1100 16.VII 31.VII 16 4 1100 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 5 1100 16.VIII 5.IX 21 1 1000 11.V 25.V 15 2 1000 26.V 10.VI 16 3 1000 11.VI 25.VI 15 Alfalfa 4 1100 26.VI 10.VII 15 8300 8 5 1100 11.VII 25.VII 15 6 1100 26.VII 10.VIII 16 7 1000 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 8 1000 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 1100 16.V 5.VI 21 Maize 2 1100 6.VI 20.VI 15 5500 3 1100 21.VI 30.VI 10 5 4 1100 1.VII 15.VII 15 5 1100 16.VII 5.VIII 21 1 600 21.III 5.IV 16 2 600 6.IV 20.IV 15 3 600 21.IV 5.V 15 4 600 6.V 20.V 15 5 600 21.V 5.VI 16 6 700 6.VI 15.VI 10 7 700 16.VI 25.VI 10 Potatoes, vegetables 8 700 26.VI 30.VI 5 10100 16 9 700 1.VII 5.VII 5 10 700 6.VII 15.VII 10 11 600 16.VII 31.VII 16 12 600 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 13 600 16.VIII 31.VIII 16 14 600 1.IX 15.IX 15 15 600 16.IX 30.IX 15 16 600 1.X 15.X 15 1 600 6.V 25.V 20 2 600 26.V 15.VI 21 Melons and gourds 3 600 16.VI 30.VI 15 3600 6 4 600 1.VII 15.VII 15 5 600 16.VII 5.VIII 21 6 600 6.VIII 25.VIII 20
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 900 1.V 5.VI 36 Orchards and vineyards 2 1000 6.VI 5.VII 30 3900 4 3 1000 6.VII 5.VIII 31 4 1000 6.VIII 5.IX 31 Winter wheat 1 900 1.X 20.X 20 2700 2 900 21.IV 5.V 15 3 3 900 6.V 25.V 20 Hydromodule VI 1 900 1.VI 20.VI 20 2 1200 21.VI 5.VII 15 Cotton 1-4-1 3 1200 6.VII 20.VII 15 6800 4 1300 21.VII 5.VIII 16 5 1200 6.VIII 20.VIII 15 6 1000 21.VIII 10.IX 21 1 1000 6.V 25.V 20 2 1100 20.V 10.VI 21 3 1200 11.VI 25.VI 15 Alfalfa 4 1200 20.VI 5.VII 15 9400 8 5 1300 6.VII 20.VII 15 6 1300 21.VII 5.VIII 16 7 1200 6.VIII 25.VIII 20 8 1100 26.VIII 15.IX 21 1 1000 11.V 25.V 15 2 1100 26.V 10.VI 16 3 1100 11.VI 20.VI 10 4 1100 21.VI 5.VII 15 Maize 6500 5 1100 6.VII 20.VII 15 6 6 1100 21.VII 5.VIII 16 1 600 16.III 31.III 16 2 600 1.IV 15.IV 15 3 600 16.IV 30.IV 15 4 700 1.V 15.V 15 Potatoes, vegetables 5 700 16.V 25.V 10 12200 18 6 700 26.V 5.VI 11 7 700 6.VI 15.VI 10 8 700 16.VI 25.VI 10 9 700 26.VI 5.VII 10 10 700 6.VII 15.VII 10
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 11 700 16.VII 25.VII 10 12 700 26.VII 5.VIII 11 13 700 6.VIII 15.VIII 10 14 700 16.VIII 25.VIII 10 15 700 26.VIII 5.IX 11 16 700 6.IX 20.IX 15 17 700 21.IX 5.X 15 18 600 6.X 20.X 15 1 600 1.V 20.V 20 2 600 21.V 10.VI 21 Melons and gourds 3 600 11.VI 25.VI 15 4400 4 700 26.VI 10.VII 15 7 5 700 11.VII 25.VII 15 6 600 26.VII 10.VIII 16 7 600 11.VIII 31.VIII 21 1 800 26.IV 25.V 30 Orchards and vineyards 2 1000 26.V 25.VI 31 4800 3 1000 26.VI 20.VII 25 5 4 1000 21.VII 15.VIII 26 5 1000 16.VIII 10.IX 26 1 800 26.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 2800 2 1000 6.IV 30.IV 25 3 3 1000 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule VII 1 700 21.V 10.VI 21 2 800 11.VI 25.VI 15 3 800 26.VI 10.VII 15 Cotton 4 800 11.VII 20.VII 10 2-5-1 6400 5 900 21.VII 31.VII 11 6 900 1.VIII 10.VIII 10 7 800 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 8 700 26.VIII 10.IX 16 1 800 6.V 25.V 20 2 800 26.V 10.VI 16 Alfalfa 3 900 11.VI 25.VI 15 7800 9 4 900 26.VI 10.VII 15 5 900 11.VII 20.VII 10 6 900 21.VII 5.VIII 16
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 900 6.VIII 20.VIII 15 8 900 21.VIII 5.IX 16 9 800 6.IX 20.IX 15 1 700 6.V 15.V 10 2 700 16.V 25.V 10 3 700 26.V 5.VI 11 Maize 4 700 6.VI 15.VI 10 6500 5 700 16.VI 25.VI 10 9 6 800 26.VI 5.VII 10 7 800 6.VII 15.VII 10 8 700 16.VII 25.VII 10 9 700 26.VII 5.VIII 11 1 400 11.III 20.III 10 2 400 21.III 31.III 11 3 400 1.IV 10.IV 10 4 500 11.IV 20.IV 10 5 500 21.IV 30.IV 10 6 500 1.V 10.V 10 7 500 11.V 20.V 10 8 500 21.V 31.V 11 9 500 1.VI 10.VI 10 10 500 11.VI 15.VI 5 11 500 16.VI 20.VI 5 Potatoes, vegetables 12 500 21.VI 25.VII 5 11500 24 13 500 26.VII 31.VII 6 14 500 1.VIII 5.VIII 5 15 500 6.VIII 10.VIII 5 16 500 11.VIII 15.VIII 5 17 500 16.VIII 20.VIII 5 18 500 21.VIII 25.VIII 5 19 500 26.VIII 31.VIII 6 20 500 1.IX 10.IX 10 21 500 11.IX 20.IX 10 22 500 21.IX 30.IX 10 23 400 1.X 10.X 10 24 400 11.X 25.X 15 Melons and gourds 1 400 26.IV 10.V 15 4100 2 400 11.V 25.V 15
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 3 400 26.V 10.VI 16 4 400 11.VI 25.VI 15 5 500 26.VI 10.VII 15 6 500 11.VII 25.VII 15 7 500 26.VII 5.VIII 11 8 500 6.VIII 20.VIII 15 9 500 21.VIII 5.IX 16 1 500 21.IV 10.V 20 2 500 11.V 31.V 21 3 600 1.VI 20.VI 20 Orchards and vineyards 4 600 21.VI 5.VII 15 4500 8 5 600 6.VII 20.VII 15 6 600 21.VII 5.VIII 16 7 600 6.VIII 20.VIII 15 8 500 21.VIII 10.IX 21
Winter wheat 1 1000 26.IX 15.X 20 2/2000 2 1000 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule VIII 1 800 11.VI 30.VI 20 Cotton 1-3-0 2 1000 1.VII 20.VII 20 3800 3 1000 21.VII 5.VIII 16 4 1000 6.VIII 25.VIII 20 1 1000 16.V 5.VI 21 2 1000 6.VI 25.VI 20 Alfalfa 3 1100 26.VI 15.VII 20 6200 6 4 1100 16.VII 31.VII 16 5 1000 1.VIII 20.VIII 20 6 1000 21.VIII 10.IX 21 1 1000 21.V 10.VI 21 Maize, Guinea corn 2 1000 11.VI 25.VI 15 4000 4 3 1000 26.VI 10.VII 15 4 1000 11.VII 25.VII 15 1 500 26.III 15.IV 21 2 500 16.IV 5.V 20 Potatoes, vegetables 3 500 6.V 25.V 20 6800 12 4 600 26.V 10.VI 16 5 600 11.VI 25.VI 15 6 600 26.VI 10.VII 15
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 600 11.VII 25.VII 15 8 600 26.VII 10.VIII 16 9 600 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 10 600 26.VIII 10.IX 16 11 600 11.IX 25.IX 15 12 500 26.IX 10.X 15 1 600 6.V 5.VI 31 Melons and gourds 2400 2 600 6.VI 5.VII 30 4 3 600 6.VII 31.VII 26 4 600 1.VIII 25.VIII 25 1 900 11.V 20.VI 41 Orchards and vineyards 2700 2 900 21.VI 20.VII 30 3 3 900 21.VII 31.VIII 42
Winter wheat 1 1100 26.IX 15.X 20 2/2200 2 1100 1.V 25.V 25 Hydromodule IX 1 900 6.VI 25.VI 20 Cotton 2 1000 26.VI 15.VII 20 1-3-1 3 1000 16.VII 31.VII 16 4900 4 1000 1.VIII 15.VIII 15 5 1000 16.VIII 5.IX 21 1 1000 11.V 31.V 21 2 1000 1.VI 20.VI 20 Alfalfa 3 1000 21.VI 10.VII 20 7200 4 1100 11.VII 25.VII 15 7 5 1100 26.VII 10.VIII 16 6 1000 11.VIII 25.VIII 15 7 1000 26.VIII 15.IX 21 1 1000 16.V 31.V 16 Maize 2 1000 1.VI 15.VI 15 5200 3 1100 16.VI 30.VI 15 5 4 1100 1.VII 15.VII 15 5 1000 16.VII 31.VII 16 1 500 21.III 5.IV 16 Winter wheat 2 600 6.IV 20.IV 15 8800 3 600 21.IV 5.V 15 15 4 600 6.V 20.V 15 5 600 21.V 5.VI 16
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, number Number Irrigation Irrigation of irrigations and irrigation of rate, Irrigation period period, rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 600 6.VI 20.VI 15 7 600 21.VI 5.VII 15 8 600 6.VII 15.VII 10 9 600 16.VII 25.VII 10 10 600 26.VII 5.VIII 11 11 600 6.VIII 15.VIII 10 12 600 16.VIII 31.VIII 16 13 600 1.IX 15.IX 15 14 600 16.IX 30.IX 15 15 500 1.X 15.X 15 1 600 6.V 31.V 26 Melons and gourds 2 600 1.VI 25.VI 25 3200 3 700 26.VI 15.VII 20 5 4 700 16.VII 5.VIII 21 5 600 6.VIII 25.VIII 20 1 800 6.V 5.VI 31 Orchards and vineyards 2 900 6.VI 5.VII 30 3400 4 3 900 6.VII 5.VIII 31 4 800 6.VIII 5.IX 31 Winter wheat 1 1200 26.IX 15.X 20 2/2500 2 1300 1.V 25.V 25
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Soyuznikhi (non-vegetation season)
Crop, irrigation mode, Number Irrigation Irrigation period Irrigation number of irrigations and of rate, period, irrigation rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hydromodule II 1 500 6.III 15.III 10 2 500 16.III 25.III 10 Potatoes, vegetables 3 500 26.III 5.IV 11 27/14200 25 500 1.X 10.X 10 26 500 11.X 20.X 10 27 500 21.X 31.X 11 1 800 20.IX 10.X 20 Winter wheat 4/3800 2 900 11.X 31.X 21 Reserve irrigation 1/1100 1 1100 15.III 31.III 16 Hydromodule III 1 600 11.III 25.III 15 Potatoes, vegetables 2 600 26.III 10.IV 16 20/13500 19 600 26.IX 10.X 15 20 600 11.X 25.X 15 1 900 20.IX 10.X 20 Winter wheat 4/4000 2 1000 11.X 31.X 21 Reserve irrigation 1/1200 1 1200 11.III 31.III 21 Hydromodule IV 1 500 6.III 15.III 10 2 500 16.III 25.III 10 Potatoes, vegetables 3 500 26.III 5.IV 11 27/14500 26 500 1.X 15.X 15 27 500 16.X 31.X 16 1 800 25.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 3/2800
Leaching of heavily saline 1 2000 1.III 15.III 15 lands 2/4000 2 2000 16.III 31.III 16 Leaching of moderately 1 3000 1.III 31.III 31 saline lands 1/3000 Leaching of low saline lands 1 2000 1.III 31.III 31 1/2000 Hydromodule V Potatoes, vegetables 1 600 21.III 5.IV 21
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, Number Irrigation Irrigation period Irrigation number of irrigations and of rate, period, irrigation rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 16/10100 16 600 1.X 15.X 15 1 900 1.X 20.X 20 Winter wheat 3/2700
1 2000 1.I 20.I 20 Leaching of heavily saline 2 2000 21.I 10.II 21 lands 3/6000 3 2000 11.II 28.II 18 Leaching of moderately 1 2000 1.I 31.I 31 saline lands 2/4000 2 2000 1.II 28.II 28 Leaching of low saline lands 1 3000 1.I 28.II 59 1/3000 Hydromodule VI 1 600 16.III 31.III 16 Potatoes, vegetables 17 700 21.III 5.X 15 18/12200 18 600 6.X 20.X 15 1 800 26.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 3/2800
1 2500 1.XII 31.XII 31 Leaching of heavily saline 2 2500 1.I 31.I 31 lands 3/7000 3 2000 1.II 28.II 28 Leaching of moderately 1 3000 1.XII 15.I 46 saline lands 2/6000 2 3000 16.I 28.II 44 Leaching of low saline lands 1 2000 1.XII 15.I 46 2/4000 2 2000 16.I 28.II 44 Hydromodule VII 1 400 11.III 20.III 10 Potatoes, vegetables 2 400 21.III 31.III 11 24/11500 23 400 1.X 10.X 10 24 400 11.X 25.X 15 1 1000 26.X 15.X 20 Winter wheat 2/2000
