Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants 2018

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Global overview I

GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018

UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME Vienna

Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants 2018

UNITED NATIONS New York, 2018 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made.

Suggested citation: UNODC, Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants 2018 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.18.IV.9).

Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to:

Crime Research Section Research and Trend Analysis Branch Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime P.O. Box 500 1400 Vienna Austria E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: (+43) 1 26060 0

The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC, Member States or contributory organizations, and nor does it imply any endorsement.

This document has not been formally edited. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No. E.18.IV.9 ISBN: 978-92-1-130350-6 e-ISBN: 978-92-1-045181-9 PREFACE

This is the first Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants border controls, while misinforming migrants about the from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime conditions. (UNODC). Our research also highlights potential avenues for strength- Every year, thousands of migrants and refugees, desper- ening measures against migrant smuggling. This includes ately seeking to escape violence, conflict and dire eco- raising awareness of the dangers posed by smugglers in nomic straits, die on perilous journeys by land, sea or air, destination countries. It may also include promoting often at the hands of criminal smugglers. Concerted, alternative livelihoods for the lowest-level smugglers, who comprehensive action to counter this crime and protect may be engaging in criminal activities out of the same people is needed. desperation driving smuggled migrants to enlist their services. This research represents a start towards developing a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the crime of At the same time, improved international cooperation and migrant smuggling and its terrible toll. Complementing law enforcement capacities are needed to go after the large- UNODC’s existing support to Member States, it can help scale criminal organizations that are pulling the strings. to inform effective criminal justice responses, and con- This study offers insight into the complexity of the smug- tribute to continuing efforts towards the Global Compact gling phenomenon, while also showing how much more on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration. information is needed. A global data collection system can Based on an extensive review of existing data and litera- strengthen the evidence base, and help the international ture, the study presents a detailed account of the nature community to come to grips with migrant smuggling. and scale of migrant smuggling. It focuses on major smug- We have a solid basis for such cooperative responses. More gling routes connecting origin, transit, and destination than three-quarters of all Member States are party to the points; the modus operandi of smugglers; the risks the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol under the United Nations journeys pose for migrants and refugees; and the profile Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. of smugglers and the vulnerable groups on which they Going forward, better use of this framework is needed to prey. find solutions to these shared challenges. The global study shines a light on patterns, while making clear that there is never a one-size-fits-all explanation. What stands out is the bitter realization that smugglers are developing ever-more sophisticated organizational capacities, and using more dangerous routes to circumvent

1 Acknowledgements

The Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants 2018 was prepared by the UNODC Crime Research Section under the supervision of Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director of the Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs and Angela Me, Chief of the Research and Trend Analysis Branch.

Core Teams General coordination and content overview Kristiina Kangaspunta and Angela Me

Information gathering, analysis and drafting Fabrizio Sarrica (coordination and global analysis), Raggie Johansen (coordination and regional analyses), Tejal Jesrani (East and South-East Asia), Cecilia Manzotti (Africa, Europe, Central Asia, South and South-West Asia) and Gabriella Sanchez (the Americas).

Graphic design, layout and mapping Suzanne Kunnen, Kristina Kuttnig and Martin Fehrer.

The Crime Research Section wishes to thank the Section’s interns, Julia Litzkow, Gamze Subasi, Nadine L. Salman, Jennifer Vallentine and Michela del Buono who have all made solid contributions to the Global Study.

Review and comments The Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants 2018 benefited from the expertise and invaluable contributions of the UNODC colleagues in the Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Section and from the many colleagues at various UNODC Field Offices. Valuable inputs were also received from Ted Leggett and Jesper Samson of the Crime Research Section.

UNODC wishes to thank the artist Yasser Rezahi who generously donated the artwork used for this Study.

Photos of artwork by Johannes Kittel.

Infographs contain pictograms from Leremy/Shutterstock. CONTENTS

Executive summary 5

CHAPTER I - GLOBAL OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION 17 GLOBAL PICTURE OF SMUGGLING ROUTES 22 THE SMUGGLED MIGRANTS 32 THE SMUGGLERS 43 THE NUMBER OF MIGRANTS SMUGGLED 54

CHAPTER II - REGIONAL OVERVIEWS AFRICA 71 THE AMERICAS 93 ASIA 109 EUROPE 143

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Major land, sea and air smuggling transits and destinations discussed in this study*

0 1,000 2,000 km

Air Sea Land

TheThe designations designations employed employed and the and presentation the presentation of material on of this material map do not on imply this the map expression do not of any imply opinion the whatsoever expression on the of part any of opinionthe Secretariat whatsoever of the United on the Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted line represents partapproximately of the Secretariat the Line of Control of the in UnitedJammu and Nations Kashmir concerningagreed upon by the India legal and Pakistan. status Theof ﬁnalany status country, of Jammu territory, and Kashmir city hasor areanot yet or been of agreedits authorities, upon by the parties.or con - cerningFinal boundary the delimitation between the Republic of its frontiersof Sudan and or the boundaries. Republic of South Dotted Sudan line has notrepresents yet been determined. approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

* The map is not intended to give a comprehensive overview of all migrant smuggling activity or the magnitude of smuggling taking place in the identified locations.

Migrants are smuggled in all countries (some US$6 billion) spent on humanitarian aid regions of the world globally in 2016. This is a minimum figure as it represents only the known portion of this crime. These findings, and Smuggling of migrants affects all regions of the world. the considerable information gaps on smuggling of Different areas are affected to varying degrees. This Study migrants, will be discussed in chapter 1. describes some 30 smuggling routes, from internal African The smugglers’ profits stem from the fees they charge routes towards North and Southern Africa, to Asian routes migrants for their services. The fees are largely determined towards Europe and the Middle East, or to wealthier coun- by the distance of the smuggling trajectory, number of tries in South-East Asia and the Pacific. From the Medi- border crossings, geographic conditions, means of trans- terranean sea routes, to land routes between Latin America port, the use of fraudulent travel or identity documents, and North America; and from the myriad air passages risk of detection and others. The fees are not fixed, and usually undertaken with counterfeit or fraudulently may change according to the migrants’ profiles and their obtained documents, to hazardous overland journeys perceived wealth. For example, Syrian citizens are often across deserts and mountains. charged more than many other migrants for smuggling Smuggling of migrants is a big along the Mediterranean routes (an extra charge that may business with high profits or may not lead to a safer or more comfortable journey). Supply and demand There is evidence that, at a minimum, 2.5 million migrants were smuggled for an economic return of US$5.5-7 billion Smuggling of migrants follows the same dynamics of other in 2016. This is equivalent to what the United States of transnational organized crime markets. It is driven by a America (some US$7 billion) or the European Union demand and a supply of smuggling services to circumvent

5 6 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 countries, smugglers’ connections across countries and Geography, border control, migrationpolicyindestination Routes change destination fleeingtheirorigincountries. means, mayneedtousesmugglersinorder toreach asafe highamongrefugeesis particularly who,forlack of other migrants cannot afford. Demand for smuggling services migration orby thecostsoflegalmigration thatsome channels thatcannotsatisfythetotaldemandforregular isdetermined by thelimited legal for smugglingservices instability orlackofsafetyinorigincountries.Demand conditions, family reunification as well as persecution, Demand for migration is determined by socio-economic refugee campsorinvarious socialnetworks online. as inneighbourhoodshometodiasporacommunities, their business where migrants canbeeasilyreached, such Smugglersare willingtobuysmugglingservices. advertise and misinformation increase the number of migrants who From the supply side, smugglers’ proactive recruitment ings represent thesupplyofservices. tofacilitateirregularpared border toofferservices cross - existing regulations. The manysmugglerswhoare pre Factors determiningthe demand forsmuggling community pressure Smugglers’ recruitment and by smugglers Marketing andmisinformation to obtainregular traveldocuments Expensive andlengthyprocedures Mobility regulations andrestrictions hardship orotherreasons conﬂict, persecution,socio-economic Need tomigrateduearmed - Horn ofAfrica totheArabpeninsulaorsmuggling activities across the Red Sea or the Arabian Sea from the borders. Similar examples are theshiftsinsmuggling crossings, in response to increased controls at different the European Union shifted from land passages to sea of the recorded smuggling activity between Turkey and During theperiod2009-2015,forexample,alargepart toprofit forsmugglers. opportunities often increase therisksfor migrants andprovide more of smuggled migrants. Stricter border control measures displacement ratherthanchangesintheoverall number gled migrants, if taken alone, typically lead to rapid route sequent increased ordecreased risksofdetectionforsmug Measures toincrease ordecrease border control withcon travelled by air, whileonly1percenttravelled by boat. migrants,some10percent among some400surveyed Africa, for example, use land routes. In recent years, of migrantssmuggledfrom theHorn ofAfricatoSouthern require more resources andorganization. The vast majority used, more thanseaorairsmugglingroutes thatgenerally methods. When geographyallows, landroutes are widely key factorsthatdeterminetheroutes andthetravel cost ofthepackageoffered by smugglersare among the Services supplied etc.) false, fraudulentlyobtained, Travel documents (counterfeit, Information andcorruption the route Planning andcontactsalong Accommodation alongtheroute border crossing escorting duringirregular Transportation, guidingand by smugglers - - Executive summary

Number of irregular border crossings from Turkey to the EU by route, January 2009-December 2014

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0 Jul Jul Jul Jul Jul Jul Nov Nov Nov Nov Nov Nov Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar Mar May May May May May May Sept Sept Sept Sept Sept Sept 2009 Jan 2010 Jan 2011 Jan 2012 Jan 2013 Jan 2014 Jan to Greece via sea route to Bulgaria via land route to Greece via land route

Source: Frontex.

Spain along the Western Mediterranean route. In the latter smuggle. As a general pattern, smaller-scale smugglers are case, arrivals at the different destination areas in Spain either ethnically linked to the territories where they oper- (Canary Islands, Ceuta, Melilla, the Andalusian coast) ate, or they share ethnic or linguistic ties with the migrants have fluctuated significantly in recent years, often in they smuggle. Smugglers who are in charge of recruiting, response to enhanced enforcement activities. promoting and selling smuggling packages normally market their activities to people from the same commu- Hubs are stable nity or same ethnic group, or at least the same citizenship. Smugglers in charge of facilitating the actual border cross- While routes may change, smuggling hubs, where the ing have extensive knowledge of the territory to be crossed demand and supply of smuggling services meet, are rather and the best methods to reach the destination. stable over time. Hubs are key to the migrant smuggling crime. They serve as meeting places where disparate routes Ethnic and/or linguistic ties between smugglers and converge and arrangements are made for subsequent migrants is one of the elements that often brings migrants travel. Often, the locations of smuggling hubs are capitals and smugglers together. A reliable connection is key in a or large cities, although they may also be remote towns market that is unregulated by definition. When demand- where much of the economic activity is linked to migrant ing smuggling services, migrants seek well-reputed smug- smuggling. Agadez in Niger, for example, is a transit for glers. In presenting their offer, smugglers aim to establish current smuggling flows, with hundreds of thousands a relationship of trust with migrants. The pressing need having organized their trip from West Africa to North for migrants to move and the vast information gaps seem, Africa (and Europe) there. Already in 2003, some 65,000 however, to impede migrants from making an informed migrants were reported to have left Agadez for North decision. As a consequence, migrants try to reduce these Africa. information gaps by relying on the opinion of their communities, relatives and friends, and more recently, social Smugglers are often ethnically media. connected to smuggled migrants or geographically linked to the The organization of migrant smuggling territory smuggling

There are some large, transnational organizations involved The organization and size of smuggling operations vary. in smuggling that may or may not have ethnic linkages Some smugglers provide limited small-scale services such with the territory where they operate or the migrants they as a river crossing or a truck ride. These smugglers usually

7 8 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 operate individually, andonanadhocbasis.Some ofthe tances, using multiple modes of transportation. tances, usingmultiplemodesoftransportation. as ‘packages’ thatinvolve migrantstravelling longdis obtained travel documents.Often, suchsmugglingissold sages thatmightinvolve theuseoffalsifiedorfraudulently the capabilityoforganizingsophisticatedsmugglingpas- archical criminaloperationswithtransnational linksand Other smugglersbelongtolargeandwell-organized hier at easyreach. they are able to maintain these different smuggling actors with ‘broker’ functions play key roles in this system as and thelinksare similar tobusinessrelations. Smugglers do not work exclusively with only one smuggling network documents orpreparing vessels forseasmuggling. They group ofmigrants,counterfeiting recruiting aparticular bordercess, forinstance,facilitatingacertain crossing, much autonomy in different of the smuggling pro - parts do notinvolve stricthierarchies. Participants operatewith Smugglers mayalsobeorganized inloose‘networks’ which en route totheirdestination. ing toproviding formigrants telecommunicationservices nities, smuggling-related activitiesmayrangefrom cater- some border andtransitareas. In thesetypesofcommu - income from these “low-level” in particularly services, substantial, butentire communitiesmaydependonthe The profits of these small-scale smugglers are typically not into smugglers. migrants whowere successfullysmuggledturnthemselves multiple borders acrosslong journeys Well-organized, often Hierarchical occasional collaboration is Looser networkswhere Networks - - children are alsosmuggled young menbutunaccompanied Smuggled migrantsare mainly have beenreported alongnearlyalltheidentifiedroutes. practices linked to migrant smuggling ernment. Corrupt athigherlevelscontrol ofgov pointsto grandcorruption - at most levels; at individualborderfrom petty corruption Many smugglingnetworks engageinsystematiccorruption or otherexploitation. migrants to of such groupsransom, robbery for extortion and Mexico. In othercases,smugglersmayhandover for example,alongtheborder between theUnited States they have topay forthe‘right’ tosafepassageformigrants, have linkswith largeviolentcriminalorganizationsthat oftheworld,however,some parts smugglingnetworks in otherformsofmajortransnationalorganized crime.In Generally, smugglingnetworks seemnottobeinvolved organizations andcorruption Smugglers, othercriminal armed conflict–there are manyfamilies,whereas thisis smuggled migrants–mostofwhomare escapingfrom circumstances driving their mobility. Among Syrian smuggled migrantflows mayalsobeinfluencedby the of smuggledmigrants. The gendercompositionof ofSouth-Eastin parts Asia,womencompriselargeshares or donotengageinsmuggling.On someroutes, notably is nottosaythatwomenandchildren are notsmuggled Most smuggledmigrantsare relatively young men. That individual smugglers Mix ofnetworksand Mixed in border areas) tically (mayberesident often actingopportunis- Individual smugglers Individuals

Executive summary

Share of arrivals in Italy along the Central Europe and the land routes towards North America, Mediterranean route by age and sex, though it may also be a significant concern elsewhere. 2015-2016 Migrant smuggling can be deadly 80% 70% Every year, thousands of migrants die during smuggling 60% activities. Accidents, extreme terrain and weather condi- 50% 40% tions, as well as deliberate killings have been reported 30% along most smuggling routes. Systematic killings of 20% 10% migrants have also been reported, making this a very vio- 0% lent illicit trade. The reported deaths – most of them along Unaccomp- anied and sea smuggling routes - represent only the tip of the iceberg Men Women Children separated of the ultimate human cost suffered by smuggled migrants. children Many migrant deaths are likely to go unreported, along 2015 75% 14% 3% 8% unmonitored sea routes as well as remote or inhospitable 2016 71% 13% 2% 14% stretches of overland routes.

Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees In addition to fatalities, smuggled migrants are also vul- (UNHCR). nerable to a range of other forms of crime. Some of the frequently reported types faced by smuggled migrants include violence, rape, theft, kidnapping, extortion and less commonly reported among other groups of smuggled trafficking in persons. Such violations have been reported migrants. along all the smuggling routes considered. In addition, Many smuggling flows also include some unaccompanied smugglers’ quest for profit may also lead them to neglect or separated children, who might be particularly vulnerable the safety of migrants during journeys. For example, smug- to deception and abuse by smugglers and others. Sizable glers may set off without sufficient food and drink, the numbers of unaccompanied children have been detected vehicles they use might be faulty, and migrants who fall along the closely monitored Mediterranean routes to ill or are injured along the way might not receive any care.

Number of migrant fatalities reported, by cause of death, 2017

Deaths due to drowning or presumed drowning - sea routes, 3,597, 58%

Homicides - killed by Deaths due to vehicle or human beings - land train accidents - land routes, 382, 6% routes, 482, 8%

Cause of death for reported fatali�es

Deaths due to Other, harsh condi�ons 131, 2% and illness, 1,165, 19%

Deaths due to unknown/unreported reasons, 406, 7%

Source: UNODC elaboration of data from the International Organization for Migration.

9 10 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018

Estimated magnitude and value of the major smuggling routes discussed in this study

0 1,000 2,000 km European Union European Union air secondary movements, routes and from eastern size and value remain borders, size and value unknown remain unknown

2014-2015: To North America from southern border 735,000-820,000/year 2016: Three 2016: West Asian route Within South Asia, and US$3.7-4.2 billion/year from South Asia to Mediterranean routes 162,000/year About 375,000/year Eastern Europe, size and US$300 million/year value remain unknown US$320-550 million/year

From East and South-East Asia to Europe and North 2016: West Africa to 2013-2015: Within Horn of America, size and value remain unknown North Africa Africa and to North Africa From Asia into the GCC About 380,000/year About 100,000/year countries, size and value US$760-1,014 million/year US$300-500 million/year remain unknown

Into South America, 2016: Horn of Africa to size and value remain Yemen (only sea passage) 2009: Within Mekong unknown About 117,000 subregion US$9-22 million 550,000 2013-2016: Di erent routes US$192 million to South Africa 25,000/year US$45.5 million/year

Global smuggling routes 2016: Sea routes into Main origin areas Australia, size and value Main destination areas appear very low. For air routes these Estimated migrants remain unknown. Estimated values

TheThe designations designations employed employed and theand presentation the presentation of material of material on this on map this do map not doimply not the imply expression the expression of any opinion of any whatsoeveropinion whatsoever on the part on of the the part Secretariat of the Secretariat of the United of theNations United concerning the Nationslegal status concerning of any country, the legal territory, status cityof any or areacountry, or of territory, its authorities, city or or area concerning or of its theauthorities, delimitation or concerningof its frontiers the or delimitation boundaries. of Dotted its frontiers line represents or boundaries. approximately Dotted the line Line represents of Control in Jammuapproximately and Kashmir the agreed Line of upon Control by India in Jammu and Pakistan. and Kashmir The final agreed status upon of Jammu by India and and Kashmir Pakistan. has not The yet ﬁnal been status agreed of Jammu upon by and the Kashmir parties. Finalhas notboundary yet been between agreed the upon Republic by the of parties. Sudan and the FinalRepublic boundary of South between Sudan hasthe notRepublic yet been of Sudan determined. and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

Source: UNODC Executive summary NORTH AMERICA 2,000 km OCEANIA 1,000 0 ASIA EAST AND SOUTH-EAST Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and ASIA SOUTH ASIA GULF AFRICA AREA HORN OF SOUTH-WEST EUROPE EASTERN EUROPE SOUTH-EAST AFRICA SOUTHERN NORTH AFRICA EUROPE WESTERN AND CENTRAL WEST AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA

CENTRAL AND THE AMERICA CARIBBEAN NORTH AMERICA Global smuggling routes Sea Land Air Main origin areas Main destination areas EAST AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply expression any opinion whatsoever part Secretariat United city or area of its authorities, concerning the delimitation frontiers boundaries. Dotted line represents territory, Nations concerning the legal status of any country, approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India Pakistan. The ﬁnal status has not yet been parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and South has not yet been determined. Major smuggling routes discussed in this study of the United Nations concerning of any opinion whatsoever on the part Secretariat of material on this map do not imply the expression The designations employed and the presentation in the Line of Control approximately or of its authorities, concerning or boundaries. Dotted line represents city or area the delimitation of its frontiers territory, the legal status of any country, upon by the parties. upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu Kashmir has not yet been agreed Jammu and Kashmir agreed UNODC Source: the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

11 12 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Policy implications a • • • • • • • • • • • •

nancial andothermaterialbenefit, implementation, includingthedefiningelementof‘fi- the Smuggling ofMigrants Protocol, andensuringfull of protecting migrants’ rights.Ratifyingoraccedingto migrants. The Protocol also reiterates the importance ment designedtoprevent andcombatsmugglingof Crime, is the onlyinternationallyagreed- legalinstru ing the Convention against Transnational Organized gling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplement- year. The United Nations Protocol againstthe Smug- migrants whoare killed,tortured andexploitedevery returns. Among its consequences are thousands of national crimewhichgeneratessignificanteconomic plications forpoliciesandprogrammes. knowledge compiledinthisStudy im- hasimportant and states. While manyinformationgapsremain, the manifestations ofthiscrimeanditsharmtomigrants grants presents awealth ofinformationonthedifferent The studysho This firstUNODC a textbox onpages18-19. Aclarificationon‘ Limiting thedemandformigrantsmugglingcanbe factors andisguidedby aknowledge-based approach. sive strategywhichrecognizes thecomplexityofthese mand and supply elementsandrequires a comprehen- Smuggling ofmigrantsisdeterminedby amixofde- the crime,butalsoitsdifferent contributing factors. needs to take into account not only thegeography of A since thesehubsare more stable than routes. effectivegling insmugglinghubscanbeparticularly term. Targeting programmes toprevent migrantsmug- transit, anddestinationcanbesuccessfulinthelong toincludecountriesoforigin, geographical spectrum andbroadengrate different the typesofinterventions size ofthesmugglingproblem. Only policiesthatinte- not reduce the number of smuggled migrants or the other routes. If appliedinisolationthesemeasures do routes todifferent borders, smugglingmethodsorto limited areas oftenresult indisplacementofsmuggling I The incr to effectively address thecrimeandprotect migrants. documents andprocedures. Making regular migration gration andincreasing theaccessibility ofregular travel achieved by broadening thepossibilitiesforregular mi- antee thebestinterest ofthechild. abilities among children who are smuggled and to guar- equipped andtrainedtoaddress vulner- theparticular law enforcement andmigrationauthoritiesneedtobe Institutions providing assistancetomigrantsaswell as pose great challengestochildren’s rightsandwellbeing. ed children amongsmuggledmigrantsonsomeroutes ncreased border ingeographically enforcement efforts holistic approach to countersmuggling of migrants easing numbersofunaccompaniedandseparat- ws thatsmugglingofmigrantsisatrans- financial andothermaterialbenefit’ isprovided in Global Study onSmuggling ofMi- a ’ are vitalfirststeps

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • profiles ofsmugglersandtheirmodusoperandi. migrant smuggling patterns and routes, as well as the methodologies andqualitative studies tomonitor records, applystatistical conductappropriate surveys, to maintain adequate administrativeit is important national, regional andinternationallevels. In particular, there isaneedtoimprove datacollectionsystemsatthe policy makinginthearea ofsmuggling ofmigrants, a solidinternationalbodyofknowledge tosupport of migrantsremain attheirinfancy. In order tobuild ing information. smugglersandotherpotentiallylifesav- routes, ruthless cess toadequateinformationonfirstaid,risksalongthe migrantstohave ac- media corporations,couldsupport private sector, suchastelecommunicationsandsocial en route. Engagements withprominent actorsin the origin countries,atdestinationsandsometimesalso the purposeofreducing thecrime. serve for profits, socuttingthefinancialbenefitsmay tivities, smugglingofmigrantsismotivated by ahunt proceeds ofthecrime.Likeotherorganized crimeac- tions suchaseffective mechanismstoconfiscatethe can be more potentwithfinancial sanc- interventions national criminal justice responses. These policies and improved regional and internationalcooperationand the smugglingbusiness. drivers that attractsmall-scalesmugglerstoengagein migrant smugglingactivitycanreduce theeconomic grammes tocommunitiesthatrely onincomefrom smugglers. Theprovision ofalternative livelihood pro - requires different approaches fordifferent profiles of also helpreduce thedemandforsmugglingservices. camps, aboutthedangersinvolved insmugglingmay inrefugeein communitiesoforigin,andparticularly prospects in destinationcountries.Raisingawareness munities by misinformingabouttherisksand forsmugglers. portunities and asylumbureaux inoriginareas, wouldreduce op- refugee camps,includingtheexpansionofmigration moreopportunities accessibleinorigincountriesand multifaceted linkages. totackletheseevidence baseforfuture interventions broad geographical scope is needed to establish a sound practices tocommittheircrime.Further research of ways in which migrant smugglersrely oncorrupt forced intheseinstitutions. mechanismsarebe successfulifanti-corruption en- migrants. Combatting smuggling of migrants can only tion authoritiesisoneoftheenablerssmuggling T A S D This Corr M ome smugglersactively recruit migrantsintheircom- ackling smugglingnetworks intheirentirety requires ddressing the supply of migrant smuggling services ddressing thesupplyofmigrantsmugglingservices ata collection,analysisandresearch onsmuggling igrants and refugees are extremely interconnected in uption atborders andwithinconsularmigra- study has only scratched the surface of the manystudy has only scratched the surface

CHAPTER I GLOBAL OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION: THE NEED FOR A As this study makes clear, the smuggling of migrants is BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE not confined to ‘hotspots’ in the Mediterranean and the SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS long-standing routes leading to North America. It occurs in every part of the world, although the intensity varies, The world has never been as connected as today. Most of depending on location. While many aspects differ, such humanity is only a video call away. While the vast major- as the magnitude and the modus operandi of smugglers, ity of the world’s population live in their countries of the crux of the problem – criminals taking advantage of origin, in 2017, there were nearly 258 million recorded people’s aspiration to migrate in situations of limited regu- international migrants,a up from 220 million in 2010 and lar migration options – is the same. b 173 million in 2000. There are many reasons why mil- What is migrant smuggling? lions of people are on the move. Some cross international borders by choice; to reunite with family members, to The internationally agreed definition of migrant smug- benefit from a better education or a job that they cannot gling stems from the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, which supplements the find in their own country. Others have no choice and leave United Nations Convention against Transnational Organ- their country of origin because of conflict, environmental ized Crime (Smuggling of Migrants Protocol). The Pro- disasters or lack of opportunities to make a decent living. tocol defines the crime of migrant smuggling as ‘the The international migration of people is highly regulated procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a and each country or groups of countries have adopted financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of different approaches to determine how and under what a person into a State Party of which the person is not a circumstances foreigners can enter, live, study, or work national or a permanent resident.’c No Member State can within their borders. Demand for emigration or immigra- adhere to the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol without tion does not always correlate with the systems that regu- prior adherence to the Convention against Transnational late people’s transnational movements and many seek Organized Crime. alternative arrangements to move abroad. Some look for ways to overcome migration barriers, others try to shorten Parties that ratify the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol are the processing time, lower the costs or eliminate the need requested to criminalize the conduct of smuggling of to obtain official documentation that may be associated migrants as defined above and to criminalize the procure- with regular migration. ment of irregular stay,d as well as producing, obtaining or providing fraudulent travel or identity documents for the Migrant smugglers exploit these needs and offer their ser- purpose of enabling migrant smuggling. Thus, the Smug- vices for profit. They may work largely on their own, gling of Migrants Protocol covers offences related to the within a small network in one or two countries, or as part facilitation of both illegal entry and illegal stay of foreign- of large, complex multinational organizations, depending ers or persons who are not permanent residents when this on what type of smuggling service they provide. Their is done to obtain a financial or other material benefit. offers can range from a single international border crossing to transcontinental trajectories involving different The criminalization of smuggling of migrants promoted modes of transportation and multiple border crossings. by the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol does not aim at For some migrants, smugglers represent the only available criminalizing migrants. The stated intention of the Pro- avenue towards the dream of a better life, even if the price tocol is to criminalize and prosecute those who smuggle charged may be high, the actual travel routes complex, others for gain, and not the migrants themselves. In addi- the transport substandard and the risk of mistreatment or tion, Article 5 explicitly states that ‘Migrants shall not even death considerable. become liable to criminal prosecution’ for having been smuggled. a Any person who changes his or her country of usual residence. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations c Art. 3, para. (a), Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Recommendation on Statistics of International Migration, Revision 1, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against 1998. Transnational Organized Crime. b United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Inter- d Enabling of irregular stay by producing, procuring, providing or possess- national migrant stock: The 2017 revision. ing fraudulent travel or identity documents or other illegal means.

17 18 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 with clearevidenceofhumanitarianintent-appearstodissuademanycountriesfrom pursuingprosecutions. whenthisabsenceiscoupledabsence ofindicationsfinancialgainforasuspectedsmuggler–particularly From thelittledataavailable, however, itappearsthatsuchprosecutions are relatively rare. In practice,the smuggler. for assistance without expectations of any benefit could be sufficient grounds for being prosecuted as a migrant lation, theactofhelpingafamilymembercross aborder orrescuing migrantsatseaandbringingthemtoshore family and/orhumanitarianmotives. Absent afinancialorothermaterialbenefitelementintherelevant legis- this regard isthepossibilityofprosecuting personswhoprovide assistancetomigrantssolelyonthebasisof circumstances thanwhatwasintendedwhentheSmuggling ofMigrants Protocol wasdrafted.Akey issuein material benefitelementmeansthatcriminaljusticeresponses canpotentiallybeappliedinawiderrangeof Criminalizing orenablingirregular procurement staywithoutrequiring ofillegalentry thefinancialorother on thebasisofclosefamilyties.’ for profit, but to exclude theactivitiesof those who provided to migrantsforhumanitarian reasons support or of the Protocol, which states that ‘the intention was to include the activities of organized criminal groups acting crime groups -whoseektobenefitfrom smugglingmigrants. This isalsoconfirmedinthetravaux préparatoires is aclearindicationoftheSmuggling ofMigrants Protocol’s organized focusontacklingthose–particularly The inclusionoffinancialorothermaterialbenefitasaconstitutive elementofthemigrantsmugglingcrime influence sentencingdecisions. as aconstitutive elementofthecrimemightinsteadchoosetouseitasanaggravating circumstance thatcould traditional destinationcountriesforsmuggledmigrants. itarian reasons have beenprosecuted undermigrantsmugglinglegislationintheEuropean Union andinother tions. There isanecdotalevidence thatfamilymembersandthoseassistingotherstocross aborder forhuman- However, prosecutions incaseswithoutafinancialorothermaterialbenefitelementdooccursomejurisdic- definition oftheconductthatEUMember States are required tocriminalize. States’ legalprovisions andresidence omitsthiselementfrom the onthefacilitationofunauthorised entry migrant smugglingoffences. 13countriesofwhich11omittedthe financial orothermaterialbenefitelementfromsurveyed theirbase crime. Many countrieshave excluded thisrequirement from their legislation.Arecent UNODCissuepaper of ‘financial orothermaterialbenefit’, oftheProtocol whichisakeypart definitionofthemigrantsmuggling Smuggling of Migrants Protocol provisions intheirnational legislation. This isillustratedclearlyby the concept However, aswithmostinternationaltreaties, considerablescopeisleftforMember States toimplementthe criminalize theconductprescribed therein. more thanthree ofallMember quarters States. RatificationoftheProtocol entailsacceptingtheobligationto mitment isdemonstratedby thefactthat,asofMay 2018,theSmuggling ofMigrants Protocol had146Parties; Most United Nations Member States have committed to tackling the issue of migrant smuggling. This com- smuggling crime The ‘financial orothermaterialbenefit’ element ofthemigrant e d c b a implementation ofthekeyEUlegislationregarding thefacilitationofunauthorisedentry, transitandresidence intimidation by someout theirnational work. authorities when Moreover,carrying in some countries, the that thoseinvolved inproviding assistancetoirregular migrantsnotonlyfearsanctions,butmayalsoexperience efit element hasramificationsbeyond thecriminal justice system. Research from the European Union hasfound Criminalizing orenablingirregular procurement staywithoutafinancialorothermaterialben- ofillegal entry

UNODC, E UNODC, I Convention against Transnational Crime Organized andtheProtocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1, 3November 2000,para.88). U ian assistancetoirregular migrants, 2016. E uropean Parliament, op. cit.,p. 40;UNODC,Issue paper, op. cit.,p. 26. uropean Parliament, Directorate-General forInternal Policies, Fit forpurpose? The Facilitation Directive andthecriminalisationofhumanitar - nited Nations General Assembly, Interpretative notesforthe officialrecords (travaux préparatoires) ofthenegotiationUnited Nations I ssue paper, op. cit.p. 64. ssue paper:theconceptof“Financial orothermaterialbenefit” intheSmuggling ofMigrants Protocol, 2017. a Moreover, theEuropean Union aimedatharmonizingMember legalframework c

e b Countriesthatdonotincludeit d

Global overview I

is perceived to contribute to the social exclusion of both irregular and regular migrants.f The absence of a financial or other material benefit element in legislation is only one of several potential sources of inconsistencies between the intentions of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol and the implementation at country level. However, harmonizing regional and national legal frameworks with the Protocol in relation to the benefit element could sharpen the focus on the criminals who prey on people in desperate situations. It could also reduce the fear of prosecutions or sanctions experienced by those involved in assisting them, and consequently, protect the rights of smuggled migrants.

f European Parliament, op. cit., p. 45.

Differences between migrant smuggling and profits for the criminals stem from their ability to facilitate trafficking in persons illegal entry or stay in a country where the smuggled While trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants person is not a citizen or permanent resident. In traffick- are often conflated, they are different crimes that require ing in persons cases, the profits are typically generated by different responses with regard to the protection and assis- the exploitation of victims (for example, through forced tance entitlements of trafficking victims and smuggled labour, sexual exploitation, or removal of organs). migrants. In brief, the key differences pertain to: consent, Crime against what or whom: Migrant smuggling affects purpose of exploitation, transnationality, the source of the sovereignty of States over their borders. As such, it criminal profits, and the object of the crime. doesn’t involve persons as victims (although migrants can Consent: The migrants are typically willing to migrate, become victims of other crimes during the smuggling pro- and usually agree with the smuggler that a service will be cess). Trafficking in persons is a crime against a person, provided against a certain fee. For trafficking victims, on the trafficked victim. the other hand, according to the United Nations Protocol In practice, however, some of these differences can and to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, do sometimes become blurred. In real life, it is difficult Especially Women and Children, which supplements the to have all the elements to make clear distinctions between United Nations Convention against Transnational Organ- smuggling and trafficking cases. Migrants who believe to ized Crime (Trafficking in Persons Protocol), consent is be smuggled might be deceived or coerced into situations irrelevant for adult victims when threat or use or force, of exploitation at some point of their movement, which deception, abuse of a position of vulnerability or any other may change the nature of the crime from smuggling to of the means mentioned in the Trafficking in Persons Pro- trafficking or result in both offences being committed at tocol have been used (for child victims, it is always the same time. irrelevant). The confusion between trafficking and smuggling can also Purpose of the crime: The purpose of trafficking in persons lead to a failure to identify some migrants as victims of is exploitation of the victim(s). The purpose of migrant trafficking. States Parties to the Trafficking in Persons Pro- smuggling is the facilitation of irregular entry or stay of a tocol have an obligation to identify victims of trafficking person in a country in which he or she is not a national to ensure that their rights are not further violated and that or a permanent resident in order to obtain a financial or they can access assistance and protection measures, as other material benefit. appropriate. Transnationality: Migrant smuggling is per definition Smuggling in the context of migration always transnational in that it involves irregular movement The crime of migrant smuggling takes place in the broader between (at least) two different countries. Trafficking in context of international migration, and conceptual clarity persons may or may not be transnational; a large share of of different terminology is crucial. Most international detected trafficking cases occur within a country’s migration takes place according to established regulatory borders.e systems.f In general, regular migration is understood as Source of criminal profits: In migrant smuggling cases, the movements of persons who cross borders in line with the e In 2014, 43 per cent of detected trafficking cases were domestic cases f International Organization for Migration, World Migration Report (UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016, p. 41). 2018, November 2017, p. 1.