Leaching of heavily saline 1 2000 1.III 15.III 15 lands 2/4500 2 2500 16.III 31.III 16 Leaching of moderately 1 1500 1.III 15.III 15 saline lands 2/3500 2 2000 16.III 31.III 16 Leaching of low saline lands 1 2500 1.III 31.III 31 1/2500 Hydromodule VIII Potatoes, vegetables 1 500 26.III 15.IV 21
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 - Agriculture
Crop, irrigation mode, Number Irrigation Irrigation period Irrigation number of irrigations and of rate, period, irrigation rate, m3/ha irrigations m3/ha Start End days 1 2 3 4 5 6 12/6800 12 500 26.IX 10.X 15 1 1100 26.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 2/2200
1 2000 1.I 20.I 20 Leaching of heavily saline 2 2000 21.I 10.II 21 lands 3/6000 3 2000 11.II 28.II 18 Leaching of moderately 1 2000 1.I 31.I 31 saline lands 2/4000 2 2000 1.II 28.II 28 Leaching of low saline lands 1 3000 1.I 28.II 59 1/3000 Hydromodule IX Potatoes, vegetables 1 500 21.III 5.IV 16 15/8800 15 500 1.X 15.X 15 1 1200 26.IX 15.X 20 Winter wheat 2/2500
1 2500 1.XII 31.XII 31 Leaching of heavily saline 2 2500 1.I 31.I 31 lands 3/7000 3 2000 1.II 28.II 28 Leaching of moderately 1 3000 1.XII 15.I 46 saline lands 2/6000 2 3000 16.I 28.II 44 Leaching of low saline lands 1 2000 1.XII 15.I 46 2/4000 2 2000 16.I 28.II 44
Source: Design Institute, 2012
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Appendix 11 Demonstration Area for Pilot Project
Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
I. APPENDIX 11 - DEMONSTRATION AREA FOR PILOT PROJECT
“The sustainability of irrigated agriculture may depend on the willingness and ability of producers to adopt irrigation ‘production systems’ that more effectively integrate improved water management practices with efficient irrigation application systems.” U.S. Department of Agriculture A. Demonstration Areas
1. An integral part of the ABIS PPTA requires that irrigation and agricultural improvements be demonstrated in selected areas as in the first of a stepped process of improving the regional productivity of water, and in demonstrating the long-term viability and sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the face of changing climate.
B. The Imperative for Water Conservation
2. The historic attitude towards agricultural water usage, which is to irrigate with as much water as can be obtained, is unsustainable. Throughout this coming century (and beyond) three climate change and population growth factors will progressively combine to drastically constrain water usage, both in the ABIS and throughout the country. These are:
(i) Global warming will increase crop water requirements, probably by an average of about 9% by 2050 (estimations based upon FCG modelling1). (ii) Climate change effects, particularly in the headwaters of the Amu Darya, will massively reduce the discharge of the river. By the 2050s average summer flows at Atamurat could be reduced by between 26% and 35% as a result of climate change alone, with the inter-annual variability likely to be around 39% (this project’s estimate). (iii) Human factors will reduce the discharge of the Amu Darya at the ABIS offtake. Upstream, these factors will include: (a) The Rogun Dam, which will operate with an 18% decrease in summer flow in order to support winter hydro-electric power; (b) Afghanistan should have rehabilitated and expanded their irrigation schemes on the Pyanj and elsewhere, resulting in a 1% to 5% decrease in river flow; and (c) there will be additional high- priority off-takes from upstream sites, including increased industrial, municipal and domestic water supplies within Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and increased irrigation off-takes within Turkmenistan. Furthermore existing irrigation both upstream and downstream will be competing for their share of the same reduced river flow. These human factors are entirely consistent with the historic record of increased water extraction, leading to decreased river discharge.
3. By about 2050 the average river flow available to the ABIS will probably be reduced by about 40% (FCG’s modelling results with this project’s forward projections), albeit with considerable year to year variation. Substantial uncertainty surrounds the
1 FCG: Finnish Consulting Group, see references.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture timing and severity of this conclusion – it could be earlier or later than 2050, depending upon the global rate of green-house gas emissions, the rate of glacial recession in the Amu Darya’s headwaters, the time of onset of climate-change feedback processes, changes in precipitation at high elevation, etc. What is certain is that robust water conservation measures will have to be adopted within the ABIS on an unprecedented scale in order to avert permanent water crisis by approximately mid-century. Here, the recommended target is to reduce water consumption to 60% of current usage by 2050. That is, to improve irrigation efficiency by 40%. This is technically feasible. Whether it is politically, socially and economically feasible remains to be seen. Seemingly there is plenty of time in which to act, but such a far-reaching water reform requires a cultural shift in irrigation farming practices, which cannot be achieved rapidly. Hence there is an immediate imperative to demonstrate and implement effective and economically viable water conservation measures.
4. We emphasize that massively improved water-use efficiency is not a matter of policy but of rationally responding to the enforced realities of climate change. In addition wider benefits accrue from water conservation. These include overall energy savings, reduced carbon footprint, improved national food security, greater farm profitability, and lower salinity impact.
C. The Rationale to Initiate Demonstration Areas
5. Short-term financial considerations invariably trump long-term strategic water management objectives. Therefore, water conservation measures must be demonstrated to be economically feasible, or at least to incur no financial penalty to the operating farmers. The framework required for a demonstration project in the ABIS is to initiate comprehensive water conservation in a cluster of farms, with managerial assistance from their WUA, and with project technical assistance, mainly in the form of an agronomist consultant. This initiative requires capacity building within the MAWR so that they are adequately resourced and technically grounded to facilitate multi-stage expansion of these proven water conservation measures upon closure of the ‘demonstration phase’. The goal is to step-wise expand water conservation, ultimately comprising 40% water saving, across the entire Bukhara irrigation area, by 2050 at the latest.
D. Suggested Means of Water Conservation
6. There is widespread recognition that, with few exceptions, the irrigation efficiency is currently very low and, in principle, capable of huge improvements. At present such improvements are perceived as an unnecessary expense. By about mid-century improved irrigation efficiency will have become the primary factor governing farming viability. Estimates of irrigation system water losses vary from about 35% to more than 50%2, which is approximately the same as the conservative water savings that could, and indeed, must be achieved if future water crisis is to be averted. Moreover, a major objective of this demonstration is to prove that such water conservation can be achieved cost-effectively, with improved productivity, and at lower environmental cost in terms of enhanced salinity control.
2 Amu Bukhara BISA communication during site investigations
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
7. Of the many measures that could be adopted, a ten point plan is here suggested, comprising:
(i) The application of crop-water requirements and no more (ii) Reducing conveyance losses (iii) Improved control structures (iv) Deep ripping and minimum tillage (v) Laser levelling (vi) Pressurized irrigation (drip/micro or sprinkler) (vii) Tree shelter belt plantations (viii) Mulching (ix) Optimizing cropping and crop calendars (x) Optimized and subsidised technical support These are briefly discussed in turn, below.
1. The Application of Crop-Water Requirements and no more
8. The principle of ceasing irrigation, as soon as the crop transpiration and leachate requirements have been fulfilled, requires: (i) a change of approach on behalf of the farmers, (ii) closer attention to the status of the wetting front, (iii) greater uniformity of application, and (iv) the acquisition and deployment of field monitoring equipment.
9. This general principle is foundational to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Such a departure from current practice will probably require at least two years of transition to the more conservative irrigation method, and will also require close monitoring by the change mentor – the WUA.