19 20 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 h nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, International- classifica g and movements across borders within atimeperiod(flow). atagiven pointintime (stock) in adestinationcountry tion thathasmadeamigrationmovement andisliving and smuggledmigrantsdifferwhenconsideringapopula The boundariesandoverlaps between regular, irregular smuggled. lar migrants,whilenotallirregular migrants have been gled are, atleastinthemomentofborder crossing, irregu across aninternationalborder. Migrants whoare smug ofundocumented migrantsarranging transportation and/orstay,work contracts)toenableirregular entry and visas,residencedocuments (suchaspassports, permitsor involve –butisnotlimitedtoproviding fraudulent the migrantstheyare smuggling.Migrant smuggling can themselves. Smugglers ofmigrantsmaynotmigratewith tion describestheconduct(andstatus)ofmigrants a financialorothermaterialbenefit,whileirregular migra of personswhofacilitateirregular formsofmigrationfor migration. Smuggling ofmigrantsdescribestheconduct ference between smuggling of migrants and irregular From aconceptualpointofview, there isamarked dif the administrative requirements forleavingthecountry. try, itcan involve movements ofpeoplewhodonotfulfil regulations, andfrom theperspective ofthesendingcoun authorization ordocumentsrequired underimmigration entry, withoutthenecessary stayorwork inacountry tive of receiving countries,irregular migrationincludes sending, transit,orreceiving countries. normsof ments thattakeplaceoutsidetheregulatory irregular migration,butitisgenerallyunderstoodasmove There isnoclearoruniversally accepteddefinitionof considerably.cedures vary late populationmovements. The specificitiesofthesepro andprocedures toregurules establishedby eachcountry

whom Crime againstwhator Source ofcriminalprofits Transnationality Purpose ofthecrime Consent

abl IOM, tion-terms#Irregular-migration). pp. 44and78. tion ofcrimeforstatisticalpurposes(ICCS), version 1.0,March 2015, U e 1: g

Key migration onlinebriefing(www.iom.int/key-migra terms, -

Summary ofthekeydifferences betweenmigrantsmugglingandtrafficking inpersons g aiiaino reua nr rsa Exploitation ofthevictim Facilitation orstay ofirregular entry Required banafnnilo aeilbnftExploitation ofthevictim Obtain afinancialormaterialbenefit state Public order, authorityandprovisions ofthe Typically voluntary h From theperspec MIGRANT SMUGGLING ------may have beensmuggledthere sometimebefore the (at a givenmigrant population present time) in a country ular status. As a consequence, of the regular some part tion status, while others may have remained with an irreg mayhave subsequentlyobtainedregular migra- country Moreover, some migrants who were smuggled into the across borders. regularly,country whileothersmayhave beensmuggled taining tobothofthesegroups mayhave entered the regular aswell asirregular migrants.Some migrantsper- includes The totalmigrantpopulation(stock)inacountry j i ofmigrant destination, somerefugees engagetheservices for andaccessrefugee statusare normallycarriedoutat seek asylum in other countries. Since procedures to apply have the right to suffer persecution in his or her country or irregularly. According tointernationallaw, to internationalprotection. lifeorfreedom, topreserve withanentitlement country Refugees are personswhohave beenforced tofleetheir irregularly cross internationalborders ontheirown. may not be associated with smuggling. Some migrants tated by smugglersare irregular, someirregular entries not befacilitatedby smugglers,sowhileallentries facili- are either regular or irregular. Irregular entries may or may Looking atmigrationflows, movements across borders migration statusregularization tookplace.

of Refugees andthe1967Protocol Relating totheStatus ofRefugees. lated by theUnited Nations 1951Convention Relating totheStatus from persecution.” In International Law, thisright isframedandregu- “Everyone has the righttoseekandenjoy inothercountriesasylum requirements ofarefugee according tothe1951Convention. the publicorder,or events seriouslydisrupting thatdonotfulfilthe tion topersonsfleeingindiscriminateeffectsofgeneralized violence included inUNHCR’s Statute, have extendedinternationalprotec- regional aswell asthebroader instruments, definitionofrefugee tion 1951/1967Protocol relating totheStatus ofRefugees). Several there, 1A (2) Status for fearofpersecution(Article of refugees conven- to avail himorherselfoftheprotection ofthatcountry, ortoreturn social group of political opinion; and particular is unable or unwilling because ofhisorherrace,religion, nationality, membershipofa ality orhabitualresidence; hasawell-founded fear of beingpersecuted Ar Legal definition:Apersonwhoisoutsidehisorhercountr ticle 14oftheUniversal Declaration ofHuman Rightsstatesthat Not required A person Irrelevant if‘means’ are inplace TRAFFICKING INPERSONS i Refugees maytravel regularly j personswho y ofnation- - Global overview I

Fig. 1: Overlaps between the populations broader mandates requesting UNODC to collect data, (stocks) of regular and irregular analyse and report on crime issues under its purview, par- migrants and migrants who were ticularly those with a transnational dimension.l smuggled at some point in time The Study aims at describing the crime of migrant smug- Regular migrants Irregular migrants gling. It focuses on understanding the patterns and dynamics of the crime as defined in the UN Smuggling of Migrants Protocol and the typology of those involved, from the migrants who are smuggled to the smugglers who exploits the migrants’ desire to migrate. The Study also identifies major smuggling routes, which affect all regions of the world and provides specific information on each route. Methodology and sources of information Migrants with regular Migrants with irregular status who were status who were The Study is based on a comprehensive review of available smuggled at some point smuggled at some point data and information on migrant smuggling across the in the past in the past world. Efforts were made to collate as much quantitative and qualitative information from official national and international sources as possible. The starting point of the Fig. 2: Relation between migrant smuggling and migration flows study was a mapping exercise. This involved dividing the world in four macro-regions – Africa, Americas, Asia and Europe – and making information assessments to demar- Irregular border cate the most relevant smuggling routes within each crossings region. The relevance of routes was determined primarily Regular border by considerations of magnitude, involvement of organized crossings crime groups and the ‘human cost’ to migrants. Due No smuggling involved regard was given to ensure broad geographical coverage. Entries facilitated by smugglers The Study is divided into two chapters. Chapter 2 presents route-specific information while chapter 1 ‘zooms out’ from the characteristics of these routes and looks at the smugglers in order to reach their desired destination coun- commonalities and differences between the different try to seek asylum. In addition, the costs of smuggling routes. Cross-cutting themes such as the role of smuggling and the urgency of their move may leave them vulnerable hubs, the various risks faced by smuggled migrants and to abuse and in the most severe cases to trafficking the fees paid for smuggling are analysed from a global situations. perspective. Chapter 1 also includes a first attempt at gen- The UNODC Global Study on the Smuggling erating a rough estimate of the number of migrants smug- of Migrants gled worldwide and the profits made by smugglers. As the guardian of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol, A wide range of open-source information from interna- UNODC is involved in a range of normative and operational organizations, national authorities, research institu- tional work to enhance national responses to migrant tions and non-governmental organizations was consulted smuggling. In 2015, the Working Group on Smuggling for the preparation of the Study. Priority was given to data of Migrants, of the Conference of the Parties to the United from governmental institutions – such as national statis- Nations Convention against Transnational Organized tics offices, law enforcement authorities, migration depart- Crime, encouraged UNODC to prepare a global analyti- ments and border guards – in areas where such information cal study on the migrant smuggling crime.k The Global could be found. Where no official information was avail- Study responds to this invitation and to a number of l General Assembly resolutions 64/179 of 26 March 2010 (A/ RES/64/179, para. 12), 65/232 of 23 March 2011 (A/RES/65/232 para. 18), 66/181 of 3 April 2012 (A/RES/66/181 para. 19) and k Report on the meeting of the Working Group on the Smuggling of 67/189 of 20 December 2012 (A/RES/67/189 para. 21), and Eco- Migrants held in Vienna from 18 to 20 November 2015, CTOC/COP/ nomic and Social Council resolution 2013/37 of 11 October 2013(E/ WG.7/2015/6 (4 December 2015), para. 41. RES/2013/37, para. 10).

21 22 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 T smuggling. larly relevant forthesectionsonmagnitudeofmigrant as caveats intheaccompanyinganalysis. - This isparticu tive wording reproduced from theoriginalsource aswell this reason, suchdata is generallypresented withdescrip- the understandingofsmuggling,nottoquantifyit.For used togetherwith other contextualinformationto inform solely to migrants who have been smuggled, but they were Study donotrelate onlytomigrantsmugglingoffencesor periods. Much ofthequantitative datapresented inthe lected by different agencies and covering different time of theavailable information refers to different crimes col alia, criminalization, enforcement and reporting, much available. Asaresult ofcountries’ varied practicesin,inter erage -butalsotheheterogeneity ofthedatathatwas obstacle foranyresearch thataspires tobeglobalincov- on migrantsmugglinginmanyareas –whichisacommon gling included not only the lack of specific information Significant challengestodatacollectiononmigrantsmug tal organizations. organizations, academic institutions and non-governmen- and soundmethodologies,carriedoutby international able, UNODCconsidered studiesbasedonreliable data Africa toNorth Africa Land routes from sub-Saharan Turkey Land route from South-West to Asia to theArabianpeninsula Sea routes from theHorn of Africa Different routes toSouth Africa Thailand From neighbouringcountriesto routes Total forthethree Mediterranean Land route toNorth America abl parts ofAsia,remain unknown. Similarly, there are noestimatesonthe smugglingofmigrantsbyairindifferent parts oftheworld. generate suchestimatesonsolidground. Forexample,thescaleofsmugglingmigrantsinto andwithinSouthAmericainvast The numberofmigrantssmuggled andtherevenues forthesmugglerswere calculatedwhen enoughinformationwasavailableto e 2:

Estimated magnitudeandvalueofselectedsmugglingroutesdiscussedinthisstudy ROUTE Smuggling ofmigrantswithinandoutAsia Smuggling ofmigrantsacross Africanborders Smuggling ofmigrantstoNorth America Smuggling intotheEuropean Union THIS ROUTEONLY, PERYEAR,2016 MIGRANTS SMUGGLEDALONG ESTIMATED NUMBEROF prx 6,0 Approx. 300million 192million(in2010) Approx. 162,000 550,000 (in2010) 9-22million 735,000-820,000 Approx. 45.5million 1-1.5billion Approx. 117,000 Approx. 25,000 Approx. 480,000 320-550million Approx. 375,000 OR EARLIER - - SMUGGLING ROUTES m a minimumannualincomeforsmugglersofaboutUS$5.5 2.5 millionmigrantswere smuggledin2016, Along theseroutes, UNODCfoundthataminimumof world. studied smugglingofmigrantsindifferent ofthe parts to lawenforcement, researchers andotheractorswhohave routes were identified. They only represent what is known quickly. For thisstudy, more than30mainsmuggling routes usedtosmugglemigrants,somechangingrather across awiderangeofcountries. There isamyriadof tions, ortransitareas. Smuggling operationstakeplace migrants thatare smuggled,othersare further destina countries intheworld.Some countriesare originsof Smuggling all ofmigrants isacrimethataffectsvirtually 1.

gling phenomenonalongthestatedroutes. should beconsidered asanindicationoftheoverall scaleofthesmug- same migrantssmuggledalongtwodifferent routes. The numbers into North AfricaandEurope mayresult indouble-countingofthe (about 200,000peryear). Aggregating theestimatesforroutes into Europe alongtheCentral and Western Mediterranean Routes of AfricaintoNorth Africa(about480,000peryear) andsmuggled numbers ofmigrantswere smuggledfrom West AfricaandtheHorn routes, previous years were considered. In addition, in 2016, large Estimates mainlycalculatedforthey GLOBAL PICTUREOF 3.7-4.2 billion GLERS ALONGTHISROUTEONLY, PER ESTIMATED REVENUESFORSMUG- YEAR, 2016OREARLIER(US$) ear 2016.However, forsome

m generating - Global overview I

Estimated magnitude and value of the major smuggling routes discussed in this study

0 1,000 2,000 km European Union European Union air secondary movements, routes and from eastern size and value remain borders, size and value unknown remain unknown

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United TheNations designations concerning theemployed legal status and of any the country, presentation territory, city of or materialarea or of its on authorities, this map or concerningdo not imply the delimitation the expression of its frontiers of anyor boundaries. opinion Dotted whatsoever line represents on the partapproximately of the Secretariat the Line of Control of the in UnitedJammu and Nations Kashmir concerningagreed upon by the India legal and Pakistan. status Theof ﬁnalany status country, of Jammu territory, and Kashmir city hasor areanot yet or been of agreedits authorities, upon by the parties.or con - cerningFinal boundary the delimitation between the Republic of its frontiersof Sudan and or the boundaries. Republic of South Dotted Sudan line has notrepresents yet been determined. approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

Source: UNODC to 7 billion. For many of the routes, it was not possible to collect sufficient evidence to estimate the number of Main emerging characteristics smuggled migrants or the smuggling income, so these for smuggling routes global figures represent minimum values for the magnitude and criminal profits from migrant smuggling. • There are many smuggling routes and methods to reach destinations and myriad alternative An analysis of the trends for the different smuggling routes border crossing points. Different land and sea shows the volatility of the smuggling routes and the sta- passages can be used along the same route. bility of the smuggling hubs. If the demand for facilitating • Smuggling typically takes place in uncontrolled illegal entries and the supply of smuggling services remain areas with dangerous circumstances which put the same, the sealing of certain routes does not necessarily migrants at risk. But smuggling also occurs change the overall level of migrant smuggling, but may through official border crossings by land or air, trigger increasing flows along other routes. However, the using fraudulent documents and corrupt prac- places where the smuggling activity is organized generally tices. remain stable over time. This is probably linked to the • Points of departure for smuggling by sea gener- fact that smuggling activities are often rooted in local ally require territorial control by smugglers. communities whose livelihoods depend on the income from migrant smuggling and/or are managed by groups • Smugglers adopt different strategies according to the protection policy applied in destination which are highly organized and can easily change countries and the citizenship of the smuggled strategies. migrants in order to maximize the chances for Smuggling of migrants may be a rather simple activity, migrants to remain in destination countries. such as organizing the crossing of a lightly controlled Points of arrival are often selected according to border or paying off a border guard. Smuggling may also whether migrants seek detection or not. involve complex schemes, such as organizing fake mar- • In contrast to routes, smuggling hubs tend to be riages or fictitious employment, counterfeiting travel doc- stable over time. uments or corrupting senior officials.

23 24 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ing of deserts, mountains,jungles,opensea, rivers anding ofdeserts, Smuggling ofmigrantsmayentailarrangingforthecross tocross avarietyof transportation of terrainsandborders. ferent routes require smuggling certain methods and types Migrant smugglingcanbecarriedoutinmany ways.Dif glers forsmug- crossings, myriad alternatives 1.1 and leave mostoftheroute decisionstothesmugglers. travels. Others buytheentire journeypriortodeparture times towork inorder tomakemoneyfortherest oftheir crossings. Migrants mayalsostopalongtheroute; some- legsoftheroute orforsomebordervices foronlycertain travel largelyindependently, purchasing smugglingser formigrants.InThe sameistrue somecases,migrants piece offacilitatedmovement. andothersfora opting limitedfor comprehensive services with somesmugglers clients offer a range of services, or towards the end of a smuggling trajectory. Sometimes, smugglers maybeactive atthebeginning,in midstof their place of residence, or anything in between. Moreover, plicated travel itinerary, a singleborder crossing closeto Migrant smugglers may organize and oversee a long, com There is no ‘typical’ smuggler or smuggling operation. Source: UNODC between theRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. agreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.Dotted line representscerning approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmir thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat oftheUnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities,con- The designationsemployedandthepresentation ofmaterialonthismap donotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveron the Major land,seaandairsmugglingtransitsdestinationsdiscussedinthisstudy Final boundary betweentheRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. Final boundary approximately theLineofControlinJammuandKashmiragreeduponbyIndiaPakistan.Theﬁnalstatushasnotyetbeenparties. Nations concerningthelegalstatusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities,concerningthedelimitationfrontiersboundaries.Dotted linerepresents The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplyexpressionanyopinionwhatsoeverpartSecretariatUnited

Air Land Sea By land,seaorair– manyborder - - - - by flying directly from their country of origin to an airport by oforigintoanairport flyingdirectly from their country Great Lakes. sea passagesalongtheAfrican coastsoracross theAfrican byland journey that might making be useof shortened ple, maybesmuggledtoSouthern Africaby alongover- Migrants originatingfrom theHorn ofAfrica,forexam- the perceived probability ofsmugglingsuccess. and how tocross theborder isalsoheavilyinfluencedby relevant constraints,thefinaldecisionregarding where the naturalenvironment, tomentionsome. Within the trols, immigrationenforcement and threats connectedto migrants’ economicmeansandavailable time,border con tors, includingthesmugglers’ organizationalcapacity, the location andthemethodtousedependonarangeoffac Decisions regarding whichborder tocross, atwhatspecific a personintothedesired destinationcountry. ferent methodsoracombination ofmethodstosmuggle ing ofseveral internationalborders, andcriminalsusedif smuggling routes described in this study involve the cross using commercial flights.Mostders atairports ofthe smugglers mayfacilitatethecrossing ofinternationalbor point and intended destination are geographically distant, mentation. In when some the cases,departure particularly air border crossing points,makinguseoffraudulentdocu lakes. Smuggling canalsohappenthrough officiallandor 1 Some maybesmuggledinto South Africa 0 Final boundary 1,000 2,000 km

------Global overview I

Major overland smuggling routes and crossings discussed in this study

0 1,000 2,000 km

Land routes

Source: UNODC at destination, or by landing in neighbouring countries Nevertheless, these are exceptions rather than rules. Cross- and travelling overland from there.2 Asian migrants may ings of green borders often do require smugglers’ facilita- be smuggled into Australia by sea.3 Many Asians also travel tion. Entering into Ceuta and Melilla is also possible by overland for parts of this extensive journey. West Africans paying a smuggler to provide a counterfeit document or may be smuggled to North Africa and then cross the land a safe passage hiding in trucks transiting in these cities.5 borders into the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla to The vast majority of the migrants that cross the United reach the European Union. Alternatively, they may be States-Mexico land border irregularly do so by using a smuggled by air, with counterfeited documents, to major professional smuggler.6 Smugglers are active along many international airports in Europe, or they may be smuggled African land borders, at the eastern European Union land by sea across the Mediterranean to Italy.4 Most smuggling borders and at some overland border crossings in Central 7 routes involve choices and decisions regarding specific Asia. travel itineraries and means of transport. Smugglers are needed not only to evade border controls, Smuggling at land borders but often also to increase the probability of safe passage along hazardous overland trails. Particularly dangerous Border crossings through land borders (also known as trajectories assessed in this study include the jungles of ‘green borders’) may not require sophisticated smuggling South-East Asia, deserts in Africa and the Americas, as activities. Some land borders would seemingly not even well as areas with significant risk of encounters with armed require the facilitation by a smuggler, where, for instance, and criminal groups in many parts of the world. border controls are not heavily enforced. This appears to be the case for some borders between the countries in the Choosing smuggling routes: between land Mekong subregion or some parts of Central Asia. Even and sea when tight controls are in place, some land passages may On some routes, smugglers or migrants can choose land not require smugglers. For example, some people manage or sea crossings according to a range of factors that influ- to irregularly enter the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla ence the chances of taking migrants safely to their by simply assaulting the border fence in large numbers. destination.

25 26 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 10,000 12,000 organization ofsmugglingby seamayalsorequire access their return. In addition, peopleinvolved inthe manage vessels, theirdeparture, journeyandsometimes organization. Smugglers need tobeableobtainand However, smuggling by searequires better planningand Sea orlandcrossings mayappeartobeinterchangeable. using themore direct landroute toSudan. crossing back on toAfricanshores in Sudan, instead of the Horn ofAfricatocross theArabian seato Yemen, and routes asanalternative toalandroute isformigrants from example oftheuse(inthiscase,more complex) sea or even south, in Mozambique. further towns ofKenya arrivingatthesoutherncoastsof Tanzania taking boatsleavingfrom Somalia orthesoutherncoastal to avoid the risks connected to such land passages by Mozambique. However, insomecasessmugglers prefer through Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania and Africa to Southern Africa largely involves land passages Similarly, theroute leadingmigrantsfrom theHorn of the Turkish-Bulgarian landborder. shifted backtotheAegean Sea andtoaminorextent As aresult, sincetheendof2012,smugglingroutes largely these twocountries.Border controls were alsointensified. 2012, afencewasbuiltalongthelandborder between was widespread between 2010and2012. At theend of ranean route. Smuggling by landfrom Turkey toGreece between Turkey andGreece alongtheEasternMediter enhanced enforcement is the crossing of the border An illustrative example of route displacement due to Source: Frontex. F 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 ig . 3: 0

2009 Jan Number ofirregularbordercrossingsfromTurkey totheEUbyroute,2009-2014 Mar May Jul Sept Nov 2010 Jan

to Greece via sea route sea via Greece to Mar May Jul

8 Sept Another recent

9 Nov 2011 Jan Mar May Jul - to Bulgaria via land route Sept

on fraudulent grounds, suchas fictional international ad hoc arrangements to grant legal access to the country let themin. to passthrough border control and/ortobribeofficials lookalike,modifiedor fraudulently obtained) counterfeit, providing migrants with travel documents (false, normally requires asmugglingorganizationcapableof document controls. Asaconsequence,smugglingby air Migrants willnecessarilyface passingthrough airports commercial flightsconnectinginternationalairports. for migrants. Smugglers may arrange for migrants to board smuggling by airismore expensive butingeneralsafer In contrasttocrossings overland andby sea, migrant different methods Smuggling byairandcombinationsof routes toAustralia from South-East Asia. Less relevant than in therecent pastare seasmuggling peninsula andacross theAndamanSea toSouth-East Asia. southern Europe, from the Horn of Africa to the Arabian sea crossings are thoseacross theMediterranean Sea to Currently, the most relevant smuggling passages involving and departure are relatively safe. to move freely around territoriestoensure thatboarding logistics, accesstotoolsandinfrastructure, andtheability different vessels. Smuggling by searequires specific regarding the profiles of migrantstotravel on board before departure. Sometimes smugglersare alsoselective to locationsshelterlargenumberofmigrantsforweeks Nov 2012 Jan Mar May 11

Other forms ofsmugglingby airmayinvolve Jul Sept Nov 2013 Jan to Greece via land via route Greece to Mar May Jul 10

Sept Nov 2014 Jan Mar May

Jul Sept Nov 0 1,000 2,000 km

Global overview I 0 1,000 2,000 km 0 Sea1,000 crossing2,000 km Areas affected Major areas affected by sea smuggling discussed in this studyby sea smuggling

Sea crossing Sea crossing Areas affected Areas affected by sea by sea smuggling smuggling

Sea routes

Sea routes Sea routes

The designations employedThe designationsand the presentation employed of and material the presentation on this map of domaterial not imply on this the map expression do not imply of any the opinion expression whatsoever of any opinion on the whatsoeverpart of the onSecretariat the of the United Nations concerning the partlegal of status the Secretariat of any country, of the territory,United Nations city or concerning area or of itsthe authorities, legal status orof concerningany country, the territory, delimitation city or areaof its or frontiers of its authorities, or boundaries. or con Dotted- line represents The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United The designations employed and the presentation of material on this mapcerning do not the imply delimitation the expression of its of frontiers any opinion or boundaries. whatsoever onDotted the part line of represents the Secretariat approximately of the United the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and KashmirNations concerningagreed upon the bylegal India status and of Pakistan.any country, The territory, final status city or of area Jammu or of itsand authorities, Kashmir orhas concerning not yet been the delimitation agreed upon of its by frontiers the parties. or boundaries. Dotted line represents Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or areaagreed or of its upon authorities, by India or andconcerning Pakistan. the The delimitation final status of itsof frontiers Jammu orand boundaries. Kashmir has Dotted not lineyet representsbeen agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan andapproximately the Republic the of Line South of Control Sudan inhas Jammu not yetand been Kashmir determined. agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon betweenby India and the Pakistan. Republic The of finalSudan status and of the Jammu Republic and Kashmirof South has Sudan not yet has been not agreedyet been upon determined. by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. Source: UNODC

conferences or fake marriages. It is difficult to estimate combinations could be individual parts of a pre-planned the size of this type of migrant smuggling as it is unknown smuggling itinerary, or a sequel of smuggling passages how many succeed in entering each country. organized separately in different moments of a long journey. Many smuggling routes involve more than one method of transportation. Often a migrant is smuggled through Organization and duration a combination of land, sea or air smuggling. Moreover, The duration of the smuggling process may vary greatly, some of the travel might also be undertaken regularly. The depending on, inter alia, the route used and its organiza- routes that lead West Africans to Europe, for example, tion. If an entire route is designed and offered by smug- normally involve regular international bus travel from the glers as a package, the duration of the travel may be migrants’ country of origin towards a transit country in relatively short, usually lasting a few weeks, or perhaps the Sahel, followed by smuggling by land into North months. The smugglers provide migrants with lists of con- Africa, and from there, smuggling to Europe by sea. The tacts for each step of the travel. Once they have success- routes from the Horn of Africa to the Middle East require fully managed to cross one border, the smuggled migrants smuggling by land to Djibouti or Somalia, by sea to may be instructed to move to a specific location and to Yemen and again by land to other countries of the Arabian contact a particular person who will facilitate the crossing peninsula. Similarly, many Afghans traverse large parts of of the next border. This continues until the final destina- South-West Asia overland, often with facilitation by smug- tion is reached.12 Smuggling organizations operating in glers, are then smuggled across the sea to Greece along the this way are able to move people relatively fast. For exam- Eastern Mediterranean route, and then continue overland ple, surveys have shown that smugglers can move along the Western Balkans route (often with smugglers). migrants from South Asia through West Asia and into Routes connecting geographically distant areas, such as Greece along the Eastern Mediterranean route in approxi- Asia and Europe, or much of the transcontinental smug- mately 15-20 days.13 gling into the Americas, often involve at least one passage by air. The routes may then continue by land and/or sea In other cases, the whole journey is a combination of dif- to reach the migrant’s final destination. Different transfer ferent, shorter legs organized individually. Migrants decide

27 28 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 sporadic. up to17daysbesmuggledintoSaudi Arabia. Smugglers mayorganize thestandby inapointof transit siderations, sternness or leniency of border control, knowl- characteristics, seasonaldifference, safetyandsecuritycon points, includinggeographical location,environmental them. Several factorsaffecttheselectionofdeparture irregular border crossings by migrants;thatis,smuggling talize onthisdemandtogenerateprofits by facilitating have legal,affordable waystodoso. The smugglerscapi- of migrantshopingtocross theborder butwhodonot towards the border. This iscausedby anincreased number a departure location,usuallythere isfirstapressure on theestablishmentofasignificantsmugglingroute from When analysing the features which can have an impact Characteristics ofdeparturepoints glers arrivals: Underthecontrol ofsmug- 1.2 after three monthsatsea. 2010 case when nearly 500 Sri Lankans arrived in Canada Italy orMalta, islands, such asthepassagefrom the Turkish coasttotheGreek and arrival points.Such voyages hours, maytakeafew largely connectedtothedistancebetween the departure The durationsofseacrossings are more predictable, and days. passage isnormallyorganized by carand ittakesafew by pick-uptrucks. portation and 20daystoEgypt, orlessifsmugglersorganize trans- trea or Ethiopia requires 2-6 days of walking to Sudan through hazardous areas. For instance,crossing from Eri land borders may require one or more days of walking touseslow modesoftravelling.when itisnecessary Some Another factor that may delay thesmugglingprocess is periods duringthetravel. the factorswhichmaycausedelaysislengthywaiting the arrival insafe areas indestinationcountries. border. Similarly, inmanycases,smugglersalsoorganize or departure, waitingfortherightmomenttocross the even takeyears. journey -from initialdeparture tofinaldestination-may tact different smugglersateachcrossing point. The whole a successfuljourney. In thesecases,migrantsusuallycon- regarding risks,enforcement measures andlikelihoodof resources, theurgencyoftheirjourneyandinformation each specificsectionaccording totheiravailable financial

17 Locations ofdepartur Somali migrantssmuggledto Yemen need towalk 19 a few days, such as the journey from a few Libya to 20 14 oreven months,asin the August a few

21 However, suchbigevents are 16 From Sudan toLibya, the es and 15 18 One of - - passage hasfluctuated,according toseasons,border con- travel. The numberofmigrantsusingoneortheother hours, thesecondrequires more than24hoursofsea inlessthan6 While thefirstpassagecanbeundertaken province ofObock inDjiboutiorBossasoSomalia. insula. fromThis smugglingroute the typicallydeparts gling by seafrom theHorn ofAfricatotheArabianPen- by otherconsiderationsrelatescan betrumped tosmug- One examplethatillustrateshow geographical distance point. normally alsohave animpactonthechoiceofdeparture authorities’ control at origin and/or destination would more distant,butsaferlocations. The extentofnational cal andnaturalobstaclesmaydeterminetheselectionof preferred route to cross the borders, however. Geographi and costs. passagemaynotalwaysbethe The shortest destination, as thisminimisestravel distanceandthus risks of departure onthebasisofitsproximity tothedesired At the border crossing, smugglers tend to choose the place combined withotherfactors. edge ofroutes andterritorialcontrol, whichmaybe required numberofmigrantsbefore departure, store lar) used by smugglerstohidetheir activities, gather the ments (oftencalledsafehouses, smugglerhousesorsimi- ways. Alongmanysmuggling routes, there are establish- Territorial control isalsousefulforsmugglersinother transit anddestinationpoints. land route, withsomemembersroving between different are spread across several countriesalongthe West Asian these territories. historically beenincontrol ofthenomadroutes along Tuareg, the Toubou, theRashaidaandothers–thathave smugglers belonging to ethnic groups - including the Sahara where many border crossings are facilitated by Some clearexamplescanbefoundintheSahel andthe outtheircrimes. to carry communities. This makesiteasierforsmugglingnetworks them, and where they often enjoy the complicity of local welldeparture pointsinterritoriesthatare known very to risk ofapprehension. When possible,smugglersselect ings where controls are limited, which minimises their crossing. Not surprisingly, smugglerstendtoprefer cross United States ofAmerica. gling activityalongtheborder between Mexico andthe migrantstouselongerroutes, instructing crossing assessedinthisstudy, from Africansmugglers Similar examplescanbedrawnfrom manyoftheborder trols, protection risksformigrantsandotherfactors. Border controls playamajorrole inthechoiceofborder 25 Similarly, Kurdish smuggling networks 24

23 tothesmug- 22 - -

Global overview I equipment, brief migrants about the passage, and to house of arrival according to the citizenship of migrants because migrants while waiting for the right moment to embark this influences the action that migrants are likely to take on the journey. These houses are normally located very once at destination. Smuggled migrants with particular close to the border. Especially for sea crossings, these facili- citizenships may want to identify themselves to the ties can be capable of hosting large numbers of migrants authorities at destination and apply for asylum. In this for extended periods of time. Their establishment and case, smugglers select crossing points where the competent operation are only possible in areas where smugglers have authorities are more likely to grant asylum for persons the complicity of local communities and, often, of the with these citizenships. The smugglers normally instruct authorities. migrants about asylum application procedures.30 For smuggled migrants with other citizenships for which Territorial control, at least in departure zones, is required asylum may not be an option and repatriation agreements to carry out smuggling by sea. Departure points for sea do not exist, smugglers may select points of destination crossings have to be accessible to smugglers for storage, where migrant reception centres are overcrowded, so that boarding and for the actual departure of boats. In many they can be quickly released with an expulsion order.31 In cases, smugglers managing departure points are part of the absence of a repatriation agreement with the country local communities historically tied to the sea, like fisher- of origin, migrants are left with an order to leave the coun- men and sailors, who have knowledge of equipment, sea- try, but are not repatriated. sons and times, as well as places to cross the sea.27 Other migrants may have citizenships which smugglers Vessels used for sea crossings normally depart from coastal know are returned immediately to the country of origin villages close to major cities where smugglers sell their or transit once detected. For these migrants, smugglers services to migrants through smuggling hubs. The coastal may select arrival points to reduce the probability of detec- villages are where vessels are stored, boarded and depart tion. Smugglers may also ‘sell’ additional travel to specific 28 to sea. cities or regions within the destination country. Smugglers Characteristics of arrival points may also guide migrants to particular locations.32 The considerations that drive the selection of the arrival Migrants’ citizenships can also determine the type of jour- points partially overlap with the criteria for departure ney. For migrants who are not seeking asylum, smugglers points, including geography and natural characteristics, arrange travel routes and landing spots with little surveil- safety and security aspects, and the nature of border con- lance. For migrants who are planning to hide at destina- trols. In addition, availability of smugglers’ networks at tion, smugglers attempt shorter journeys and fast boats, destination as well as several policy issues such as asylum leveraging on the rapidity of the passage to avoid detec- procedures and deportation practices have an impact on tion. In these latter cases, smugglers may release migrants the selection of arrival points. in the water just off the coasts and return to the point of departure.33 As a result, arrival points tend to change according to the routes, the smugglers and the service agreed with the In some cases, smuggled migrants seek detection in order migrants. In some cases, migrants buy smuggling “pack- to apply for asylum or to be released with an expulsion.34 ages” that include inland routes or passages to the next In these cases, smugglers may opt to have the vessels inter- leg of the journey. In these cases, smugglers need to have cepted at high seas by competent coast guards, leveraging contacts or infrastructure in place on the other side of the international law to rescue people at sea in situations of border. Migrants who are smuggled from Somalia into distress.35 Kenya, for example, cross the borders in certain locations A pattern that emerges from the analysis of sea smuggling where they can look for drivers to transport them to Nai- routes is that smugglers sometimes choose to target islands robi where the next leg of the journey is organized by other that may be distant from the mainland, but still under the smugglers.29 Similar methods are found along other Afri- authority of the destination country. Smugglers operating can routes, where smugglers guide migrants to locations along the Central Mediterranean route, for example, have where, once the border has been crossed, the migrants targeted the Italian island of Lampedusa as a point of head to the closest smuggling hub where the next leg of arrival, located less than 300 kilometres north of Libya, their journey is organized. and more than 200 kilometres south of the Italian main- Where to cross and arrive is strictly related to the modus land. Similarly, Lesbos, Kos, Chios and Samos, along with operandi of the smugglers. Smugglers may choose points other Greek islands, are only a few hours away from the

29 30 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Turkish coast. These islandshave beenselectedas the key cerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.cerning thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat ofthe UnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities, con- The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthe situated between Mozambique andMadagascar. ofMayotte, anarchipelagoterritory intheIndian ocean, tres from Indonesia, respectively, aswell astheFrench mas Island andAshmore Reef, only350and150kilome the Spanish mainland,theAustralian territoriesofChrist islands, close to the western coast of Africa and far from Other such destinations include the Spanish Canary arrival points along the Eastern Mediterranean route. Selected currentandpastoffshore destinationsusedforsmugglingbysea South or areaofitsauthorities, concerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries. whatsoever onthepartof Secretariat oftheUnitedNationsconcerninglegalstatus ofanycountry, territory, city The designationsemployedand thepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplyexpression ofanyopinion

Areas ofdeparture Asia Seacrossing (Keeling) Island Cocos LIBYA Lampedusa (Australia) Christmas Island INDONESIA ITALY AUSTRALIA (Australia) Ashmore Reef - - the migrantstomainlandwhileproceeding withthe the claimhasbeenfiled,authoritiestypicallyrelocate motivated to applyforasylum. Once by the opportunity mainland. The choiceofthesearrival pointsisusually not intendtoremain there, butwanttocontinuethe majority ofmigrantsthatarrive inthesesmallislandsdo of thesmuggledmigrants)adestinationcountry. The (relative tothelocation intotheclosestterritory cal entry These arrival points have in common that they offerphysi GREECE TURKEY - Global overview I refugee status determination. The targeting of these small America or the Caribbean. From there, they may be smug- islands has largely stopped in view of various policy meas- gled northwards and eventually cross into the United ures in destination countries, such as containment in States of America at that country’s southern land border.42 origin or transit countries or immediate migrant reloca- During fiscal year 2016,43 the United States recorded tion in mainland or in third countries. 55,000 irregular entries by citizens of countries in Asia, Characteristics of airports used for Africa and the Middle East at its southern border, indicat- smuggling by air ing that making use of a combination of air and land routes to reach North America is an established tactic of Different patterns emerge with regard to smuggling by smuggling. air. The selection of departure and arrival airports depends on the specific smuggling method employed by the crimi- 1.3 The role of hubs nals. One method aims at connecting major international airports at origin and destination. The second makes use In market terms, a ‘smuggling hub’ could be defined as of ad hoc ‘airports of convenience’ as transit before con- the location where smuggling demand and supply meet. tinuing the travel by land, sea or other air connections. The importance of a smuggling hub is largely determined by the number of smuggling routes and destinations on In the first case, smugglers usually rely on forged or fraud- offer and the number of migrants who make use of it. ulently obtained travel documents and/or corrupt officials Hubs are the geographical areas where smugglers in roles at origin and/or destination. Depending on the national- such as brokers, coordinators or chiefs often meet poten- ity of migrants, the targeted airports are often those with tial clients and instruct affiliates along the routes about direct connections to the desired destinations.36 Some how to implement the smuggling journey.44 South and South-West Asians, for example, have used major international airports in South Asia to fly directly One key characteristic of smuggling hubs is their stability. to desired destinations using fraudulent documents.37 As discussed in the previous section, smuggling hubs tend to remain stable over time while routes, departure and However, the second method, making use of transit air- arrival points tend to change. This may be due to a ports to reach final destinations, appears to be more wide- number of factors, including, for example, the importance spread. Such journeys start with a flight from a major of smuggling of migrants for the livelihood of the com- airport in the migrant’s own country to a transit country. munities living around the hubs. From there, local smugglers may arrange the next passage In the hubs, smugglers are not the only ones providing via land, sea or again by air to the final destination. These services for – and making money off - migrants. For exam- operations may be complex, and could involve, for example, enterprising locals may sell telephone or communica- ple, Asians flying to major Eastern European airports, and tion services, and residents may rent out rooms, apartments then transiting overland to the European Union.38 or houses. In well-organized hubs, there may be several In the European Union, the use of transit airports to hundred people involved in a smuggling network, includ- smuggle migrants by air is more common than the use of ing boat owners, boat makers, boat crews, owners of res- direct flights. Among all entry document fraud cases taurants and cafés, accommodation managers, telephone detected in European airports involving citizens of African centres, truck drivers, landlords, police officers and local countries during the first half of 2016, almost 70 per cent government officials.45 Some cities at the border between related to flights coming from transit airports.39 Similarly, Ethiopia and Kenya serve as hubs for the route leading to most Asians detected with counterfeit passports at EU Southern Africa from the Horn of Africa. Here, some airports had departed from international airports in Africa studies have estimated that some 60 per cent of the major or the Middle East.40 Such transits are preferred to direct hub cities' income stems from migrant smuggling and flights because smugglers hope for more lenient controls related services.46 of passengers arriving from these third countries. Along routes from West Africa to North Africa and In the Western Hemisphere, migrants from the Caribbean Europe, major smuggling activities are concentrated may fly to countries with fewer access restrictions, from around the city of Agadez.47 Different smuggler profiles where they contact smugglers to cross the land borders to are found there, including organizers, drivers, recruiters, other South American countries.41 There is evidence that those handling bribes and those providing lodging to smugglers use some African airports as transits for Asian migrants. The community’s livelihood is closely linked to migrants en route to countries in South America, Central the migrant smuggling business, also in Agadez, with

31 32 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Dadaab andKakumainKenya. smugglers tolocatetheirsmuggling activity, including passage toKhartoum. a refugee camp in order to find a smuggler to arrange their smuggled from the Horn of Africato Sudan first travel to access to potential clients, since manyofthose who are settling atrefugee campsinSudan inorder tohave easy tional hubs. There are, forexample,reports ofsmugglers relevant in guidingmigrantstowards themajorinterna- in Khartoum. Ababa orSouq Libya andAlHaj Yousif neighbourhoods as the Somali neighbourhood of Bole Mikhel in Addis well-knowneasily foundincertain neighbourhoods,such of AfricatoNorth Africa and Europe. Smugglers canbe toum, playarole inthesmugglingroute from theHorn In Africa,capitalcities, suchasAddis Ababa andKhar widely usedborder crossing point. smuggling hubs,usuallyduetotheirlocationclosea or capitals. However, as some smaller cities also serve movements’ withintheEuropean Union are majorcities In Europe, many ofthesmugglinghubsfor‘secondary ica, andalongmanyAfricanroutes. onwards toEurope, from CentralAmericatoNorth Amer- gling routes from South Asiato West Asia,andthen significant smuggling hubs. This is the case for the smug Capitals ormajorcitiesalongsmugglingroutes are often communities. located inmajorcitieswithapresence offoreign journeys. try These largesmugglinghubsare typically hubs have international significance, offering multi-coun or relate to the crossing of a specific border only. Other hubs are onlyrelevant fortheinitialphaseofjourney routes considered inthisstudy. Asageneralpattern,some Many smugglinghubswere identifiedalongeachofthe Africa; mainlyLibya, andtoaminorextentAlgeria. migrants were reported tohave forNorth leftAgadez known fordecades.Already in2003,some65,000 role inthesmugglingofmigrantshasbeen ofAgadez the role ofhubstendstobemore constantover time. The points aswell asborder quickly, crossings maychangevery smuggling mayexplainwhy, whiledeparture andarrival The existenceofacommunitylivelihood basedonmigrant week. passingthrough each thousands ofmigrantsandtrucks 48 51 Along this route, smaller hubs are also 52 Other refugee campsare usedby 53 50 49 - - - 2. tries inbignumbers,whereas receiving countries might of view, onemayask whichcitizens are leaving theircoun lysed from different perspectives. From theoriginpoint The citizenship profiles ofsmuggledmigrants canbeana Citizenship andethnicbackground types ofjourneys. different migrantprofiles andaffectspecificroutes and commonalities, eachsmugglingflow hasdistinctdrivers, to reach theirdestination. While there are some of migrants who typically of smugglers rely on the services some countries or regions which experience large outflows flows pointsintime. atcertain Today, however, there are Virtually all countries have been sources of migratory and pulled 2.1 • • • • • • for smuggledmigrants Main emergingcharacteristics

THE SMUGGLEDMIGRANTS Protocol, have beenrecorded insomecountries. enshrined in the UN Smuggling of Migrants of thesmugglingroutes. aremigrants forextortion recorded alongmany lence, exploitationandkidnappingofsmuggled of smugglingactivities. year, thousands ofmigrantsare killedasaresult misinformation by smugglers. legal migrationandproactive recruitment and forlargely stemsfrom limitedopportunities movements. The demandformigrantsmuggling ronmental disastersoftendrive largemigration S some citizenships. shares offemalesandminorsare recorded for M Asia. Republic andAfghanistan,South andEast Horn ofAfricaand West Africa,theSyrian Arab long-distance routes typicallyoriginatefrom the nents. Migrants whoare smuggledthrough some are smuggledacross regions andconti- tions relatively close to their origin countries, While manymigrantsar V M S The pr muggling ofmigrantsisadeadlycrime.Every ocio-economic conditions,insecurityandenvi- iolations ofmigrants’ rightstoprotection, ost smuggledmigrantsare adultmales.Larger ass killings,systematictorture, sexualvio- ofile ofmigrants:pushed e smuggledtodestina- - - Global overview I

Fig. 4: Newly registered asylum seekers in Fig. 5: Main nationalities recorded in out- Israel, by region of origin, 2013 going flows from Niger into North Africa, February-September 2016

Others/ Unknown, Other, 12% 10% Guinea Nigeria, 22% -Bissau 5% Horn Guinea, 7% North of Africa 42% Côte Africa, d'Ivoire, 37% 7% Niger, 19%

Senegal, 13% West Africa, Gambia, 15% 11%

Source: UNHCR. Source: IOM. look at the most common citizenships among the smug- the majority of migrants smuggled to Yemen. Ethiopians gled migrants that arrive. While migrant smuggling affects are also frequently smuggled to Yemen. The smuggling most countries, some are more strongly affected than flow connecting the Horn of Africa to Southern Africa others. includes mainly Ethiopians, and to a lesser extent Somalis.54 Some of the main origin areas for smuggled migrants are the Horn of Africa, West Africa, Central America, some Migrants and refugees are smuggled from many different parts of the Middle East and different areas in South and West African countries to Europe, as well as to North and East Asia. Migrants from these areas are smuggled along Southern Africa. Niger is a key transit country for the multiple routes to reach different destinations. These smuggling route from West Africa towards North Africa migrants share either the quest for better economic con- and Europe. In 2016, there was no dominant citizenship ditions, or are fleeing persecution and war, or both. among smuggled migrants who transited Niger according Horn of Africa and West Africa as origins to IOM monitoring (see Figure). While Nigerians comprised the largest share, there were also many Nigeriens, Smuggled migrants from the Horn of Africa comprise Gambians, Senegalese and others. large shares of the migrants smuggled along four major routes to the Middle East, Southern Africa, North Africa Asia as origin and Europe. The impact of conflict-driven displacement on the smug- Nearly all the arrivals by sea in Yemen in 2016 were from gling of migrants of some citizenships can be clearly seen the Horn of Africa, and these smuggled migrants also with regard to Syrians. In 2015, Syrians represented about account for a large part of those recorded in North Africa half of all irregular arrivals into the European Union, most and the Middle East. Migrants and refugees smuggled to of them along the Eastern Mediterranean route. Although Italy from the Horn of Africa comprised about 15 per cent the numbers declined drastically in 2016 and 2017, nearly of the total between 2016 and mid-2017. About 20 per half of the migrants smuggled into Greece in these years cent of the new asylum seekers in 2015 in South Africa were still Syrian refugees. Syrian citizens also represent a were from this area of Africa. large majority of asylum seekers recorded in North Africa, and they undertake most of the detected irregular entries Smuggled migrants from the Horn of Africa as a subregion into Turkey. dominate some smuggling routes. Their specific destinations, however, tend to differ according to their country Citizens of many Asian countries are smuggled to a wide of origin. Most of the migrants and refugees from the range of destinations. One significant origin country is Horn of Africa who are smuggled into Europe are reported Afghanistan. Afghan citizens are smuggled along different by authorities at destination to come from Eritrea, and to routes in Asia, either to South and West Asia, to South- a lesser extent from Somalia, while Somalis account for East Asia and Australia, as well as to Western and Eastern

33 34 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Migrants from otherSouth andSouth-West Asiancoun- tries are alsosmuggled alongthesamelandroutes used of thecountry. Pashtunsnumbers ofrural from thesouthwest andwest or arrived young. there very Afghan Hazaras were bornintheIslamic Republic ofIran Hazaras, andurbanareas. from bothrural Many ofthe A largeshare of AfghansheadingtoEurope are ethnic iterranean routes intotheEuropean Union (see Figure). cent ofthemigrantssmuggledby seaalongthethree Med Europe. In 2015,Afghansaccountedforabout20per Source: UNHCR. F Source: UNODCelaborationofUNHCRandIOMdata. F Horn of Africa, Horn of ig ig 6,627, 5% . 7: . 6:

Egypt, byorigincountry, 2015 Newly registeredasylumseekersin ship, 2015 gling routes,bycountryofcitizen- three Mediterraneanmigrantsmug- ple whoarrivedintheEUalong Shares ofcitizenshipsamongpeo- Afghanistan, 56

20% eulc 48% Republic 14,020, Others, Syrian Arab 10% Senegal, 13% 55 There are alsorelatively high Eritrea 4% Somalia, Iraq, 9% 2% Republic, 117,635, Others, Syrian Arab 85% 8% Pakistan, 2% Gambia, Iran, 3%Iran, Nigeria, Sudan, 1% 2% 1% - F Source: UNHCR. F dreds more atothermajorEuropean Union airports, atBritish in2016,andseveralrefused hun airports entry and North America.Some 700South Asiancitizens were continents, from Europe, toSouthern Africa,Australia South Asiansare alsosmuggledby airacross different migrants in Turkey oftheworld. originatefrom thispart Similarly, about12percentoftheintercepted irregular ranean route were citizens of countries in South Asia. migrants whowere smuggledalongtheCentralMediter- 2016 and2017,about10percentoftherecorded along the Eastern Mediterranean route into Europe. In by Afghanmigrantsandrefugees into West Asia,and Source: MinistryofInteriorTurkey. ig ig 1,817, 1% . 9: . 8: rn, Iran

Bangladesh, Pakistan, 19,317, 30,947, 2,390, 11% Turkey, bycitizenship,2016 Irregular migrantsapprehendedin Libya, byorigincountry, 2015 Newly registeredasylumseekersin Iraq, 18% 1% 18,880, Others, 11% Syrian Arab 31,360, 18% 31,360, Afghanistan, Republic, Others 18,591, 63, 0% 63, 100% Republic, 69,755, Syrian Arab 40% 57 -

Global overview I though it is not clear how many of them were smuggled. Fig. 10: Irregular arrivals by sea to Italy, by South Asians are also smuggled by air to North America, area of citizenship, 2016-June 2017 directly or by combining air and land passages via Central Middle East, 58 South Asia, America. About one fourth of the smuggled migrants 21,387 9,202 2% who reached Australia by sea prior to 2014 came from 9% South Asia. This smuggling flow appears to have drasti- North cally decreased during the last few years, however. Africa, 3,449 Some South and South-West Asians are also smuggled to 12% South Africa. More than 10,000 South Asian asylum seek- West ers were recorded in South Africa in 2015; although it is Africa, not clear how many were smuggled. South Asians are typi- Horn of 154,986 Africa, 62% cally smuggled overland through the United Republic of 38,650 Tanzania and Mozambique.59 South Asian smuggled 15% migrants are often sponsored by fellow citizens already resident in South Africa.60 South-East Asia sees significant levels of intra-regional Source: UNHCR. migrant smuggling, along several routes with multiple Fig. 11: Irregular arrivals by sea to Spain, by origins and destinations. One such route, or rather cluster area of citizenship, 2016-June 2017 of routes, involves smuggling of migrants within the greater Mekong area, from poorer to richer areas on opposite sides of international borders. This smuggling is gen- North Africa, erally directed to Thailand, from Cambodia, the Lao 3,449, People’s Democratic Republic and Myanmar. A similar 24% smuggling route is directed to Malaysia; a destination for West smuggled migrants seeking work in the manufacturing Middle Africa, East, 776, 9,202, and domestic service industries. Many come from rural 6% 65% areas across Indonesia.61 Other East Asian migrants are also smuggled to Europe, North Sub-Sahara Africa, America and South Africa, often combining air, land and/ 758, 5% or sea passages. Source: UNHCR. Europe as destination Shifting the perspective from origin to destination, Europe Fig. 12: Irregular arrivals by sea in Greece, by is a key destination area, attracting smuggled migrants area of citizenship, 2016-June 2017 from many countries and areas. The citizenships of migrants smuggled to Europe vary according to the smug- Others, Other Middle gling route and destination country. Those who arrive in 22,120, East, 27,397, 16% 13% Italy by sea, via the Central Mediterranean route, are mainly from Africa (89 per cent); mostly West Africa. An Sub-Saharan Africa, 993, 1% even larger share of maritime arrivals in Spain, via the North Africa, Western Mediterranean route, are African (94 per cent); 2,185, 1% again, mainly West Africans but also a sizable share of North Africans. Afghanistan, 40,810, 23% Sea arrivals in Greece, through the Eastern Mediterranean route, have different citizenship profiles, however. Most of these smuggled migrants are from Afghanistan, the Syrian Arab Republic and other Middle Eastern countries Syrian Arab Republic, 80,960, 46% (85 per cent); reflecting the relative geographical proximity of the key origins and destinations. Source: UNHCR.

35 36 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 comprised thelargestshare applicantsforasylum ofnew North Americaasdestination less attractive as a destination, whereas someother There are someindicationsthatSouth Africa isbecoming Asians; mainlycitizens ofBangladesh, Pakistan andIndia. asylumper cent applicants of the new that year were applicants from other African subregions. Moreover, 21 in South Africain2015,there were alsolargeshares of journey. oftheir cent –andmostusesmugglersforatleastpart notably South Africa.Most are Africans–nearly80per seeking protection in Southern Africancountries, most There isasizableflow ofmigrantsandrefugees whoare Southern Africaasdestination similar trajectories. migrants from manyothercountriesare smuggledalong Asian countriestoNorth America, brought migrantsfrom arangeofSouth andSouth-West routes by thatwere airthat undertaken atleastpartially previous UNODCresearch hasuncovered smuggling difficult to quantify air smuggling flows.very However, complex andinvolve oneormore transitcountries. It is in combinationwithoverland legs. These routes canbe smuggled into North America via air routes, sometimes In additiontothesmugglingby land,migrantsare also Central Americancountries. Mexico and primarily concerns citizens of Mexico and the takes placeacross thecountry’s southernborder with migrants. Most of the smuggling into the United States ica –isanothersignificantdestinationarea forsmuggled North America – in particular, the United States of Amer Source: USDepartmentofHomelandSecurity. * Fiscalyears. F ig . 13: 63

While citizens ofcountriesinSouthern Africa 1,000,000 1,200,000 in theUnitedStates,totalandbycitizenship,2007-2016* Trend inthenumberofforeignersapprehendedimmigrationenforcementactions 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 0 854,190 72,465 0720 0921 0121 0321 052016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 884,017 95,910 731,225 96,837 62 anditislikelythat 102,631 632,034 101,639 517,472 148,264 468,766 - Smuggled migrants’sexandage as alternative destinations. Mozambique andBotswanamightbeincreasingly viewed Source: UNHCR. F well. For example,malesaccountfor80percentand cent ofalldetectedirregular migrantsalongthisroute. to theUnited States. Women makeupbetween 20-25per smuggled alongtheNorthern route from Central America Adult mencompriseaclearmajorityof themigrants female migrants, familyunitsor unaccompanied migrants. alone. Some smugglingflows includelargershares of Smuggled migrants are typically young males travelling Southern African countries like Zambia, Malawi, Similar values are recorded oftheworld as inotherparts 189,477 424,978 ig . 14: 284,136 350,177 Southern 27,093,

Africa, 36% 2015 South Africabyregionoforigin, Newly registeredasylumseekersin 161,060 267,885 10,818, 14% 10,818, West Africa, 225,313 265,747 64

Horn of Africa, Africa, Horn of 14,900, 20% 14,900, Asia, 15,692, Asia, Central America Mexico Middle East andAfrica AsiaSouth East Asia America South Others Caribbean 21% East Africa, 6,915, 9% Other

Global overview I adults for 83 per cent of migrants smuggled from the Moreover, contrary to the main patterns recorded around Horn of Africa along the route to Yemen.66 the world, Syrian citizens are typically smuggled in family units. This reflects the fact that many Syrians are fleeing The age profile of smuggled migrants appears to vary armed conflict and want to keep the family together as according to the citizenship of origin, although young they seek protection. men are strongly represented in all areas. In Africa, most of the migrants who are smuggled from the Horn of Africa Afghan migrants and refugees are smuggled both as indi- to South Africa, for example, are young men between the viduals and in family units. Those smuggled individually ages of 18 and 35.67 Some older migrants are recorded are mainly young men who intend to settle in the desti- among Asian migrants smuggled to different parts of the nation country and then facilitate the migration of other world. East Asian migrants smuggled to Europe and North relatives, but recent sources point to an increasing number America are mostly male, typically adults between 20 and of Afghan families on the move. Single females travelling 50 years of age.68 South Asian smuggled migrants are also alone remain an exception among Afghan smuggled predominantly men, aged between 18 and 30.69 migrants.71 In Asia, Malaysia is a destination for smuggled migrants. A significant and growing number of unaccompanied Most of them are male, but there are also large shares of minors - mostly boys - are also smuggled to Europe.72 In women from neighbouring countries.70 2016, nearly 34,000 unaccompanied and separated children arrived in Greece, Italy, Bulgaria and Spain. Most of Fig. 15: Comparison of the profiles of them arrived in Italy via the Central Mediterranean route, Syrians and persons with all citizenships travelling along the Central having travelled from the Horn of Africa or West Africa. Mediterranean route, 2015 Of those who arrived in Greece or Bulgaria, most were from South-West Asia. More than 35 per cent of the total Unaccompanied and unaccompanied minors who arrived in Italy in 2015 came 8% All separated children 9% from the Horn of Africa. Most of these migrants tend to see Italy as a transit country on their way towards other Syrians 3% 73 Children 19% parts of Europe, which suggests that they are likely to become involved in secondary smuggling within the Euro- Women 14% pean Union. 17% Unaccompanied minors in Europe and elsewhere tend to 75% Men 56% be boys aged between 14 and 18. Sometimes they travel to join family members already in Europe, other times 0% 20% 40% 60% they are sent ahead, as ‘pioneers’ of the family.74 The pres- Source: UNHCR. ence of a large number of unaccompanied minors is also recorded along the Northern route from Central America Fig. 16: Shares of Syrians who arrived in Greece in January 2016 who report- to the United States, although the trend appears to be ed having travelled with others or declining, according to statistics from the United States alone* Customs and Border Protection. 74% Motivation to migrate and reasons to use a smuggler Each smuggled migrant has an individual story that is difficult to fit neatly into categories. Profiling these stories can oversimplify migrants’ motivations, but can also help 13% 14% to understand key motivations behind the persistent high 10% demand for smuggling services. A distinction is often made between those who migrate Close Extended Friends, Alone family family colleagues with the primary motive of improving their economic perspective, so-called ‘economic migrants’, and those who * The exact question in the survey was: “Who are you travelling with?”. More than one answer possible. escape persecution and conflict, refugees. While in some Source: UNHCR. cases it is possible to draw a clear line between these two

37 38 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 profiles, inothercases,thedesire tomigratestemsfrom within theregion. migrant smugglingformost South Americansmoving arrangement. This seemsto have reduced thedemandfor Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) novisa Similar considerationsapplyforSouth Americaandthe free movement is notadequatelyimplemented. from those areas apart whereof smuggling services, the ECOWAS free movement area doesnotrequire theuse the movement of West African citizens within the cally usesmugglerstoenterLibya orAlgeria. Whereas, gling hubsinNiger orMali ontheirown, whiletheytypi borders. smuggling businessflourishesinthehubsclosetothese vices onlytocross theborders intoNorth Africa,andthe West Africanmigrantstypicallylookforsmugglingser of theSyrian ArabRepublic. reach thesouthern coast of Turkey coast from the northern the increased numbers ofSyrians whousesmugglersto risks connectedtothewar, however, seemtobebehind occurred regularly. Recent increased travel restrictions and Greece, whilelandorairjourneysto Turkey typically used smugglers only attheborders between Turkey and bouring countries without visas. For this reason, Syrians the European Union. Typically, theycouldmove toneigh armed conflict,Syrians facedvisarestrictions onlytoenter During thepre-conflict years andthefirstperiod ofthe their familymembers. smugglers toarrangetheseacrossing forthemselves and a Schengenvisaisequivalent tothefeetheyneed topay posed tohave intheirbankaccountsorder tobeissued out by oneoftherespondents -themoneytheyare sup- deciding torefer toasmuggler. Nevertheless -aspointed at different European embassiesintheMiddle Eastbefore European Union reported thattheyhadappliedforavisa Syrians who had been smuggled into the the interviewed legal andsafechannelstoentertheEUterritory. Many of erally eligibleforinternationalprotection butdonothave The case of Syrian refugees is explicative. Syrians are gen- when facingobstaclestomigrate. of origin.Migrants andrefugees typicallyuseasmuggler those motivating apersontomove from thecommunity reasons formakinguseofasmugglerare different from out their journey. to plan or carry smuggling services The Both economicmigrantsandrefugees maymakeuseof path tolive inlargerfreedom from fearandpoverty. economic needswhere migrationisperceived asaviable a combination of different political, security and/or socio- 78 These migrantsarrange thetravel tothe smug- 80 76 77 79 75

- - - makes smugglingofmigrantsadeadlycriminalbusiness. forms of exploitation have also been widely reported. This andvarioussystematic torture ofmigrants,extortion, smuggling hubsanddeparture areas formaritimeroutes, directly involved inmass killings. In and around some report, alongsomesmugglingroutes, smugglersare As reported in more detailintheregional chaptersofthis some smugglers are in their pursuit of profit. unscrupulous facilitate border crossing are harmlesstothemigrants, often underthreat. While insomecases, people who itself. In allsmuggling routes, thelives of migrantsare during smugglingof migrants may not be the smuggling of abetterlife.But themostseriouscrimecommitted Migrant smugglingisacrimepreying onpeople’s dreams irregular migrants across an international border for profit. criminal offencethatrelates tofacilitatingthepassageof From alegalpointofview, smugglingofmigrantsisa crime 2.2 their clientele. key activitiesforsmugglerstocreate demandandbroaden be presented later, active recruitment andmarketing are than regular migration. promote theperception thatirregular migrationischeaper do so by using thesmuggler’s services. effective inencouragingmanytoleaveparticularly andto misinformation. Smugglers’ propaganda appears to be attracted totravel by smugglers’ proactive recruitment and smugglers. In somecases,migrantsandrefugees are are nottheonlyreasons whysomemigrantschoosetouse Legal migrationrestrictions andexpenseconsiderations to obtainapassport. difficult whichmakesitvery certificate, of avalid birth to the capital. Moreover, some may not beinpossession and a visa can be expensive and might involve costly travel tination. Costmightalsobeafactor. Obtaining apassport to their intended des- offering them immediate transport refugees ofsmugglers, mayprefer toresort totheservices or even years tomakeuseofa legal pathway, migrantsand to obtainthe requisite permissions. When it takes months migration, but they are discouraged by the time required be migrantsandrefugees canaccesslegalchannelsfor In somecases,would- the demandforsmugglingservices. Legal migrationoptionsmaybeinsufficienttoaddress migrants more readily find better jobs and wages. isthattheymightbelieve thatsmuggled smuggler services

Risks formigrants– 82 Another reason why some choose a deadly 81 Smugglers also 83 As will Global overview I

Risks of death: migrants put on precarious Fig. 18: Trend in the number of deaths path recorded along the three Mediter- ranean migrant smuggling routes, Dangerous transportation modes along with difficult ter- 2014- 2017 rain and unfavourable weather are key factors contributing to the high human costs of smuggling. Substandard vehi- 5,000 4,500 4,581 cles and vessels as well as risky travel arrangements are 4,000 reported along most smuggling routes. Smugglers may 3,500 3,165 force migrants to use overcrowded, cramped or faulty 3,000 2,877 2,853 transportation, often without sufficient fuel, safety equip- 2,500 2,000 ment or water. These decisions illustrate the smugglers’ 1,500 disregard for the health and well-being of migrants. 1,000 804 434 500 224 The International Organization for Migration monitors 0 59 102 128 62 migrant fatalities worldwide; generating records of fatalities by geographical location and cause of death. Accord- 2014 2015 2016 2017 ing to this data, most migrant deaths are due to drowning Central Mediterranean while attempting to cross the Mediterranean. Out of a Eastern Mediterranean total 8,189 recorded deaths in 2016, 3,832 (46 per cent) Western Mediterranean took place in the Mediterranean.84 While this data can Source: IOM Missing Migrants Project. give a general sense of where most migrant fatalities seem to occur, IOM indicates that the data only represent a along this route than others. For one, this is a very long minimum estimate of the total number of fatalities, as and busy smuggling route; a large number of migrants are many deaths remain unrecorded.85 smuggled along the Central Mediterranean route, which covers an area that is larger than for many other widely Among the different routes for smuggling by sea, the Med- used sea routes. A typical journey along this route may be iterranean routes are the most deadly, with more than 300 kilometers long, compared to some 30 kilometers 10,000 migrant fatalities since 2014. The Central Medi- between the Turkish coast and some Greek islands, or the terranean route accounted for 91 per cent of the deaths northern coast of Morocco and Spain. This means that recorded in the Mediterranean in 2017, and 89 per cent there is a large number of people who are exposed for a of those recorded in 2016 (see figure 18). long time to the risks of the high seas. Two key reasons can explain why there are more deaths The second reason is the ruthless behaviour of smugglers Fig. 17: Number of migrant fatalities active along this route. With scant regard for migrant recorded by IOM globally, by cause safety, they arrange travels in often unseaworthy, crowded of death, 2017 (n=6,163) and inadequate vessels during seasons when weather conditions are bad. In general, the summer months - June to Deaths due to vehicle or Homicides - killed by human August - are safer for attempting the Mediterranean Sea train accidents - land beings - land routes, 382, 6% crossing, as the sea is quieter. During these months, on routes, 482, 8% average, some 2-3 per cent of the migrants attempting to Other, 131, Deaths due to 2% use the Central Mediterranean route have lost their lives. unknown/unreported However, since 2015, many migrants have started to board reasons, 406, 7% vessels in early spring or late autumn. As a consequence, more fatalities have been recorded over the last three years. Springtime crossings have resulted in a peak of 7-8 per cent of the migrants dying while attempting to cross from North Africa to Italy. Deaths due to harsh condi�ons Deaths due to drowning or Drowning is a constant risk for migrants and refugees and illness, presumed drowning - sea smuggled not only in the Mediterranean sea, but also in 1,165, 19% routes, 3,597, 58% the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea,86 in the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.87 The unscrupulousness of smug- Source: UNODC elaboration of IOM data. glers is evident on these routes as well, as there have been

39 40 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 have little information about the journey. ally notdistributed. often insufficientfoodandwater andlifejacketsare usu- vessels andovercrowding,issues ofunseaworthy there is gees ashorrificexperiences.In additiontothecommon Sea crossings are generally describedby migrantsandrefu petent crew, andwhoeven abandonboatsenroute. the monsoonseason,usesubstandard vessels and incom- reports of smugglers who encourage sea departures during Source: UNODC F Source: IOMMissingMigrantsProject. F UNHCR data. 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 ig ig 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 500 . 20: . 19: 0 Jan-14 Jan-March 2014-August 2017 ranean routepermonth,January arrivals alongtheCentralMediter Trend inshareofdeathstoirregular 2016 ranean routeperquarter, 2014-March corded alongtheCentralMediter Trend inthenumberofdeathsre- May-14 2017 2016 2015 2014 April-Jun E laboration ofIOMMissingMigrantsProject and Sep-14 July-Sept

88 Oct-Dec

Moreover, smuggledmigrants often Jan-15 Jan-March May-15 April-Jun July-Sept Sep-15 Oct-Dec Jan-16 Jan-March May-16 April-Jun July-Sept Sep-16 Oct-Dec 89 It is very Jan-17 Jan-March April-Jun -

May-17 - July-Aug -

tion countries. According to international conventions, the vessels are in the sea areas of competence of destina- vessels toforce by rescue coastguards interventions once A well-known practiceusedby smugglersistosabotage can prove fatal. ities. For migrantswhoare unabletoswim,thispractice permit smugglerstoavoid detectionby land-basedauthor board tens or hundreds of meters from the shores to ment authorities. Moreover, migrants may be pushed over been pushedoutofboatstoavoid interception by enforce the lives ofmigrants. There are reports ofmigrantshaving In someinstances,smugglersdeliberatelykillorendanger lems, losetheirwayatseaorfillupwithwater. common that vessels out of fuel, have run engine prob Dangerous travel conditions are also reported along land set onfire, resulting inmigrantdeaths. have beenintentionallypunctuated,andwoodenvessels shore. Many episodesare recorded ofinflatablevessels that who are at risk in the sea and bring them to safety on n Challenging weather andterrainconditionsare significant this globalstudy. recorded alongmany, ifnotall,landroutes reported in small spacewithoutventilation. Deaths have been People smuggledintheseconditionsare confinedinavery involves goods. concealingmigrantsinlorriestransporting smuggling routes. Here, acommonsmuggling method coast guards torescue have migrants adutytointervene

capabilities oftheship. persons indistress atsea,totreat themwithhumanity, withinthe reasonably practicable. They alsoobligemasterswhohave embarked the ship’s intended voyage; and arrange disembarkation as soon as released from deviation from their obligations with minimum further ships providing assistanceby embarking personsindistress atseaare States/Parties toco-ordinate andco-operatetoensure thatmastersof the inconvenience fortheassistingship. They require theContracting by ensuringthatpeopleindistress atseaare assistedwhileminimizing (Chapter 3.1.9)aimatmaintainingtheintegrityofSARservices, Amendments totheSOL is found” (Chapter2.1.10). or statusofsuchapersonthecircumstances inwhichthatperson provided toanypersonindistress atsea...regardless ofthenationality (SAR Convention) obligesState Parties to“... ensure thatassistancebe The 1979I facilities asare deemedpracticableandnecessary...” establishment, operationandmaintenanceofsuchsearch andrescue distress atseaaround itscoasts. These arrangementsshallincludethe nation intheirarea ofresponsibility andfortherescue ofpersonsin arrangements are made for distresssary communication and co-ordi- Convention) requires(SOLAS State Parties “...toensure thatneces- The 1974I for thispurposeParty” 98(2)). (Art. mutual regional arrangementsco-operatewith neighbouringStates on andover theseaand,where circumstances sorequire, by wayof an adequateandeffective regarding search andrescue service safety State “...promote theestablishment,operationandmaintenanceof (UNCLOS coastal Convention) imposesanobligationonevery The 1982U nternational Convention onMaritime Search andRescue nternational Convention fortheSafety ofLifeatSea nited Nations Convention ontheLaw of the Sea 91 AS (regulation 33)and SARConventions 92 90

- - - - n

Global overview I

Fig. 21: Number of recorded deaths along extortion for ransom. This practice has been documented main Central and North American along many different smuggling routes. In Africa, it occurs land smuggling routes, 2014- 2017 on the route from the Horn of Africa to North Africa,96 97 450 to the Middle East, as well as along routes leading out 415 of West Africa, often carried out by armed groups operat- 400 399 350 ing in the parts of the Sahel that are crossed by migrant 339 smuggling routes.98 Similar risks are also present along 300 307 99 250 routes in the Americas, and along routes from South- West Asia to Europe.100 In some cases, migrants are held 200 180 hostage for ransom by the smugglers themselves, however, 150 116 more frequently, smugglers hand over or sell migrants and 100 101 93 refugees to criminal groups upon crossing the border or 50 arrival at major transit hubs.101 0 Massacres and mass graves have been revealed in border

2014 2015 2016 2017 areas in some South-East Asian countries102 and in the Mexico -United States land border Americas.103 In South-East Asia, smugglers reportedly Central American land routes organize camps where migrants are segregated while Source: IOM. ransom money is extorted from their relatives. Extreme brutality and starvation may also be used to put further causes of deaths along many overland smuggling passages, pressure on families to make the payments. from jungles to snowy mountains or deserts. The need to avoid detection may compel smugglers to move migrants Female migrants are particularly targeted along many across more dangerous terrain where the likelihood of smuggling routes. Sexual violence has been widely docu- 104 105 death tends to increase. mented; from Africa to Europe, to South Africa and to the Middle East.106 Sexual violence - including rape of One of the most dangerous land smuggling passages is boys as well as girls - has been reported during smuggling heavily used by migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa who within the European Union.107 Sexual assaults of female move towards North Africa or Europe. In addition to the migrants take place along some routes in the Americas as harshness of overland travel across the semi-arid Sahel and well. Similar criminal patterns have also been seen along the Sahara desert, smugglers’ carelessness with the health some Asian routes.108 and lives of migrants makes the journey even more risky. Risk of human trafficking and exploitation Smuggled migrants are regularly transported across the desert in overloaded trucks or pick-ups, often at high Smuggled migrants are at risk of exploitation both during speed and with insufficient food and water. Trucks and their journey and after their arrival in the destination pick-ups may break down, and passengers who fall ill are country. The irregular status that smuggled migrants often reportedly often abandoned by the smugglers in the have in both transit and destination countries leaves them desert.93 vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. Not only do smug- Risks of violence and crime: migrants and glers sometimes seek to take advantage of irregular predators migrants, but corrupt officials and local opportunists may also seek to exploit them. These situations can lead to Throughout their journeys, smuggled migrants are often abuse and human trafficking. vulnerable to violence and robbery. Predatory behavior by smugglers or criminal gangs active along smuggling Smuggled migrants are also vulnerable to being trafficked routes is frequently observed. According to one somewhat and exploited for forced labour or sexual exploitation, dated study, about 65 per cent of the Somalis interviewed along the route or at destination. A 2015-2016 survey along the smuggling route to Southern Africa reported among migrants travelling along the Eastern Mediterra- having been beaten up or robbed at least once during their nean route indicated that some 7 per cent of the respond- journey to South Africa.94 Similar risks have been recorded ents had experienced at least one trafficking or exploitative along nearly all routes discussed in this report.95 practice during the journey.109 A frequently reported form of violence - which may ulti- During their journeys, which are often long, smuggled mately result in the death of the smuggled migrant - is migrants may run out of money to pay for the next

41 42 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 p or fulltext,see:https://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/ o these risksinterritoriesundertheirjurisdiction. ments have aresponsibility totakemeasures toaddress timization are present alongnearlyallroutes andgovern- Risks ofdeath,exploitation,torture orotherformofvic- States Parties toprotect andassistsmuggledmigrants. Smuggling ofMigrants by Land,Sea andAir 16 ofthe UnitedArticle Nations Protocol against the responsible forthehumancostsofmigrantsmuggling. destination. Smugglers orothercriminalsare mostly exploitation andeven deathalongtheirjourneysandat Smuggled migrants constantly face threats of violence, of smuggledmigrants Governments’ rolesinprotectingtherights beginning. very gling ofmigrantswasactuallyhumantraffickingfrom the conditions. What intheeyes ofthemigrantwassmug and canonlyberepaid by working underexploitative victim isinformedthatthedebt has drastically increased working atdestination.Once atdestination,however, the the smugglingpackage,withideaofpayingitbackby documents or other means. The targeted person accepts sometimesmakinguseofcounterfeit or airtransportation, fee. for a certain The package is said toinclude land, sea may offerasmugglingpackagetodesirabledestination ficking inpersons.Human traffickersinorigincountries their journey, butinstead,theybecomevictimsoftraf believe thattheyare engagingsmugglerswhowillfacilitate the earlystagesoftheirjourney. They canbemadeto Migrants mayalsobetrickedintohumantraffickingat European Union. migrants whohave contracteddebttotravel tothe other migrants, for as smuggled has been observed intherecruitment andsmugglingof orparticipate drugs Smuggled migrants may also illicitbe forced to transport involved inillegalactivitiessuchassellingdrugs. these children are alsovictimsofsexualexploitationor them toworking inexploitative conditions.In somecases, smugglers fortheirjourney, andthispressure mightlead back theinvestment madeby theirfamiliestopaythe migrants, inparticular, oftenfeelthepressure ofpaying destination, however. Unaccompanied minorsandyoung destination – are also at risk of being exploited at smuggling trip up front - as one package from origin to exploitative situations. Those whohave paidfor the entire resources can make them vulnerable to being tricked into smuggling passage. Their urgentneedforfinancial

Ar UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf. F t. 16(1), UN Smuggling of Migrants Protocol states “In 111 o requests p 110 - -

q in otherroutes considered inthisGlobal Study. in article 19(1)oftheUNSmugglingin article ofMigrants Proto- vention relating totheStatus ofRefugees, andreiterated 33ofthe1951Con- ciple wasoriginallystatedinarticle prin- risk violatingtheprincipleofnon-refoulement. This responsible for ‘push-backs’ of smuggled migrants, which authorities insomecountriesoftransitordestinationare While some countries are responsible for illegal detention, various formsof abuseandsometimestorture. gees have been locked up in detention centers, suffered There isevidencethatmigrants,asylumseekersandrefu carried out such detention in cooperation with smugglers. In officialsseekingeasyprofits have somecases,corrupt protection. in personsandothersneedofinternational detention have included refugees, victims of trafficking occurring without legal guarantees. Victims of illegal ties inorigin,transitanddestinationcountries;often gled have beensubjecttoarrest anddetentionby authori have been smuggled or are in the process of being smug- under internationallaw. detaining authoritiesshouldcomplywiththeirobligations be liableforcriminalprosecution, and ifindetention,the According totheProtocol, smuggledmigrantsshouldnot been recorded alongsomeroutes toEurope, at risk, also violate this principle. Such violations have to third countrieswhere theirlifeandsecuritymight be ers andrefugees totheir countriesoforigin,ordeportation Similarly, collective expulsionsandreturns ofasylumseek destination countriesriskinfringingonthisprinciple. group. General ‘push-backs’ at borders by authorities in social political opinionoraffiliationwithaparticular would bethreatened duetorace,religion, nationality, frontiers ofterritorieswhere hisorherlifefreedom expelled orreturned in“any mannerwhatsoever” tothe col. The principle statestherightofarefugee nottobe

Ar punishment” inhumanordegradingtreatmentto torture orothercruel, or theright tolifeandtherightnotbesubjected in particular rights ofpersons[…]accorded underapplicableinternational law, including legislationifnecessary, andprotect topreserve the with itsobligationsunderinternationallaw, allappropriate measures, implementing thisProtocol, each State Party shalltake,consistent ticle 5and16(5)oftheUNSmuggling ofMigrants Protocol. 112 q However, somemigrantsthat 114 aswell as 113 115 - - - Global overview I

3. THE SMUGGLERS

Main emerging characteristics for smugglers • The profiles of smugglers vary. In some cases, • Smuggling is often easier if the smugglers control smuggling involves unconnected or loosely con- the territory where they operate. As a consequence, nected individuals who profit modestly from smug- smugglers who are active at a particular border gling services. The livelihood of these individuals crossing are normally from that territory. may depend on the smuggling market that exists in • Smuggling methods range from more creative, their communities. In other cases, smuggling is car- sophisticated, safe and expensive to cheap, danger- ried out by members of sophisticated and often ous and simple ways to attempt entry in destination unscrupulous organizations which may make large countries. profits from the smuggling, and/or from the extortion and exploitation of migrants. • Smuggling can be carried out by full-time ‘professionals’ working in organizations or by individuals • Smugglers recruit and publicize their services. on an ad hoc basis. Smuggling fees and services fluctuate according to, inter alia, the safety of the smuggling methods, the • Smuggling organizations differ in terms of their distance involved, the difficulty of border crossings level of integration. Most smuggling networks are and the perceived wealth of migrants. loosely connected, based on fluid contacts. • Attracting and selling smuggling services require • With some exceptions, smuggling organizations are building trust with migrants. Therefore, smugglers generally not systematically involved in other major particularly those in intermediary or recruiting transnational organized crime activities. roles - often have the same citizenship as the • Smuggling organizations are involved in a range of migrants they smuggle. corrupt practices.