10. A more efficient application of irrigation water must become the standard attitude across the entire irrigation scheme, and hence needs to become the keynote operational change of the demonstration area, right from its inception. Some suggestions for appropriate instrumentation are given in Attachment 1.
2. Reducing Conveyance Losses
11. Previous studies have indicated that conveyance losses from unlined canals are significant. Seepage tests will be carried out to determine the magnitude of the conveyance losses and whether canal lining is a cost effective measure to reduce water losses. Lining the canals could potentially both save water and contribute to a lowering of the water table, with the attendant benefits in respect of salinization. Other losses can occur due to overtopping as a result of poor canal management and lack of maintenance, especially when canal are not properly de-weeded. Unlined canals are more prone to weeding which increases the roughness and possibly leads to overtopping and spillage.
3. Improved control structures
12. Repairing and/or replacing the damaged or ineffective flow control structures, to facilitate more precise and efficient distribution, is an obvious means of reducing water wastage and providing an equal share of water among plot and farms.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
13. At the farm level improved salinity control should be achieved through reduction in the amount of applied irrigation water, together with better drainage, thereby reducing the water table. By applying less irrigation water there is less risk of a rising water table, and hence fewer problems of water-logging. This automatically results in less salt being applied, and hence minimises the increasing problem of soil salinity.
4. Deep ripping and Improved Cultural Practices
14. Where appropriate, deep ripping to approximately 60 cm will be undertaken to get rid of hard pans and to improve vertical moisture infiltration. The objective is not just to cut through any pan but to lift and fracture it. After initially ripping to 60 cm, further deep ripping to 45 cm is likely to be required about every 5 years, depending upon field and soils conditions. Deep ripping should improve the soil drainage by breaking up the pans and compacted subsoil, and by removing any perched water table. It will tend to increase both the effective rooting depth of the crops as well as drawing down the water table.
15. The timely use of minimum tillage ploughing and cultivation techniques, such as using disc ploughs, disc and/or tine harrows is recommended. Such minimum tillage methods require less labour, tractor hours, and fuel than the intensive tillage methods often used in Uzbekistan. Disc ploughing (and other minimum tillage techniques) will reduce the risk of forming sub-surface pans and may also reduce the costs of ploughing, when compared with traditional mouldboard ploughing. The use of minimum tillage techniques will also increase the interval between periodic levelling of the land.
5. Laser levelling
16. In principle, laser levelling substantially improves the uniformity of elevation, and hence of water distribution. Wasteful ponding is reduced, as is the incidence of under- irrigation on topographic high points. The method is beneficial in terms of water conservation, crop yields, soil structure (less compaction at low points), salinity, and crop uniformity. Compared to land levelling ‘by eye’, the water yield benefit of laser levelling is typically between 25% and 40%.3 The higher of these bounds should be the target in ABIS. However, conflicting reports have been received regarding laser levelling’s effectiveness in Uzbekistan. The disadvantages are high initial cost and the inefficiency of laser levelling in small plots of land. At present laser levelling equipment is not generally available.
17. The sensitivity of the laser sensor system is up to 50 times more precise than the visual judgment and manual hydraulic control of a tractor operator. Consequently the land levelling operation is correspondingly much more accurate. The equipment is generally a standard agricultural tractor and land grader in which the hydraulic and control systems have been modified to operate under the supervision of the electronic controller supplied with the laser emitter and sensor devices. The tractor needs to be carefully selected so that it is not under-powered and its hydraulic system us strong enough to work with laser-imposed frequency of movements and adjustments.
3 KRASS, see references.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
18. Laser levelling is best done between late June and November after wheat, though on fallow land it would also probably be possible to level from mid-April onwards. The equipment required for laser levelling is heavy, so it is vital that it is not taken onto land when the soil is too wet. Therefore, it is unlikely to be possible to level during the wet winter months of December to mid-April.
19. After laser levelling, deep ripping and the use of siphon irrigation on a highly saline soil (E.C.=15,000 µS/cm), the NRMP (USAID) project has demonstrated that crop yields can be increased from 0.3 t/ha to 1.5 t/ha after 1 year without leaching. The economic viability of laser levelling, as applied to cotton and winter wheat, has been demonstrated and fully documented4 by KRASS, an NGO based within the Urgench State University. Details are given in Attachment 1.
6. Drip Irrigation (Pressure Irrigation)
20. There are conflicting reports upon the cost effectiveness and technical viability of drip irrigation systems in Uzbekistan. None of the existing reports factor in the rising costs of climate change constraints. Some of the more recent attempts at drip irrigation use second generation hardware which is more successful. Drip irrigation can be successfully applied to orchard, cotton and vegetable crops. It has been suggested that a combined pressure irrigation system might also work, in which cotton, vegetables, etc., are drip-fed, followed by a second annual crop of wheat or fodder, using spray irrigators using the same basic infrastructure for filtration and distribution.
21. For drip irrigation there are four problematic issues to be addressed. These are:
(i) Siltation. With the very heavy sediment load from the Amu Darya to prevent clogging of the pore spaces will require sediment filters with a backwash capability, and a unit capacity in the order of 400 m3/hr. It would be necessary to combine this with large-scale pre-filtration in low velocity settling tanks. (ii) Electricity supply. This will require a 250-400 kW transformer for each cluster of farms. Each drip system will need a 0.5 kW motor for an average capacity of 50 to 100 ha. (iii) Capital cost. A rough estimate is about $1500 to $3000 for the hardware (60%) and installation (40%). Additional filtration costs have been suggested as incurring an extra 10% of capital cost, but this may be an underestimate. (iv) Expertise. A problem with previous projects has been the low level of technical expertise and commitment on behalf of farmers. This must be rectified through good WUA management before drip irrigation systems are supplied.
22. In principle drip irrigation can save in the order of 70% of the applied water. Typical water usage from other areas in Uzbekistan are 1200 m3/ha for flood irrigation
4 Khorezm Rural Advisory Program (2012).
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture using 7 or 8 cycles per crop, compared to 350 to 400 m3/ha for drip irrigation with 8 or 9 applications per crop. The contrast between the two methods is even greater in the case of flood irrigation fields levelled by eye.
7. Tree Shelter Belt Plantations
23. The oasis effect of irrigated areas can result in up to 60% higher transpiration in the more exposed areas of the plantation edge. If uniform irrigation is applied then either the edge will be severely under-irrigated or the interior areas will be wastefully over- irrigated. This can largely be avoided by planting shelter-belt woodlots to an appropriate width, and to a height that suppresses excess advective transpiration. The shelter belt can be halo-tolerant species which can be harvested as additional firewood.
24. Existing tree shelter belts within the ABIS are sparsely planted, and provide inadequate protection from drying summer winds. A more effective windbreak can be achieved by alternating tall with low bushy trees, such as poplar and mulberry. If only a single line of trees is to be planted then it would be preferable to plant them closely spaced in zig-zag pattern, with the taller trees upwind. There is resistance to the suggestion of wider or multiple-row tree shelter belts on the grounds that they cause too much shade. This may be a valid argument within the irrigated area, but wider tree- shelter belts are certainly preferable at the exposed edges of irrigated areas, where the ‘oasis transpiration effect’ is highest.
8. Mulching
25. Climate change will force temperature increases, both as summer daytime extremes of >40°C, and as nigh-time temperatures of 26 to 27°C. (The former determining cotton quality), and latter governing cotton growth. Such temperature increases evaporation from the topsoil, with accompanying compaction and salinization, thereby exacerbating an already high crop-water requirement. This can be eased by appropriate mulching using comminuted cotton or other waste.
26. Information from other irrigated areas of Uzbekistan show that 17% water conservation is possible by mulching on wheat, with the added advantage of reduced weeds.
9. Optimizing cropping and crop calendars
27. Crop diversification, changing cropping calendar and increased cropping intensity will all occur anyway in response to the earlier spring and later autumn of the changing growing season. It is important to optimize these with appropriate technical advice.
10. Optimized and subsidised technical support
28. For the purposes of the ABIS Rehabilitation Project the key technical support will consist of:
(i) Clearing and lining of irrigation canals (ii) Improved discharge measurement in canals including sonic profile and velocity measurements in the larger canals
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
(iii) Closer and much more accurate control upon discharges within the reticulation system, including gate improvements (iv) Technical support will be required to assist farmers in their primary water conservation task of applying the minimum required crop water demand. This cannot be achieved without field instrumentation to monitor the soil wetting front. Several methods are available, such as the traditional tensiometer measurements, neutron soil-moisture probes, or the CSIROs ‘FullStop’ wetting front detector 5 . Whichever is chosen must be user- friendly, cheap, robust, and capable of widespread application throughout the irrigation area. (v) Provision and deployment of two telemetered micro-meteorological stations and Class-A pan evaporimeters, for improved estimates of optimum crop-water requirements 29. In addition there are aspects of ‘technical support’ which are beyond the scope of this project, but which will be necessary to enable WUAs and their client farmers to function optimally. It is not clear how these will be funded, or by whom. Specifically, the following require attention:
(i) Hydrogeological work to quantify lateral groundwater inflow/outflow to/from the irrigated area. At present an adequate water balance is not possible because there are no means to differentiate between irrigation return to the water table, pumped groundwater extraction from the water table, and lateral inflow/outflow of groundwater. Adequate quantification of this component requires a network of observation wells external to the irrigated area, all surveyed to a common datum, and sufficient in number and location to determine local hydraulic gradients. It also requires aquifer tests and aquifer boundary definition. This is distinct from previous hydrogeological work, where the existing observation well network is not linked to piezometry, but is used for salinity and water table monitoring. (ii) More robust IWRM infrastructure, particularly in respect of providing a GIS-linked management information system (MIS). This should be a rapid and highly responsive information-on-demand facility which is strongly interactive with the WUAs. (iii) National policy consideration will also be required to implement other IWRM principles such as realistic water pricing being charges to all water users to suppress water wastage. (iv) Increasing temperatures caused by climate change over the next few decades will require more heat tolerant crops, particularly for cotton, which is highly stressed at temperatures above 40°C. To some extent there may also be a need for related and increasing salt tolerance amongst crops. The development of thermophylic and halophylic varieties may require ‘high tech’ genetic engineering activity, which is unlikely to be met within existing national resources. It is therefore recommended that the
5 A cheap and simple method described in http://www.csiro.au/en/Outcomes/Climate/Adapting/FullStop.aspx
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
possibility of a regional genetic engineering institute (assuming no such institute exists) be considered at national level. This may seem too esoteric at present, but its importance will become increasingly apparent with climatic warming. (v) Increasing inter-annual variability of water supplies will require the preparation of a robust drought crisis management plan. If this is not already in place, then it is strongly recommended to be prepared at provincial level. It will probably require emergency resourcing of a scale which will require national input.