3.1 What does smuggling involve: youth.116 Several factors seem to motivate migrants’ deci- selling and organizing sions to use smuggling services, including the perception that circumventing legal requirements is cheaper than Successful smugglers are normally very knowledgeable on regular migration options, or that smuggled migrants may the best ways to profit from migrants’ desires to reach a find better jobs.117 Along some smuggling routes, migrants particular destination country. They may be proactive in could reach their desired destination simply by crossing creating demand for the smuggling services that they offer. the border, but even so, many pay smugglers who peddle They often misinform aspiring migrants about the pros- the lie that border crossings are not possible without pects for successful entry and the ease of the journey, and assistance. create false expectations about life at destination. They may also adopt strategic marketing techniques and adapt This does not mean that decisions to migrate are always their fees to migrants’ demand in order to maximize rev- influenced by smugglers. People often decide to migrate enues. That said, smuggling services are also traded with- for many different reasons, and they simply try to gather out deception, like other services. Along some routes, information on the best way to do it. Smugglers often smugglers need to establish trust and credibility. To miti- advertise their services in places where migrants may be gate risks, potential new migrants often seek advice from found, such as railway stations, cafes, bazaars and other those who were smuggled before. Satisfied clients create meeting places. a reputation that attracts new clients for smugglers. In smuggling hubs, smugglers advertise their services Marketing and recruitment openly,118 sometimes by displaying photos from destina- Proactive recruitment of migrants by smugglers is a pat- tion countries with grateful clients showing off their tern observed along nearly all routes. Smugglers (often in sporty cars and new clothes.119 Some cases involve inter- ‘broker’ roles) are crucial in creating aspirations and gen- mediaries who advertise smuggling services and refer erating demand for their services through deception and potential migrants to a particular smuggler. They may manipulation. Smugglers in recruiting roles often operate receive payments from both the smuggler and the migrant in different villages and towns, sometimes targeting for this service.120

43 44 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 tant role inproviding informationonwhere togoget by thewould-bemigrants.Diasporas alsoplay animpor- tives, community members or returnees who are trusted belong tothemigrants’ community:theyare friends,rela extended networks. Smugglers roles often inintermediary Smugglers are usuallyfoundby word ofmouththrough ous socialmediachannels. through vari prises, smugglers alsotheir advertise services have notnecessarilybeenconsideringit.Asmodernenter have decidedtomigrateaswell astoenticethosewho Smugglers toreach peoplewho publicize theirservices targeting Afghanmigrantshave alsobeenfoundtoposeas‘legaladvisors’ forasylumonsocialmedia. g f e c b uropean Commission,Directorate General forMigration andHome Affairs,Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and a transitanddestinationcountries. or awayfrom certain smugglers often deceive migrantsandchannelirregularIn migrationmovements sellingtheirservices, towards oranyothertraveldestination countries,aswell documents. aspassports Different ‘travel packages’ toflights. It canbefound,from cruises ‘guaranteed iscommontoadvertise visa’ for someofwhichalsooffer theadvantage ofanonymity.range ofmessagingservices, oftherequiredment afterthedelivery visa. They mayalsoaskpotentialclientstocontactthemdirectly viaa present attractive theiroffers,oftenby images. inserting They underlinepaymentmodalities;forinstance,pay- book orotherforanormallyusedby migrantstoexchange andexperiences.In views theirposts,smugglers Social mediachannelsare alsousedtopromote smugglingservices. This isoftendoneby posting adsonFace- riences inthereceiving countriesaswell asadministrative procedures tostayinthecountry. where smugglers failed, cheated or treated migrants badly. Migrants and refugees also comment on their expe- exposingcasesIn destinationcountries,smuggledmigrantspublishfeedbackaboutsmugglers andtheirservices; smugglers aswell asinformationaboutroutes andprices. In order toorganize journeys, theinternetisusedtoshare recommendations (ornegative reviews) ofmigrant gap by usingsocialmediatoolstoresearch thesmugglerandjourney theyare planningtoundertake. erable gapbetween theinformationthatisshared withmigrantsandreality, toreduce this migrantsoftentry common usageiswhere as‘consumer various socialmediaserve forums’. In abusinesswhere there isaconsid- Social media networks and channels are used in various ways in the context of migrant smuggling. One Smuggling ofmigrantsandsocialmedia d for NGOs orfakeEuropean Union agenciestaskedwithorganizing thesafepassagetoEurope by sea. ogy andsocialnetworks, suchasFacebook, Viber, Skype and WhatsApp, toshare theirinsights. such toolshasalsobeendocumentedinSouth Asia,fortheselectionofsmugglers,

U T cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015. E Mhub (N D cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015. E cooperation withthird countries,Case Study -Italy 1:Syria/Lebanon, 2015. –Egypt E social mediafrom March toDecember 2016,April 2017:22. No. 17, The Graduate Institute ofInternational andDevelopment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016:13-14. oaldo, M.,Migrations through andfrom Libya: aMediterranean challenge,Istituto Affari Internazionali, May 2015. uropean Commission,Directorate General forMigration andHome Affairs, Astudyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and uropean Commission,Directorate General forMigration andHome Affairs, Astudyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and nited Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees, From arefugee perspective: DiscourseofArabic speakingandAfghan refugees andmigrants on onini, A.,Monsutti, A.andScalettaris,G.,AfghansontheMove: Seeking Protection andRefuge inEurope , Global Migration Research Paper orth AfricaMixedorth Migration Task Force), Conditionsandrisksofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November 2015:44. - - - e In someFacebook pages,smugglerspretend towork a Smuggling feeschange significantlyaccording toarange demand Prices andpaymentmethods:meeting tions and‘blacklists’ ofsmugglers them. Diaspora communitiesalsoprovide recommenda- in touchwithsmugglersandfacilitatingcontact ally, thehigherprice,probability ofa neurs andchargedifferent Usu feesfordifferent services. - other factors.Smugglers operatemuchlikelegalentrepre tion, border controls, difficultyoftheborder crossing and of factors including distance, region, mode of transporta Syrians, inparticular, makeextensive useoftechnol- c andinAfrica. 121 . b d The useof f Smugglers g

- - Global overview I successful smuggling service. At the same time, a steep While payments after the border crossing mitigate the price does not guarantee a safe and successful smuggling risks as it is in the interest of the smuggler that migrants passage, despite the smuggler’s promises. arrive safely at destination. One example of how smugglers use different prices for In those cases where the smuggling fee covers one single different services can be found along the Eastern Mediter- border crossing, payments are either made up front or ranean route. The price for the journey from Turkey’s more often in two instalments; one before departure and coasts to any of the Greek islands ranges from €900 up to one upon arrival. This is how smugglers operate along the €7,000.122 border between Zimbabwe and South Africa, for instance. Fluctuations in prices are not only related to the comfort Upon an initial payment, smugglers lead migrants across and safety of the means of transportation. Prices also often the border, and once on the other side, the migrant pays 130 change according to the season, and tend to be cheaper the final instalment. 123 when the trip is more dangerous. Prices may also reflect However, smugglers do not always travel with migrants the outcome of negotiations between migrants and smug- across the border. On the Eastern Mediterranean route, glers. Such negotiations - over prices, but also conditions, for example, some migrants pay half of the fee in advance. security issues, routes and vehicles - may to some extent The balance is paid by relatives or friends once written or depend on the migrant’s bargaining power vis a vis the oral confirmation and pictures of the migrant in the coun- 124 smuggler. try of destination are returned as proof of safe arrival.131 The services offered vary along the different smuggling In general, the longer the smuggling route, the more routes. On the Eastern Mediterranean route, for example sophisticated the payment method. One of the most used - unlike the Central Mediterranean one – the smuggling methods along long smuggling routes is hawala. This fee usually includes ‘guaranteed delivery’. Buying a smug- system involves relatives, friends or trustworthy gling package entails several attempts; in case the crossing acquaintances in the country of origin. Before leaving fails, the migrant is entitled to travel again for free until their country, migrants or their relatives give the money the destination is reached.125 A similar service is occasion- to a trustworthy person, a guarantor or hawaladar. During ally offered by smugglers facilitating movements from the journey, the fee is transferred by the guarantor to the India to Europe.126 smuggling organizer once the migrant has arrived at In South-East Asia, smuggling services may also include destination. In cases where multiple payments have been job placement in the destination country.127 Even if job agreed, the migrant contacts the hawaladar at various placement is not included, the smuggling fee paid by points of the journey to request the release of money to migrants typically covers not only the cost of crossing the smugglers once each leg of the travel is safely completed.132 border, but also accommodation and transportation to the employer. The hawala system is widely used by migrants who are smuggled from South-West Asia along the Eastern Medi- In addition, the smuggling fee may differ according to the terranean route.133 Migrants smuggled from East Africa sex and citizenship of the migrants.128 This price differen- towards Europe in an organized smuggling undertaking tiation could be related to the higher or lower demand for also often rely on the hawala system.134 the services by certain nationalities, as well as the migrants’ perceived purchasing power. For example, Syrian citizens When the hawala system is not used, transfers from des- are often charged high fees, as they are perceived to be tination countries are often arranged through commercial wealthier than people of many other nationalities seeking money transfer agencies. In these cases, money is depos- to make their way to Europe along the same routes.129 ited with an agency and protected by a security code. Once the migrant confirms his or her safe arrival in the inter- Smugglers may request that migrants pay up front for mediary or final destination, the money is released to the border crossings. More often, however, migrants pay in smuggler through disclosure of the security code. different stages along the route, with an initial payment before the crossing, and final payment when the Other forms of payment may be used in other regions of destination is reached. Payment up front increases the origin. Nevertheless, the schemes resemble those described vulnerability of migrants during the travel since the above, with payments disclosed at different stages of the smuggler has already been paid and has little incentive to journey, according to the progress of the smuggling treat migrants properly and make safe travel arrangements. process.

45 46 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 T abl Libya/ E Libya/ Somalia (Somaliland)-Sudan- Africa ofAfricatoSouthern Horn gdz(ie)Lba os Landroute Agadez (Niger)-Libyancoast west Libya) Agadez (Niger)-Sabha(south- islands Turkey coastline–Greek Malta toItaly( movement) movement) Kingdom( France toUnited Libya-Italy -Saudi Arabia E -Saudi Arabia E oss Smla YmnSearoute Bossaso (Somalia)-Yemen bc Diot)-ee Sea route Obock (Djibouti)-Yemen ritrea –Sudan/ thiopia-Bossaso (Somalia) thiopia-Obock (Djibouti) SMUGGLING PASSAGE e 3: E E gypt gypt OR ROUTE E

U secondary Selected smugglingfeesreportedinrecentstudies E U secondary E thiopia-

adrueAround US$4,000 Land route Land route deviations) (possible searoute Mainly landroute Land route Sea route Sea route e rln ot US$5,000to7,500 Sea orlandroute Sea route route Land-sea-land route Land-sea-land SMUGGLING TYPE OF

REPORTED COSTS US$2,000 to3,500 From around 3,500 Around US$3,000- 3,000 Around US$2,000- 300 Around US$100- 8000 US$1000 upto From around US$1,100 2,500 US$500 upto From around Around US$900 Around US$850 150 Around US$120- 200 Around US$60- the HornofAfricatoEurope,May2017:20. Crime, The GlobalInitiativeagainstTransnational Organized the HornofAfricatoEurope,May2017:20. Crime, The GlobalInitiativeagainstTransnational Organized roads, November2013. Altai Consulting,Mixedmigration:Libyaatthecross- United NationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesand omy andprotectionrisks,June2013:30 gling intheHornofAfrica&Yemen: thepoliticalecon- Regional MixedMigrationSecretariat, Migrantsmug- RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017:16 protection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, Horn ofAfricatosouthernwithspecificfocuson ofmixedmigrationfromthe An updatedoverview Regional MixedMigrationSecretariat, Smuggledsouth. the HornofAfricatoEurope,May2017:20. Crime, The GlobalInitiativeagainstTransnational Organized roads, November2013:35. Altai Consulting,Mixedmigration:Libyaatthecross- United NationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesand with thirdcountries,FinalReport,September2015:43. migrants: Characteristics,responsesandcooperation tion andHomeAffairs, Astudyonsmugglingof E of AfricainYemen, October2014. abducted: Regional MixedMigrationSecretariat, Abused& and Dunkirk,press release, 16June2016. engulfing thelivesofchildrenincampsCalais sound”: Sexualexploitation,traffickingandabuse United NationsChildren’s Fund,“Neithersafenor Africa toLibyaandEurope,June2014:49. MigrationTrendsContemporary fromtheHornof Regional MixedMigrationSecretariat, GoingWest: with thirdcountries,FinalReport,September2015. migrants: Characteristics,responsesandcooperation tion andHomeAffairs, Astudyonsmugglingof E Research and bouti andYemen, Horn ofAfricaandYemen: AStudyofPuntland, Dji- Africa Window), 25July2017:41 Africa Window), Research and bouti andYemen, Horn ofAfricaandYemen: AStudyofPuntland, Dji- Africa Window), 25July2017:41. Africa Window), Research and bouti andYemen, Horn ofAfricaandYemen: AStudyofPuntland, Dji- Africa Window), 25July2017:41. Africa Window), Research and bouti andYemen, Horn ofAfricaandYemen: AStudyofPuntland,Dji- Africa Window), 25July2017:41. Africa Window), uropean Commission,Directorate GeneralforMigra- uropean Commission,Directorate GeneralforMigra- Integrated responsestohumansmugglingfrom Integrated responsestohumansmugglingfrom Integrated responsestohumansmugglingfrom the plightoffemalemigrantsfromHorn E E E E vidence Facility, Migrationbetweenthe vidence Facility, Migrationbetweenthe vidence Facility, Migrationbetweenthe vidence Facility, Migrationbetweenthe E E E E U Trust of FundforAfrica(Horn U Trust of FundforAfrica(Horn U Trust of FundforAfrica(Horn U Trust of Fund for Africa(Horn SOURCES: Global overview I

SMUGGLING PASSAGE TYPE OF REPORTED COSTS SOURCES: OR ROUTE SMUGGLING Verité, Labor brokerage and trafficking of Nepali migrant workers, 2012. 79. From around Nepal/India to the United Air route US$27,000 up to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant States 47,000 smuggling in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution): 38. International Centre for Migration Policy Development, Yearbook on Illegal Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Central and Eastern Europe, 2011: 192, From around 250. India to Europe (Schengen Air route US$15,000 up to Area) 30,000 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution): 32 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Chal- lenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35. Around Afghanistan- Western Europe Air route US$10,000-15,000 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Compara- tive Research on Financial Flows within Migrant Smug- gling from Asia to Europe, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013: 22. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Afghanistan to Western Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Chal- Land route Around US$10,000 Europe lenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant From around Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Chal- Pakistan – Western Europe Land route US$3,000 up to lenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and 8,000 the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant From around Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Chal- Pakistan – Western Europe Air route US$12,000 up to lenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and 18,000 the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant From around Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Chal- Viet Nam-Western Europe Air and land route US$7,000 up to lenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and 15,000 the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35, 71. Central America , across From around EMIF SUR, 2018 El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Secre- Mexican border to Texas Land route US$4,000 up to taría del Trabajo y Previsión Social, Consejo Nacional de (United States) 15,000 Población, Unidad de Política Migratoria. Range around Mexico Migration Project, Border Crossing Costs 1975- Mexico to the United States Land route US$5,000 2013, MMP 161, University of Princeton, 2017. European Commission, Directorate General for Migra- From around Turkey coastline – Greek tion and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of Sea route US$1000 up to islands migrants: Characteristics, responses and cooperation 8000 with third countries, Final Report, September 2015: 43. Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Abused & Malta to Italy (EU secondary Sea route US$1,100 abducted: the plight of female migrants from the Horn movement) of Africa in Yemen, October 2014. United Nations Children’s Fund, “Neither safe nor France to United sound”: Sexual exploitation, trafficking and abuse Kingdom(EU secondary Sea or land route US$5,000 to 7,500 engulfing the lives of children in the camps of Calais movement) and Dunkirk, press release, 16 June 2016.

47 48 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 the travel. smugglers operatingfrom thepointofdeparture –theymayalsohave astrong influenceondecisionsregarding with thesmuggler–usuallybecausetheyhave available financialresources and/orthere are manycompeting is, thesmugglers.However, incaseswhere thoseseekingtobesmuggledare inastrong positiontonegotiate Often, thekeydecisionsregarding theorganizationofsmugglingare suppliers,that driven largelyby theservice organized inseveral different ways. operations are typicallycarriedout.Anindividualsmuggled migrant’s mayincludetravel segments trajectory The descriptions below do not comprise an exhaustive list, and are intended as indications of how smuggling conditions inthereceiving country. In responding toalltheseneeds,smugglersusedifferent businessmodels. some borders are more difficulttocross dependingonthegeographicalconditions,season,level ofcontrols and There are alsootheraspectstobeconsidered inorder toorganize successfulsmugglingoperations.For example, are usedby thosewhoneedthem. that theirservices spend than others, and some can spend more time en route. Smugglers also need to build their reputation so ofthetravel. SomeThey mayneedfacilitationforthewholetriporonlysomeparts have more moneyto orjusttoaneighbouringcountry.who wishtoleave theircountriesmaywanttotravel toafarawaycountry aspects. They needtobuildtheirbusinessaround theneedsarisingfrom people’s aspirationtomigrate. Those When developing abusinessmodelfortheiroperations,smugglersneedtoplanandmakedecisionsonseveral Different waystoorganize migrantsmuggling includes opportunistic individualsmugglerswhoareincludes opportunistic informallyorganized andwhointeractwitheachother in Migrants canbeoffered by travel alooselyorganized and related network ofsmugglers. services The network Travel agency ethnic groups control territoriesandsmugglingthattakesplacethere. migrantsandrefugeesmay alsobuyvehicles totransport andarrangeborder crossings. Sometimes, certain ‘Professional’ smugglersmayhire employees ofamateurs. todealdirectly withclientsorcontractservices They Smugglers in this model can constitute a professional core group surrounded by a loose and flexible network. can cover thegeographicalarea alongthesmugglingroute orinthedeparture, arrival orotherborder areas. smuggling operationsortheycanallow orrestrict movements inthe area undertheircontrol. Territorial control When smugglershave geographicalcontrol ofanarea, theycanoffertheirlocalknowledge toarrangesecure Geographical monopoly smugglers. smugglers. In somecases,migrantsare tothehubcontinuetheirtravel withthehelpoflocal transported Migrants oflocal cantravel tothehubeitherbysmuggling services. themselves ortheycanusetheservices who wouldliketocontinuetheirtravels. In somehubs,migrantsare actively recruited tousethecompeting the departure ortransitpoints. They canalsobefoundatsomerefugee campstorespond totheneedsofthose from thesmugglinghubwhichisoften locatedclosetoIn thisbusinessmodel,migrantscanobtainallservices Hub asasupermarket destination; allskillspossessedby organized crimegroups. The priceofsuchpackagesisoftenratherhigh. efficient networks toarrangethedifferent border crossings, tothedesired bribeofficialsandsecure delivery throughpackages canbeadvertised different media.Smugglers needtohave goodorganizationalskillsand Comprehensivegood reputation inorder amongthoseconsidering tomakeuseoftheirservices. tobuildtrust by thesmugglers. There are nolongwaitingtimesattheborders. This modelrequires thatsmugglershave a of routes andmethodsoftravel anddecisionson how toorganize irregular border crossings are usuallymade travel from andborder origin todestinationisorganized, includingalltransportation crossings. The selection The comprehensive packagemodelissuitableforreaching time. farawaydestinationsinashort The whole Comprehensive package Global overview I

a flexible manner. These networks can include different professionals such as agents and taxi, bus and lorry drivers who operate as smuggling managers with leadership of a chief smuggler to move people from origin to destination. Smuggling managers may work with a number of chief smugglers carrying out specific tasks such as guiding, transporting or accommodating migrants. Chief smugglers take care of the overall arrangements and can assist with hands-on tasks such as paying bribes and arranging guides for the migrants. Sometimes, the chief smuggler operates from abroad. In some cases, chief smugglers run travel agencies as a cover for their smuggling business. Migrants can be smuggled in groups or individually.

‘Hop on hop off’ along the smuggling route In this model, smuggling services are offered along the route based on the ad-hoc need and funding situation of the migrant. The smuggling route consists of several independent legs which may or may not need the facilitation of smugglers. Migrants may cover these legs in different ways like walking, by overland, sea or air transportation by themselves or with the facilitation of different smugglers. Between different legs, migrants may need breaks in order to work to pay for the next part of the journey, wait for suitable smugglers or for a different season or improved weather conditions. In some cases, these pauses present an opportunity for the smugglers to exploit migrants.

Opportunistic smuggling This model is built around casual, temporary and ad-hoc operations carried out by smugglers who supplement other sources of income through migrant smuggling or get involved in it when opportunities arise. Smuggling networks – if they exist - are loosely connected, informal and not strictly hierarchical. Different individuals and groups form flexible chains, where members can easily be replaced with little or no disruption to the network’s activities. The services offered by smugglers often depend on the wealth of the migrants. In some cases, smugglers also offer services other than smuggling and can act as job brokers or offer accommodation.

From one leg to another This model is based on connected legs along the route. Migrants can travel from one leg to another using different methods – some involving smuggling, some not. At the end of the smuggling leg, smugglers hand over the migrants to the next smuggler who arranges the next leg of the journey. Smugglers can also provide temporary accommodation where migrants can wait for suitable conditions for the next journey. The smuggling business can be small scale, part-time and opportunistic when smugglers are not organized but they may be somewhat connected, forming a loose network. Smugglers may also pay bribes to cross the border, to prevent officials reporting on detections or to prevent action against employers of irregular migrants.

3.2 What does smuggling require smugglers who have territorial control of the area they are crossing. In Eastern Sudan, for example, the Rashaida Territorial control and the trust of migrants tribe appears to be involved in the smuggling of migrants The control of territory is an important factor for success of any nationality crossing the territory that they con- in the smuggling business. The citizenship profiles of trol.137 Other groups, often nomadic, control smuggling smugglers show that most of the smugglers who operate passages in other parts of Africa that they have historically at borders are normally citizens of the country of depar- dominated.138 Similar patterns can also be seen elsewhere, ture. Smugglers active at departure points for sea smug- for example, in different border passages in the Americas,139 gling are typically citizens of the countries where these or in the area between Afghanistan, Pakistan and the ports are located.135 Islamic Republic of Iran where smugglers often have strong ethno-linguistic ties with local communities and Most of the overland legs along some African routes are originate from the border regions.140 facilitated by smugglers who are citizens of the countries where they operate.136 Once the route takes migrants When it comes to smugglers in intermediary or coordi- across different jurisdictions, operations are transferred to nating roles, their work is not so strongly connected to

49 50 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 the territory, buttothesmuggledmigrants.In Libya, for certain routes, claimingspecificcitizenshipscertain increase the make profits. For instance, smugglersare aware thatalong andotheraspectsthatcanbeleveraged inorderefforts to regimes, migrationpolicies,border control, enforcement or airpassages,butalsoaboutnationallegislation,visa not onlyinformedaboutgeographyandpossibleland,sea nerstone ofsmugglingoperations.Smugglers are usually successful waystoaccessdestinationcountriesisthecor- On theotherhand,accurateknowledge aboutthemost tination countries. tion ontherisksofjourneyandcircumstances indes would nothave boughthadtheytherightinforma- thatthey some circumstances, migrantsmaybuyservices regarding theoutcomeoftheirsmugglingoperations. In smugglers tomigrantsisoftenunrealistically optimistic Information givendemand for smuggling services. by hand, misinformationprovided tomigrantsincreases the Information iskeytothesmugglingbusiness.On theone business The roleofinformationinthesmuggling operations. promote theirrecord ofmanagingsuccessfulsmuggling locally, buttheymayalsolive amongtheirclientele and smugglers are notonlyreported toberespected figures reputed in the communities of origin. relatives, communitymembersorreturnees whoare well- smugglers working as intermediaries are often friends, Trust isalsothekeyreason whyalongdifferent routes, fees andembark onanunknown venture. peoplefrom thesamecommunitytopayoftenhefty trust cessful smugglingventures. Migrants mayfind iteasierto to ‘the humanfactor’ forsuc oftrust andtheimportance and smugglers and smuggling ‘brokers’ could be linked The role ofethno-linguisticaffinitiesbetween migrants routes to West AsiaandEurope. munities function similarly for some of the key smuggling Europe, hubs alongtheroutes from theHorn ofAfricato as main smugglingin some major African capitals serve along manyroutes. For example,Somali neighbourhoods The role ofmigrantdiasporasinsmugglingisevident ing tobesmuggledEurope ing withLibyan smugglers-fortheirfellow citizens want often involved inorganizingthetravel –inLibya, work - smuggler ‘brokers’ from different African countries are the CentralMediterranean route are usuallyLibyans. But example, thesmugglerswhoarrangeboattravel along 142 andvarious South andSouth-West Asiancom 145 141 . 143 144 In some cases, - - - - basis ofvisarequirements, butalsoconsideringtheprox- Smugglers notonlyonthe mayalsoselectarrival airports final destination and migrants’ citizenships. Smugglers venience. dependingonthe They selecttransitairports ofcon- tries, smugglersoftenmakeuseoftransitairports aware ofvisarestrictions andpoliciesindifferent coun whenitcomestosmugglingby air.crucial The smugglers’ abilitytoaccessanduseinformationis to beablestayinthedestinationcountry. of thestrategiestomaximiselikelihoodformigrant can callthemtoberescued, ifbeingapprehended isone phone numbersofnationalauthoritiessothatmigrants country. are likelyto beleftfree tomove withinthedestination the lackofbilateralagreements withorigincountriesand others maynotbesubjecttoimmediateexpulsiondue some may be easily considered for refugee status, while migrants. Some citizenships are immediately returned, the authoritiesoftendependsoncitizenship of hended duringirregular border crossings, theresponse of In caseswhere migrants –smuggledornot-are appre ofdestination. their desired country likelihood formigrantstogetaccessorprotection in have beenreported alongnearlyallsmugglingroutes con migrants across an international border. practices Corrupt is a common method used to smuggleCorruption involving local officers to grant safe passage and impunity. Some formsofmigrantsmugglingare carriedoutby documentation Corruption andfraudulenttravel to theirfinaldestination. theysmugglemigrantsalonglandorsearoutes airports, imity tothemigrant’s desired destination.From these travel totheintendeddestination. ticket andboarding passare thenprovided fortheonward fied orfraudulentlyobtaineddocumentsaswell asanew the smuggling network in the international lounge. Falsi themigrantthenmeetswithamemberof transit airport, miss the onward flightto the stateddestination. At the be asked to destroy thetravel documentsanddeliberately origin from atrusted the hopethatsecurityislessstrictbecauseflightarrives fraudulently obtainedvisaisusedforthesecondleg,in are usedfor the firstleg of the journey, whileafalsifiedor irregular with the second flight that the migration may become of transitmayinvolve aregular crossing, anditisonly from there onwards toafinaldestination. The firstpoint and then organize formigrantstoflyatransitairport, 149 147 . In suchascheme,legitimatetravel documents On someseapassages,smugglersmayprovide 150 . Alternatively, themigrantmight 152 151 146

148 Astheyare - - - - Global overview I sidered in this study. Whether these practices involve small gation under the international law of the sea. Smugglers amounts of cash paid directly to border guards or larger sometimes take advantage of this basic humanitarian and amounts for higher-ranking officers in the diplomatic corps legal principle by exposing migrants to the imminent risk depends on the resources available and the smugglers’ of drowning.163 Migrants smuggled on board boats may capacity to reach out to officers in different institutions. be given a satellite phone to call coast guards for help.164 The plan is that migrants provide coast guards with infor- Along most African routes, it appears that those passing mation about their location, so that the migrants can be through official border posts often need to pay a bribe to located, approached and rescued. The migrants should border guards, even if travel documents are exhibited.153 then be transported to the closest safe harbour, which is Similar practices have been reported along Central Ameri- normally the planned destination.165 can routes towards North America,154 in the European Union155 and in some parts of Asia.156 At airports, immi- This strategy is very risky and not always successful. gration officers or airline staff may be paid to close their Migrants may not be able to state their exact location in eyes while inspecting travel documents.157 a timely manner. Moreover, moving hundreds of panick- ing people from a sinking vessel to a coast guard boat is a At more senior levels, smuggling could involve visa-issuing difficult task. Weather is another crucial factor in these authorities and immigration directors who engage in cor- circumstances. From the smugglers’ point of view, this rupt practices. The replacement of a bio-data page in a method offers a key advantage: they avoid the risk of arrest passport, for instance, requires the assistance of someone by authorities in countries of destination. Along the Cen- with access to official procedures and equipment. Perhaps more frequently, however, corruption comes into play for tral and Eastern Mediterranean routes, the boat driver is the issuance of genuine documents without satisfying the often a migrant - usually chosen some time before depar- 166 legal requirements, or on fraudulent grounds. Smugglers ture - who may have been offered to travel for free. may obtain a falsified birth certificate, for instance, which This smuggling technique implies the likely loss of the can then be used to obtain a ‘genuine’ passport.158 vessel. The boats usually sink or are seized by authorities 167 Some smuggling networks are particularly sophisticated in destination countries. This is often not the case for and creative in their efforts to obtain regular visas through smuggling across the Red or Arabian seas, where the risk fraudulent means. This can include the creation of ficti- of being arrested at destination is limited, and the scarcity tious companies and phantom branches in destination of resources compels smugglers to use the same vessels for 168 countries, arrangement of sham conferences or dance several journeys. groups, or creation of fake bank accounts to demonstrate Certain sea routes require more sophisticated planning 159 the financial means required to obtain a legitimate visa. and organizing, and thus greater capacity within the smug- In these cases, visa applications may be supported by other gling network. To cover longer distances, smugglers may counterfeit documents including flight tickets, boarding use the so-called ‘mother ship’ strategy. On departure, passes, residence permits, birth certificates, sponsorship migrants are stowed in a large ‘mother ship’, which may letters or other documents to show that the identity of make several stops en route to collect more passengers. the visa applicant is identical to the one in their pass- Close to the destination shore, migrants are transferred to 160 port. The organization of sham marriages to grant some- smaller boats while the ‘mother ship’ returns to port.169 one legal access on fraudulent premises has also been reported.161 For smuggling purposes, travel documents 3.3 Who operates the migrant such as passports and visas have been counterfeited, falsi- smuggling: amateurs and professionals fied, stolen, obtained by fraud or corruption, used by someone other than the rightful owner, or even created A range of different actors are involved in the smuggling from scratch out of fantasy.162 of migrants: ‘professional’ smugglers working in organized groups, amateur smugglers working independently, former Ruthlessness smuggled migrants and travel agents, to mention some. If smugglers cannot access authorities or travel documents, Amateur smugglers are ordinary men and women of vary- they may sell dangerous passages which often involve sea ing ages and occupations who provide smuggling services. crossings. One of the risks faced by migrants who are These smugglers usually provide transportation or work smuggled along maritime routes is connected to some as guides through ad-hoc arrangements. They are normally smugglers’ practice of sabotaging migrant vessels to force involved in smuggling via land borders, where migrants rescue at sea. Rescuing people in distress at sea is an obli- are hidden in trucks and cars or guided to the border on

51 52 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 transnational organizedcrime Smugglers workingtogether:alooseformof livelihood around thesmugglingofmigrants. nities alongAfricansmugglingroutes have alsocreated a a hierarchical structure. of systematiccontacts based on business relations, butnot about ‘smuggling networks’. This indicatestheexistence the next. the process, passingmigrantsfrom onelocalsmugglerto crossings. In somecases,smugglers‘outsource’ of parts bordermigrants tootherlocalsmugglersforparticular many smugglingroutes, smugglerbrokers refer ‘their’ organization, responding tothesamehierarchy. Along necessarily meanthattheseactorsare ofastructured part in origin, transit and destination countries. This does not planned inmultiplestageswithdifferent actorsoperating preparation and follow-up phases. Some of the routes are facilitation ofanirregular border crossing, butalsotothe Along manyroutes, thesmugglingisnotlimitedto smuggling process. glers tendstochangeaccording totheperson’s role inthe organization orwithineasyreach. The profile ofsmug organized groups, alltheseroles are ofthesame part ers, guidesandothers. When smugglingiscarriedoutby intermediaries, brokers, accommodationmanagers, driving atdifferent phases ofthejourney, suchasrecruiters, larger smuggling rings need a range of smugglers operat- ring migrants across continents and multiple borders. The border operations to complex schemes capable of transfer Smuggling thegamutfrom simple,one organizationsrun oftheworld. smuggling groups thatoperateinmanyparts Professional smugglersare atthecore of the organized to beinvolved inmigrantsmuggling. or villagersinsomecoastalareas alongtheRed Sea appear communities insomeAndeancountries,forexample, routes may also be involved in smuggling. Indigenous sonally orsporadically. specifictasksandmaywork togethersea- often perform sional smugglers. When working ingroups, theamateurs vidual guidesanddrivers are engagedby different profes - to otheramateur smugglers. In somecases,theseindi ‘professional’ smugglersoringroups thatconnectmigrants their own, butcouldwork asemployees forwell-organized on and guidesdonotnecessarilyoffersmugglingservices operators Amateur smugglerswhofunctionastransport or generally‘passeurs’ or‘taxi drivers’. Southern Africa, foot alongremote paths. They are calledmalayitshain Members oflocalcommunitiesalongmigrantsmuggling 175 In these cases, itismore accurate to speak 170

coyotes orpolleros intheAmericas, 172

174 Certain commu- Certain 171 173 - - -

national networks andcoordinate anetwork oflocal in transitcountries,tomaintainconnectionswithinter- use of managers in origin countries, as well as members West andEastAsiansmugglingnetworks tendtomake inotherregions. structures thanthoseobserved seem tobebasedonmore hierarchical organizational zations. In North Africa,muchofthesmugglingindustry to find more sophisticated and highly professional organi organizations are active. In somecases,itisalsopossible or the route from the Horn of Africato Europe different Along major routes, such as the Eastern Mediterranean them alongsegmentsoftheroute. with otherfacilitatorsatlocations,ortransporting drivers, connecting migrants agents, taxi, bus and lorry level. Members of these networks may work as guides, groups. Such local networks tendtooperateonavery a smallscale,usuallywithouttiestomajororganized crime whooperateon including awidenetwork ofopportunists gling is carried out by loose associations of individuals, in different oftheworld.Alongmostroutes, smug- parts The levels of integration within smuggling networks vary areas undertheircontrol. Payment ofthis‘tax’ ismeantto organizations are ‘taxing’ migrant smugglers to cross the and North America,powerful andstructured criminal In other areas, of including parts West Asia andCentral ofsmuggledmigrants. including thetransportation contacts. Many illegaltradesmaycross thisterritory, works andothercriminalgroups appeartohave systematic In someareas withintheSahel inAfrica,smuggling net- nexus orconvergence amongthedifferent actors. States. America alongthenorthward route towards theUnited in West Africa, Afghanistan, are someexceptions indifferent oftheworld,namely parts orother‘major’drugs illicittraffickingactivities. There not systematicallyengageintraffickingfirearms, illicit As ageneralpattern,itappearsthatmigrantsmugglersdo smuggling andotherformsoforganized crime. out migrantor collaboration between those carrying the available literature doesnotsuggestfrequent relations atmanylevels alongmostroutes,migrants andcorruption While there is a clear connection between smuggling of markets appeartobeexceptions ratherthantherule. Linkages between smugglingnetworks andothercriminal activities andarmedgroups Connections withotherorganizedcriminal and have aninternaldivisionoflabour. smuggler agents. 182 In thelattercase,there islittleevidenceofa 178 These are generallywell-established 180 Central Asia 176 179 181 and Central 177 South- 183 184

- Global overview I

The roles of women in migrant smuggling Although the literature on migrant smuggling is growing, researchers have to this date paid limited attention to the roles of women in the market. A recent study commissioned by UNODC analysed a set of case briefs of nearly 100 criminal cases of migrant smuggling or facilitation of irregular migration from 20 different countries in order to shed light on the involvement of women.a While the sample is not representative of all the women who participate in smuggling, the study generated some interesting findings. Smuggling operations often involve specific tasks carried out by different smugglers who work individually, but who are loosely connected among themselves working towards a common goal. The study found that women perform tasks often similar to those handled by men. They recruit migrants, carry out logistical tasks such as purchasing tickets or renting locations that serve as ‘safe houses’ prior to the migrants’ arrival, obtain fraudulent documents and collect smuggling fees. But some smuggling tasks were performed mostly by women. For example, women tend to be more frequently involved in the provision of room and board as well as caring for sick or vulnerable migrants (including children and elderly people). Women are less often behind the wheel of motor vehicles or working as guides; yet they may accompany male smugglers during transits, posing as companions so that their vehicles avoid unwanted attention from law enforcement. Women tend to be the lesser visible actors in smuggling investigations. One explanation may be that most smuggling cases in which women participate are small scale; in this sample, women most often worked independently, transporting individual or small groups of migrants, which is likely to attract little attention from the authorities (women were less often involved in cases involving large smuggling operations –in this sample, 20 or more migrants). After solo operations, the second most common form of organized smuggling in which women participate involved working in pairs. In a finding that mirrors a pattern also seen for trafficking in persons,b women often worked alongside their intimate partners, or were mothers or daughters of male co- defendants. At least fifteen cases involved women who worked alongside their intimate partners. Two cases involved mothers who travelled with their sons as they committed the smuggling offense, and one included a daughter-father duo. While two of the cases included women who were unaware of their co-defendant’s intentions, and at least two other involved women who had worked with their male partners out of coercion or fear, the rest of the cases showed no evidence of women being forced to engage in smuggling activities. While most women participate in smuggling seeking financial returns, 30 per cent of those in the sample were convicted for facilitating the irregular migration of friends and family members for no financial or other material benefit. The study revealed that while the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol calls for this practice not to be criminalized, many jurisdictions still consider it a crime. This appears to disproportionally impact women, who tend to be more likely than men to engage in the facilitation of irregular migration (including their own) with the goal of becoming reunited with family members while fleeing situations of risk and imminent danger or as a result of migration law restrictions. Clearly more research into women’s roles in migrant smuggling is needed. This initial analysis identified several possible areas to address the gap.

a The cases were retrieved from the UNODC Case Law database on the smuggling of migrants, part of the SHERLOC online portal (available at: www.unodc.org/cld/v3/sherloc/). b See ‘Intimate and/or close family relationships and trafficking in persons offending,’ in UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.14.V.10), p. 28. guarantee migrants a safe passage. In some cases, however, in combination with its unstable political situation and smugglers may sell migrants to these criminal groups who insecurity. Contacts or cooperation between smuggling may then extort ransoms from migrants’ families.185 Illicit networks and militia groups in Libya have been reported, drug cartels may impose taxes on each migrant traveling and some of the armed groups in that country are alleg- along the American routes to the United States. Failure to edly involved in different types of criminal activity, includ- pay has resulted in torture and even killings.186 ing migrant smuggling.187 The situation in Libya appears to be unique, given the There are indications that some groups involved in the historic role of this country in the smuggling of migrants smuggling of migrants are also involved in drug trafficking.