E. Parallel Objectives
1. Establishment of an Additional Donor-Specified Criterion for Assistance
30. There is likely to be a reluctance to change farming practices without active external encouragement. In this respect it is unfortunate that the absolute requirement for improved irrigation efficiency in Uzbekistan has not been recognized earlier by donor agencies. However, at least for future donor-assisted projects, it is strongly recommended that any financial aid to irrigation systems, of whatever nature, should be explicitly linked to improvements in the irrigation scheme’s efficiency, ‘µi’ (in which µi is unambiguously defined). It would be helpful if the donor agencies themselves, such as the WB, ADB, etc., met to agree on this point. This is already implicit in the donor-led philosophy of promoting the principles of IWRM. But implicit principles are too weak. The goal of massively improved irrigation efficiency, well before 2050, must be prominent, explicit, and one of the main conditions for assistance, if not the main condition. Failure to adopt this focus is to give only meaningless lip-service to the realities requiring climate change adaptation.
31. Donor organizations will appreciate that their own stated policies of incorporated ‘climate-change mitigation’ and ‘climate-change adaptation’, are both addressed by the above framework. Specifically, the national energy savings of electrical generation from natural gas, accruing from pumping 40% less water, is the single largest climate change mitigation activity that is possible in Uzbekistan. Similarly, the goal of pumping 40% less water from the Amu Darya is also the most effective adaptation to expected climate- related changes in irrigation water availability.
2. Power Saving (of Pumps)
32. There are huge potential savings in the energy costs of pumping unnecessary or underused water. The electricity used is a significant fraction of the country’s power supply, which is partly derived from non-renewable fuels. Consequently significant power savings will extend the life of gas reserves, and consequently extend the energy security.
3. Carbon Footprint
33. Water conservation will involve less energy for pumping, and hence less carbon emission from natural gas generated electricity. Reduction of Uzbekistan’s carbon footprint is an objective to which Uzbekistan is pledged in response to the United Nations
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
Framework Convention on Climate Change. (Uzbekistan is #130 in the UNCCC list of contributing counties).
4. International Bargaining Position
34. As water conflicts and pressures build over time within the Amu Darya basin there will inevitably be international re-negotiation over water rights. Those irrigation schemes that waste water will be in a poor bargaining position to maintain their quota, whereas those schemes that have enacted major improvements in irrigation efficiency will have a strong case for maintaining their quota.
5. Food Security
35. National food security cannot be separated from water security. Securing a sustainable agricultural base through improved irrigation efficiency will also improve food security. If undertaken correctly, the water conservation measures will also improve food productivity and profitability.
F. A National Framework to Improve Irrigation Efficiency from 55% to 85%
36. Farming is, by nature, a conservative minded occupation that is naturally resistant to change unless forced by circumstance. Unfortunately, by the time the effects of climate change upon declining water availability become undeniably obvious, the time- scale for adaptation will have become so compressed as to cause severe, and in some cases disastrous, hardship for farming communities. The transition to much improved irrigation efficiency is manageable, albeit expensive, over a time-scale of decades rather than years, and requires visionary leadership, particularly in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, and other stakeholders at the highest levels of Uzbekistan’s governance. The following changes and reforms are strongly recommended for consideration:
(i) Recognition of the severity of climate change impacts by mid-century, including the national income, livelihood viability, food security, and social well-being. This is of sufficient importance to raise it to the forefront of the political agenda – and to keep it there. Without an appropriate and sustained high-level response it will be impossible to act effectively in a timely matter. (ii) IWRM needs to be adopted in its entirety, consisting not just of adopting selected principles. This will require greater resourcing towards national water conservation, on a par with the current attention to replacing pumps and related infrastructure. In addition the realistic cost of water must become a high priority factor for farming economics (as opposed to being essentially supplied free).
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(iii) Subsidies must be reallocated. For the most part water is currently supplied without cost to the farmer. For the necessary water conservation to become a reality there must be a transfer of state subsidy from water as a commodity to water conservation technologies. There are many forms that this can take, such as tax concessions, free or cheap loans, provision of microfinance to farmers, subsidies of pressure irrigation, laser levelling, provision of free extension services, provision of technical support, etc. (iv) Education throughout the entire farming communities will be needed to achieve the necessary revolution in farming practices which will be essential to cope with the consequences of climate change. Such education is required at every stratum of agricultural society, starting with climate change and water conservation awareness in schools, continuing in colleges and universities, and reinforced by in-career workshops and seminars. In particular, representatives of WUAs would benefit from taking short courses in water conservation technologies and change management. All such education must be linked with widespread dissemination of climate change information, both as historic trends and as forward projections and consequences. The central theme of such education is that climate change is slowly but inexorably bringing major changes to agriculture (as it is to other sectors), but that such challenges can be met successfully – provided we start to act now, with a sustained programme of water conservation. (v) Incentives may be required to convince farmers to practice water conservation as a matter of urgency. Whether these are financial or social, or ‘carrot and stick’, is unimportant. What is important is that some form of encouragement for farmers be upheld to keep water conservation at the forefront of their attention as a sustained issue. Because the effects of climate change are so gradual there is a temptation to not act decisively at present – leaving it to a later electoral cycle to deal with. To procrastinate on this issue would be a major mistake.
G. Affordability
37. Whilst the objectives of this demonstration project are primarily driven by expectations of future water availability, the means of achieving complete regional water conservation require explicit high-level policy decisions. Firstly, a decision is required in respect of the transition to a realistic price for water. This is required because, under all shades of governance, essentially free water invariably results in water wastage. Secondly, the water conserving technologies, although financially self-justifying within a year or two, are sufficiently expensive to deter most farmers from making the investment. Therefore tax concessions, subsidies, or readily available microfinance at low/zero interest rate must be made available. Notwithstanding the water and productivity benefits of this project’s demonstration plot(s), any failure to render water conserving technologies affordable to all farmers will have a disastrous impact upon the future water balance.
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H. Water Conservation Targets
38. A one-off massive reduction in irrigation wastage cannot be achieved. Rather, there is a need for a rolling program of modest annual achievements, which will add up to a large improvement by the target date of 2050. It is here suggested that annual goals (or something similar) be set as in Table 1, below. That is, neither the first nor the second demonstration plot activities should be regarded as ‘stand-alone activities’, but as the first steps of a progressive transition to 100% adoption of comprehensive water conservation technologies.
Table 1: Progressive targets to 2050 Steps towards goal: % overall net Period total adoption of water conservation methods transition 2013-2016 Establishment of 1 demonstration plot(s), linked to WUAs 0.5 2014-2017 Establishment of 2 further demonstration plots, 1.5 2016-2020 Initial expansion of conservation methods to other farms 5 2025-2030 Secondary expansion of water conservation to other farms 20 2030-2035 Tertiary expansion of water conservation to other farms 40 2035-2050 Extension to extend pressure irrigation to all farms 100
Source: Present Study, 2013
39. In this respect the functionality of the WUAs will be crucial. In order to achieve such goals the WUAs will require at least the following:
(i) Adequate financial resourcing (ii) Adequate low-level technical training, with a clear understanding of goals and objectives, complete with motivation (iii) High level technical support including instrumental infrastructure (iv) Subsidised pressure irrigation and low-cost soil water management systems (v) Policy-directed ‘carrot and stick’ incentives, in which the incentives to save water will greatly predominate
I. Site Selection
40. Ideally the initial demonstration plot should be about 50 ha in area. Various logistic constraints have reduced this to about 21 ha, but under no circumstances should this be reduced further. To do so would compromise the viability of the various demonstration options, and hence would be self-defeating.
41. The initial, or phase 1, demonstration plot, located as in Figures 1 and 2, has already been selected upon the basis of the following criteria:
(i) Close proximity to a potential training centre (ii) The capability of farmers to train other farmers (iii) Average typicality of soil conditions
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(iv) Average typicality of yields and profit margins (v) Absence of farm debt (and hence ability to afford conservative technologies) (vi) The motivation of farmers, and openness to innovation (vii) Convenient location within the Kuyu Mazar / Bukhara District (viii) Distal location with respect to agricultural periphery (atypical advective exposure) (ix) Average water use efficiency and availability
42. On the basis of these criteria Dilnoz Ugli Abdulholil farm was chosen as demonstration area #1. It includes three plots of 14.3, 5.2 and 1.6 ha. This farm receives water from the Kui-Gaziobod WUA. The three plots will allow use of two plots for demonstration of various improved agricultural practices whilst the third plot will be used as a control. It is intended that visiting farmers will be able to visually compare the impacts of improved practices on yield and productivity of water. The control section of farm will also serve as a baseline for collection of relevant data representing existing practices. The primary baseline data relevant to the farm area is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Baseline Farm Yields Close to Demonstration Plot #1
Cotton Wheat 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Bukhara yield, tonnes.ha-1 3.9 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.3 5.2 6.2 3.3 5.4 5.8 Elsewhere in ABIS yield, tonnes.ha-1 2.9 3.1 3.3 5.9 5.9 6.0 Source: Present Study, 2013
43. The selected farm6 typifies traditional agricultural practices for cotton and wheat production in the ABIS, without crop rotation. Intensive land cultivation results in soil compaction with loss of structure compounded by reduced organic matter, degraded soil nutrients, and other factors adversely affecting yield. Excessive water application, elevated soil salinity, and poor land levelling currently result in low irrigation productivity.
44. It is recommended that the second phase of demonstration plot, commencing in three or four years, should be selected upon the basis of outcomes from phase 1. That is, to be based upon the following criteria.
(i) Farmers /local awareness of water conservation (ii) Cost effectiveness of water conserving technologies (iii) Outcome – what works and what doesn’t result in improvements
6 The Dilnoz Ugli AQbdulholil farm details are: land tax – 80,000 UZS/ha, WUA service fees – 20,000 UZS/ha. At the plot’s margin there is a vertical drainage well (N- 39051/816, E - 064024/778), canal salinity is 810 µS, рН = 7.6. The farmer, S. Abdullaev, ph (+998 9140 85073), also maintains 30 heads of cattle. The farm total area is 232 ha, of which 80 ha are cropped, comprising 34 ha of wheat, 24 ha of cotton and 21 ha of other crops.
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(iv) Involvement and motivation of WUAs (v) Local farmer response (vi) Improved productivity (vii) Outcome for salinity and water table (viii) Women’s and community involvement in water management (ix) Linkage to a local, WUA-based ‘retail initiative’ for expanding water conservation practices.