53 54 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 America toEurope passesthrough West Africa. One ofthekey routes forcocainetraffickingfrom South the internalAfricanroutes leadingtoNorth Africa,both Most smugglersactive Niger in the city of Agadez, are smuggling route. have chosen to settle incountries they transited along a they lateroperate.In somecases,theyare returnees or fully ornot,were smuggledalong thesameroute onwhich ences. Often smugglersare formermigrantswho,success another emergingpatternisthesmugglers’ lifeexperi In additiontotheirethnicity, genderandageprofiles, aslookoutsorguides. ever; usuallytheyhave served smuggling. Their roles have beenrelatively minor, how - teenagers have in migrant reportedly beenparticipating age ofsmugglerstypicallyrangesbetween 30-35 years. In termsofage,different studiesindicatethat the average origin. gler isamanagedfrom 18to40ofEthiopian orSomali yearsfew ago. Still, also along this route, the typical smug operations from theHorn ofAfricatoSouthern Africaa Ethiopian womenwere ofsmuggling alsoreportedly part they are lesslikelytoattracttheattentionofauthorities. are involved inthesmugglingofsomemigrantsby airas West Asia,forexample, somesources notethatwomen women appeartoplaymore prominent roles. In South- smugglingroutesOn orforsomemodusoperandi, certain dren, preparing foodandarrangingfor‘safe houses.’ out‘support’also carry functions,suchascaringforchil- modation between different stagesoftheroute. Women accom receive migrantstotheirtemporary and/orescort involved intherecruitment ofmigrants,andtheymay migrant smugglersare men. Women smugglersmaybe suggests that –as for most crimes - a large majority of As farasthegenderprofiles ofsmugglers,theliterature the territory. glers operatingatborder crossings are normallylinkedto typically ofthesamenationalityasmigrants,whilesmug that theyare smuggling.Smugglers inorganizingroles are where theyare operating,ortotheprofiles ofthemigrants profile ofthesmugglersislinkedeithertoterritory eral pattern, the citizenship and sometimes also ethnic The smugglers’ according profiles vary toroute. Asagen The profileofsmugglers ranean shores andeventually toEurope. cocaine and migrants may besmuggled tothe Mediter From smuggledmigranttosmuggler the border between theUnited States andMexico, some There are someexceptions, however. For instance,along 192 189 188 Along 194 190

193 191 ------

ticularly significantformigrantsmugglingby air. Travel they mayseethemselves asproviders ofhumanitarianser genuinely considertheirtravel businessestobe legal, and to disguisethecrime. agents mayblendregular travelers withsmuggledmigrants operations. travel agenciesasacoverfound torun fortheirsmuggling the ‘legal’ travel agent. In some areas, smugglers have been Another commonlyreported smugglerprofile isthatof roles) tofinancetheirown journey.mediary tion, butwork as smugglers(ofteninrecruiting orinter- who are stillontheirwaytointendedfinaldestina- related patternrelates totherole ofsmuggledmigrants or someroutes directed towards Southern Africa. routes as well, suchasfrom West Asiatowards Europe pattern hasbeenfoundalongmanyothersmuggling Sahara, route aheadandtheconnectionsneededtocross the arrived migrantswiththeirknowledgevince newly ofthe after returning from North Africa. They are abletocon- former migrantswhohave establishedthemselves there On certain routes, smuggled migrants try toavoid detec- routes,On smuggledmigrantstry certain always. routes, but not for somesmuggledmigrantsalong certain vices andare detectedby theauthorities. This isthecase crossing theborder irregularly makeuseofsmugglingser- migrants ifthere isevidence thatthevast majorityofthose ever, asaproxy forthenumberofsmuggled canserve The numbersofirregular entriesofficiallyrecorded, how tated by asmuggler. not specifyhow manyoftheirregular entrieswere facili- detected atborders orinland.But thesedatausually do mally record clandestine and irregular entries officially smuggled. In relation tomigrants,officialstatistics nor glers) butdonotgenerallyrecord thenumberofmigrants may record the number and profile of offenders (smug For theoffenceofmigrantsmuggling,nationalauthorities ities beyond whatisofficiallydetected. can be used to measure criminal activ tion surveys, certain justice system.Social research methods,suchaspopula- criminal events thatcometotheattentionofcriminal exercise. National authorities normally record only those Measuring an illegal phenomenon is always a difficult 4. vices, helpingpeopletofleeandreach safety. AND DIFFICULT TOESTIMATE SMUGGLED -NOTRECORDED,

THE NUMBEROFMIGRANTS 195 and can therefore be effective recruiters. This 199 The role oftravel agentsappearstobepar- 200 In othercases,smugglersmay 198 201 197 A 196 - - - - -

Global overview I

Fig. 22: Detections of illegal border crossings* along the three Mediterranean routes, 2009-2016 885,386 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Western Mediterranean 7,285 3,632 5,443 3,804 3,237 4,552 5,312 8,162 Central Mediterranean 11,043 4,448 64,261 10,379 40,304 170,664 153,946 181,459 Eastern Mediterranean 39,975 55,688 57,025 37,224 24,799 50,834 885,386 182,277

*As defined by Frontex. Many proceed to lodge asylum applications. Source: Frontex/ Spanish Ministry of Interior tion and are not counted in the official records of irregular out along the route. Given the current status of knowl- entries. In other cases, official records of irregular entries edge, for many of the known smuggling routes, it is simply may include migrants that did not make use of smuggler not possible to generate a reliable estimate of the magni- services to cross the borders. tude of the smuggling activity. Some circumstances help to understand if certain indica- 4.1 Smuggling of migrants into tors can be used as a proxy to estimate the number of Europe smuggled migrants. Irregular entries related to journeys that are long or dangerous such as sea crossings or involve Officially detected illegal border crossings is a good proxy harsh environmental conditions such as deserts or moun- indicator to estimate the size of the Mediterranean flows tains are likely to approximate the number of smuggled because irregular border crossings by sea are likely to 202 migrants, as these crossing require specialized services. require facilitation by smugglers. The use of fraudulent travel documents in border cross- In 2015, an exceptionally large number of smuggled ings is an indicator that migrants have used smuggling migrants – more than 880,000 - were recorded along the services. Also, in some cases corruption could be used as Eastern Mediterranean route. In 2016, about 180,000 an indicator of smuggling when it is large-scale and entries were recorded along this route. The numbers involves senior officials. recorded along the Central Mediterranean route ranged In general, there is no single source that can determine between 154,000 and 182,000 for the 2014-2016 period. the scale of migrant smuggling. It can only be assessed by Arrivals along the Western Mediterranean route to Spain, triangulating different available information. Smuggling including those directed to the Canary Islands, have of migrants is also very dynamic and at a certain point in ranged between 5,000 and 10,000 migrants and refugees time it is only possible to depict a snapshot of the smug- per year since the beginning of this decade.r gling situation in that specific period. Overall, it appears that about 370,000 migrants were There is no general rule as to what information to use to estimate the magnitude of the migrant smuggling crime. r These numbers do not include the smuggling activity via land to the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla. It cannot be estimated how many Each route can be assessed based on the information avail- of the irregular migrants who cross the borders to these cities make able, and the type of smuggling operations being carried use of a smuggler and how many irregular migrants are undetected.

55 56 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ccording estimates,thesmugglingfeetocross tosomeconservative s gling routes are thosefrom theHorn ofAfricaandfrom can continent. In this regard, the two most relevant smug smuggled intoNorth oftheAfri- Africafrom otherparts Mediterranean routes intotheEuropean Union were first Many ofthosesmuggledalongtheCentraland Western African borders 4.2 smuggling flow is. thus, how largethetotalsmugglingbusinessbehindthis managed tocross theborder andavoid detection,and in 2016. It is not possible to estimate how many others were withfalsetravel documents detectedatEUairports gled are probably goingundetected. About 4,400people require smuggleractivity, manymigrantswhoare smug- using fraudulent documents. While this method does Migrants are inEurope alsosmuggledtomajorairports detection, andhow manywere smuggled. sible toestimatehow manypassedthrough andavoided Union borders irregularly, and in this case, it is not pos- in the Western Balkans were detectedcrossing European ern Balkans. In 2016,about10,000citizens ofcountries into theEuropean Union from thecountriesof West Similar considerationsare tobemaderegarding smuggling many oftheseirregular entriesare facilitatedby smugglers. EU across theseborders. In addition,itisunclearhow small share ofthenumbermigrantssmuggledinto avoid detection, and thus these figures only represent a that smuggledmigrantsmakinguseoftheselandroutes compared totheseasmugglingroutes. However, itappears seem toindicatethatthesesmugglingflows are limited, in 2016through theEUEasternborders), whichwould lowdetections ofirregular (1,350detected entriesisvery smuggling alongtheEUland borders. The number of It is more difficult to assess the magnitude of migrant million. 2016 rangesbetween US$320millionandUS$550 business alongthethree smugglingroutes for the year on thesefigures, estimateofthesmuggling aconservative smuggled by seaintotheEuropean Union in2016.Based

smugglers’ revenues couldrangearound US$8 million. ish mainlandshores rangedaround US$1,000.For thisroute, the million and364million.In 2016,thefeerecorded toreach theSpan- revenues for smugglers along this route could range between US$182 involved smugglingfees between US$1,000and2,000.For 2016,the the sameyear, thepassagealongEasternMediterranean route route wouldrangebetween US$127millionand181.5million.In briefing, February 2015). In 2016, the smuggling activity along this Italy Arrivals DuringBusy Smuggling Week inMediterranean , online migrant (International Organization forMigration, IOMMonitors to Italy from Libya fluctuatesbetween US$700and$1,000 per A

Smuggling ofmigrantsacr s oss - - smuggling withintheHorn ofAfrica,andfrom there to The numberofsmuggledmigrantsandrefugees from the 2013. 12,000 hundred per month to a few per month since Kufra (Libya), seemstohave decreased from 10,000- Sudan to Libya through the southern border district of along keypassages. The numberofmigrantspassingfrom decreased drasticallyduetoincreasing obstacles andunrest The smugglingflow alongthisroute seemstohave for sometimealongtheroute orinNorth Africa. ment ofthosemoving from theHorn ofAfricamaysettle and 50,000peryear. Therefore, itappearsthatalargeseg in Europe from theHorn of Africa ranged between 40,000 2015, thenumberofmigrantsandrefugees thatarrived tinue theirjourneytoLibya orEgypt. In 2014andin 100,000 peryear. of Africa,andfrom there toSudan, maybemore than that thenumberofmigrantssmuggledwithinHorn Various estimates for the years 2014 and 2015 suggest contrary, manyremain inNorth Africa. North AfricacontinuetheirjourneytoEurope; onthe West AfricatoNorth Africa.Not allmigrantsarrivingin ifferent fieldstudiesreport smugglingfeesrangingaround US$250- t 500 millionperyear. North Africacouldrangebetween US$300millionand Egypt rangearound US$1,500. fees to cover the journey from to Libya Khartoum or range between thousands.Smuggling US$200toafew of theHorn ofAfricaandfrom here toSudan, reportedly smuggling method, smuggling fees to reach different parts Depending on the point of departure, citizenship and than 10,000recorded inthefirsthalfof2017. from above 60,000in2015,to37,5002016andless Horn of Africa and Sudan arrivinginEurope hasdecreased

passage couldbeestimatedatUS$60-90 millionataminimum. This 2014 and2015. This meansthattherevenues forsmugglersthis have reached Italy from the Horn ofAfricaandSudan respectively in smuggling flows, however 40,000 and 60,000migrantsrefugees around US$1,500. There isno available informationtoestimate these ofLibya ranges tothesouth-easternpart the passagefrom Khartoum nean: ConnectingtheDots, June 2015: 34). The smugglingfeetocover Office and Altai Consulting, refugees (International Organization forMigration MENARegional US$ 9 million to US$ 29 million only for Ethiopian migrants and range around US$500-800. This generatesrevenues rangingfrom 20). The smuggling feesreported tocross from Ethiopia toSudan human smugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope, May 2017. Transnational Organized Crime (2017b), Integrated responses to Global Initiativeranging from US$230to380million(The against (US$3,000-5,000), meaning that these flows may generate revenues from Eritrea toSudan orEthiopia reportedly highfees involved very US$750,000 andUS$18million.In 2016,thesmugglingpassage This suggeststhatthebusinessaround thisflow couldrangebetween Trends Across theMediterranean: ConnectingtheDots, June 2015:35). Migration MENARegional Office andAltaiConsulting,Migration 500 from Somaliland toEthiopia (International Organization for D 204 Recent European figures confirm the reduction. 203 It isunclearhow manyofthemcon- t Migration Trends Across the Mediterra- 206 Smuggling incomefor 205

- Global overview I

As for the land routes from West Africa to North Africa, Smuggling flows from other African countries are also according to field studies, in 2016, more than 330,000 directed to South Africa. The number of irregular migrants individuals transited through Niger.207 In 2016, IOM from countries in Central and other Southern African started tracking the movement of irregular migrants in countries could range around 15,000 per year.v However, Mali. This data suggests that about 4,000 migrants were a number of migrants arriving in South Africa may not smuggled out of Mali to North Africa every month in apply for asylum, and migrants with certain citizenships 2016, or 48,000 per year if the rate was constant.208 These may not be smuggled, especially those from the Demo- numbers suggest that in 2016 the number of migrants cratic Republic of the Congo.210 The fees paid to smug- smuggled from West Africa to North Africa might have glers for simply crossing the border between Zimbabwe been around 380,000. and South Africa for citizens of neighbouring countries are around US$50.211 Overall, smuggling flows from these Some West African migrants settle in North Africa, while other African countries may produce revenues of about others continue to Europe. According to official statistics, US$ 500,000 per year. the number of West African migrants who reached Italy via the Central Mediterranean route was 100,000 in 2016. Another significant smuggling route runs from the Horn A few thousand reached Spain along the Western Medi- of Africa to Yemen by sea. Based on a large number of terranean route. Thus, as for the smuggling flow from the field interviews, RMMS estimated a conservative figure Horn of Africa, a large share of those leaving West Africa of 275,338 migrants smuggled between 2011 and 2013 remain in North Africa (around 280,000 in 2016), at least along this route.212 This would account for nearly 100,000 for some time. migrants smuggled per year. The same study estimated that 73 per cent were smuggled across the Red Sea, and Smuggling fees change according to the final destination the remaining 27 per cent across the Arabian Sea.213 In in North Africa. The cost for crossing into Libya from 2016, RMMS recorded 117,107 migrant and refugee Niger ranges around US$200-300. However, to reach the arrivals in Yemen along this route, confirming the scale North African coasts from West Africa migrants typically of this smuggling flow.214 pay US$2,000-3,000. Assuming that these figures are accurate, migrant smuggling from West Africa to North The smuggling fees to cross the Arabian Sea range around Africa could generate between US$760 million and 1.1 US$130-150 per person, whereas the Red Sea crossing 215 billion per year. costs between US$60-200. On the basis of these figures, the sea crossing from the Horn of Africa to Yemen The flows towards Southern Africa – primarily South may generate fees ranging between US$9-22 million per Africa - are complex and particularly difficult to estimate. year.w These flows include some migrants who have certainly been smuggled from the Horn of Africa (reportedly in the 4.3 Smuggling of migrants to North range of some 15,000 per year)u and from other parts of America sub-Saharan Africa. As for the other African routes, a As for most other parts of the world, there is no official number of migrants who have been smuggled from the data concerning migrant smuggling along the northward Horn of Africa towards South Africa may settle in transit route from Central America to Mexico and the United countries. As a consequence, smuggled migrants recorded States of America. in South Africa represent only a portion of those moving from the Horn of Africa. Smuggling fees for land routes Based on apprehension statistics and qualitative informa- from the Horn of Africa to South Africa range around tion, some recent studies have estimated that about US$3,000. Some migrants are also smuggled by air, which 392,000 Central American migrants were smuggled to usually involves higher fees. Based on these estimates, the Mexico and onwards to the United States in 2014, and income from smuggling of migrants into South Africa 377,000 in 2015. Only 11 per cent managed to reach would range around US$45 million.209 their final destination in the United States, while most

is a conservative figure, as it does not consider those who remained in v Number of new applications for asylum per year in South Africa Libya or moved to other North African countries. according to UNHCR. u In 2009, IOM estimated that up to 20,000 Somali and Ethiopian w This should be intended as a conservative estimate. It does not take male migrants were smuggled from the Horn of Africa to South Africa into account the revenues for smugglers made from smuggling across every year. Similarly, the total number of people from the Horn of land borders from Ethiopia and Somalia to the departure points at the Africa applying for asylum in South Africa in 2015 ranges around coasts. It is unclear how many of these migrants use the services of a 15,000. These should be considered minimum estimates. smuggler to reach the points of departure for the sea crossing.

57 58 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 y ccording totheestimates,onethird ofthoseCentralAmerican x US$ 1.9billionperyear duringthesetwoyears. gling activity would generate incomes ranging around all paidasmugglingfeeofaround US$5,000,the smug- smuggled intotheUnited States. Consideringthatthey Mexican migrants were smuggled or attempted tobe estimated that about 376,000 (2014) and 300,000 (2015) American irregular migrants. Using thisapproach, itis cans are more or less likely to be detected than Central the sameborder. There isnoreason tobelieve thatMexi- can beappliedtoMexican migrantsattemptingtocross intercepted by United States lawenforcement authorities border, the detection rate calculated for Central Americans citizens smuggled into the United States across the land To generatearough estimateofthenumberMexican per person. America totheUnited States are approximately US$7,000 Studies indicate that the smuggling fees from Central countries increased. time, thenumberofdetectedmigrantsfrom Caribbean number ofCentralAmericansdecreased, andatthesame 132,000 in 2015 and 151,000 in 2016. In 2016, the American migrantsincreased from 61,000in2010to Mexico, thetotalnumberofdetections involving Central from theUnited States, aswell asfrom Mexican data.In This trend istosomeextentreflected inofficialstatistics increased over years; reaching thelastfew apeakin2014. of smuggledCentralAmericanmigrantsseemstohave and recorded by theMexican authorities. States border authorities,and33percentwere detected (56 percent)were intercepted andrecorded by United billion peryear. from there totheUnited States, mayrangearound US$2 smuggling ofCentralAmericanmigrantstoMexico and

about 20 per cent. If this rate were applied, the number of smuggled Migration Project estimated the probability of interception to be per cent.It theMexican shouldbe notedthat,basedonthesesurveys, (2014,2015and2016)theshare israngingaroundhold surveys 94 a smuggler. According totheMexican Migration Project latesthouse- to cross theUS-Mexican borders irregularly of are usingtheservices 2015. According tofieldstudies,almostalltheMexicans attempting about 350,000Mexican irregular migrantsin2014and270,000 for theMexican citizens. The USauthoritiesdetectedandrecorded Mexican authorities)willbereduced andestimatedto85percent for Central Americans, 89 per cent (56 by US authorities and 33 by apprehend Mexican citizens. This meansthedetectionraterecorded D in aboutUS$1.82billion. around 260,000migrantspayingtheentire fee(US$7,000) resulting US, even ifintercepted by theUSborder authoritiesshouldrange total ofUS$260millionin2014. Those whomanagetogetthe results inabout130,000migrantspayingaround US$2,000,fora enter theUnited States, butonlythefeetogetintoMexico. This States borders. It isassumedthattheydonotpaytheentire fee to by theMexican authoritiesanddonotmanagetogettheUnited migrants andrefugees are smuggledintoMexico butare intercepted A ifferently from CentralAmericans,theMexican authoritiesdonot 218 Asaconsequence,thebusinessaround the x 217 216 The number The y

ab aa z Including alltheroutes describedabove, smugglinginto million peryear. may generaterevenues ofaboutUS$105millionand140 to theUnited States across thesouthernborder. This flow into Mexico and,from there, attemptedtobesmuggled 20,000 South Americanmigrantswere smuggledannually same years, itcouldbeestimatedthatbetween 15,000and could rangearound US$300millionperyear. mated incomegeneratedfrom thissmugglingactivity southern border (intheyears 2014and2015). The esti- be smuggledtotheUnited States year from every the Mexico and,from there, were smuggledorattemptedto from Asia, Africa and the Middle East were smuggled into In addition, itisestimated thatsome 20,000migrants to 120millionperyear. smuggling activitycouldrangearound US$100million (in theyears 2014and2015). The revenues from this attempted tobesmuggledtheUnited States year every gled intoMexico and,from there, were smuggledor 14,000-18,000 migrants from the Caribbean were smug tion rateusedforCentralAmericans,itappearsthatabout land border oftheUnited States. Applying thesamedetec Other smuggledmigrantsare alsodetectedatthesouthern mated ataround US$4billionperyear. that –according estimates-isesti totheseconservative than 800,000 smuggled migrants per year, with a business Mexico andtheUnited States ofAmericainvolve more

tral Americanmigrantssmuggledtothe US,around US$7,000. these migrantsandrefugees pay, ataminimum, afeesimilartoCen- assumed thattoenterMexico andfrom there totheUnited States, no informationaboutthesmuggling fees alongthisroute. It canbe of thosewhowere smuggledintoMexico toreach theUS. There is it isestimatedthattheseapprehensions represent about56percent hended by theUSauthoritiesin2014,and8,0002015.Alsohere, A around US$15,000. the US.Smuggling feestoreach theUSforAsianmigrants range about 56percentofthosewhowere smuggledinto Mexico toreach 2015. Ascalculatedfortheothernationalities,thesefigures represent East were apprehended by theUSauthoritiesin2014,and10,000 A the US,around US$7,000. a minimum,feesimilartoCentralAmericanmigrantssmuggled from there totheUnited States, thesemigrants andrefugees pay, at fees alongthisroute. It canbeassumedthattoenterMexico and Mexico toreach theUS. There isnoinformationaboutthe smuggling these represent about 56percentofthosewhowere smuggledinto Applying thesamedetectionrateusedforCentralAmericanmigrants, hended attheUSsouth-west border in2014,and8,0002015. A mmp.opr.princeton.edu/results/008apprehension-en.aspx). estimates. This has to be considered estimate. (http:// a conservative migrants and the smuggling business would result in much higher bout 12,000migrantsandrefugees from South Americawere appre - bout 12,000 migrants and refugees from Asia, Africa and the Middle bout 10,000migrantsfrom countriesintheCaribbeanwere appre- ab

z aa For the - - Global overview I

4.4 Smuggling of migrants within in Greece and those registered in Turkey, at least 80,000 and out of Asia Afghans were smuggled into Turkey in 2016. This is a conservative estimate as it is likely that some Afghan Estimates on the magnitude of migrant smuggling from migrants and refugees may have decided not to apply for the countries in the Mekong subregion to Thailand were asylum in one of these two countries. produced by UNODC in 2013, in reference to the year 2010. According to these estimates, more than 660,000 Considering the most conservative figures, the fee for the irregular migrants enter Thailand each year from neigh- whole land journey from Afghanistan to Turkey ranges ad bouring countries and, based on field research, more than around US$ 2,500. Similar fees can be assumed for the 80 per cent of them use the assistance of smugglers. This (at least) 13,700 Pakistani migrants who followed the ae indicates that about 550,000 migrants are smuggled from same smuggling route. According to the available litera- these countries into Thailand each year. Different migrants ture, irregular migrants and refugees from the Islamic typically pay different smuggling fees and, based on the Republic of Iran and Iraq are likely to recruit a smuggler same study, in 2010, about US$192 million was gener- to enter Turkey. It is estimated that at least 52,500 Iraqis ated by migrant smuggling from these three countries into and 16,200 Iranians were smuggled to Turkey in 2016; af Thailand.219 some to stay there, some to move to Europe. It is con- servatively estimated that, in 2016 about 162,000 Another lucrative smuggling route leads migrants and migrants and refugees were smuggled along the South- refugees from South-West Asia to Turkey. Some of these West Asian land route to Turkey. This smuggling activity migrants continue their journey towards Western Europe generated fees of, at least, US$300 million. along the Eastern Mediterranean route and some settle in Turkey. The route is used to smuggle South-West Asians, mainly migrants and refugees from Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, and to a lesser extent Iraq. Some are already part of the total estimated number is a conservative estimate as it is likely some Afghan migrants and refugees may have decided not to apply for asylum in one of these of migrants smuggled into Europe along the Eastern Med- two countries. iterranean route. However, the smuggling fees for the legs ad Estimates of smuggling fees vary from US$4,000 (Majidi, N. and of the journey from origin countries to Turkey were not Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging considered so a separate estimation is needed to under- evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 161- stand the total value of the smuggling business in the 186, 2016: 169) to US$10,000 (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related region. Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 34-35). Considering the sea passage Turkey – Among those who arrived in Greece from Turkey in 2016, Greece would cost about US$1,500, a minimal fee of US$2,500 more than 44,000 were Afghan citizens.220 According to to be smuggled from Afghanistan to Turkey can be estimated. The 221 business around smuggling of migrants from Afghanistan to Turkey field surveys, it appears that the vast majority of Afghans would generate income around US$612 million for 2016. Consider- smuggled into Europe are smuggled along the route into ing a conservative figure of US$4,000 to get to Greece, and considering that only the sea passage Turkey – Greece would cost about Turkey all the way from Afghanistan and to a lesser extent US$1,500, the rest is paid to cover the South-West Asia land smug- from the Islamic Republic of Iran. Considering that about gling route. The business generated by smuggling Afghan citizens to 1 per cent of Afghans who arrived in Greece had been Turkey via land route may have ranged around US$200 million in 2016. living in Turkey it is reasonable to estimate that about ae According to field studies the smuggling fee for the land journey from 43,500 Afghans were smuggled into Turkey en route to Pakistan to Greece is around US$4,000 (Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, Greece in 2016. D, People smuggling field insights report – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016.). Considering that, according to the Greek authorities, about 13,460 Pakistani migrants and refugees arrived in Greece Those who reached Turkey but did not manage to con- in 2016, the vast majority of them smuggled and officially recorded, tinue to Greece should also be added to these numbers. and the few who applied for asylum in Turkey in 2016 (about 200 in six months) the business around the smuggling flow from Pakistan to These could be estimated at least in the range of 36,000 Turkey may have been worth around US$34 million in 2016. ac for the year 2016. Adding up those who were registered af According to the Greek authorities, about 28,500 Iraqis and more than 6,170 Iranians arrived in the Greek islands via Turkey in 2016. As for the Afghans, on the basis of the asylum applications recorded ac In 2015, following the EU-Turkey agreement, the government of during the first six months of 2016, it could be estimated that about Turkey increased law enforcement operations to limit the flow to 24,000 Iraqis and about 10,000 Iranians have been smuggled to Greece. It is reasonable to think that Afghan migrants, once in Turkey, Turkey and remained there in the course of 2016. It is calculated that had no better option than applying for asylum there. According to Iraqis pay a fee of US$500, while Iranians may pay US$2,500 to get UNHCR statistics, more than 18,000 Afghans made new applica- to Turkey. In 2016, the business around the smuggling flow from Iraq tions for asylum only during the first six months of 2016, resulting to Turkey may have been worth around US$26.2 million, and from in about 36,000 Afghans applying for asylum in Turkey in 2016. This the Islamic Republic of Iran to Turkey around US$40.5 million.

59 60 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 14 9 19 18 17 16 15 13 12 11 10 8 7 6 4 3 5 2 egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smugglingintheHorn 1 ENDNOTES -GLOBALOVERVIEW

E R U U U D – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016:51. Raghav E U U R from EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa,April 2009:47. R U R Affairs, attitudes andpractices ofEthiopian migrants, June 2014:39. ing, attitudes andpractices ofEthiopian migrants, June 2014:26. Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Blinded by hope:knowledge, ing, Migrants by Sea, 2011:25. ment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016:13-14. Paper No. 17, The Graduate Institute of International andDevelop- Seeking Protection andRefuge inEurope, Global Migration Research cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015. Affairs, Migrants by Air, 2010:4-5. Migrants by Sea, 2011:25-32. the Horn ofAfricaand Yemen, RMMSbriefingpaper1,May 2016:12. tions. An analysisofthebi-directional refugee andmigrant flow between Victims of Necessity, tional Organization forMigration, In Pursuit Dream: oftheSouthern issues in refugee research, Research paper n. 200, 2011: 10; Interna- Africa from the HornSouthern and Great Lakes region, UNHCR, New K. andCrisp, J.,In harm’s way:theirregular movement ofmigrants to scale ofmovement andassociatedprotection risks,June 2013,22;Long, 20, 51. Cooperation Centre forEurope andCentralAsia,September 2006: gling ofMigrantsIOM Technical in,from andthrough Central Asia, International Organization forMigration, Baseline Research onSmug- January 2011,36;Frontex, RiskAnalysis for2016,March 2016; A Global Review andAnnotated Bibliography ofRecent Publications, rity, November 2010. Office ofImmigration Statistics, ofHomeland USDepartment Secu- Migrant Smuggling CostsalongtheSouthwest border, Workingpaper, January 2016. Frontex, Frontex, U Long, K.andC for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015:70. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 2011: 10. UNHCR, New issuesinrefugee research, Research papern.200, migrants Africa to Southern from the Horn and Great Lakes region R April 2009:47. movement ofmenfrom EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa, Dream:the Southern Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular 2013: 22,64;International Organization forMigration, In Pursuit of of Africa& Yemen: thepoliticaleconomyandprotection risks,June uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed andpulledintwodirec- egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration inKenya: the B.,Hanson, G.,Cornwell,oberts, D.andBorger, S.,An Analysis of egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Blinded by hope: knowledge, nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Smuggling ofMigrants: nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in onini, A.,Monsutti, A.andScalettaris,G.,AfghansontheMove: Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013:44. Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, an, R.andJayasuriya, D.,People smugglingfieldinsightsreport A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Risk Analysis for2016,March 2016. Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2015, risp, J.In harm’s way:theirregular movement of Assessment of the irregular movement of men Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of November 2013: 44. , 29 28 26 32 30 27 33 31 25 24 23 22 21 20

Ibid. U U S U B men from EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa, April 2009:47. Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular movement of International Organization forMigration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern Kenya: thescaleofmovement andassociatedprotection risks,June 2013; May 2016;Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration in flow between theHorn ofAfricaand Yemen, RMMSbriefingpaper1, in twodirections. An analysisofthebi-directional refugee andmigrant June 2013;Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed andpulled the Horn ofAfrica& Yemen: thepoliticaleconomyandprotection risks, 2015; Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smugglingin between West Africa, North Africa and the Mediterranean, tion forMigration Nigeria andAltaiConsulting,Irregular migration migrant from AfricatoEurope, tional Organized Crime, Smuggled Futures: The dangerous pathofthe Migrants by Sea, 2011:25-26; The Global Initiative against Transna- U 2013: 26. Agency, Migrants by Sea, 2011: 19-20; European Union, Fundamental Rights U in North East Africa,November 2015;28. Mixed Migration Task Force, Conditionsandrisksofmixed migration smuggling inpost-revolution Libya , March 2017:16;North Africa Crime, January 2016; The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Frontex, 19, 2015:44. from Ethiopia andSomalia,’ Law, Democracy andDevelopment, vol. gling Protocol inresponse totheirregular movement ofmigrants for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, 2013:31 andthePacific:Asia A Threat, UNODCRegional Assessment Office Office on Drugs and Crime, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015:34;United Nations CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 269-302, 2016. emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, pp. (eds.), Migrants by Sea, 2011:32. N I R B U the Remaking of the U.S.-Mexico, Routledge, February Boundary 2010. men from EastAfricaandthe Horn toSouth Africa,April 2009:51. Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular movement of 10-11. the Horn ofAfricaand Yemen, RMMSbriefingpaper1,May 2016: tions. An analysisofthebi-directional refugee andmigrant flow between February 2015. Studies Centre Working Series Paper no. 106,University ofOxford, asylumseekers’borne accesstorefugee protection inCanada, Refugee ing, cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015. nternational Organization for Migration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern anchez, G. E.,‘Latin America,’anchez, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. arasa, N.andFernandez, L.,‘Kenya’s implementationoftheSmug- in Han, C.,Smuggled migrant ormigrant smuggler:erosion ofsea- egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed andpulledintwodirec- nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Issue Paper: Smuggling evins, J.,Operation Gatekeeper andBeyond: The War on‘Illegals’ and Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013:44. Migrant smuggling data and research: a global review of the The Human Conveyor Belt: trends inhumantrafficking and Fundamental rightsatEurope’s sea borders southern , March Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2015, Transnational Organized Crime in East 20 May 2014;International Organiza- Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of December Global overview I

of Migrants by Sea, 2011: 31. Paper No. 17, The Graduate Institute of International and Develop- ment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016: 6-7; Dimitriadi, A., 34 Ibid. Migration from Afghanistan to third countries and Greece, Hellenic 35 Ibid: 40. Foundation for European and Foreign Policy, 2013: 23. 36 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, 56 Donini, A., Monsutti, A. and Scalettaris, G., Afghans on the Move: April 2017: 25-26. Seeking Protection and Refuge in Europe, Global Migration Research Paper No. 17, The Graduate Institute of International and Develop- 37 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in ment Studies, Global Migration Centre, 2016: 5-6. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 23; Barker, C., The 57 Eurostat, Statistics on enforcement of immigration legislation, online people smugglers’ business model, Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary briefing and database, updated in May 2017 (http://ec.europa.eu/ Library, Research paper no. 2, 2012-2013, 28 February 2013: 37. eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Statistics_on_enforcement_ of_immigration_legislation). 38 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 58 Jayasuriya, D. and Sunam, R., ‘South Asia,’ in McAuliffe, M. and for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 25, 30. Laczko, F. 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Frontex, European Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rightsat 2015. 2014:19. Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June Europe’s seaborders southern , March 2013. Ibid, R March 2018. Academy of Political S.X., Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican oterismo intheindigenousEcuadorian migrationindustry,’ inZhang, S Texas-Mexico border, CornellUniversity Press, November 2009. I 1, pp. 174-193,March 2018. of theAmerican Academy ofPolitical ders,’ inZhang,S.X.,Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),The Annals pathways ofCentralAmericanmigrantsinMexico’s southernbor- pp. 269-302,2016;Guevara González, Y., ‘Navigating withcoyotes: emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, (eds.), S S 2011: 12. UNHCR, New issuesinrefugee research, Research papern.200, migrants Africa to Southern from the Horn and Great Lakes region Long, K.andC of female migrants from the Horn of Africa in Yemen, October 2014: 26. R R Migrants by Air, 2010:31. U online briefing,18February 2016. Frontex, U E U to theEuropean Union, January 2011:12. role oforganized crimeinthesmugglingofmigrantsfrom West Africa United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime (UNODC)(2011c), The the United Kingdom,Migration Policy Institute, February 2014:8; (2014), ‘’Donkey flights’: illegalimmigrationfrom thePunjab to Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015.;Smith N. Currentin Asia: Trends andRelated Challenges,UNODCRegional U Migrants by Air, 2010:10. U S Migrants by Air, 2010:11. ouflage_passports_en.pdf) and-visas/document-security/docs/list_of_known_fantasy_and_cam- eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/borders- list of known fantasy and camouflage (https://ec.europa. passports 2011:47. gling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union, January Crime (UNODC)(2011c), The role oforganized crimeinthesmug- of Migrants by Air, 2010:9-10,United Nations Office onDrugs and the Punjab, CARIM–India Research Report 2013/03:21-22. Bhawra, V.K., Irregular migration from India totheEU:evidencefrom United Kingdom,Migration Policy Institute, February 2014:9-10; Migrants by Air, 2010:40. bid; Spener, D.,Clandestinecrossings: Migrants andcoyotes onthe tone-Cadena, V. andÁlvarez Velasco, S.,‘Historicizing mobility:coy mith N.,‘’Donkey flights’: illegalimmigration from thePunjab tothe anchez, G. E., Humananchez, Smuggling andBorder Crossings , Routledge, anchez, G. E.,‘Latin America,’anchez, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. uropean Commission,Information ConcerningtheNon-exhaustive egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smugglingintheHorn egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West:Contemporary nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Issue Paper: Smuggling nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs and Crime, nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant Smuggling Migrant smuggling data and research: a global review of the Annual RiskAnalysis 2015,April 2015. Profiting –how smugglersbringpeopletoEurope, from misery risp, J.,In harm’s way:theirregular movement of and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue1,pp. 194-211, and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue Abused & abducted: the plight Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of Issue Paper: Smuggling of - , Global overview I

of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013: cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015. 72. 191 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized 175 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Issue Paper: Smuggling of Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC Migrants by Air, 2010: 7. Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013: 45-46. 176 Stone-Cadena, V. and Álvarez Velasco, S., ‘Historicizing mobility: coy- 192 Barasa, N. and Fernandez, L., ‘Kenya’s implementation of the Smug- oterismo in the indigenous Ecuadorian migration industry,’ in Zhang, gling Protocol in response to the irregular movement of migrants S.X., Sanchez, G.E. and Achilli, L. (eds.), The Annals of the American from Ethiopia and Somalia,’ Law, Democracy and Development, vol. Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 676, issue 1, pp. 194-211, 19, 2015: 40-41. March 2018; Sanchez, G. E., Human Smuggling and Border Crossings, 193 See, for example, European Commission, Directorate General for Routledge, 2015; Barasa, N. and Fernandez, L., ‘Kenya’s implemen- Migration and Home Affairs (EC DG Home) (2015a), A study on tation of the Smuggling Protocol in response to the irregular move- smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and cooperation ment of migrants from Ethiopia and Somalia,’ Law, Democracy and with third countries, Final Report, September 2015. Development, vol. 19, 2015: 40; Triandafyllidou, A. and Maroukis, T., Migrant Smuggling: Irregular Migration from Asia and Africa to Europe, 194 Moreno Mena, J.A. and Avedaño Millán, R.M., ‘Arrinconados por la Palgrave Macmillan, May 2012: 143-145. realidad: Menores de circuito’, Estudios fronterizos, 16(31), pp.207- 238. 177 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 195 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015. crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union, January 2011: 29. 178 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for 196 Majidi, N. and Danziger, R., ‘Afghanistan’, in McAuliffe, M. and Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012: 184. Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for 179 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Migration, pp. 161-186, 2016: 166-167. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 71. 197 Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report on human smuggling across the South Africa/Zimbabwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, 180 International Organization for Migration, Afghanistan Migration University of the Witwatersrand, March 2009: 32; United Nations Profile, International Organization for Migration Afghanistan, 2014: Office on Drugs and Crime, GLO.ACT Needs Assessment Report on 22. South Africa, 2016: 14. 181 International Organization for Migration, Baseline Research on Smug- 198 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in gling of Migrants in, from and through Central Asia, IOM Technical Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, September 2006: for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015: 33; Triandafyllidou, 28, 42. A. and Maroukis, T., Migrant Smuggling: Irregular Migration from Asia and Africa to Europe, Palgrave Macmillan, May 2012: 198-200; 182 Slack, J. and Campbell, H., ‘On narco-coyotaje: illicit regimes and Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- their impacts on the US–Mexico border,’ Antipode, 48(5), pp.1380- gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies 1399, November 2016. and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, 183 Sanchez, G. E. and Zhang, S. X., ‘Rumors, encounters, collabora- November 2015: 28. tions, and survival: the migrant smuggling-drug trafficking nexus 199 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in in the U.S. Southwest,’ in Zhang, S. X., Sanchez, G. E. and Achilli, Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for L. (eds.), The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution): Science, vol. 676, issue 1, pp. 135-151, March 2018.; Izcara-Palacios, 29-30; Hugo, G. and Dissanayake, L., The Process of Sri Lankan S., ‘Coyotaje and drugs: two different businesses’, Bulletin of Latin Migration to Australia Focussing on Irregular Migrants Seeking Asylum, American Research, 34(3)324-339; Spener, D., Clandestine crossings: Irregular Migration Research Programme, Occasional Paper Series Migrants and coyotes on the Texas-Mexico border, Cornell University no. 10, 2014, Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Press, November 2009. Government of Australia: 8; Bhawra, V. K., Irregular migration from 184 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized India to the EU: evidence from the Punjab, CARIM – India Research crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Report 2013/03: 11-12. Union, January 2011: 35-37. 200 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Issue Paper: Smuggling of Migrants by Air, 2010: 7. 185 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration in Kenya: the scale of movement and associated protection risks, June 2013: 29. 201 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European 186 Beittel, J. S., Mexico: Organized crime and drug trafficking organiza- Union, January 2011: 29; Barasa, N. and Fernandez, L., ‘Kenya’s tions, Congressional Research Service, 25 April 2017. implementation of the Smuggling Protocol in response to the irregu- 187 Molenaar, F. and El Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning the tide: The lar movement of migrants from Ethiopia and Somalia,’ Law, Democ- politics of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya, Clingendael – racy and Development, vol. 19, 2015: 33; Forced Migration Studies Netherlands Institute of International Relations, February 2017: Programme, Report on human smuggling across the South Africa/Zim- 43-44; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Altai babwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, University of the Witwa- Consulting, Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, November 2013: tersrand, March 2009: 60, 73. 105-1-6. 202 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized 188 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2017, crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European June 2017: 32 Union, January 2011; 25-32, Europol (2016a), Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016; Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 189 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized 2017: 8. crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union, January 2011: 32, 46-47. 203 Based on field monitoring, UNHCR estimated that between 18,000 and 36,000 migrants claiming Ethiopian citizenship were smuggled 190 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home into Sudan in 2014. Similarly, for 2014, different UNHCR esti- Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and mates refer to numbers ranging between 75,000 and 110,000 people

65 66 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 219 218 217 216 215 213 210 208 207 206 205 204 221 220 214 212 211 209

Ibid. Ibid. U O U de Política Migratoria. Trabajo yPrevisión Social, ConsejoNacional dePoblación, Unidad EMIF 138. S ber 2016:5-9. America Migration Dialogue Policy Brief Series, PBno. 14,Decem - ular por Mexico: nuevas cifras y tendencias R for Africa(Horn ofAfrica Window), 25July 2017:41. and Yemen: AStudy ofPuntland, Djiboutiand Yemen, EU Trust Fund R org/index.php/data-trends/trend-analysis). (2015, 2014,2013)(allyears available at:http://www.regionalmms. Africa and Yemen Region, endofyear trend andanalysis,2016 summary R 11, 22. of femalemigrants from theHorn ofAfricain Yemen, October 2014: R F I RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017:16. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R May 2017. Matrix, I 2017. Matrix, I Europe, May 2017. Integrated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricato Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime (2017b), ing, U UNHCR statisticsonseaarriv ing, U at thecrossroads, November 2013:35). missioner forRefugees andAltaiConsulting,Mixed migration: Libya East Africa,November 2015:24-28andUnited Nations High Com- Sudan (seeMhub, Conditionsandrisksofmixed migration inNorth claiming Eritrean andSomali citizenship smuggledintoEthiopia and arrivals onGreek islandsin February 2016,2016:4. Regional Office forSoutheast Asia andthePacific, 2013:12-13. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment University ofthe Witwatersrand, March 2009. across theSouthAfrica/Zimbabwe border, MRMPOccasional Report, Lakes region Africa,2013:11. toSouthern of mixed migration flows from theEast andHorn ofAfricaandtheGreat nternational Organization forMigration, Health vulnerabilities study nternational Organization forMigration, Displacement Tracking nternational Organization forMigration, Displacement Tracking egreteria deGobernacion, Estiadisticas Migratorias, Sintesis orced Migration Studies Programme, Report onhumansmuggling odriguez Chavez, E.,Migraciónodriguez centroamericana enmigracion irreg- esearch andEvidence Facility, Migration between theHorn ofAfrica egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration intheHorn of egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Profiling ofAfghan nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized fficial informationprovided by theGreek authoritiestoUNODC. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013:35, The Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013:33. SUR, 2018 El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Secretaría del Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Dashboard #1,June-July Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Report #2017-5,1-31 als inEurope, different years. Abused & abducted: the plight , Central America-North 2016:

CHAPTER II REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF Africa range from highly structured networks with several MIGRANT SMUGGLING IN AFRICA contact points along the route to local smugglers living in border areas. Migrant smuggling has been documented along at least The year 2015 saw a large outflow of migrants and refu- five major and several smaller routes in Africa. The first gees along the northward route from the Horn of Africa three major routes originate from the same subregion, to North Africa. The numbers of citizens of countries in namely the Horn of Africa. Movements within that sub- the Horn of Africa arriving in Europe on the Central region are mainly irregular as there are limited options for Mediterranean route decreased in 2016. Arrivals in Egypt, regular movement.1 Smugglers facilitate many of these however, appear to be high, with the trend in the number irregular movements. The northward route connects the of asylum seekers from the Horn of Africa increasing. Horn of Africa via land to North Africa. Upon arrival in North Africa, some of the migrants smuggled along this With regard to the eastward route, arrivals in Yemen were route continue to Europe along the Central Mediterranean record high in 2016, with some 117,000 arrivals.2 The route. The eastward route connects the Horn of Africa to high level appears to be continuing into 2017. Uniquely, Yemen, crossing the Red Sea or the Arabian Sea. Many of this route also has a significant flow moving in the oppo- these migrants are then smuggled north to Saudi Arabia site direction, from Yemen into the Horn of Africa. or further afield. The southward route heads primarily The magnitude of migrant smuggling along the migration overland to Southern Africa. routes heading to Southern Africa is even more difficult There are also sizable migrant smuggling routes from West to estimate. Migrants and refugees are certainly smuggled and Central Africa to South Africa and neighbouring from the Horn of Africa and other parts of Sub-Saharan countries, and from West Africa to North Africa. While Africa to South Africa. The number of newly arrived many of the latter migrants move seasonally or stay in asylum seekers in South Africa has declined sharply since North Africa, some also join the Central Mediterranean 2010, but not all migrants apply for asylum, and some route to Europe. There are also some smaller, though still migrants and refugees may not be smuggled. A recent substantial flows of migrant smuggling in Africa. For estimate of the number of irregular arrivals from the Horn example, migrants are smuggled by sea from Madagascar of Africa in South Africa is 13,400-14,050 persons per and the Comoros to the French island of Mayotte, in the year, most of whom are smuggled at least for some parts 3 Indian Ocean. Moreover, migrant smuggling by air – for of the journey. example, from South Asia via various African airports to Europe, Australia or the United States of America – has also been documented. In the last few years, smuggling from the Horn of Africa towards Southern Africa appears to have declined somewhat. Smuggling along the eastward route to Yemen is at a high level, though trends started to decline in late 2016. Flows from the Horn of Africa towards North Africa were particularly large in 2015 but have been declining since then. The available information for many of these flows is scattered and anecdotal, and there is very little specific migrant smuggling data. Smugglers seem to operate at most borders along the overland African routes. Migrants and refugees resort to their services for a number of reasons, including border restrictions, misinformation about available legal migration pathways, and the hardships of the journey. Migrant smuggling organizations operating in

71 72 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 THE HORNOFAFRICA Sudan hasnotyetbeendetermined. betweentheRepublicofSudanand theRepublicofSouth or concerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersboundaries.Finalboundary the partofSecretariatUnitedNationsconcerninglegalstatusanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplyexpressionanyopinionwhatsoever Sudan hasnotyetbeendetermined. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.FinalboundarybetweentheRepublicofSudan andtheRepublicofSouthor concerning thelegalstatusofanycountry,the partofSecretariat oftheUnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea or of itsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveron 0 yet beendetermined. Republic ofSudan andtheRepublicofSouthSudan hasnot betweenthe of itsfrontiersorboundaries.Final boundary city orareaofitsauthorities, concerningthedelimitation Nations concerningthelegalstatus ofanycountry, territory, whatsoever onthepartofSecretariat oftheUnited on thismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinion The designationsemployedandthe presentationofmaterial Land Sea LIBYA

AFRICA SOUTH Lusaka Kufra ZIMBABWE Beitbridge US$ 1,500-3,000 Hub 1,000 ZAMBIA Dzaleka TANZANIA REPUBLIC UNITED Ressano Garcia Kakuma OF MOZAMBIQUE MALAWI Tete SUDAN 2,000 km EGYPT Nairobi KENYA Mtwara Khartoum Mombasa ETHIOPIA Moyale US$ 1,500-3,000 Aswan Liboi Land Sea US$ 50-200

Kismayo Mogadishu SOMALIA US$ 200-500 Kassala Metemma ETHIOPIA Humera ERITREA Ababa Addis networked. smuggler ‘service providers’ whomaybeinformally large,well-organizedA few operationsandthousandsof Organization: Sudanese onsomeroutes. Mostly citizens ofcountries intheHorn ofAfrica,plus Profile ofsmugglers: arrest. sons, sexualviolence,arbitrary kidnapping,traffickinginper risks, includingextortion, A minimumof1,700deathsin2016.rangeother Human cost: according tothespecificflow. Most are young males. Ethiopians, Eritreans andSomalis indifferent proportions Profile ofmigrants: Obock Dollo DJIBOUTI Ado SOMALIA US$ 60-200 Taiz/Lahij ARABIA 0 SAUDI Hargeisa YEMEN US$ 120-150 Bossaso 1,000 OMAN 2,000 km - Regional overviews - Africa II

The northward route: from the Horn Fig. 23: Number of newly registered asylum of Africa to North Africa seekers in Egypt from countries in the broader Horn of Africa region, 12,000 The main smuggling hubs, departure and 2010-2016 arrival points 10,000 12,000 8,000 The northward route departs from Eritrea, Ethiopia and 10,000 Somalia, passes through Khartoum, Sudan and arrives in 6,000 8,000 Libya or Egypt. Most migrants from the Horn of Africa 4,000 6,000 choose the land route via Addis Ababa to Khartoum, but 2,000 4 some also travel via Nairobi and South Sudan. Large cities 4,000 0 along this route play the role of major smuggling hubs. 2,000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 The area around Metemma, on the border between Ethio- Eritrea pia and Sudan, is a hub where many migrants make 0 2010 2011 2012 2013Ethiopia 2014 2015 2016 arrangements for travel to Khartoum, or even all the way Sudan to Italy.5 Once they have arrived in North Africa, many Eritrea Somalia Ethiopia South SudanSudan migrants and refugees continue their journeys along the Sudan Central Mediterranean route. Somalia Source: UNHCR. South Sudan The magnitude of migrant smuggling along the northward route migrant smugglers only in Khartoum to facilitate the The number of migrants who were smuggled from the onward journey.13 Horn of Africa to North Africa (and then to Europe) was In Egypt, the total number of refugees, asylum seekers large in 2015, but decreased in 2016. Frontex reported and returned refugees has remained largely constant at that more than 50,000 migrants and refugees from the some 250,000-260,000 over the 2013-2016 period.14 Horn of Africa were smuggled to Europe via the Central Most are refugees from the Syrian Arab Republic. But Mediterranean route in 2015. This decreased to less than UNHCR statistics suggest an increased flow of citizens of 30,000 in 2016.6 countries in the broader Horn of Africa region, particularly Looking more specifically at the countries concerned, the Sudan, in recent years. Although there are no data about available information is scattered and in some cases dated. migrant smuggling to Egypt, the available information Much of the information is published by UNHCR, which about travel arrangements across the Sahara suggest that may focus on specific populations such as refugees and almost all asylum seekers from those countries have their asylum seekers. This means that the estimates represent entire journey or part of it facilitated by smugglers.15 the minimum size of migrant smuggling flows. Libya was an important destination and transit country For the Eritrea-Sudan crossing, a minimum of 1,350 for smuggled migrants from the Horn of Africa, but people per month crossed the border near Kassala from recently, this flow has drastically diminished. Before the Eritrea to Sudan and registered with UNHCR in 2015.7 deterioration of the security situation in Kufra district in This border crossing is generally facilitated by smugglers, Libya in 2012, the Kufra governor estimated the flows although a few also attempt the passage on their own.8 from Sudan into the district at 10,000-12,000 people per month, whereas in 2013, a significant reduction of the It is difficult to assess the dimension of the smuggling flow flow was recorded and only 300-1,000 migrants were esti- from Eritrea to Ethiopia.9 Virtually all Eritreans migrating mated to enter Libya from Sudan per month.16 Although irregularly to Ethiopia reportedly do so with the assistance many of these arrivals may not apply for asylum, data on of smugglers.10 Flows of Eritreans, or persons claiming to asylum applications in Libya also reflect the decreasing be Eritreans, might have decreased, as suggested by the flow from countries in the Horn of Africa into Libya. The substantially declining trend for such arrivals in Italy in number of new asylum seekers in Libya from these coun- 2016 and 2017.11 tries peaked in 2013 at almost 4,000, mainly Eritreans (or In 2013, UNHCR estimated that between 18,000 and people claiming to be Eritreans) and Somalis. These appli- 36,000 Ethiopian migrants and refugees crossed into cations then decreased sharply, and in 2016, the only sig- Sudan through Metemma.12 Many Ethiopians legally cross nificant figures were some 430 new asylum applications the border into Sudan with a temporary visa and engage by Sudanese citizens.17

73 74 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 The profileofthesmuggledmigrants The smugglers’profileandorganization nderstood tobecomplexpopulation movements includingrefugees, a the journeytoEurope. US$3,000 and5,000;almostasmuchfortherest of between AsmaraandSudan orEthiopia rangedbetween Somalis. glers providing falseEthiopian toEritreans passports and on foot or in a pick-up truck. Eritreans smuggledtoSudan cross theborder clandestinely arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel stantial logisticalandfinancialcapacities. well-organizedhands ofafew criminalnetworks withsub smuggling hasbecomeincreasingly concentratedinthe years. become increasingly active inthebusinesspastfew ralists, although other local groups also appear to have nated by the Rashaida, a group of Bedouin camel pasto- In ofSudan, theeasternpart migrantsmugglingisdomi- route inrecent years. to have increased theirinfluencealongthesmuggling providing locally. smugglingservices ations, andthousandsoflow-level and communityactors ity to manage sophisticated transnational smuggling oper highlyorganized groups,include afew havingthecapac- Migrant smugglersoperatingalongthisroute seemto terranean route. join theflow headingtoEurope alongtheCentralMedi- them through underground tunnels.Once inEgypt, they Some Palestinians are also smuggled to Egypt; many of Ethiopian. unaccompanied minors, especially Eritrean and Africa are malesbetween theagesof20and35. The vast majority ofmigrantsmoving from theHorn of tered withUNHCRinEgypt andLibya. be amongthemaincitizenships ofasylumseekersregis- - Sudanese, Eritreans, Ethiopians and Somalis appear to Excluding Syrians –whomainlytravel alongotherroutes North Africa,manyapplyforinternationalprotection. and South Sudan alsojointheflow. Once theyarrive in Eritreans andSomalis. Alongtheway, peoplefrom Sudan Africa andheadingnorthward mainlyinvolves Ethiopians, The mixed migrationflow same time,several sources attesttoagrowing presence of level smugglingnetworks from theHorn ofAfricaseem

asylum seekers,economicmigrantsand othermigrants. U 24 In North Africa,recent research hasindicatedthat 27 In late2016,smugglingfeesfortheroute 20 21

23 28 a departing from theHorn departing of 26 There is evidence of smug 22 Some ofthehigh- 18 25 19 At the - - - the border. In 2016,thepriceforjourneyfrom Khar handed over toothersmugglerswhodrive themacross gle migrantstowards Libya. Closetotheborder, theyare man, just across the river from typically smug Khartoum, Sudanese orin Omdur smugglersoperatinginKhartoum reportedly costsbetween US$100and300. Khartoum detected. The tripfrom KassalainfareasternSudan to wearing traditional Sudanese clothes in order not to be They are by bus,preferably takentoKhartoum atnight, Once inSudan, mostmigrantscontinuetoKhartoum. US$200 and500,dependingonthefinaldestination. Humera, a border costbetween town north, further ranged between US$50and200,whereas thejourneyvia via Metemmapia to Khartoum inEthiopia north-western of late2016thesmugglingfeeforjourneyfrom Ethio Ethiopia toSudan takesbetween three andsixdays. glers. When facilitatedby smugglers,the need visasandmaytherefore ofsmug engagetheservices enter the country. arrival toSudan, andtherefore donotneedsmugglersto Ethiopians can generally obtain aone-month visa upon in North Africa. includes all routes affecting the Horn of Africa) and 1,279 went missingmoving across the Horn of Africa(this Migrant Project, in2016,230migrants losttheirlives or or thedriver getslost. safe; sometimesthevehicle breaks down, outoffuel runs dration. Passages offered by smugglersare never entirely injuries. Some ordehy- migrantsalsodiefrom starvation vehicles theyare travelling in,resulting indeathsorsevere There have beenseveral casesofmigrantsfallingoffthe Africa andNorth Africaindangerous circumstances. Smugglers makemigrantstravel between theHorn of The humancost through. smugglers frequently offerbribesinorder topass Along thisroute, there are numerous checkpointsand Africa toEurope stopped. viaEgypt virtually 2017, themigrantsmugglingflow from theHorn of can board boatstowards Italy. managed by smugglers)nearAlexandria,from where they toa‘safetransported house’ accommodation (temporary From Aswan,migrantscontactsmugglersinorder tobe occurs asitiseasierforSudanese citizens toenterEgypt. Egypt. Some toAswan, migrantsalsoheadfrom Khartoum 3,000. toum toLibya orEgypt rangedbetween US$1,500and 33 34

Use Sudanese ofcounterfeit reportedly passports 37 39 29 However, Eritreans and Somalis do 38 According totheIOMMissing 35 According toFrontex, in journey from 36 30 As As 31 32 - - - - - Regional overviews - Africa II

Exploitation and coercion of migrants, sometimes resulting north through Somalia, the capital Mogadishu, as well ing in trafficking in persons, is also widely documented as the large towns of Beledweyne and Galkayo are important along the northward route. Trafficking for sexual exploi- centers. For Ethiopians, the border towns just across the tation is commonly reported.40 Migrants are at risk of border into Somalia and en route to Bossaso, serve as hubs kidnapping for ransom; particularly in the remote areas where smugglers with connections to smuggling networks along this route.41 Some research has found that such kid- can be readily found.47 napping is particularly prevalent in North Africa; often In Yemen, most migrants – having departed from Bossaso with Somali victims.42 - arrive in the governorate of Hadramout, in the eastern In Libya, migrants may be subject to arbitrary arrest and part of the country. Many also arrive in the neighbouring detention at the hands of the authorities under Govern- Shabwa governorate. Those departing from Obock arrive ment control as well as militia groups.43 The United in either Taiz or Lahji governorates in Yemen’s Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has south-west.48 described the conditions for detained irregular migrants The magnitude of migrant smuggling along as ‘horrific,’ with detainees held in unsanitary conditions the eastward route without sufficient food and drink, and often having to endure torture, exploitation and extortion, among other In 2016, 117,107 migrants and refugees arrived in Yemen violations. Many women migrants have reportedly been along the eastward route departing from the Horn of raped and suffered other sexual violence by smugglers and Africa, the highest number recorded since monitoring 49 guards.44 started in 2006. The increase is believed to stem from a combination of factors, including the weakening of Yem- The eastward route: from the Horn of en’s central government and border control mechanisms Africa to the Arabian Peninsula and the political instability in some origin countries.50 The high level of arrivals seems to have continued in 2017, The main smuggling hubs, departure and with reports that some 55,000 migrants left the Horn of arrival points Africa for Yemen between January and early August.51 Located within relative proximity to Somalia and Ethiopia, Yemen is a pathway to the affluent countries of the Gulf As for most sea crossings, virtually all migrants and refu- Cooperation Council.45 Obock in Djibouti and Bossaso in gees crossing the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea on their the Puntland area of Somalia are key coastal departure way to the Arabian Peninsula have their journey facilitated points for the sea crossing to Yemen. Until 2013, Djibouti by smugglers. One recent study found that the scale and was the major transit country, but this changed in 2014, scope of smuggling along this route has increased since when the route across the Arabian sea departing from 2015. The overland travel through Somalia used to be Bossaso became the most widely used among migrants from undertaken by migrants independently, but this has the Horn of Africa heading to Yemen.46 For migrants head- changed, and migrants use smuggling services also for this part of their journey.52 Travel from the arrival points along Fig. 24: Shares of recorded migrant arrivals Yemen’s shores to Saudi Arabia often involves smuggling by sea in Yemen, by route, 2010-2016 as well.53

100% Uniquely, there is also a considerable reverse flow between 90% these countries. There were reportedly more than 114,000 35% 30% 25% 26% 54% 85% 84% 80% arrivals in Yemen from the Horn of Africa, and nearly 70% 60% 87,000 arrivals in the opposite direction over the March 50% 2015 – April 2016 period, perhaps due to the escalation 40% of conflict in Yemen.54 Most arrived in Djibouti and 30% Somalia. In Djibouti, more than half of the approximately 20% 10% 35,000 arrivals were citizens of Yemen, and most of the 65% 70% 75% 74% 46% 15% 0% 16% rest, from Djibouti. Of the 32,000 arrivals in Somalia, nearly all were Somalis.55 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Arabian Sea from Bossaso, Somalia The profile of the smuggled migrants Red sea from Obock, Djibouti The migration flow from the Horn of Africa to Yemen is Source: RMMS. composed of Ethiopians and Somalis. Since 2009, Ethio-

75 76 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 lagers inthecoastalarea along theRed Sea alsoappearto ing toresearch years carriedoutafew back. facilitate themovement ofpeopleacross borders, accord- tion and migrant smuggling and may accept bribes to guards andpolice,seemtobecomplicitinirregular migra - local authorities, including embassy personnel, border In different areas along this route, some members of the intotheother.from onecountry Ethiopianescorting andSomali migrantsastheycross nities livingaround thekeydeparture points,withlocals gling isalsothemaineconomicactivityforcommu- mostoftheboatmen areport, Somali. overland cityof Bossaso. passage tothe port At Bossaso Somali smugglers are the only ones who can provide asafe same citizenship (andoftenethnicity)oftheirclients,but Smugglers operatingalongthisroute generallyshare the The smugglers’profileandorganization Yemeni arrivals ismuchlower. migrants are Yemeni. In Oman, however, thenumber of In Saudi Arabia, asizeable numberofundocumented better off. mixed, withsomepoormigrantsbutalso somethatare to disposableincome,amongSomalis, thepicture ismore limitedaccess migrants comefrom poorfamilieswithvery per cent of the total. has estimatedtheshare of female migrantsatsome20-30 young, singleandwithlittleeducation.Recent research Most ofthepeoplemoving towards Yemen are men;often Horn ofAfricato Yemen, andSomalis 17per cent. Ethiopians constituted83percentofarrivals from the and theirpresence hasincreased over theyears. In 2016, pians have been the main group travelling along this route Source: RMMSandUNHCR. F ig . 25:

58 Number ofarrivalsfromtheHornAfricatoYemen, 2010-2016

Total Ethiopians Somalis 100,000 120,000 140,000 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 0 57 While most of the Ethiopian 4427,5 4365,1 1978,6 96,979 20,128 82,268 10,162 71,907 19,640 54,213 11,045 84,376 23,086 75,651 27,350 53,277 34,422 18,855 0021 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 60 103,001 0,6 107,462 107,462 59 Migrant smug 61 Some vil- 56 - For Ethiopians –manyofthemigrantsalong thisroute arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel with thearmy. be involved in migrant smuggling, sometimes in collusion Source: UNHCR. F ‘brokers’ were present. to migrate,asopposedthesituationinareas where smuggler ‘brokers’, peoplegenerallyhadlittleaspiration ence ofsmugglersinanarea. In communitieswithout correlation between the desire to migrate and the pres- conducted insouthernEthiopia in2008foundastrong through deceptionandmanipulation. services in creating aspirationsandgeneratingdemandfortheir glers –referred toas‘brokers’ roles -oftenplaycrucial glers whoreside intheirneighbourhood. These smug – thefirstlinkinsmugglingprocess are oftensmug- 5289,4 92,430 91,547 65,258 ig . 26: 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 5,000

0 and Omanotherarrivals,2016 arrivals fromYemen inSaudiArabia Number ofundocumentedmigrant Other arrivals Other Yemen from Arrivals 62 30,000 Saudi Arabia 9,880 64 117,107 5,000 Oman 46,000 63 Research - Regional overviews - Africa II

Most Ethiopians undertake much of their travel by foot,65 the border by car with the smugglers, with the migrant but those who can afford smuggling services are trans- women wearing clothes typically worn by Saudi women ported from the border areas to Obock in containers and (abaya and niqab) to pass as locals.74 trucks. A wide network of small-scale smugglers organize The human cost transport from different parts of Ethiopia to the country’s borders, including the Ethiopia-Djibouti border.66 Somalis As for any maritime route, drowning is a constant risk for heading to Djibouti are more likely to travel by vehicle.67 migrants smuggled across the Red Sea or the Arabian Sea. Some head to Ali Addeh refugee camp, where migrant Some also die of exposure to the elements, dehydration 75 smugglers reportedly operate.68 or suffocation, if stowed below deck. In August 2017, up to 50 smuggled migrants were deliberately drowned With regard to the Bossaso route, Somalis who arrive there by smugglers off the coast of Yemen, reportedly because are generally directed to one of the several teashops where the smugglers saw possible coast guard officials and feared smugglers can be found to arrange for their onward trip apprehension.76 While the number of casualties – dramati- to Yemen.69 The boatmen often have connections with cally high in 2007, with some 1,400 fatalities77 – has con- Yemeni smugglers who operate along the coast. The boats’ siderably decreased, the year-on-year trend has fluctuated. crews usually call the members of the smuggling network There are reasons to believe that deaths may go unreported in Yemen some time before arrival so that the smugglers along this route.78 arrive on time to receive them.70 Fig. 27: Number of migrant deaths in the There is a perception among migrants that the Arabian Horn of Africa, 2014-2017 Sea crossing from Bossaso is cheaper than the journey from Obock across the Red Sea. However, according to 200 182 179 interviews with migrants and smugglers carried out in 167 b early 2017 , the average prices for the two journeys are 150 similar, at US$892 for a journey from Ethiopia to Saudi 100 Arabia via Bossaso, and $855 for the same journey via 102 Obock. The price for only the sea journey from Bossaso 50 appears to be quite stable, ranging from $120-150. The price for only the sea journey from Obock, however, is far 0 more flexible, ranging from $60-200, with the actual price paid dependant upon the migrants’ perceived economic 2014 2015 2016 2017 resources. For both routes, the most expensive leg of the journey by far is that from Yemen to Saudi Arabia, at an Source: IOM Missing Migrants Project. average price of $500-550.71 However, the sea voyage is not the only risky part of this Once in Yemen, most Somalis apply for asylum, as they route. Migrants smuggled across the Horn of Africa are are recognized as refugees on a prima facie basis by the crowded in container-trucks, sometimes resulting in cases Yemeni government.72 Most of the Ethiopian migrants, of death by suffocation, dehydration or starvation.79 however, quickly head northwards, away from the coast. During their land journey to the embarkation point, Some want to settle in Saudi Arabia, others head to other migrants may face robbery, extortion, physical and sexual Gulf states, or even further afield. assault at the hands of criminal gangs and smugglers. Upon arrival in Yemen, smuggled migrants may be kid- The crossing from Yemen into Saudi Arabia is extremely napped or abducted by organized criminal groups.80 difficult due to the 1,800-kilometre border fence.73 Some migrants try to cross into Saudi Arabia on their own, The southward route: from the Horn others with the help of smugglers. The smugglers may of Africa to Southern Africa take migrants all the way to a destination in Saudi Arabia or leave them at the border. In the first case, migrants cross The main smuggling hubs, departure and arrival points b The researchers interviewed 60 migrants in Puntland, Somalia, 60 in Djibouti and 41 in Yemen as well as 4 smugglers/traffickers in The most widely used route for irregular and smuggled Puntland, Somalia, 4 in Djibouti and 1 in Yemen. Additionally, the migrants from the Horn of Africa travelling towards South interviewed more than 100 ‘key informants’ from communities as well as local and state authorities, international organizations and Africa is via Kenya-the United Republic of Tanzania-Zam- NGOs. bia-Zimbabwe and then into South Africa.81 Almost all

77 78 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 of themigrants–regardless ofroute –usesmugglersfor a decline from the 2008/2009 estimate of 17,000-20,000. - irregularly year. enterSouth Africaevery from theHorn ofAfrica–primarilyEthiopia andSomalia According torecent estimates,13,400-14,050migrants the southwardroute The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong contacts withmigrants. and Nyamapanda reception centre inZimbabwe tomake Dzaleka transit camp in Malawi, and Tongogara camp gee camps,includingDadaab and KakumainKenya, fraudulent documentsthere. home tomany smugglers,anditis possible toprocure Some neighborhoodsinmajortowns alongthisroute are leading toenhancedflows towards thesecountries. Zambia, Botswana, Malawi andMozambique, mightbe ofSouthernsectors – in other parts Africa, including inthemining,manufacturingandagricultural particularly Africa. However, theincreased – labouropportunities gled along the southward route intend to reach South oftheirjourney.at leastsomepart Asylum statisticsalsoshow thatEthiopia hasconsistently refugees. ofasylum. country This isoftenthecaseforSomali a significantnumberofrefugees whomove from theirfirst or theUnited Republic of Tanzania. the Great Lakesregion, alsojointheflow, usuallyinKenya Republic oftheCongoand othercountries,especiallyin Somalis. along this route are Ethiopians, and the rest are mainly The vast majority (80 per cent) of the migrants smuggled The profileofthesmuggledmigrants 180,000 in2010tosome35,0002016. asylum seekers in South Africa decreased from some registereding toUNHCRstatistics,thenumberofnewly andreceive permissiontostay.enter thecountry Accord- upon arrival inSouth Africaasthatistheonlywayto their journeyalongthisroute, generallyapplyfor asylum migrants, mostofwhomare of smuggledatleastforpart the numberofsmuggledmigrantsandrefugees. Irregular Data on asylum applications may be useful in estimating difficult. recorded makesmagnitudeestimatesparticularly any specificcrossing pointswhere numberscanbe higher. Moreover, themultitudeofroutes andabsenceof Horn ofAfricaandtravelling southward isprobably never reach South Africa,thenumberofthoseleaving Considering thatsomemigrantsstoponthewayand 90 88 92 Some citizens of South Sudan, the Democratic 85 84 Smugglers makeuseofrefu 82 Most migrantssmug 91 The flow includes 86 This represents This 89 83 87 - -

few years, followedfew by Somalia. The numberofEritrean ers from theHorn ofAfricainSouth Africaover thepast ofcitizenship amongasylumseek been themaincountry Source: UNHCR. F criminals maybegettinginvolved. the entire route, although in some countries, organized multinational smugglingorganizations operatingalong accommodating migrants. or outspecifictaskssuchasguiding,transporting rying flexible and may work with a number of smugglers car from onelocationtoanother. ‘Smuggling managers’ are smugglers rely on‘smuggling managers’ tomove people interact witheachotherinaflexiblemanner. individual smugglers,suchasagentsanddrivers, who in relatively loosenetworks involving manyopportunistic Smuggling alongthisroute tendsbeinformallyorganized The smugglers’profileandorganization the Horn ofAfricaappeared tobeincreasing. unaccompanied children inmixed migrationflows from Ethiopians. The share of females might be higher among Somalis than of Africaare young men,between theagesof18and 35. Most migrantssmuggledtoSouth Africafrom theHorn were facilitatedby smugglers. and India. It isnotknown towhatextentthesejourneys to UNHCRdata,mostwere from Bangladesh, Pakistan also applyforasyluminSouth Africa.In 2016,according In additiontotheAfricanasylumseekers,someAsians asylum-seekers inSouth Africa. oforigin Eastern Africa,Malawi isthemaincountry Eritreans prefer thenorthward andeastward routes. In limited, whichconfirmsthat asylum seekersremains very ig . 28: 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 500 0

and EasternAfrica,2016 of countriesintheHornAfrica asylum inSouthAfricabycitizens Number ofnewapplicationsfor 93