J. Inter-Farm Specific Tasks
45. The Gaziobod Inter-farm Canal is 11.6 km long and is operated by the Shakhrud- Dustlik ISA. The canal supplies water to four WUAs - Kui-Gaziobod, Yukori Gaziobod, Kavala Makhmud, and Chor-rukh. The canal has 16 off-takes (outlets) equipped with standard, manually-operated steel lift gates (sluice gates), which are operational, but partially in need of repair. The canal has water measuring devices, of which 14 are calibrated-canal structures, one is a weir calibrated for water flow measurement, and one uses a stilling well arrangement with a staff gauge. The following improvements are anticipated:
(i) Repair of stilling basin-type devices (ii) Repair of all off-take gates (iii) Establish a fair, equitable and transparent water rotation distribution system (iv) Conduct training workshops for Shakhrud-Dustlik ISA staff for operation and maintenance of the inter-farm system
46. The Kui-Gaziobod on-farm Canal is 21.7 km long, including 5.5 km of upstream section, which is under the Shakhrud-Dustlik ISA, and the rest is under the Kui-Gaziobod WUA. It has 18 off-takes (outlets) to 12 farms; about 30% of the canal is unlined. The outlets are equipped with steel sluice gates, which are in poor condition without water measuring devices. Three outlet gates require rehabilitation. In addition, there are small off-takes for provision of domestic water supply to residents. The following works are proposed:
(i) Introduce a rotation / distribution system for planning and management by WUA (ii) Conduct training workshops for Kui-Gaziobod WUA staff for: (a) O&M, (b) water conservation technologies, and (c) climate change projections, consequences and required action. (iii) Construct structures with water measurement devices at the outlets to drains (field inflow and outflow) (iv) Install one micro-metrological station. (v) Introduce tensiometers for determining crop water requirements, timing of application, and irrigation application rates
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Figure 1: Demonstration Plot Location in Relation to the Irrigation Reticulation
Source: Present Study, 2013
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Figure 2: Detail of the Demonstration Plot
Source: Present Study, 2013
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K. Additional Irrigation and Drainage Interventions
47. The irrigation and drainage interventions proposed here consist of:
(i) Use of semi-permanent or permanent head ditches at the tops of field (ii) General use of siphon irrigation using a maximum of 400m for the furrow length (iii) Maintain and realign aryks7 (iv) Use of tail drains at the end of each field, ensuring that the outfall is protected so as not to erode or damage the banks of the open collector drain.
L. Retail Initiative
48. Within the time-constraints imposed by changing climate and evolving human water usage it is likely that ‘demonstration areas’ alone may be insufficient to facilitate a mass-conversion from current inefficient irrigation practices to water conservation-based irrigation practices. In this respect, in order to provide a framework for success, four issues must be addressed, namely: a. ‘Availability’ of, or ease of access to, water conservation technologies. b. Low cost of water conservation technologies. c. High profile of the need for water conservation, and d. Provision of practical technical advice, maintenance and general support in the application of water conservation technologies.
49. Given the necessary high-level support, possibly with tax concessions or some form of subsidy, a potential solution to these challenges is by means of a high- profile ‘High Street’ retail outlet in the nearest town centre to each demonstration area. It is envisaged that such an outlet would be staffed and managed by mission-oriented stakeholders from the water sector, probably from either BISA or the WUA’s, with a strong motivation towards achieving long-term sustainability of the ABIS. This would be a highly appropriate initiative for greater women’s involvement in local water management.
50. Since a public sector retail initiative for water conservation would be a new and unfamiliar venture it might be construed as ‘high risk’, and hence would require initiation, management, seed-funding and motivation from the project. It is envisaged that, once established, such a retail initiative could be self-funding, and perhaps even profitable, though it might be run as a ‘not-for-profit’ organization.
51. The primary purpose of the ‘retail initiative’ is to make water conservation technologies readily, cheaply and reliably available to farmers. The sort of stock that is envisaged includes, but is not limited to the following: Filters, transformers, pumps, connectors etc., for use in drip irrigation,
7 ‘Aryks’ are creeks that have been artificially redirected to a new course.
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Timers, and other pressure irrigation reticulation, Laser levelling systems, Mulching machines, Tensiometers, ‘Pop-up’ wetting front monitors, Deep rippers, EC meters, Bore casing, (dug and drilled) Tree shelter belt seedlings, Channel lining materials, Timed taps, control gates, Staff gauges, Links to surveyors, and other services, Access to MIS/GIS and related BISA/MAWR information services, and links to farm-related extension services.
52. Water conservation is predicated upon the cost effectiveness of the available water-saving equipment. Therefore, an essential aspect of the initiative will be to keep costs to a minimum. This will require negotiation over taxation and on-farm subsidies.
53. An essential aspect of the ‘retail initiative’ is to keep the issue of long-term water conservation permanently at the forefront of public awareness. In order to achieve this, the chosen premises must be in a very public place, such as in the local shopping or business area. It must have a very visible frontage and a frequently-changing high- impact visual message such as large-screen TV presentations on all aspects of water conservation in relation to availability of water resources, agronomy and local aspects of farming. Careful and tightly focussed preparation of presentation materials will be essential to maintain interest and relevance, and will be a prime staff responsibility.
54. Almost none of the farmers are well-acquainted with water conservation technologies, and hence there will be a hurdle of inertia to overcome in persuading them to engage in such methods. In the demonstration area workshops and field visits, and on a one-to-one basis via the ‘retail initiative’, there will be a requirement to show farmers how to implement water conservation measures in their own farm environment. It is therefore strongly urged that the ‘retail initiative’ should employ both shop and field staff, both of whom must be well-trained in demonstrating the cost-effectiveness and field suitability of the technologies available.
M. Further on-farm considerations
54. Experience has shown that after laser levelling and deep ripping, and the laying out of siphon irrigation along furrows, it is possible to dramatically reduce the length of time it takes to irrigate an area from about 1 ha/day to 7 ha/day. It is expected that implementation will include recommendations to introduce siphon irrigation on the demonstration farms, using furrow lengths of up to 400 m. Such improvements in irrigation practices can reduce water use by 30% or more.
55. In designing the drainage system, an appropriate balance will be determined between maintaining a sufficiently deep groundwater (to control level of soil salinity) whilst not losing the important groundwater contribution to crop water requirements.
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56. Infiltration rates will be used to guide furrow lengths and water application rates. ‘Before and after’ estimates of improvements in drainage after laser levelling and deep ripping will be determined. Multiple estimates will be determined to evaluate the homogeneity of soil permeability.
57. Most of the salinity problems in the field are the direct result of poor management of water. On average, only about 20% of the water abstracted from the system is required to satisfy the crop water requirement, about 15% is wasted or lost in the main canal system, and about 65% is wasted on-farm, and discharged to groundwater and adding pressure on an already inadequate and dysfunctional drainage system8.
58. Where salinity is a problem, plant growth is directly impaired by salinization through its effects on osmotic pressures and through direct toxicity. There are two distinct mechanisms for crop damage by salinity:
(i) induced physiological drought by osmosis (ii) specific toxicity, particularly of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)
59. Previously, salinity control in Uzbekistan has relied largely on lowering the water table, and leaching the salts out of the root zone. This can be difficult to achieve effectively on poorly to imperfectly drained soils, and is also expensive. The accepted practice used to be to construct temporary leaching basins. Nowadays fewer basins are made, and more commonly, temporary field ditches are built along field contours to allow uncontrolled flooding. In practice, most fields are not level, and leaching is wasteful of water, and is a major cause of rising water-tables. Uncontrolled flooding can also increase the risk of topsoil erosion, which may further clog up the often ineffective and overloaded drainage system. Any soil loss will also result in decreased crop yields.
60. Leaching tends to make soil salinity a self-perpetuating process. If 2-4 Ml/ha percolates below the root zone, then 0.2-0.4 m of water is discharged into the groundwater raising it by 0.9-1.8 m (assuming a steady state with no lateral drainage). Far from resolving the problem of soil salinity, excess leaching leads to a high groundwater table that creates a risk of secondary salinization.
61. Hence, the key to managing saline soils is to control the flow of water into the crop-rooting zone and reduce on-farm water losses, with the added benefit of conserving the available water resource. If proper irrigation scheduling and improved water management procedures are adopted, further secondary salinization should be minimized.
62. Improved irrigation scheduling and water management procedures will reduce the amount of water being applied to the crop at any one time, thus reducing water losses into the drainage system and the associated risks of rising water tables (both real or temporary).
8 World Bank, 2000: Impact of Soil and Water Salinity in Central Asian Agriculture. A discussion paper, Water and Environment Management Project, GEF Sub-Component A1, Tashkent
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63. In growing crops, salinity damage often occurs just before irrigation when a crust of salt may have formed. The longer the interval between irrigations, the more serious any effect well be. At present many summer crops only receive an average of 3 irrigations at intervals of about 1 month. This interval is too long.
64. Although the number of irrigations will increase over the growing season, the amount of water applied in any irrigation could be greatly reduced as a result of improvement in irrigation scheduling and water use efficiencies. The total amount of water required in any one cropping season should not increase, but should be reduced as a result of improved water efficiencies.
65. Since many drainage systems are dysfunctional another option, particularly on marginal land, would be to introduce bio-drainage techniques to control soil salinity and water table levels. This may largely be achieved through the use of previously proposed tree shelter-belt plantations using specially established plantations of trees (eg. eucalyptus), and other appropriate phreatophytes.
66. It is unlikely that farmers and WUAs will be willing or able to plant large areas, so it is envisaged that bio-drainage could be introduced by planting in: (a) highly exposed margins of irrigated areas, and (b) in single to triple rows of trees or bushes along irrigation canals and drainage networks. These would have the dual purpose of providing bio-drainage, as well as acting as shelterbelts to protect against excess wind erosion and ‘oasis-effect’ transpiration. Previous experience suggests that poplar trees and possibly willow would also be suitable, though as some local species of willow and poplar are sensitive to salinity, highly saline soil may have to be leached with fresh water before planting 1-year or 2-year saplings.
67. Although not as effective as perennial tree crops and bushes, annual crops may also be used in bio-drainage. Deep rooting grasses may help to lower shallow water- tables. If the species planted is halophylic, has a deep rooting system and has a large crop water requirement, it will tend to dry out the sub-soil, thus slowing upward movement of salts via capillary flow.
68. Safflower and sunflower are both deep-rooted moderately salt-tolerant crops, but they may not be as efficient as grasses and fodder crops (alfalfa, lupin, etc.) for lowering the water- table due to their relatively short growing season. Other rotations could be tested that combine perennial and annual crops to diversify the system and meet the goals of reduced soil salinity, lowering of water tables, and increased soil quality.
N. Draft Program of Demonstration Areas
69. The first year of the program of demonstration areas will largely be devoted to planning, baseline monitoring of channel discharges and water usage, equipment acquisition, and preparation in the form of channel desilting, lining, control gate refurbishment, etc. The primary focus of subsequent years will be in achieving much greater system-wide and on-farm irrigation efficiency, and in demonstrating the principles, quantitative gains and cost-effectiveness of water conservation technologies.
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70. Since time-series data, once lost, can never be recovered, and since continuity of data collection is of paramount importance in evaluating climate change effects, ‘year one priorities’ will also include the deployment of hydrometeorological instrumentation, training of observers, commencement of data collection, and initiation of data quality control. The hydromet field instrumentation to be acquired will consist of two ‘micromet stations’ and at least two manually measured Class A pan evaporimeters with stilling basin hook gauges.
71. For the micromet stations the first task is to establish who will take permanent responsibility for the instrument, data collection, data quality control, instrumental maintenance, and data archiving. This could be the local WUA, but would be more appropriately managed by BISA, the MAWR or the National Meteorology Service. A decision will have to be made whether it is most appropriate to employ data telemetry or to download and process the data locally. Either way, data collection must be transparent and made locally available.
72. The micromet stations will measure at least temperature, humidity, nett solar radiation, wind-speed, wind direction and precipitation. The raingauges will be raised to avoid snow drift or splash, and will be fitted with an ‘Alter Shield’, or equivalent, to minimize micro-aerodynamic turbulence. The micromet stations will be sited in secure enclosures, and protected by a barbed wire perimeter. If either is situated near a public place, the perimeter will be fitted with electric pulse deterrence and a notice, in Uzbek /Farsi/Russian as appropriate, to explain the purpose and importance of the instrumentation, and the need to avoid vandalism. If appropriate, without affecting the sensors, the data logger and sensors will be fitted with vandal-proof protection. One station will be sited deep within the ABIS area, and one on the perimeter of the ABIS to assess the affect of exposure on ‘ETo’. The two stations will be of similar wind exposure, and will conform to the ‘30° rule’ in respect of proximity to trees, walls, buildings etc. The purpose of this site will be explained in local schools and community groups, to achieve a sense of community ownership. The results will be made publically available.
73. The primary purpose of the evaporimeters is to compare micro-environmental evaporation, such as the difference with or without tree shelter belts, and other variations in wind exposure. Hook gauges for the Class A pans will have to be sourced from specialized providers. The pans themselves may be fabricated locally. Deployment will take account of the high summer ground temperatures, with adequate air flow beneath the pans, and appropriate thermal insulation. In view of the locally high salinity it will be important to completely change the water every 2 or 3 months during the growing season to avoid the build-up of salinity (high salinity suppresses the surface vapour pressure, leading to under-estimates of evaporation). Fine ‘fishing line’ protection of the evaporimeters, from birds, will be provided. Inter-annual variability and monthly variability of pan-evaporation will be reported.
74. The second ‘year-one-task’ will be to lay a strong foundation for the water conservation program. Since water conservation is a long-term holistic process, with ramifications for the entire ABIS community, it will not be sufficient to raise awareness only amongst the current cohort of interested farmers. Rather, awareness-raising will be required amongst BISA, WUA’s, the involved farmers, community groups, community
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture leaders and schools. It is suggested that this awareness-raising will be required at two levels; basic and intermediate. A basic understanding of the growing challenge of climate change, and the need to adapt by reducing water usage, will need to be worked into the school curriculum, and presented to the community – all of whom are water stakeholders. A more detailed understanding will be required of farmers, together with agricultural students and other potential farmers, who will be required to utilise the full raft of water conservation technologies. A program of awareness-raising workshops and seminars will be required for all stakeholders, together with more specialised workshops for all farmers, at least in the demonstration areas. Advanced one-on-one training and field supervision will be required on a continuing basis for the specific demonstration farms.
75. Whether basic or more advanced, the curriculum to be developed should incorporate the following:
The role of Amu Darya in the regional water balance, including irrigation. Climate change effects in the Amu Darya (headwaters & D/S). Human impacts upon the Amu Darya’s discharge, U/S and D/S. Estimates of the medium-term (to 2050) decline in river discharge. Increased temperatures and rising crop water requirements. Certainties and uncertainties of climate change. Long-term unsustainability of the status quo. Requirement for 40% water saving. On-farm techniques of conserving water (simple and advanced). Principles of IWRM (especially for WUA’s). Changes required in order to achieve the water conservation target. Long-term social and economic consequences of failing to meet water conservation targets, and the need for a strict timetable of progress.
The more advanced material may include quantitative measurement of irrigation water in channels, wetting zone control, detailed techniques of laser levelling, drip irrigation etc. It is strongly recommended that all such training material incorporate the local knowledge and lessons learned from NGO’s such as KRASS.
76. The third ‘year-one-task’ will be to undertake a baseline survey of water usage, and to improve quantitative estimates of channel discharge9 in (i) the primary canals upstream of the first irrigation offtakes, (ii) the secondary and tertiary measuring points within the reticulated system, and (iii) quantitative water delivery on farm. In addition the existing gauging station’s rating curves will be re-calibrated and, where necessary, the old discharge records corrected. The essential tool for all of the above will be the sonic depth/flow meter, which it is important to acquire at an early stage. Training will be required for the appropriate BISA/WUA staff in the use and maintenance of this solid-
9 This includes inflows and outflows to/from surface water storage.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture state current meter. A routine gauging schedule will need to be organized. A quantitative estimate of leachate disposal/effluent from the demonstration farm will be required, including a baseline salt mass-balance.
77. The fourth ‘year-one-task’ is to undertake the requisite refurbishment and/or construction of the engineering infrastructure. This will involve desilting and refurbishment of canals and channels from the main canal to on-farm water delivery, including control structures, gauging bridges, stage recorders or other aids to quantifying water fluxes, as may be required.
78. The fifth and final ‘year-one-task’ is to plan the water conservation program in detail for the first, second and third demonstration farms, and to plan the information flow and follow-up to surrounding farmers in the demonstration areas. This will consist of (i) quantify the status quo water usage and water conservation targets. (ii) Ascertain the most suitable water conservation measures. (iii) Organize the timely and necessary equipment acquisition, possibly through the WUA/BISA retail initiative. (iv) Organize the staffing, training, establishment and initial stocking of the retail initiative. (v) Plan a program of farmer training, including economic and water accounting. (vi) Establish and coordinate any requisite initial technical support for the demonstration farms. (vii) Complete an on-farm survey to determine necessity/depth of deep ripping, any requisite salinity/drainage control, topographic roughness, and/or other corrective measures, as may be required.
79. In ‘year two’, the demonstration farms should have completed all their ‘baseline work’, and should commence an agreed and clearly-defined program of improved irrigation efficiency and water conservation measures. It is expected that this will incorporate at least: Deep ripping as and where necessary Installation of drip irrigation for appropriate crops, with filtration system, pumps, transformer (if mains-driven electric pumps) and related equipment. Laser levelling Channel desilting, and reduction in channel losses A water usage monitoring system Mulching, and appropriate inter-cropping Establishment of improved tree-shelter belts Deployment of a wetting front monitoring system (e.g. tensiometers) Application of micro-irrigation control Full use of financial and water accounting systems Salinity monitoring.
80. Towards the end of ‘year 2’, or as soon as accounting data begins to come on stream, the difference between baseline and water usage under ‘conserved conditions’ will be quantified, and heavily publicised within the demonstration area.
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81. The demonstration farm timetable is heavily constrained by the timelines of engineering refurbishment and equipment acquisition. Ideally, by year four, or by year five at the latest, the first demonstration farm should have furnished reliable and demonstrable information upon: The actual and potential (large scale) costs of improving irrigation efficiency, as born by the farmer. The initial and ongoing financial and economic benefits of water conservation, e.g. under conditions of free water as opposed to reasonably priced water. The inter-annual variation in cost of water conservation measures. The projected long-term economic benefit of water conservation measures, on assumptions of small-scale changes, and with economies of scale (see ‘section O’, below). Quantified water savings, with an assessment of the relative success of individual water conservation technologies. The effectiveness and practicalities of transferring water saving technologies to other farmers, both proximal (within the designated demonstration area), and beyond. Lessons learned, with particular emphasis upon: (i) The effectiveness of differing water conservation technologies as practised under current ABIS conditions, (ii) The effectiveness of technical support for improved irrigation efficiency / water conservation, (iii) The cost and availability of water conserving technologies, and how they could be improved, (iv) What works, and what doesn’t in the process of expanding water conservation technologies to adjacent farmers, their state of awareness of the need for saving water, and what could be done to accelerate the process of expanding conservative technologies.
82. In parallel with initiating and supporting the demonstration farms, the consultant will maintain a rolling program of regional climate change effects and monitoring of micro-environmental variation, with an emphasis upon analysing the water requirements of the major crops.
83. Activity timetables for the second and third demonstration farms should be staggered by one and two years respectively, but possibly adjusted forward or backward in time in the light of lessons learned from the first demonstration farm and/or the effects of policy change (if any). Hence the suggested, but provisional, outline timetable for the demonstration farms may be as shown in Figure 3, below.
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Figure 3: Suggested Summary of the Demonstration Farm/area Timetable
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Quarter 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Item Acquire / deploy hydromet eq. Preparation demonstr'n farm 1 Trial water conservation farm 1 Preparation demonstr'n farm 2 Trial water conservation farm 2 Preparation demonstr'n farm 3 Trial water conservation farm 3 Provision of technical support W cons goals achieved Demonstration farms integrated with long term water conservation plan
84. A component of technical support will be the consultants provision of at least two processable satellite scenes (mid- and late-growing season) of the entire ABIS area. A resolution of between 0.5 and 2.0 metres is preferred, such as those provided by Spot 5, Landsat 7, QuickBird or WorldView 2. The multispectral imagery will have a focus upon vegetation discrimination by density, chlorophyll-linked plant vigour, and plant yellowing. For example, by using red-edge, red and yellow bands, 705-745, 630-680, and 585-625 nm respectively. This will be used to assess plant stress (from salinity, temperature, pests or disease), crop types and accurate cropped areas.
85. The consultant’s technical support will include capacity building within the appropriate authority (BISA or MAWR) to accurately assess the crop-water requirements. These will be determined by a combination of field instrumental-based evapo- transpiration rates, and crop type/ cropped-area measurements by satellite, and NOT by indirect estimates from remote sensing alone. This information will be verified by ground- truthing (crop types), and by measured irrigation rates within the demonstration areas, recalibrated if necessary, and used to refine crop water requirement estimates throughout the ABIS. The above method of estimation of crop water requirements will be checked against the conventional ‘hydro-module’ method. Any significant discrepancies will be investigated and discussed with BISA/MAWR to verify the best accuracy.