In 2014,IOMnotedthatthenumberof Ethiopia

Somalia

Malawi 96

There appear tobenolarge, Burundi

Uganda 97 Mozambique United Republic of Tanzania 95 94

The chief The Eritrea

Kenya

- - Regional overviews - Africa II

The ‘typical’ smuggler on this route is an 18 to 40-year- The human cost old man. However, some women have also taken part in There is no systematic data on deaths and disappearances smuggling rings. Somali smugglers usually work with along the southward route, but interviews with migrants 98 fellow clansmen throughout the network. Smugglers and government officials show that casualties are not may live in or visit home villages in Ethiopia and Somalia uncommon.107 During the long journey from the Horn and/or destination areas and take charge of a specific of Africa to South Africa smugglers rarely take into con- group of migrants. They make all the arrangements with sideration the basic survival needs of their clients, such as their associates along the route, and assist with various food, water and shelter.108 Some passages may also be more local issues that need a hands-on approach, such as paying dangerous than others; for example, the crossing of Lake bribes and arranging guides for the migrants.99 Malawi, where in June 2012 a boat carrying 49 migrants sank, causing the death of all passengers.109 Smugglers operating along this route may call themselves “travel agents” and do not necessarily perceive their activi- Smuggled migrants are also exposed to violence and dif- ties to be illegal. Sometimes they even see themselves as ferent types of crime along this route. For instance, smug- providers of humanitarian services, helping people in need glers rarely engaged in extortion of migrants’ family and to flee and reach a safer place.100 friends in 2008-2009. This practice is now more commonly reported, often while the smugglers detain the The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel migrant.110 Forced to travel on small paths away from arrangements main roads to avoid detection, migrants smuggled into Most smuggled migrants along this route travel by bus, Kenya can be easily attacked and robbed by gangs.111 Simi- truck and/or car, usually combined with stretches of walk- larly, in the border area between South Africa and Zim- ing. In a survey of nearly 400 migrants who had travelled babwe migrants are routinely subjected to mistreatment, 112 along this route, bus was the most frequently reported muggings and rape by criminal gangs. means of transport; reported by 40 per cent of the In many countries along the route, many migrants are respondents. Airplane travel was reported by 10 per cent, detained and held in prisons or detention centres for pro- 101 while 1 per cent stated that they had travelled by boat. longed periods. According to research from 2015, 68 per Some have their journey facilitated by smugglers from the cent of migrants on this route said that either they them- very beginning. There are smugglers in Ethiopia, for exam- selves or someone in their group had been detained or imprisoned by the police during their journey.113 ple, who specifically operate the southern route into Kenya.102 Others make it to Nairobi alone, and search for Other migrant smuggling routes in, a smuggler there to take them southward to South Africa through or affecting the Horn of or another country. From Kenya, migrants are smuggled Africa to the United Republic of Tanzania, and from there, some proceed to Zambia, with the rest continuing either to There are reports that a new route has emerged between Malawi or Mozambique. the Horn of Africa and Europe. Young people from Soma- lia are undertaking this journey via Yemen. Their route Zimbabwe is the last transit country before South Africa. takes them from Bossaso across the Arabian Sea to the The vast majority of irregular and smuggled migrants south coast of Yemen, from where they travel to the enter South Africa via the Beitbridge border post. A few Yemeni western coast and cross the Red Sea to Sudan. also cross into South Africa from Mozambique through From Sudan they travel overland into Libya, where they the border town of Ressano Garcia. join the Central Mediterranean route to Europe. Some Ethiopians may also be using this route. The magnitude The average duration of the journey from the Horn of of this route is uncertain, but estimates in the range of a Africa to South Africa is 48 days or just under 7 weeks.103 few hundred per month have been reported.114 The price for this journey seems to have increased. While in 2009, reported payments ranged between US$1,000 Air or sea travel among migrants from the Horn of Africa and 3,000,104 in 2015-2016, the average price was who intend to reach South Africa may be increasing. US$3,372.105 Based on these smuggling fees, as well as Recent research showed that some Somalis were bypassing their estimate of 13,400 – 14,050 smuggled migrants per Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania on the way year, RMMS estimated that the illicit migrant smuggling to South Africa in 2015, with most travelling by air or sea economy on this route is worth at least US$47 million to Mozambique, whereas in previous years, nearly all per annum.106 passed through Kenya and Tanzania.115

79 80 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 less restrictive. through LatinAmerica, where immigrationlawsmaybe or usemore convoluted routes, forexamplepassing might leave on direct flightstoEurope orNorth America America orAustralia. transit pointsforflyingtoEurope, the United States of Some migrants also use countries in Southern Africa as ing south,itappearsthatcountries suchasMalawi, migration flows from CentralandSouthern Africahead- Although South Africaisthemaindestinationofmixed West Africa. toeconomicmigrantsfrom Centralandopportunities fleeing violence intheGreat Lakes region, aswell aswork refugees. South Africahaslongoffered refuge to people - are significantcountriesoforiginformigrantsand Africa. Neighbouring Zimbabwe countries-particularly of mixed migrationflows from Central andSouthern from the Horn ofAfrica,but is also a major destination South Africanotonly attracts migrantsandrefugees CENTRAL ANDSOUTHERNAFRICA ‘amateur’ smugglersoperate. From Zimbabwe to South Africa,both ‘professional’ and Organization: as from South Asia,alsosmugglersfrom thosecountries. also fellow migrants,andforlonger-distanceroutes, such Mostly menfrom South AfricaorZimbabwe. Sometimes Profile ofsmugglers: extortion. or are killedby hippos.Alsorisksofrobbery, violenceand ing theLimpoporiver, where migrantsregularly drown From Zimbabwe toSouth Africa,themajorriskiscross- Human cost: of theDemocratic Republic oftheCongo. Mainly Zimbabweans; in recent years, also many citizens Profile ofmigrants: AFRICA INTOSOUTH FROM CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN cial studypositionsindestinationcountries. with smugglersby offeringfictitious‘scholarships’ orspe reported thatsomeeducationalinstitutionscooperated and then immediately slip underground. In 2009, it was documentation to enable numerous ‘delegates’ to fly in tional workshops withofficialletterheadsandappropriate involves thefabricationoffalseconferences orinterna- operating ontransoceanicairroutes from South Africa 119 117 Atechniqueoftenusedby smugglers 116 From South Africa,migrants 118 - limited literature aboutmigrantsmugglingintheregion Migrants could regularly enter South Africa through Beit smuggling isdocumentedalongbothroutes. crossing theborder elsewhere toavoid detection.Migrant either by passingthrough Beitbridge border post,orby Zimbabwe, migrantsandrefugees enterSouth Africa basesforonward travel. astemporary also serve to cross into South Africa via Zimbabwe. These towns and South Africansideoftheborder respectively, are used The towns ofBeitbridge andMusina, ontheZimbabwean arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand through theZimbabwean border. mainly focusonsmugglingofmigrantstoSouth Africa This gapisreflected inthepresent chapter, whichwill other irregular migrationandmigrantsmugglingroutes. Africa, andthere ishardly anyinformationavailable on focuses almostexclusively onflows directed toSouth asalternativebeing viewed destinations. 200,000 asylumapplications were lodged. decrease from thepeakyear of2009, whenmore than applied forasyluminSouth Africa,whichisaconsiderable to UNHCRdata,in2016, more than35,000people cation ofthesize andcompositionofthisflow. According Data on asylum applications may provide a rough indi on smugglers. bwe-South Africa border, and22 per centof those relied Africa through alandborder didsothrough theZimba- the vast majority(76 per cent)ofthosewhoentered South versity ofthe Witwatersrand in2007-2008,forinstance, by theForced Migration Studies Programme attheUni- the Zimbabwean border. According conducted to a survey estimates ofthesmugglingflow intoSouth Africathrough The scantavailable literature onlyprovides occasional Central andSouthernAfrica The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingin about thisoption. asylum, and smugglers may prefer not to inform them official border post by expressing their wish to apply for do not know that they could enter South Africa from the ing politicalpersecution.Anotheristhatmigrantssimply border postactsasadeterrent, especiallyforpeopleescap explanation isthatthepresence ofsecurityofficialsatthe away from high. One the official crossing possible is very number ofmigrantsandrefugees whoenterSouth Africa asylum at the border. But choose this option, and the few bridge border post by submitting an application for Mozambique, BotswanaandZambia are increasingly 124 123 120 However, the 122

121 From From

- - - Regional overviews - Africa II

Fig. 29: Trend in the number of new appli- Fig. 30: Number of asylum seekers in South cations for asylum in South Africa, Africa from the main countries of 2009-2016 origin in Central and Southern Africa, 2009-2016 250,000 149,453 146,566 51,031 25,000 200,000 20,000 150,000 222,324 15,000 180,637 100,000 10,000 117,188 35,329

50,000 106,904 Number Number seekers of asylum

87,551 5,000 84,232 79,325

0 0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2016 2015 2013 2012 2011 2009 2010

Source: UNHCR. Cameroon Republic of Congo Democra�c Republic of the Congo Swaziland Angola Zambia The profile of the smuggled migrants Lesotho Zimbabwe Out of the more than 35,000 applications for asylum Source: UNHCR registered in South Africa in 2016, Zimbabwe (7,964) arrangements with transport operators. Depending on the and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,293) were service offered, prices vary between US$10 and 50 per the two most frequent origin countries. Zimbabwean person. Amateurs appear to be more likely to use coercive nationals comprise nearly all asylum seekers from South- means such as threats of violence than ‘professional’ ern Africa. Citizens of the Democratic Republic of the smugglers.128 Congo have constituted the biggest group of asylum seek- The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel ers from Central Africa over the past few years. arrangements There is scant information regarding the age and gender Lack of information about South Africa’s asylum and of smuggled migrants in this region. Migrant populations immigration policies, as well as rumours spread by smug- from the Democratic Republic of the Congo tend to com- glers, encourage migrants and refugees to resort to the prise more women, children and elderly people - often services of smugglers and pay to start the asylum proce- travelling in family units - than migrant groups from the dure.129 Asylum seekers could legally enter South Africa Horn of Africa. There is also evidence suggesting that and file an application for asylum at the border, but few unaccompanied minors are undertaking this journey.125 people know about this option. More than two thirds of The smugglers’ profile and organization the asylum seekers interviewed at refugee reception offices Research from 2008-2009 showed that smuggling orga- in South Africa in 2008-2009 were unaware of this pro- 130 nizations operating along the routes to South Africa often cedure when they left their countries of origin. include a tight and trust-based core around which loose As far as Zimbabwean migrants are concerned, legal path- and flexible relations develop. Professional smugglers con- ways to South Africa may in principle be available, but stitute the core of the smuggling networks. They are usu- they may not be accessible because of the costs associated ally men from South Africa or Zimbabwe who have been with the need to travel to large cities to obtain documen- living in the border area for several years. Professional tation. Many Zimbabwean migrants enter South Africa smugglers hire employees to deal directly with clients, irregularly; often with the help of smugglers.131 sometimes contract services of amateurs, buy cars to transport migrants and refugees and arrange for permits for It appears that most Congolese migrants and refugees do their clients.126 not use smugglers, or if they do, they use them only to be smuggled from Zimbabwe into South Africa. Congolese Amateur smugglers are generally Zimbabwean and some generally travel on foot on their own, and frequently use are themselves undocumented.127 These smugglers usually commercial transportation such as buses and minibuses. provide transportation from Beitbridge to Musina. Some They transit through a combination of the countries of also offer transportation to Johannesburg through ad hoc Burundi, Mozambique, Rwanda, the United Republic of

81 82 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Africa. Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe on their way to South smugglers were arrested. Irregular migrantstoMayotte atotalof7,089migrants,forwhich523 cepted carrying south onthemainisland.In 2010,342vessels were inter- on or the tiny further island ofMtsamboro in the north, Depending on the time of year, landings happen either profitable business. a very year,sands ofmigrantsevery makingmigrantsmuggling the otherislandsof the archipelago, Mayotte attractsthou- thanmuch higher standards of living and public services of Comoros, andtoalesserextentMadagascar. Enjoying and Madagascar. The keydeparture pointistheislands France located intheIndian Ocean between Mozambique towards Mayotte, andregion aninsulardepartment of There isaconsiderablemigrantsmugglingflow directed Africa Central andSouthern Other migrantsmugglingroutes in in migrantsmuggling. for their methods of extortion. These groups also engage known asguma(oramaguma-guma),well-known river are alsoatriskofbeingambushedby criminalgroups hippos andcrocodiles. Migrants smuggledacross Limpopo the river, migrantsoccasionallydrown orare killedby babwe andSouth Africa,canbedangerous. While crossing The crossing oftheLimpoporiver, whichseparatesZim- the South Africa-Zimbabwe route. people died. January andJuly of2017,whereas inallof2016,92 migration routes crossing Sub-Saharan Africabetween 136 migrantsandrefugees losttheirlives alongthe route. According totheIOMMissing Migrant Project, There isnospecific data about casualties along this fees. Fewthe smugglingservices. respondents paidmid-range 2008 paideitheruptoUS$20ormore thanUS$60for Most by IOMin2007- oftherespondents interviewed where there are gates. through pre-made cutsorusingkeysatthevarious points pass three linesofbarbedwire andcross thefenceeither river andwalkthrough thebush.Migrants alsohave to impisi (“hyena”) whohelpmigrantstocross theLimpopo through thebush.Malayitsha employ individualscalled travelling withmalayitshagenerallyenterSouth Africa malayitsha, taxi drivers operating in Beitbridge. Migrants Undocumented migrants may also travel with so-called The humancost 134 More recent priceinformationisnotavailable. 132 135 Not allofthosedeathsoccurred along 133 136

the United Republic of Tanzania. trendwith a new of South Asians travelling from in trucks mixed migrationflows passingthrough Mozambique, In 2013,IOMreported achangeinthedemographicsof Some South Asians also seek to migrate to South Africa. or Mauritius astransitstothefinaldestinations. This smugglingflow makesuseoftheComoros, Seychelles Council, aswell astoothercountriesintheMiddle East. directed mainlytothecountriesofGulf Cooperation migrants outofthecountry. This smugglingactivityis The authoritiesofMadagascar report smugglingof ple fatalitieshave beenreported inrecent years. known forbeingrisky. Several incidentsinvolving multi- kwassa. The smugglingroutes headingto Mayotte are well- board their clients on tiny fishingboats, known as kwassa facilitated by localsmugglers;generallyfishermen,who The travel from Comoros toMayotte isarrangedand United Republic of Tanzania andasfarawayIraq. come from Comoros, butalsofrom Madagascar, the numbers dropped tolessthanhalfofthosefigures. cations from South Asiancitizens. In 2016,however, these that 2015wasapeakyear, withmore than15,000appli- debt. South Africaandare compelledtowork topayofftheir sored by membersoftheircommunityalready resident in South Asia.Often migrantsfrom thesecountriesare spon networks are smuggling migrants into the country fromnetworks are smugglingmigrantsinto thecountry sources have alsoreported thatwell-established criminal 141 UNHCR data on new asylumapplicationsshows UNHCRdataonnew 140 South Africanpolice 138 139 137

- Regional overviews - Africa II

FROM WEST AFRICA TO NORTH AFRICA

Profile of migrants: 0 1,000 2,000 km Mostly young men from most West African countries, with proportions of citizenships depending on the geo- Tripoli graphic area. Ghadames Human cost: Sabha ALGERIA At a minimum, nearly 500 deaths per year in the Sahara LIBYA desert in Niger and Algeria only. The number is likely to Ghat Qatrun be far higher. Significant risk of kidnapping for ransom Tamanrasset and trafficking in persons.

US$ 100/300Seguedine MALI Dirkou Profile of smugglers: Arlit Once in Mali or Niger, where the irregular travel often Gao Agadez starts, local, nomadic ethnic groups, including Tuareg and NIGER Toubou, are often involved.

Organization: West African routes Different smugglers in major hubs operate at different Land border crossings in a flexible and opportunistic manner. In Libya, it appears that much smuggling activity is well organized. TheThe designations designations employed employed and and the the presentation presentation of of material material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the parton of this the map Secretariat do not implyof the the United expression Nations of concerningany opinion the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or con- cerningwhatsoever the delimitation on the part of of its the frontiers Secretariat or boundaries. of the United Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan hasNations not yet concerning been determined. the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Final boundary between the 143 IntraregionalRepublic of Sudan flows and make the Republic up the of Southvast majoritySudan has notof the movement area. Travel documents may be expensive or migrationyet been determined.flows in West Africa, and according to the Euro- difficult to obtain, and some border crossings are still pean Commission, migration to Europe constitutes a subject to informal ‘taxes’ by border officials. As a result, small portion of the migration phenomenon in this a large number of the border crossings are undertaken region.142 Most West African statesc belong to the Eco- irregularly, simply by avoiding the official border crossing nomic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). points.144 In principle, the ECOWAS region is an area of free move- The level of irregularity involved in the travel seems to ment. According to the 1979 Protocol on the Free Move- increase the further north migrants go. In northern Niger ment of Persons, Residence and Establishment, ECOWAS and in northern Mali, there are no commercial bus ser- nationals should be able to move freely within the region vices, and the desert terrain is inhospitable. This means with a valid travel document and an international health certificate.d that migrants have to rely on local assistance for mobility. Libya, which is a destination for many West African The free movement of persons within the ECOWAS migrants, as well as a transit point for those intending to region is sometimes rather difficult. Domestic laws in join the Central Mediterranean route to Europe, is not some Member States still contravene the 1979 Protocol. an ECOWAS member and does not have bilateral visa- Moreover, limited access to ECOWAS travel documents, free agreements with any countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. lack of information among citizens and risks at border As a result, most migrants going to Libya use a crossing points may affect the implementation of the free smuggler.145 Although most ECOWAS citizens without travel docu- c Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, ments simply avoid official border posts, some make the Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, journey with the assistance of smugglers. Non-ECOWAS Senegal and Togo. d The full text of the Protocol is available at: http://documentation. citizens also rely on the help of smugglers to move within ecowas.int/. the region.146 Migrant smuggling is also widely docu-

83 84 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand Two from otherroutes theborders depart withNiger to toIllizi, Ouarglathen north andEl Oued tothecoast. Nedjma, Oued Akafoua or Tin to Amezi Tamanrasset and border in one of several from small villages, departing fromroutes theborders depart withMali, crossing the fromroutes south to north. crossing their country Two The Algerianauthoritiesreport thatthere are fourmajor still rely onsmugglers. enter Algeria, but dueto the hardship ofthe journey they tend totakethisroute becausetheydonotneedavisato through Arlit enroute to Tamanrasset inAlgeria.Malians facilitated by smugglers. coast. The journeyacross the Sahara isgenerally desert between theborder withNiger andtheMediterranean This transitpointinwest-central Libya isabouthalfway Nigerpasses through north-eastern enroute toSabha. The more commonlyusedsmugglingroute, toLibya, From there Agadez, are twomainroutes headingnorth. routes now bypass Agadez. that smuggling routes are diversifying and that some Algeria. can findsmugglersto continue their journey to Libya or Europe. is the main cityin Niger, Agadez where migrants all over West Africatravelling toNorth Africaenroute to Niger is a key transit point for migrants and refugees from or –toalesserextentMorocco. refugees passingthrough Algeriacontinueeitherto Libya the Algerianborder andto Tamanrasset. to Niger. From Gao, migrantsare across smugglednorth for migrantssmuggledtoAlgeriaandcontinuing to Morocco. Mali, Gao, city innorth-east isanimportant Algeria, andmore recently, toMauritania andfrom there, for migrants heading to NigerMali is a transit country or nature by commercialand often undertaken bus travel. Nigerof Agadez, andGao, Mali isgenerallyofalicit Mali and/orNiger. Travel from West Africatothecities most migrants and refugees pass through heading north Regardless ofwhere in West theirjourney, Africatheystart smugglers. and refugees of usingthisroute rely onthe services ney across theSahara, itcanbeassumedthatallmigrants glers. Given theirregular nature andhardship ofthejour irregularlyjourney north andwiththeassistanceofsmug ECOWAS region inaregular manneroftencontinuetheir Libya, AlgeriaandMorocco. Even thosewhocross the mented along the routes connecting Niger and Mali to 151 Recent fieldresearch by UNODChasindicated 147

154 153 152 The route toAlgeriapasses 150 149 Migrants and 148 - -

West Africa The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingin mated at about 200,000migrantsperyear by theMoroc demand forsmugglingactivityalongthisroute isesti tions active in the Sahel and the Sahara. The potential works connectedwithotherformsofcriminalorganiza- smuggling ofmigrantsismanagedby transnationalnet- the Moroccan nationalauthorities,alongthisroute, the smuggling along the West African routes. According to Morocco role also plays acrucial in countering migrant often tocontinuetowards Europe. migrants from sub-Saharan Africa cross into Morocco, coasts; Mostaganem, Tlemecen andothers.From there, Morocco from different starts villagesalongtheAlgerian the Algerianauthorities,passagefrom Algeriato along the Western Mediterranean route. Morocco, from where theycouldbesmuggledonwards Algiers, whereas theothersmove directly toOujda, in intend toapplyforasyluminAlgeriatendtravel to head toLibya, somemove northward instead. Those who Although mostmigrantstransitingthrough Tamanrasset to Tamanrasset.Amsel Samaka LouniOued Sabine, or oralternatively Azerzi, of thetotaloutgoingflow from Niger ofnearly334,000, Most migrantsare smuggledtowards Libya. In 2016,out more than330,000individualstransitedthrough Niger. and Séguedine, from onthewaytoLibya. Agadez In 2016, toring points, in Arlit, from on the wayAgadez to Algeria, migrants transitingthrough Niger initstwoflow moni- tion forMigration hasbeencollectingdataonirregular Since thebeginningof2016,International Organiza smuggling intheregion. tion provides anindicationofthemagnitudemigrant on smugglerstocontinueNorth Africa,thisinforma- elling northward transitthrough Niger orMali andrely Considering thatmanyofthemigrantsandrefugees trav- siting Niger andMali onthewaytoAlgeriaandLibya. data andestimatesabouttheirregular migrationflow tran smuggling alongthisroute, butseveral sources provide are no available data that refer specifically to migrant tobeablemoveports freely withintheregion. izens mayresort tosmugglersobtainECOWAS pass- Niger orMali ontheirown, althoughnon-ECOWAS cit- Most migrantsandrefugees from West Africatravel to activity sincetheearly2000s. the authoritiesreport havingdetectedintensesmuggling are mainlyalongtheeasternborder of thecountry, where can authorities. The smuggling corridors into Morocco 156

155 According to 157 There 158 - - - -

Regional overviews - Africa II

Fig. 31: Number of migrants in the outgoing The profile of the smuggled migrants flow from Niger per month, February 2016-July 2017 Most of the migrants comprising the outbound flows from Niger are West Africans. The citizenship profiles of

80,000 migrants changed in 2017 in parallel with a considerable 71,904 reduction in outflows, particularly through Seguedine 70,000 towards Libya. This is a result of the fragmentation of 60,000 56,676 routes and migrants’ bypassing of Seguedine to avoid secu- 50,000 48,969 42,081 rity controls. Between January and July 2017, nearly all 40,000 31,503 32,784 of the migrants recorded at the Seguedine monitoring 30,000 point were Nigerien.162 20,000 12,923 12,654 10,000 6,329 7,142 The citizenship profiles of outgoing flows from Mali differ 8,856 11,457 5,442 4,084 6,524 3,937 0 4,781 4,386 from those observed in Niger. The most frequently registered citizenship of migrants travelling through Mali is Jul-16 Jul-17 Jan-17 Jun-16 Jun-17 Oct-16 Apr-16 Apr-17 Feb-16 Sep-16 Feb-17 Dec-16

Aug-16 Guinea, followed by Mali, Senegal and Gambia. Nov-16 Mar-16 Mar-17 May-16 May-17 In the first few months of 2017 – as in previous years - Source: IOM, Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) data. the vast majority, some 96-97 per cent, of migrants on

some 89 per cent (298,000) were smuggled to Seguedine Fig. 33: Shares of the main citizenships towards Libya, and the rest to Arlit, towards Algeria.159 recorded in outgoing flows from Data for the period January-July 2017 shows a significant Niger reduction of the outbound flow, as well as a shift towards February-September 2016 Arlit as a transit point. Of the approximately 38,500 Ghana,Other, 3% 2% migrants observed in these two monitoring points in the Togo, 3% first seven months of 2017, more than 17,000 – 44 per Mali, 4% cent – transited through Arlit.160 Guinea-Bissau, 5% Nigeria, 22% In the summer of 2016, IOM started tracking the movement of outgoing migrant flows in Mali. Most of these Guinea, 7% migrants continue north to Algeria, although some move Côte d'Ivoire, on to Burkina Faso, Mauritania and/or Niger. During the 7% year from 30 June 2016 – 30 June 2017, an average of Niger, 19% nearly 100 migrants per day passed the Mali monitoring Senegal, 13% points. Of these, 40 per cent said they intended to go to Gambia, Europe.161 15%

January-July 2017 Fig. 32: Number of migrants in the outgoing Cameroon, Burkina flow from Mali, July 2016-June 2017 3% Faso, 2% Guinea, 3% 5,000 Nigeria, 3% 4,500 Mali, 4% 4,000

3,500 4,470 Chad, 2%

3,000 3,977 2,500 3,261

2,000 3,017 2,865 2,701 1,500 2,600 2,371 2,306 2,254 1,000 2,247

500 1,680 0

Jul-16 Niger, 71% Jan-17 Jun-17 Oct-16 Apr-17 Sep-16 Feb-17 Dec-16 Aug-16 Nov-16 Mar-17 May-17

Source: IOM. Source: IOM.

85 86 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Source: IOM. F typical irregular migrant. more easilythanthe they canusuallyenterthecountry their relationships with localtribesthatcontrol theborder, andagriculturalareasrural closetotheborder. Due to rainy seasonaftermonthsofwork. The majoritystayin andthenreturning homeforthejust aftertheharvest Chad, are seasonalmigrants, moving year toLibya every cially from Sahelian countries such as Mali, Niger and intend to settle in Libya, Morocco or Europe. Some, espe Not all migrants travelling along the northward routes minors hadlittleintentiontomove ontoEurope. ilies tomakemoneysendhome. The majorityofthese 2013, with children reportedly sent to Libya by their fam minors from West Africatransitingthrough Niger in perceived increase inthenumbersofunaccompanied between July 2016 and June 2017. Some sources noted a atIOMmonitoringpoints of themigrantsobserved unaccompanied. and outgoing flows in Niger. Some of these minors were 2017, some10,500minorswere recorded intheincoming include someminors.Between February 2016andMay Although mostofthemigrantsare adults,theflows also chaperone orsmuggler.a trusted husbands organized thejourneysforthemfrom afar, with among Malian andNigerian women,inparticular. Their husbands whoare already there. This hasbeenobserved Africa toLibya, generally making the journeytojointheir women. cent of the outgoing flows from Niger were comprised of tuations, however. In August 2016, for example, 20 per of theseshares are subjecttoconsiderablemonthlyfluc- outbound routes from Niger and Mali were male. ig . 34: 164 Sierra Leone Sierra

Guinea A small number of women travel from West July 2016-June2017 outgoing flowsfromMali, Shares ofcitizenshipsrecordedin Gambia Senegal 11% 13% d'Ivoire - Bissau 166 , Côte Côte 8% , , In Mali, minorscomprised7percent 3% , , 1% 168 Other Mali 23% , , 3% 165 Guinea 38%

, 163 167 Some

- - southern border, whilethe Tuareg control theAlgerian have beenreported tocontrol theflows across Libya’s can readily move peopleacross thedesert. borders,since thetriballinksextendacross they country been operatingin the Sahara forgenerations,and desert often responsible forproviding transportation. They have Men from Tuareg, Toubou andArabnomadicgroups are transfers are madeinthecompounds. number of vehicles. The travel arrangements and money compounds where migrantsare housed,in addition toa bosses’ are network leaders who own one or more ghetto sharethem acertain oftheprofit permigrant.‘Ghetto teurs’ are recruiters working for‘ghetto bosses’ whopay These people,known as‘chasseurs’, ‘coxeurs’ or‘rabat the so-called‘ghettos’ andonward toLibya. transport approached by peopleofferingthemaccommodationin theyaremigrants getoffthebusinAgadez, immediately thriving and relatively well-organized activity. As soon as Niger, inAgadez, starts where migrantsmugglingisa For manymigrants,theirregular oftheirjourney part The smugglers’profileandorganization the border clandestinely. Some thenmove ontothe hub MostAlgeria, usuallyinpick-uptrucks. migrants cross Some from migrantsalso travel toreach Agadez, north military. checks andsmugglers’ needtoavoid lawenforcement and some US$550-850,mainlyduetoincreased security 2017 foundthatpriceshave increased significantly, to US$100 and 300. from toSabha Agadez wasreported tocostbetween With regard to smuggling prices, in 2013, the journey Tripoli isalsofacilitatedby smugglers. ation of smugglers. passage fromThe further Sabha to post and travel through to Libya the desert with the medi Libya. towards north, a smugglerwhocanbringthemfurther Dirkou, they often have days until they find to wait a few Dirkou, usually in pick-ups organized by smugglers. In From migrantsheadingtoLibya Agadez, continueto arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel inal organizations. works inLibya are structured instrictlyhierarchical crim Frontex reported in 2016 that migrant smuggling net travel timetoLibya.shorter and more frequent arrests attheAlgerianborder, plusthe Libya rather than Algeria due to tighter border controls border region. 175 178 Most migrants and refugees bypass the border 172 Most migrantschooseroutes through 177 174 UNODCfield research in October 173 170 176 171 TheToubou 169 - - - -

Regional overviews - Africa II of Tamanrasset, Algeria, with the help of another smug- this makes them vulnerable to trafficking for forced labour gler, where they may stay and work for some time until or sexual exploitation.188 they have enough money to continue their journey.179 From Tamanrasset to Libya all migrants resort to the ser- Other migrant smuggling routes vices of smugglers; usually two or more for the whole There are also several other routes that involve fewer 180 route. migrants in, through or affecting West Africa. For exam- With regard to the route connecting Mali to Algeria, most ple, migrant smuggling is documented between Chad and migrants use smugglers. Surveyed migrants in Libya have Libya; a route that might be increasingly used as routes 189 also reported that detentions take place at this particular divert away from Agadez and Niger. Migrants and ref- border, with release only upon the payment of a certain ugees usually travel from N’Djamena to Moussoro, and amount of money.181 then onwards to Faya, by bus or by car. In Faya, they get in touch with smugglers transporting them into Qatrun, Along this route, some smugglers also operate a ‘black Libya and finally to Sabha. In 2013, the magnitude of this market’ for false UNHCR documents identifying holders flow was estimated at 100-200 migrants per month.190 as refugees in Algeria, as well as for forged Malian passports which are used to enter Algeria since Malians do not The minor coastal route via Mauritania to Morocco is need a visa.182 ‘Rental’ of a Malian passport costs €50 and mainly used by Senegalese migrants as it is a much shorter alternative for them than crossing Mali, Niger and Algeria. a UNHCR document, €10. Once migrants are close to Sometimes, people from Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire or Benin the Moroccan border, the networks will retrieve the doc- join as well. Migrant smuggling does not seem to be very uments so that they can be reused.183 prevalent along this route, though fake documents are Payments of bribes at border crossings have been reported reportedly used.191 along this route.184 There is also smuggling by air from West African coun- The human cost tries. In 2014, the Africa-FRONTEX Intelligence Com- Data from the IOM Missing Migrants Project shows that munity identified new smuggling routes from West there were more than 100 reported incidents in Libya or African airports to various EU destinations. Journeys were Niger for the year 2016, with 485 people reported missing organized by smuggling networks that took care of all (presumed dead). However, testimonies of migrants who formalities, including travel documents, visas and flight 192 have journeyed through the Sahara suggest that the actual tickets. Migrant smuggling by air is also documented number of fatalities is much higher.185 in Nigeria. These are complex operations involving several smugglers. Some are specialized in rapidly providing The hardships and dangers of the overland journey across fraudulent Nigerian and foreign passports, whereas others the Sahara desert are well-documented. Smuggled take care of the visa. Yet another smuggler provides the migrants and refugees are transported across the desert in migrant with a flight ticket to a destination country.193 overloaded trucks or pick-ups, often at high speed in order to minimise the risk of interception. Trucks and pick-ups may break down and migrants are frequently exposed to food and water shortages during the journey. Moreover, passengers who fall ill are reportedly abandoned by the smugglers in the desert in order not to infect the rest of the group.186 The journey of smuggled migrants across the Sahara is made even more dangerous by the presence of armed groups operating along this route. Some of these have attacked the cars of smugglers with the intention of kidnapping migrants for ransom.187 Migrant smuggling in West Africa is sometimes connected to human trafficking and the two crimes often occur along the same routes. Moreover, migrants smuggled within the region often run out of money to pay for the journey, and

87 88 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 21 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 4 22 19 17 15 7 3 2 archand, K.,Roosen, I.,Reinold, J.andSiegel, M.,Irregular Migra- 1 ENDNOTES -AFRICA

Ibid. Frontex, U The G U R The G Mhub (N U Mhub (N I F R The G E 2015, p. 59. ditions andrisksofmixed migration inNorth East Africa , November 2016, p. 8;Mhub(North AfricaMixed Migration Task Force), Con- tion from theEast andHorn ofAfrica,Maastricht University, May M May 2017,p. 8. grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom the Horn ofAfricatoEurope, The G asylum_seekers). tion statistics:asylumseekers(available at:popstats.unhcr.org/en/ U U 2013. Altai Consulting,Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November May 2017; United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees and grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope , The G May 2017,p. 15. grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope , ing, happened in2016?,onlinebriefing,February 9,2017. May 2017,p. 14. grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope , risks ofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November 2015,p. 24. September 2016,p. 9. flows through thegreater Horn ofAfrica,Migration Policy Institute, C.withHooper,Horwood, K.,Protection onthemove: Eritrean refugee ing, risks ofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November 2015,p. 27. April 2017,p. 20. RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 2. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern Italy, 2015,p. 35. cooperation withthird countries, Case Study - 1:Syria/Lebanon –Egypt Affairs, ing, persons_of_concern). statistics: personsofconcern(available at:popstats.unhcr.org/en/ R M Africa and Yemen Region, endofyear trend andanalysis,2016 summary 2016, p. 7. tion from theEast andHorn ofAfrica,Maastricht University, May trend-analysis). (available at: http://www.regionalmms.org/index.php/data-trends/ bid., p. 21. rontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2016, uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration intheHorn of egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, TheEritrean Exodus: what nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, onlinepopulation nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, onlinepopula- archand, K.,Roosen, I.,Reinold, J.andSiegel, M.,Irregular Migra- Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 35. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 33. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 34; lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Risk Analysis for2017,February 2017,p. 19. orth AfricaMixedorth Migration Task Force), Conditionsand AfricaMixedorth Migration Task Force), Conditionsand

39 38 37 45 44 43 42 41 40 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23