86. The ‘demonstration farms’ are justified in their own right as demonstrating the validity of the improvements in irrigation infrastructure provided by this project. However, the sustainability of the ABIS is predicated upon climate-change and human intervention effects on a time-scale well beyond this project. Hence, as discussed elsewhere, the demonstration farms / demonstration areas are not entirely an end in themselves, but are hoped to be the first stages of a long-term programme that has yet to be accepted and incorporated into the policy-thinking and long-term plans of the ABIS. This as-yet hypothetical program, whose targets are listed in Table 1, paragraph 38, will rely upon this project to propagate the philosophy of radical water conservation as the only realistic solution for long-term sustainability. It is intended that by the close of the demonstration
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture project time-frame, its influence will have resulted in a concrete plan of action, up to 2050, having become official policy and practice throughout the ABIS area.
O. Accounting
87. The obvious problem in demonstrating economic viability of water conservation, is that the unit cost of its introduction in a small pilot project are many times the cost of the same measures implemented over a wide area. Moreover, if the economic viability of demonstration plots are to be assessed fairly and realistically then they must be freed from the severe artificial condition of totally subsidised water and other imposed constraints. Rather, they must operate under conditions which reflect the future revised agricultural policies. Hence, it is recommended that accounting the costs of the demonstration plot(s) be considered under three column entries, as shown below in Table 3. The first column is for one-off major capital costs that will be born under the ABISR project, and which may be regarded as a ‘national investment’ rather than an on- farm cost. The second column is the actual and reasonable costs accruing to the farmers involved in the demonstration plot(s). This however, will be artificially inflated because of the high pioneering costs. Since one of the objectives is to demonstrate the cost- effectiveness of water conservation measures across the whole irrigated area, it becomes necessary for the third column to indicate the on-farm costs as reduced by economies of scale. These should become apparent as an interim outcome of the demonstration plot activities.
Table 3: Estimated Itemised Costs of Demonstration farms and Related Costs Item Estimated Total Total for three demonstration farms, three demonstration areas, Cost in
and related infrastructure. thousand US$
cost
Civil works farm cost
Broad scale
improvement
Infrastructure Demonstration
Inter-farm canals, repairs and structures including Gaziobod gate 55.0 n/a
Inter-farm canals, flow measuring device at head of canal 20.0 n/a
Inter-farm canals, sediment removal 84.0 n/a
On-farm canals, flow measuring device at head of canal 20.0 n/a
Tosh Machit' division structure, gate installation 2.0 n/a
Kuchkumar' div'n str., gate installation & rehab of aquduct headwall 1.2 n/a
Pyanj' division structure repair works 1.0 n/a
Other on-farm structures & repairs 48.4 n/a
On-farm sediment removal 30.0 n/a
Demonstration plots: Installation of three farm gates 3.0 n/a
Demonstration plots: Channel rehabilitation, x3 30.0 n/a
Demonstration plots: other structures and repairs, as required 9.0 n/a
Demonstration plots: sediment filter, coarse in channel, if space 9.0 n/a
Demonstration plots: sediment removal, hire of excavator 12.0 n/a
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Item Estimated Total Total for three demonstration farms, three demonstration areas, Cost in and related infrastructure. thousand US$ Sub-Total, Civil Works 261.6 63.0 n/a Equipment
5x Computer /Printer / UPS for demonstration records & analysis 10.0
Field pH / E.C. meter, x3 0.3
Sonic depth velocity meters, x3 75.0
On-farm tensiometers , multiple 14.1 tbd
Wetting front detectors, multiple 6.6 tbd
135. Drip irrigation systems, x3 including pumps, filters and transformers tbd 0 Additional alternative pressure Irrigation systems, x3 45.0 tbd
Micrometeorology stations, x2, with protection & telemetry 22.0
Class A pan evaporimeter, with hook gauge, in compound, x3 7.0
Acquisition and deployment of water table loggers, x3 7.5 tbd
Mulching machines, x3 9.0
Sub-Total, Equipment 104.0 227.5 WUA Retail Initiative (with some eventual cost recovery)
Ist year Property rental 30.0 n/a
Wide screen TV display 10.0 n/a
Preparation of water conservation promotional material 40.0 n/a
Acquisition of initial stock, equipment for water conservation 160.0 n/a
Sub-Total, WUA Retail Initiative 240.0 Training
Retail initiative staff engagement, training & motivation 40.0
Intensive course on IWRM & change management for WUA staff, x3 60.0
WUA training workshops, x3, in methods of water conservation 60.0
Farmers training workshops, x3, in monitoring & irrigation control 60.0
ToT, WUAs, water conservation technology 30.0
W/Ss, WUA's, capacity building, adoption of new technologies 120.0
Community awareness programme for Climate Change Adaptation 30.0
School Curriculum material (in assoc'n with w. cons. Promotion). 45.0
Farmers site visits, x6 90.0
Farmers workshops, practicaities of improved irrigation efficiency 90.0
National workshop on water policy for IWRM & sustainable irrigation 40.0
Sub-Total, Training 665.0 Field Operations
Drilling piezometers for water table and salinity monitoring 7.5
Deep ripping of comparative plots (1st year) 15.0 tbd
Laser levelling of comparative plots (1st year) 24.0 tbd
Conversion to minimum tillage 3.0 tbd
Field instrumental maintenance, including rating curve revision 5.2 tbd
Micromet services, data logging downloads or telemetry, + security 6.0 tbd
Establishment of 'double layer' tree shelter belts 6.0 tbd
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
Item Estimated Total Total for three demonstration farms, three demonstration areas, Cost in and related infrastructure. thousand US$ Pest control, integrated pest management 6.0 tbd
Crop budget for four year rotation of cotton, alfalfa, wheat. & fertilizer 120.0 tbd
Sub-Total, Field Operations 192.7 Total all categories 1463 290 10% Contingencies 146.3 29.1 Total with contingencies 1609 319
Grand Total 1929 n/a = not applicable tbd = to be determined (as part of the project) Source: Present Study, 2013
P. Change Management
88. There have previously been small-scale demonstration plots in which the advantages of, for example, ploughing-in green gram and alfalfa to improve soil texture, soil nitrogen and available organic carbon, have been conclusively proved. However, these demonstrably improved measures were only adopted by three or four farms. Such a rate of ‘technology transfer’ is wholly inadequate to achieve the necessary reduction in water usage across the entire ABIS by mid-century. Therefore, an effective strategy is required to convert the water-saving and yield improving technologies of this demonstration plot into a 100% regional shift in agricultural and water-use practices. The time-scale of this transition is not arbitrary, or at the whim of local farming sentiment. Rather it is driven by the exigencies of climate change. The goal of a 40% reduction in water-use by 2050 is inflexible if water crisis is to be averted. Currently only about 17% of farmers in the ABIS have received a specifically agricultural education, whilst most are conservative minded in terms of agricultural practice. Therefore, something in addition to the usual reporting of results will be necessary to convince farmers to adopt water conservation technologies. We suggest the following strategy be adopted:
(i) Train a change-management specialist to be very active within the WUAs. He/she must be willing and capable of combating conservative resistance to change within the farming community, and must therefore be seized with the imperative to act quickly and decisively to meet the challenge of coming water shortages. (ii) Policy change is essential and difficult, but absolutely necessary. This will involve high-level discussion to convince policy makers of the growing climate-related threats and solutions. This will involve departure from traditional approaches, and changes in agricultural practice on a massive scale. It will also involve significant infrastructure investment. Sustained and robust high-level discussion will therefore be unavoidable. (iii) A comprehensive and sustained campaign of multi-media promotions throughout the agricultural communities to demonstrate water-saving and productivity gains, and to emphasize the need to adapt to climate change, explaining the extent of change and innovation that this will involve.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
Q. 2050 to 2100
89. The planning horizon for this project is to 2050, but is important for national planners to at least consider the implications for water availability in the longer term. By 2050 the climate change effects upon water supply and demand will not have stabilised. On the contrary, the rate of climate change will still be accelerating by that date.
90. At present the future trends of global greenhouse gas emissions, and their associated consequences in terms of feedback effects, are insufficiently constrained to attempt even semi-quantitative assessment of the climate change effects by 2100. However, the following points are offered as indicative:
(i) The increases in irrigation efficiency called for in this report must be in place and optimized by 2050 at the latest. The challenges posed by continuing climate change beyond 2050 will be hard enough to deal with, without also having to ‘catch up’ on previously unachieved water management objectives.
(ii) The estimated reference evapotranspiration (ET0) will continue to increase from the 2050 estimate of +8.9% to somewhere between +15 and +20% relative to the 1961-1990 base period. This assumes a moderate GHG emissions scenario which, on present evidence, may well be exceeded, in
which case even a +20% increase in ET0 could be an under-estimate. This increased crop water demand will not be met by a corresponding increase in supply. It can only be met by a huge increase in irrigation efficiency. (iii) The population of all the Central Asian states is likely to have increased to the extent that domestic, municipal and industrial water will represent a seriously competing water demand which is likely to command a higher priority relative to irrigated agriculture. (iv) The number of days exceeding 40°C is likely to increase dramatically, such that the quality of the cotton crop will be seriously degraded. Indeed, it is questionable whether cotton will continue to be a viable crop in all but the cooler parts of Uzbekistan by 2100. Therefore, either genetically engineered varieties with a higher heat tolerance must be developed, or cotton will decline at an accelerating rate, requiring substitute cropping practices. (v) It is impossible to accurately predict discharges in the Amu Darya beyond 2050, but the indications are that the headwater glaciers feeding the major rivers will eventually be largely or perhaps even entirely melted, all manner of upstream extractions will increase, whilst the available water for each irrigation system will decrease. The inter-annual variability will also increase such that catastrophic droughts will occur in some years. A national contingency plan must be prepared to manage the agricultural sector in such years. (vi) Climate change will have become the most serious threat to food security, and hence to national security, well before 2100 and must therefore move to the top of the political agenda in order to finance the costly adaptation measures that will be required.
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REFERENCES
Ahmad B. et al., (2001), Economics of Laser Land Levelling in District Faisalabad, Pakistan Jour. App.Sci., 1, (3), 409-412.
Finnish Consulting Group, ‘FCG’. June 2012. “Water and Adaptation Interventions in Central and West Asia ADB-TA 7532.”
Finnish Consulting Group, ‘FCG’.November 2011. “Final Report Part 4.” Aqua Crop Modelling. 19pp.
Khorezm Rural Advisory Support Service, ‘KRASS’ (2012), Technical Instructions for Land Levelling using Laser levels. (In Russian) Distribution of Resource Efficient Technologies for Sustainable Development of Agriculture in Khorezm Oblast of Uzbekistan. 21pp.
World Bank, 2000: Impact of Soil and Water Salinity in Central Asian Agriculture. A discussion paper, Water and Environment Management Project, GEF Sub-Component A1, Tashkent
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ATTACHMENT 1 - WATER CONSERVATION: ECONOMICS AND RELATED DETAILS
A. Laser Levelling
91. When appropriately demonstrated the advantages of field laser-levelling are self- evident in terms of yield, cost-effectiveness and water savings. Data from the Khorezm District of Uzbekistan suggest yield increases, in both wheat and cotton, of a suspiciously uniform ‘10%’. Comparable yield increases from Pakistan suggest an increased crop yield of 6%. Yield improvements of up to 20% have been reported from elsewhere.
92. The data for water saving are more consistent, being 30% for Uzbekistan and 25% for Pakistan. The Pakistan data are averaged over a much larger area and for a longer period, and hence may be regarded as more reliable. Anecdotal evidence from many countries testifies to the effectiveness of laser-levelling as a means of water conservation. A ‘rule of thumb’ is that poorly levelled land typically wastes 30% of the applied irrigation water, and sometimes as much as 50%. Even if the irrigated water saving is only 20%, this would account for half of the water saving objective to ‘climate- proof’ the ABIS.
93. Currently only a minute fraction of agricultural land has been laser-levelled in Uzbekistan, and none of this is in ABIS. Laser-land-levelling is considered by farmers to be a new and experimental technique. They are interested, but have yet to be convinced that it is a cost-effective exercise. The available data for Uzbekistan has been researched by KRASS, an NGO attached to the Urgench State University. Their results, which are summarised in Tables 4A/B and 5A/B below, indicate that even under face value economic assessment, laser levelling certainly pays for itself within two growing seasons, and often within one growing season.
Table 4: Cost Recovery of Equipment for Laser Levelling, in Thousand UZS Case A: Cotton Equipment cost, Extra Required Required area, Source of funding per year, with profit per area, for 1 for 3 years, ha* interest ha year, ha Internal funds 18634 79 236 39 Preferential credit 19566 79 271 45 Leasing, 14% 21243 79 335 56 Non-preferential 21615 79 349 58 credit, 16% *After laser land-levelling, the extra profit after 3 years was UZS 472,300 Case B: Winter Wheat Equipment cost, Extra Required Required area, Source of funding per year, with profit per area, for 1 for 3 years, ha* interest hectare year, ha Internal funds 18634 85 219 38 Preferential credit 19566 85 230 44 Leasing, 14% 21243 85 250 54 Non-preferential 21615 85 254 56 credit, 16% Source: Khorezm Rural Advisory Support Service (KRASS), Urgench State University, (2012).
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94. After laser-land-levelling, the extra profit on winter wheat after 3 years was UZS 490,300. What the above tables do not indicate is the virtual cost saving of irrigation water, which is currently supplied free. In addition, there is no account of the long-term economic penalty of crop failure, caused by insufficient water availability if water conservation measures are not applied.
Table 5: Indicators of Economic Efficiency per hectare, from Laser-Levelling Case A: Cotton Traditional Laser levelling method Indicators method 1st year 2nd year 3rd year Number of operations 17 18 16 16 Mechanization costs, thousand UZS 595 650 532 532 Labour costs, thousand UZS 113 100 100 100 Irrigation costs, thousand UZS 91 72 72 72 Other costs, thousand UZS 572 621 621 621 Total cost, thousand UZS 1371 1443 1325 1325 Water use, m3 10,000 8000 8000 8000 Crop yield, tones.ha -1 2.50 2.75 2.75 2.75 Income, thousand UZS 1509 1660 1660 1660 Profit, thousand UZS 137 216 334 334 Profitability, % 10 15 25 25 Source: Khorezm Rural Advisory Support Service (KRASS), Urgench State University, (2012) 95. Compared to reported world yields the above cotton yields are impossibly high, and presumably refer to the total of cotton lint and cotton seed, rather than to the ‘gin turnout’. The latter is typically about 38 to 43% of the total.
Case B: Winter Wheat Traditional Laser levelling method Indicators method 1st year 2nd year 3rd year Number of operations 11 12 10 10 Mechanization costs, thousand UZS 453 509 391 391 Labour costs, thousand UZS 64 49 49 49 Irrigation costs, thousand UZS 73 53 53 53 Other costs, thousand UZS 500 520 520 520 Total cost, thousand UZS 1090 1131 1014 1014 Time for irrigation, hours 11 9 9 9 Water use, m3 5725 4011 4011 4011 Crop yield, tonnes.ha -1 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.4 Income, thousand UZS 1260 1386 1386 1386 Profit, thousand UZS 170 255 372 372 Profitability, % 15.5 22.5 36.7 36.7 Source: Khorezm Rural Advisory Support Service (KRASS), Urgench State University, (2012)
96. The above yields are surprisingly high for partially salt-affected areas, and are clearly the product of well-leached soils. These yields exceed the world average of about 3.2 tonnes/ha. Nevertheless there is scope for further improvement by: (i) the universal practice of rotation with for example, soybean, alfalfa or green gram, (ii) minimum or no tillage, and (iii) optimizing the available nitrogen to between about 27 and 37 kg/ha total
N2. That is, from the combined fertilizer and ‘ploughed in’ nitrogen. As with Table 4, the accounting of Table 5 is at current face-value, and does not factor in the hidden cost- savings of water and ‘climate proofing’. In addition to greater uniformity of water distribution, laser-leveling has the added benefit of improving surface drainage.
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97. Numerous laser levelling systems are available on the international market, but currently not within Uzbekistan. In their experiments KRASS investigated systems from Pakistan (Easy Farming), Japan (Topcon), and Switzerland (Leika). 2013 Prices range between US$ 3000 and $ 30,000. Sets in the lower range are entirely adequate for the small fields in the ABIS
98. Throughout the ABIS the vast majority of farmers have 100 HP tractors. This is suitable for laser-levelling of small fields, whereas a 200 HP tractor would be more suitable for fields in excess of about 15 to 20 ha. Most farmers’ total land-holding is 90 to 100 ha, with fields typically varying between 4 and 9 ha (average 5.8 ha). The scanning radius of a typical laser-levelling set is about 300 m10, and hence fields of up to about 25 ha can be levelled with a single setup. There are almost no fields larger than 25 ha in the ABIS. The minimum area that can be usefully levelled is about 0.25 ha. The ‘levelled’ gradient suitable for the soils in ABIS is 0.1%, or no gradient at all in the case of rice.
99. Fields previously levelled ‘by eye’ typically have a topographic range of about 20 to 25 cm, in which case it is easily possible to level a hectare of land in one day. Put another way, most farmers can level all of their land in 100 non-growing days, usually divided into two seasonal windows. In practice laser-levelling of the land is best repeated every three years, although subsequent levelling can be completed in about half the time of initial laser-levelling.
B. Precise Irrigation Control
100. Precise irrigation control is based upon interpretation of one or more point instrumental measurements extrapolated to an entire field, or even to several fields. Therefore, the point measurements need to be truly representative, and hence are most appropriately applied to land receiving highly uniform irrigation. That is, the method is best applied in laser levelled land. There are at least 20 commercial systems in operation around the world, varying from Australian pop-up (very simple), to unrealistically high- tech systems such as the ‘neutron moisture probe’. For ease and convenience of ABIS farmers who may find complex systems off-putting, it is here suggested that the choice be restricted to either tensiometers or pop-up systems.
101. Tensiometers come with simple instructions to set up in narrow holes close to the crops being monitored. The depth and number of instruments depends upon the depth of the root zone and the type of crop. The tensiometer tip should be buried slightly deeper than the root zone to allow for appropriate leachate. The soil pressure in kPa may be read directly from the gauge. If exposed to bright sunlight the tensiometer should be covered to prevent algal clogging. Minor maintenance is required every two or three weeks.
102. The optimum number of instruments depends upon the uniformity of irrigation, and hence upon local conditions. Similarly, the ideal working pressures are a matter of experience with the crops and local soil types. A rough guide is given in Table 6, and an illustration of the instrument in Figure 4.
10 That is, for a basic system. Top end products now have a range of 1200 metres.
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture
Table 6: Tensiometer Interpretation (kPa) Figure 4: Tensiometer Probe
Reading (KPa) Interpretation 0 Saturated soil 0-3 Waterlogged soil 8 Field capacity, Stop irrigating 8-25 Optimum range of moisture 15 Typical for sandy soils 30 Typical for heavy clay soils 35-50 Mild stress on well-drained soils >50 Much too dry
Source: NSW Dept of Primary Industries
103. An even simpler system is the ‘full stop’ wetting front detector, shown in Figure 5, which utilises a pop-up indicator when the wetting front reaches the set depth of the instrument. This has the advantage that a water sample can be collected to check on salinity or nutrient concentrations. No wires or batteries are involved.
Figure 5: The ‘Full Stop’ Soil Moisture Indicator
C. Additional Aspects of Water Conservation
104. KRASS’s experience in Karakalpakstan indicates that in highly saline soils, such as afflict some of the downstream areas of ABIS, drip irrigation reduces the water table, resulting in more efficient leaching, and a reduction in soil salinity of 35%. It would be useful if at least one demonstration area could replicate this result as an incentive for farmers to utilize drip irrigation. At present less than 1% of the agricultural area uses any kind of pressure irrigation, and then only in greenhouse environments.
105. Another advantage of drip irrigation is its potential to reduce the growing season of cotton by 10 to 15 days. This arises from the more homogeneous growth rate with drip irrigation. This could be an important incentive in cases where the cropping intensity is increased to take advantage of the earlier onset of spring and later onset of autumn. By careful crop calendar planning, it may be possible to avoid the detrimental conditions of very hot mid-summer, with more productive early and late crops.
106. The cost-effectiveness and crop improvements associated with drip irrigation depend upon local conditions. Not all crops are suitable, and the method is better suited to heavy soils than to sandy soils. Nevertheless, when the current generation of drip
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InfoCapital Group Amu Bukhara Irrigation System Rehabilitation Appendices of Annex 1 – Agriculture irrigation has been properly applied, obvious economic benefits have generally accrued. Despite this the method may not be taken up by local farmers because of the high initial costs. Government incentives are in place for such on-farm improvements, but most farmers are nervous of the initial cost, and complain of the poor availability or non- availability of appropriate microfinance. A similar complaint is made against laser levelling and other suggested on-farm improvements. The present reluctance (apparently) to invest in farm improvements is based upon random anecdotal evidence. It would be helpful to undertake a more rigorous survey of small-farm economics, and the factors, real or perceived, which constrain investment in water-conservation and related technologies.
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