U U R The G R U I 37. of femalemigrants from theHorn ofAfricain Yemen, October 2014,p. R p. 35. Consulting, p. 34;United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltai of femalemigrants from theHorn ofAfricain Yemen, October 2014, R June 2017,December 2017,p. 8. Frontex, Ibid. Ibid. science ofhumanity, press release, 14November 2017. UN humanrightschief:Suffering ofmigrants inLibya outrage tocon- 36. of femalemigrants from theHorn ofAfricain Yemen, October 2014,p. Africa toEurope , May 2017,pp. 21-22. (2017b), 35. of femalemigrants from theHorn ofAfricain Yemen, October 2014,p. ing, data. Mhub (N The G U The G I U The G I The G risks ofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November 2015,p. 30. Mhub (N post-revolution Libya , March 2017,p. 20. Human Conveyor Belt: trends inhumantrafficking andsmugglingin The G risks ofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November 2015,p. 28. post-revolution Libya , March 2017,p. 20. Human Conveyor Belt: trends inhumantrafficking andsmugglingin ing, post-revolution Libya, March 2017,p. 20. Human Conveyor Belt: trends inhumantrafficking andsmugglingin ing, post-revolution Libya, March 2017,pp. 10-11. Human Conveyor Belt: trends inhumantrafficking andsmugglingin 2015, p. 28. ditions andrisksofmixed migration inNorth East Africa,November May 2017,p. ix. grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope, November 2013,p. 52. gees andAltaiConsulting,Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, May 2017,p. vii;United Nations High CommissionerforRefu- grated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn ofAfricatoEurope, nternational Organization forMigration, Missing Migrants Project bid., p. 50. bid., p. 16; Mhub (North Africa Mixed Migration Task Force), Con- egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational organized nited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 59. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 34. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 33. lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Inte- lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, The lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, The lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, The lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, The lobal Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime Frontex RiskAnalysis Network (FRAN)Quarterly, Q2April- Integrated responses tohumansmugglingfrom theHorn of orth AfricaMixedorth Migration Task Force), Conditionsand AfricaMixedorth Migration Task Force), Conditionsand Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, November 2013, Abused & abducted: the plight Abused & abducted: the plight Abused & abducted: the plight Abused & abducted: the plight Regional overviews - Africa II

crime in Eastern Africa. A threat assessment, 2013, p. 11. June 2013, p. 20. 46 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed and pulled in two direc- 67 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa tions. An analysis of the bi-directional refugee and migrant flow between and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund the Horn of Africa and Yemen, RMMS briefing paper 1, May 2016, p. for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 8. 11. 68 Horwood, C., Irregular Migration Flows in the Horn of Africa: Chal- 47 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa lenges and implications for source, transit and destination countries, and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund Australian Government, Department of Immigration and Border for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 39. Protection, Research Programme, Occasional Paper Series, No. 18, September 2015, p. 30. 48 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, New Arrivals in Yemen Comparison 2013-2016, as of 29 February 2016, online brief- 69 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational organized ing (available at: http://www.unhcr.org/4fd5a3de9.pdf). crime in Eastern Africa. A threat assessment, 2013, p. 15. 49 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration in the Horn of 70 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn Africa and Yemen Region, end of year trend summary and analysis, 2016 of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, (2015, 2014, 2013) (all years available at: http://www.regionalmms. p. 36. org/index.php/data-trends/trend-analysis). 71 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa 50 Ibid. and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 41. 51 International Organization for Migration, Up to 50 Somali, Ethiopian Migrants Deliberately Drowned by Smugglers off Yemen, press release, 10 72 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn August 2017. of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, p. 37. 52 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund 73 Ibid. for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 12. 74 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Desperate choices: conditions, 53 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn risks and protection failures affecting Ethiopian migrants in Yemen, of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, October 2012, p. 43. pp. 72-73. 75 Ibid., p. 37. 54 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed and pulled in two direc- 76 International Organization for Migration, Up to 50 Somali, Ethiopian tions. An analysis of the bi-directional refugee and migrant flow between Migrants Deliberately Drowned by Smugglers off Yemen, press release, 10 the Horn of Africa and Yemen, RMMS briefing paper 1, May 2016, p. August 2017. 3. 77 Brian, T. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Fatal Journeys, vol. 2: Identification and 55 Ibid. Tracing of Dead and Missing Migrants, International Organization for 56 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration in the Horn of Migration, June 2016, p. 15. Africa and Yemen Region, end of year trend summary and analysis, 2016 78 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn (2015, 2014, 2013) (all years available at: http://www.regionalmms. of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, org/index.php/data-trends/trend-analysis). p. 41. 57 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa 79 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Desperate choices: conditions, and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund risks and protection failures affecting Ethiopian migrants in Yemen, for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 8. October 2012, p. 35. 58 Ibid. 80 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Abused & abducted: the plight 59 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational organized of female migrants from the Horn of Africa in Yemen, October 2014, p. crime in Eastern Africa. A threat assessment, 2013, pp. 16-17. 12. 60 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn 81 Citing data from the RMMS 4Mi project, which interviewed several of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, hundred migrants from the countries in the Horn of Africa in 2015 pp. 19-20. (see: 4mi.regionalmms.org). Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south. An updated overview of mixed migration from the Horn 61 Some 130 group and individual interviews were conducted with Ethi- of Africa to southern Africa with specific focus on protection risks, human opian migrants in Yemen in 2012. The report authors stressed that smuggling and trafficking, RMMS briefing paper 3, March 2017, p. only information that could be triangulated across multiple sources 11. was included in the final report. Regional Mixed Migration Secretar- iat, Desperate choices: conditions, risks and protection failures affecting 82 Ibid., p. 1. Ethiopian migrants in Yemen, October 2012, p. 26. 83 Ibid., p. 7; International Organization for Migration, Regional strategy 62 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the Horn for Southern Africa 2014-2016, International Organization for Migra- of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, June 2013, tion, p. 6. p. 72. 84 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration in Kenya: the 63 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Desperate choices: conditions, scale of movement and associated protection risks, June 2013, p. 49. risks and protection failures affecting Ethiopian migrants in Yemen, 85 International Organization for Migration, In Pursuit of the Southern October 2012, p. 21. Dream: Victims of Necessity, Assessment of the irregular movement 64 Ibid., pp. 21-22. of men from East Africa and the Horn to South Africa, April 2009, pp. 92-97; Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south. An 65 Research and Evidence Facility, Migration between the Horn of Africa updated overview of mixed migration from the Horn of Africa to south- and Yemen: A Study of Puntland, Djibouti and Yemen, EU Trust Fund ern Africa with specific focus on protection risks, human smuggling and for Africa (Horn of Africa Window), 25 July 2017, p. 8. trafficking, RMMS briefing paper 3, March 2017, p. 11. 66 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Migrant smuggling in the 86 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south. An updated Horn of Africa & Yemen: the political economy and protection risks, overview of mixed migration from the Horn of Africa to southern Africa

89 90 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 105 102 101 99 98 96 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 104 103 100 97 95 94

Ibid. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern from East AfricaandtheHorn toSouthAfrica,April 2009, p. 115. I I RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 10. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R April 2009,pp. 60and73. movement ofmenfrom EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa, Dream:of theSouthern Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular 19, 2015,p. 33;International Organization forMigration, In Pursuit from Ethiopia andSomalia,’ Law, Democracy andDevelopment, vol. gling Protocol inresponse totheirregular movement ofmigrants B U 19, 2015,pp. 40-41. from Ethiopia andSomalia,’ Law, Democracy andDevelopment, vol. gling Protocol inresponse totheirregular movement ofmigrants B RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 17. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R I 19, 2015,p. 40. from Ethiopia andSomalia,’ Law, Democracy andDevelopment, vol. gling Protocol inresponse totheirregular movement ofmigrants B I I 2011, p. 13. UNHCR, New issuesinrefugee research, Research papern.200, migrants Africa to Southern from the Horn and Great Lakes region Long, K.andC scale ofmovement andassociatedprotection risks,June 2013,p. 47. R RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 2. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R asylum_seekers). tion statistics:asylumseekers(available at:popstats.unhcr.org/en/ U RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,pp. 2and5. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R men from East Africa and the Horn to South Africa, April 2009, p. 7. Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular movement of I RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 2. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, R Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Africa, Issue 13,January 2014,p. 2. Humanitarian Bulletin Africa: Mixed Southern Migration in Southern Africa2014-2016,p.ern 10. Lakes region Africa,2013,p. toSouthern 7. of mixed migration flows from theEast andHorn ofAfricaandtheGreat nternational Organization for Migration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern nternational Organization forMigration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern nternational Organization for Migration, nternational Organization forMigration, Health vulnerabilities study bid., p. 17. bid., pp. 40-41. arasa, N.andFernandez, L.,‘Kenya’s implementationoftheSmug - arasa, N.andFernandez, L.,‘Kenya’s implementationoftheSmug - arasa, N.andFernandez, L.,‘Kenya’s implementationoftheSmug - egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration inKenya: the egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated nited Nations Office fortheCoordination ofHumanitarian Affairs, nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, onlinepopula- risp, J.,In harm’s way:theirregular movement of Assessment oftheirregularAssessment movement ofmen Regional strategy for South- Regional strategy , 106 121 119 116 114 112 111 110 109 108 125 124 123 122 120 118 117 115 113 107

Ibid. RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 16. RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,pp. 7-8. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 11. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 22. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R I scale ofmovement andassociatedprotection risks,June 2013,p. 23-24. R RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 25. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R scale ofmovement andassociatedprotection risks,June 2013,p. 40. R 19, 2015,p. 31. from Ethiopia andSomalia,’ Law, Democracy andDevelopment , vol. gling Protocol inresponse totheirregular movement ofmigrants B RMMS briefingpaper3,March 2017,p. 25. with specificfocusonprotection risks,humansmugglingandtrafficking, ofmixedoverview migration from theHorn Africa ofAfricatosouthern R I of mixed migration flows from theEast andHorn ofAfricaandtheGreat I University ofthe Witwatersrand, March 2009,p. 21. across theSouthAfrica/Zimbabwe border, MRMPOccasional Report, F I I University ofthe Witwatersrand, March 2009,p. 9. across theSouthAfrica/Zimbabwe border, MRMPOccasional Report, F R University ofthe Witwatersrand, March 2009,p. 14. across theSouthAfrica/Zimbabwe border, MRMPOccasional Report, 93; Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report onhumansmuggling men from EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa,April 2009,p. Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular movement of I 104. men from EastAfricaandtheHorn toSouth Africa,April 2009,p. Dream: Victims ofNecessity, Assessmentoftheirregular movement of I I R 12. the Horn ofAfricaand Yemen, RMMSbriefingpaper1,May 2016,p. tions. An analysisofthebi-directional refugee andmigrant flow between R Lakes region Africa,2013,p. toSouthern 19. of mixed migration flows from theEast andHorn ofAfricaandtheGreat nternational Organization forMigration, Health vulnerabilities study nternational Organization forMigration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern nternational Organization forMigration, In Pursuit oftheSouthern nternational Organization for Migration, Health vulnerabilities study bid., p. 35. bid., p. 33. bid., p. 7. bid., p. 3. orced Migration Studies Programme, Report onhumansmuggling orced Migration Studies Programme, Report onhumansmuggling arasa, N.andFernandez, L.,‘Kenya’s implementationoftheSmug- egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration inKenya: the egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Mixed migration inKenya: the egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Pushed andpulledintwodirec- egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Smuggled south.An updated Regional overviews - Africa II

Lakes region to Southern Africa, 2013, p. 7. 25-53, 2016, pp. 28-29. 126 Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report on human smuggling 148 Molenaar, F. and El Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning the tide: The politics across the South Africa/Zimbabwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya, Clingendael – Nether- University of the Witwatersrand, March 2009, p. 28. lands Institute of International Relations, February 2017, p. 23. 127 Ibid., p. 29. 149 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European 128 Ibid., pp. 29-30. Union, January 2011, p. 24. 129 Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report on human smuggling 150 International Organization for Migration Nigeria and Altai Consult- across the South Africa/Zimbabwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, ing, Irregular migration between West Africa, North Africa and the University of the Witwatersrand, March 2009, p. 5. Mediterranean, December 2015, pp. 36-37. 130 Ibid., p. 16. 151 Ibid., p. 35. 131 Ibid. 152 Information received from the UNODC Regional Office for West 132 International Organization for Migration, Health vulnerabilities study and Central Africa. of mixed migration flows from the East and Horn of Africa and the Great 153 Carling, J., ‘West and Central Africa’, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, Lakes region to Southern Africa, 2013, pp. 10-11. F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the 133 Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report on human smuggling emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. across the South Africa/Zimbabwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, 25-53, 2016, pp. 28-29. University of the Witwatersrand, March 2009, p. 37. 154 International Organization for Migration Nigeria and Altai Consult- 134 Ibid., p. 22. ing, Irregular migration between West Africa, North Africa and the Mediterranean, December 2015, p. 36. 135 IOM, Missing Migrants Project data (available at: http://missingmigrants.iom.int/). 155 Ibid., pp. 36-37. 136 Forced Migration Studies Programme, Report on human smuggling 156 Information sent to UNODC by the authorities of Morocco. across the South Africa/Zimbabwe border, MRMP Occasional Report, 157 Carling, J., ‘West and Central Africa’, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, University of the Witwatersrand, March 2009, p. 20; International F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the Organization for Migration, Health vulnerabilities study of mixed emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. migration flows from the East and Horn of Africa and the Great Lakes 25-53, 2016, p. 28. region to Southern Africa, 2013, p. 19. 158 International Organization for Migration, Niger – Flow Monitoring 137 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Issue Paper: Smuggling Reports (available at: http://www.globaldtm.info/niger/). of Migrants by Sea, 2011, p. 16, citing information from the French police). 159 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Track- ing Matrix, Statistical report, Niger Flow Monitoring Points (FMP), 138 Data from the IOM Missing Migrants Project, for example, reveal Reporting period: 1 January – 31 December 2016, 2017. two such incidents in 2015 (with 8 and 22 people missing or presumed deceased), and one each in 2016 and 2017 (3 and 11 missing 160 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking or presumed deceased). See https://missingmigrants.iom.int/. Matrix, Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Dashboard #1, June-July 2017, p. 2. 139 Information sent to UNODC by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Madagascar. 161 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking Matrix, Flow Monitoring Mali, Results Snapshot #17, 30 June 2016 140 International Organization for Migration, Health vulnerabilities study – 30 June 2017, p. 1. of mixed migration flows from the East and Horn of Africa and the Great Lakes region to Southern Africa, 2013, p. 16. 162 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking Matrix, Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Dashboard #1, June-July 141 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, GLO.ACT Needs Assess- 2017 ment Report on South Africa, 2016 (restricted circulation). 163 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking 142 European Commission, Mobility and Migration in West Africa, online Matrix, Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Dashboard #1, June-July briefing (available at: https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/ 2017; International Organization for Migration, Displacement Track- migration_en_0.pdf). ing Matrix, Flow Monitoring Mali, Results Snapshot #17, 30 June 143 International Organization for Migration Nigeria and Altai Con- 2016 – 30 June 2017, sulting, Irregular migration between West Africa, North Africa and the 164 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking Mediterranean, December 2015, p. 56. Matrix, Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Report #2017-5, 1-31 144 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office May 2017, p. 2. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: 165 Brian, T. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Fatal Journeys: Tracking Lives Lost Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 7. during Migration, International Organization for Migration, 2014, p. 145 Molenaar, F. and El Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning the tide: The politics 117. of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya, Clingendael – Nether- 166 International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking lands Institute of International Relations, February 2017, p. 41. Matrix, Population Flow Monitoring, Niger, Report #2017-5, 1-31 146 International Organization for Migration Nigeria and Altai Con- May 2017, p. 2. sulting, Irregular migration between West Africa, North Africa and the 167 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Altai Consult- Mediterranean, December 2015, p. 47. ing, Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, November 2013, p. 84. 147 Carling, J., ‘West and Central Africa’, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, 168 Ibid., p. 81. F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 169 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016,

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36-37. Frontex, Mediterranean, sulting, I B and 50. ing, United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- erlands Institute of International Relations, February 2017, p. 45; of irregular migration intheSahel andLibya, Clingendael–Neth - M January 2016,p. 24. Frontex, Mediterranean, sulting, I I ing, U and CentralAfrica. I I 21. during Migration, International Organization forMigration, 2014,p. I I U I U U U ing, U April 2017,p. 12. Frontex, Mediterranean, ing, 2014, pp. 20-23. Connecting theDots, June 2015,pp. 36-37. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: ing, Africa, basedonfieldresearch from October 2017. ment Report onNiger, 2016(restricted circulation), pp. 6and11. ing, and 50. ing, January 2016,p. 28. Frontex, I April 2017,p. 6. Frontex, I I April 2017,p. 11. nternational Organization for Migration Nigeria and Altai Consult- nformation from theUNODCRegional Office for West andCentral nformation received from theUNODCRegional Office for West bid., p. 40. bid., p. 36. bid., p. 13. bid., p. 14. bid., pp. 11-12. nternational Organization forMigration MENARegional Office nternational Organization forMigration Nigeria andAltaiCon- nternational Organization forMigration Nigeria andAltaiCon- rian, T. andLaczko,F. (eds.),Fatal Journeys: Tracking Lives Lost nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, GLO.ACT Needs- Assess nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- olenaar, F. andEl Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning thetide: The politics Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,pp. 41 Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,pp. 41 Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 39. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 42. Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 39. Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, Irregular migration between West Africa,North Africaandthe Irregular migration between West Africa,North Africaandthe Irregular migration between West Africa,North Africaandthe Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report, October Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2015, Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2016, Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2015, Africa-Frontex Intelligence CommunityJoint Report 2016, December 2015,pp. 52-53. December 2015,p. 38. December 2015,p. 48. November 2013, pp. THE AMERICAS Northward – through Central America and Mexico to the United States

UNITED STATES 0 1,000 2,000 km OF AMERICA Tijuana Nogales Nuevo Laredo US$ 5,000 from Mexico Reynosa Matamoros US$ 7,000 from Central America

Mexico The City MEXICO Caribbean

Tegucigalpa Guatemala City Central San Salvador America Managua

Sea Land

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the partThe of designations the Secretariat employed of the Unitedand the Nations presentation concerning of material the legal on thisstatus map of doany not country, imply territory,the expression city or of area any or opinion of its authorities, whatsoever or on con - cerningthe part the of delimitation the Secretariat of its of frontiers the United or boundaries.Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Profile of migrants: and on occasion, partner with other smugglers or groups Northward: Mostly migrants from Central America and with contacts in other countries. On the northward route, Mexico. Significant numbers of unaccompanied migrant in particular, also some larger smuggling organizations. children – mainly boys - from the main origin countries. PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF Southward: Migrants from the Caribbean; significant MIGRANT SMUGGLING IN THE though far smaller numbers of a range of African and Asian smuggled migrants. Many smuggled women AMERICAS migrants. As in most parts of the world, migrant smuggling routes Human cost: in the Americas are flexible and subject to rapid and sig- A variety of risks, including death, extortion, kidnapping, nificant changes. Two predominant broad routes can trafficking in persons, sexual violence, arbitrary arrest and nonetheless be discerned. The first is a relatively clear-cut incarceration, torture and environmental exposure. northward route that connects flows from many locations in South and Central America, proceeds through Central Profile of smugglers: American countries, leading into Mexico and finally to Throughout the continent, most smugglers operate on a the United States of America (and Canada). The second small scale within their communities and abroad mainly is a multi-destination southward route into and within by mobilizing personal connections. The vast majority South America. has no criminal background. Large and violent criminal groups seem not to be involved in the actual smuggling, The northward route – with the United States as the final however benefiting from it by imposing a ‘tax’ on the destination – tends to be travelled primarily by Central 1 migrants passage. Americans and decreasing numbers of Mexican citizens. Migrants along this route travel mostly by land and air, Organization: and to a lesser degree by sea. While in the past, individual Thousands of small-scale, community-based smugglers migrants might have crossed the United States-Mexico who are informally networked and provide services locally, border irregularly on their own, following the significant

93 94 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 c b of November 2017, the countries for which free movement mecha - a towards theUnited States. The South Americanmigrants area forsmuggledmigrantstravelling northwards overland Central Americaisthekeyoriginarea, aswell asatransit arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand AND THEUNITEDSTATES CENTRAL AMERICAINTOMEXICO THE NORTHWARD ROUTE:FROM year enroute totheUnitedevery States. Central Americanmigrantsare smuggledacross Mexico route, it is estimated that between 200,000and400,000 avoid detection,violenceandarrest. Alongthenorthward afford tohire themfortheentire tripinanattemptto smugglers alongsometravel segments,whileothersmay smugglers atsomepointoftheirjourneys.Some use believed thatthemajoritytravel withtheassistanceof larly across and into the Americas is unknown, it is While theexactnumberofmigrantswhotravel irregu international protection. States. Others stayinSouth America;somealsoapplyfor and jointhenorthward flow inorder toreach theUnited fly toaSouth Americancountry, connectwithsmugglers migrants. increased visibility of extra-continental from theMiddle East,AfricaandAsiahave alsoledtothe and useSouth Americaprimarilyasatransitarea. tion. enter South Americairregularly; withorwithoutfacilita- ber countries,however. Many personsfrom theCaribbean are arrived citizens notextendedtonewly from non-mem countries. within anyoftheparticipating Americans can transit freely and obtain legal residence SUR) economiccooperationagreement, manySouth framework oftheSouthern CommonMarket (MERCO America takesplacevialand,airandsea. Within the Southward migrant smuggling into and within South tance ofsmugglers. largely disappeared. Migrants now routinely seektheassis build-up insecurityalongtheborder, suchcrossings have

Americas. E for smuggledmigrants. Colombia, Peru andBrazil, are turninginto countries ofdestination I bajar-en-el-mercosur. www.mercosur.int/innovaportal/v/6425/4/innova.front/residir-y-tra- COSUR, Chile,Colombia,Ecuador, Paraguay,of), Peru andUruguay. MER- nisms are in force are Argentina,Brazil, Bolivia(Plurinational State As n recent years, different South Americancountries,including xtra-continental smugglingrefers toarrivals from outside the 3 Many ofthemintendtoreach theUnited States, 4 Some oftheseextra-continentalmigrantsmay Residir y Trabajar enelMERCOSUR, available at:http:// 2

a These privileges These 5

c smuggled b Arrivals - - - - the area around San Diego inCalifornia. been apointofbothregular andirregular crossings into – inMexico’s corner-hashistorically farnorth-western there are multiplecrossing points. The cityof Tijuana On the Mexican sideofthe United States - Mexico border Mexico overland, oftenviaMexico City. Roo, migrants continue their way northwards through or Tenosique inChiapasstateorChetumal in Quintana by motorvehicle. Once intheMexican citiesof Tapachula thatcanbecrossed onfoot,byporous boator territory that separateMexico from CentralAmericaprovide a on different sidesoftheborders. and makearrangementsfortheirjourneyindifferent cities and, toalesserextent,Belize. Migrants contactsmugglers cans istheregion alongMexico’s borders withGuatemala A key smuggling hub in the journeys of Central Ameri- ties intheinteriortojoinotherstraveling from thecities. countries, manyofwhomtravel from smallercommuni- as smuggling hubs for citizens of these tral America serving (or air). There are specificareas inallmajorcitiesCen bia orEcuador, before reaching CentralAmericaby land who makeuseofthisroute have oftentravelled viaColom (1 October 2015 – 30 September 2016), more than 2,400 determination ofsentencingguidelines. In fiscalyear 2016 Commission, which compiles smuggling statistics for the offenders ispublishedby theUnited States Sentencing One setofdatathatexplicitlydiscussesmigrantsmuggling smugglers. showed that 80 to 93 per cent of irregular crossers used in thesamestudy, covering thedecadeof2000s, quoted crossers usedsmugglersin2006.Anothersurvey Statistics in 2010 indicated that 95 per cent of first-time in a study carried out for the US Office of Immigration hired smugglersasearlythe1970s.Survey dataquoted migrants whoattemptedtocross thisborder irregularly States and Mexico is an old phenomenon, and most migrants intotheUnited States. border crossings forCentralandSouth American transit areas forsmugglingorganizations facilitating ally providing totheirregular support border crossing. known forthepresence communitiesoccasion- ofrural town inthestateofArizona intheUnited States) is Sonora (across theborder from theidenticallynamed rounding thecityofNogales intheMexican stateof the Mexican stateof Tamaulipas are alsoreported tobe The cities of Matamoros, Reynosa and Nuevo Laredo in Migrant smugglingalongtheborder between theUnited the northwardroute The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong 10 6 9 The jungle-likesettings

7 The area sur- - - 8

Regional overviews - The Americas II

Fig. 35: Trend in the number of sentenced Fig. 36: Trend in the number of apprehen- migrant smuggling offenders, United sions by the US Border Patrol: total, States, 2008-2016* southwest sector and selected border crossing points, 2008-2015* 4,000 3,453 3,500 800,000 3,000 2,404 700,000 2,500 600,000 2,000 1,500 500,000 1,000 400,000 500 300,000 0 200,000 016 015 014 013 012 011 010 009 008 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 100,000

* Fiscal years: FY 2016 ran from 1 October 2015-30 September 2016. 0 Source: United States Sentencing Commission.

Table 4: Number of sentenced cases of 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 migrant smuggling into the United States and number of persons Total border patrol apprehensions smuggled per case, FY 2016 Southwest sectors Tucson, Arizona REPORTED NUMBER OF NUMBER OF SENTENCED Rio Grande Valley, Texas SMUGGLED MIGRANTS CASES PER CASE (RANGE) * Fiscal years: FY 2015 ran from 1 October 2014-30 September 2015. 1,244 1-5 Source: United States Department of Homeland Security. 958 6-24 ranges. Most of the cases involve a small number of smug- 135 25-99 gled migrants, although there are also some very large cases 65 100 or more involving more than 100 migrants.

Source: United States Sentencing Commission. Another data set from the United States concerns irregular migrant apprehensions by the US Border Patrol. This migrant smuggling offendersd were sentenced, although data should be interpreted with caution as many migrants the trend has declined since 2008. Most smuggling cases might be apprehended for reasons unrelated to migrant heard in court involved jurisdictions along the US-Mexico smuggling, and it is unknown how many of the appre- border. In fiscal year 2016, nearly half of the cases came hended migrants had been smuggled. The 2010s has seen from the Southern District of Texas alone, and 94 per an overall decline in the number of apprehensions at US cent of the cases were heard in courts in districtse situated borders, as well as a shift in the location of border cross- 11 along the border with Mexico. When considering this ings. Nowadays, most of the border crossings occur in data, it should be noted that sentenced offenders represent Texas, and not in Arizona, which was the case a decade only a part of the total number of smugglers. Much smug- or so ago. gling goes undetected and many smugglers may also be charged with offences other than migrant smuggling. The authorities of Mexico also publish data on migrant detections. The number of detections by Mexican authori- The data also contain information about the number of ties has increased rapidly in recent years. The growth has migrants smuggled per case, published in relatively broad been largely driven by enhanced enforcement and larger numbers of Central American migrants. The trend might d The offence is: ‘Smuggling, transporting or harbouring an unlawful be changing, however. In 2016, the number of Central alien’, with ‘alien’ referring to persons who are not citizens or nationals Americans decreased, and at the same time, the number of the United States. See: https://www.ussc.gov/research/quick-facts/ alien-smuggling. of detected migrants from Caribbean countries increased, e The top five court districts for sentencing migrant smugglers in FY in particular due to citizens of Haiti. More than 17,000 2016 were: Southern District of Texas (1,144 cases), Western District of Texas (432), District of Arizona (323), Southern District of Cali- Haitian migrants were detected in Mexico in 2016 (up fornia (273) and District of New Mexico (93). from fewer than 30 in 2013).

95 96 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Source forCostaRica:Direccion GeneraldeMigraciony and theCaribbean,2016. Irregular Migrationflowswithinthe AmericasfromAfrica,Asia, States/IOM (citingnationalauthorities inthecountriesconcerned), Source forPanama andHonduras:OrganizationofAmerican F passed thosereceived inallof2016. the numberofapplicationsforasylumhadalmostsur tistics from theMexican government, by August 2017, Mexico increased from 1,296to8,732.According tosta- that from 2013to2016,yearly asylumapplicationsin United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees indicate asylum claimsinrecord numbers. Statistics from the Some insteadsettleinMexico, where theyhave filed route togive uptheirhopeofreaching theUnited States. also ledmanymigrantstraveling alongthenorthward The growing risksconnectedtoirregular crossings have F Source: MinistryofInterior, Mexico. 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 ig ig 50,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 5,000 . 38: . 37: 0 0

70,102 American countries,2011-2017 regular migrants,selectedCentral Trend inthenumberofentriesir Mexico, 2010-2016 Number ofmigrantdetectionsby 0021 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 TOTAL Central Americans 2011 65,583 Panama Costa Rica 2012 88,506 2013 86,298

2014 127,149 12 Other ciOther

198,141

Honduras 2015 � zenships

E 2016 xtranjeria. 186,216

2017 - - of smugglers.United States dataon immigrationenforce ously mentioned,thevast majorityofmigrantsmakeuse between theUnited States andMexico, where, asprevi take placealmostexclusively alongtheland border Security Data from theUnited States ofHomeland Department America, theCaribbean,Asia,AfricaandMiddle East. by somesmuggledmigrantsfrom countriesinSouth Americans comprisethevast majority, theyare alsojoined ticular, the United States. While Mexicans and Central the northward route toreach North America,andinpar Migrants from manylocationsacross theAmericasuse The profileofsmuggledmigrants suggest areduction insuchentries. entries in2015;whereas for2017,figures from CostaRica countries. There wasasurgeinthenumberofirregular indication ofthemagnitudeflows through these migrant smugglingactivity, butcannonethelessgive an irregular entries. This datado not necessarilyinclude Some CentralAmericancountriesalsocollectdataon countries were Honduras andCostaRica.In 2014,348 the detections ofirregular entries by citizens of African The countriesthatreported themostnotable increase in reporting datasawsimilarsignificantincreases. of 2016,nonetheotherCentralAmericancountries detected nearly 2,300 Haitians in the first eight months in theUnited States andMexico, andalthoughHonduras larly entered CentralAmericancountriesisfarlower than tries. The number of detected Haitians who have irregu- Haitians arethat few transitingCentral Americancoun- numbers decliningsharplyin2016.Moreover, itappears detections ofcitizens from theCaribbeanin2015,with migrant smuggling.Overall, thedatashows apeakin indication ofhow manyoftheseirregular entriesinvolved intotheirterritories. upon entry There is,however, no regarding thecitizenships ofirregular migrantsdetected Some CentralAmericancountriesalsocollectstatistics in 2016,mostwere citizens ofHaiti. ans. Amongthedetectedmigrantsfrom theCaribbean, the largestgroup, followed by Hondurans andSalvador- remained broadly stable,withGuatemalans comprising Mexico increased until2016,thecitizenship profiles have the United States. While the numbers ofdetectionsin Mexico detectedmore CentralAmericanmigrantsthan Based ondatafrom Mexico Americans have increased. crossing theborders irregularly, whiletheshares ofCentral ment actionsconfirmthedecreasing trend ofMexicans 13 show thatapprehensions by theBorder Patrol 14 itappearsthatin2015, - - - Regional overviews - The Americas II

Fig. 39: Trend in the number of foreigners apprehended in immigration enforcement actions in the United States, total and by area of origin, 2007-2016*

1,200,000 Others

1,000,000 South America East Asia 800,000 South Asia

600,000 884,017 Africa and 854,190 Middle East 731,225 350,177 400,000 632,034 424,978 Caribbean 517,472468,766 265,747 267,885 Mexico 200,000 284,136 Central America 102,631 189,477 225,313 95,910 96,837 101,639148,264 161,060 0 72,465 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 * Fiscal years. Source: US Department of Homeland Security.

Africans entered Honduras irregularly, compared to Data from Costa Rica regarding entries of irregular 20,691 in 2015. Costa Rica recorded 18,000 irregular migrants along the country’s main southern land border entries by African citizens in 2016. The data source notes shows that men comprise a clear majority, but the share that increases in irregular entries by Africans across several of women has increased. In 2014, women comprised 21 countries in 2016 involved many citizens of the Demo- per cent of all detected irregular migrants, whereas in the cratic Republic of the Congo as well as the Congo.15 Other first seven months of 2016, the share was 26 per cent.17 principal African countries of origin for irregular entries Surveys carried out at shelters across Mexico indicate that in Central America in recent years are Somalia, Ghana, about three quarters of the migrants traveling along Mex- Senegal, Cameroon and Guinea. For Asians, the most ico’s migratory routes are male, and single, with 79 per frequently reported origin countries appear to be Nepal, cent aged from 18 to 40.18 16 Bangladesh and India. The presence of unaccompanied minors - citizens of all major origin countries considered in this route - has gen- Fig. 40: Number of detections of Central Americans in Mexico and apprehen- erated concern, although the trend seems to be decreasing. sions of Central Americans in the United States*, 2013-2016 Fig. 41: Detections of migrants in Mexico, by area of citizenship, 2016 300,000 284,136 225,313 Europe Asia Africa 250,000 North America 0,1% 189,477 179,618 3% 2% 200,000 151,429 1% 161,060 South 150,000 119,714 America 100,000 80,757 1% 50,000 Caribbean 12% 0 Central 2013 2014 2015 2016 America 81% Detec�ons of Central Americans in Mexico Apprehensions of Central Americans in the United States

* US data refers to fiscal years. Source: US Department of Homeland Security; Mexico SEGOB. Source: Mexico, SEGOB.

97 98 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 The smugglers’profileandorganization widely, along the ingeneral,smugglers–particularly capabilities, methods,reliability andeffectiveness vary known ascoyotes orpolleros . While theirorganizational Across thenorthward route, smugglersare commonly 2017, thisdecreased to40,631. nationalities along border with Mexico. In fiscal year hended 58,819 unaccompanied minors of different In fiscalyear 2016,theUnited States Border Patrol appre Source: Direccion GeneraldeMigraciony F within theAmericasfromAfrica,Asia,andCaribbean,2016. IrregularMigrationflows authorities inthecountriesconcerned), Source: OrganizationofAmericanStates/IOM(citing national * The2016dataispreliminary, untilAugust. fromJanuary F 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 ig ig 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 . 43: . 42: 5,000 0 0

2013 –2017 irregular migrantsinCostaRica, Caribbean, AfricanandAsian Trend inthenumberofdetected Panama, 2011–2016* irregular migrantsinHondurasand Caribbean, Trend inthenumberofdetected

Africa 2013 2011 Caribbean Africa

2012 2014 African andAsian Caribbean 2013 19 Asia 2015 E xtranjeria ofCostaRica. 2014

2016

Asia 2015

2017 JAN-AUG 2016 - smuggling eitherinthecontextoftheirown journeyor themselves whohave becomeinvolved insomeaspectof better resourced groups. Some are migrantsorrefugees or have entered withlargerand intoadhocpartnerships known ofkinshiporfriendship, to eachotherby virtue Most smugglersinvolved incomplexoperationsare either Unitednation cityinthenorthern States. pay forsmugglingfrom theirhometown toafinaldesti- bank oftheRioGrande river totheother, whileothers trip from short example, onesome migrants pay for a very migrant journeysfrom departure tofinaldestination.For etcetera)butalsoentirecrossings, modesoftransport, along the migrant’s route (specific legs of travel, border ficient tooffernotonly‘a lacarte’ smugglingservices The cooperation between different operatorsisoften suf tise in roles such as recruiters, drivers, lookouts or guides. often highlyspecialized, withsmugglersacquiringexper- routes forafee or inkindpayment. specific tasks or provide along migrants’ services certain vidually, yet incoordination withothers. They perform border between theUnited States andMexico -actindi organizations –hasbeendocumented. - a‘tax’ touseroutes trafficking under the control ofdrug tion. The payment of derecho de piso of thesetradesandtherole oftheborder intheircomple migrant smuggling. argued thatthere traffickingand isanexusbetween drug has been rejected by many experts. traffickingorganizationsinMexicothe control ofdrug The idea that smuggling on the northward route is under of thesmugglingoffenderswere male. criminal history. More thanthree (76percent) quarters and more thanhalf(56percent)hadlittleornoprior zens. Their average age atthetimeofsentencingwas32, of the 2,404 sentenced smugglers were United States citi States. statistics regarding migrantsmugglersistheUnited lookouts. as “circuit minors,” they often act as group guides or ticipate insmugglingactivities.Known inpolicycircles States andMexico, somechildren andteenagersalsopar- houses. On bothsidesoftheborder between theUnited children andtheelderly, preparing mealsorcleaningsafe intheprovision suchascaringfor particularly ofservices While mostsmugglersare men,womenare alsoactive, because theyreside along themigrantroute. The only country alongthisroute topublishsystematic The onlycountry Interactions take placeasaresult certainly ofthenature 24 In fiscalyear 2016, nearlytwothirds (65percent) 23

25 20 by migrant smugglers However, some have Smuggling tasksare 27 Failing topay the 21 22

- - - Regional overviews - The Americas II derecho de piso may result in segregation, torture and kill- route, for those seeking to cross into Arizona or Califor- ing of migrants. Some of these organizations have been nia, and finally, the Central route for those crossing into involved in mass executions of hundreds of migrants western Texas or New Mexico.35 caught travelling along the northern route.28 In the United States, there have been geographical shifts Cases like the massacre in San Fernando, Tamaulipas, in the locations of key smuggling hubs and markets. In where the remains of 72 migrants from Central, South the 1990s, the implementation of special enforcement f America and Asia were identified,29 and the ensuing find- measures by the US Border Patrol funnelled the flow of ing of mass graves containing what are believed to be the border crossings from the states of Texas and California remains of hundreds of migrants in different parts along into the state of Arizona, which recorded the highest num- the northward route, are reportedly connected with the bers of migrant crossings and deaths during the decade of 36 presence of these larger organized crime groups. the 2000s. Enforcement, the changing economic conditions of the United States and Mexico and the demo- However, the payment of derecho de piso does not seem graphic changes in the makeup of US-bound smuggled to constitute evidence of structural dependency among migrants (more Central Americans for whom Texas is organizations. Some authors argue that considering it an closer than Arizona or California) have led migrant flows example of convergence masks the complexity of the to shift further east into south Texas in the 2010s. actors involved.30 In the state of Texas in the United States, small towns The smugglers’ modus operandi and the scattered along the border close to cities like Laredo, travel arrangements Brownsville and McAllen serve as transit after the border Most smuggled migrants along this route come from Cen- crossing. Migrants are often housed in these towns until tral America or Mexico. As a result, most of the travel the conditions for their transportation to locations within involves crossing several Central American countries, plus the United States are considered optimal by smugglers.37 traversing all of Mexico, before reaching the United States As for most routes, smugglers establish their fees on the border. Along this route most smuggled migrants travel basis of multiple variables, ranging from enforcement by land, while some may cover segments of their journeys levels38 to points of departure and destination, the route by air. There is also evidence that on occasion, some and means of transportation selected, and even their per- migrants rely on sea routes connecting ports in South and sonal connection to the migrants they transport.39 Some Central America with Mexico and the United States.31 research indicates that women are charged higher prices Central American smugglers who operate along the north- than men, and that age can play a role in determining the ward route often travel from and work in the different price.40 Some smugglers also offer special, more expensive large cities of Central America, where they recruit migrants ‘packages’ to migrants that include a specific number of and organize the transport to locations on the Guatemalan border crossing attempts that take into consideration the side of the border with Mexico. Close to the border with likelihood of arrest.41 The terms of payment are nearly Mexico, most migrants rely on smuggler ‘guides’ who walk always the subject of intense negotiations.42 A 2016 report them across short distances to evade controls.32 According cited a price range of US$6,000-8,000 for being smuggled to UNODC research from 2012, smuggled migrants may from northern Mexico into the United States.43 According even make use of zip lines across two rivers along the to field studies conducted among migrants returned to border between Guatemala and Mexico; the Usumacinta their origin countries, in recent years, Mexican migrants 33 and the Suchiate. may have paid around US$5,000 to be smuggled to the 44 Once in Mexico, migrants often hire smugglers who guide United States, whereas Central American migrants may them in their further travels. Others, traveling on their have paid on average US$7,000 to be smuggled across own or with limited resources, opt to stay away from tra- Mexico and finally to the United States.45 ditional routes fearing encounters with law enforcement 34 f In 1993, Operation Hold the Line in west Texas placed immigration and criminal entities. Most smuggled migrants then agents right on the territorial border, which led to reductions in the make their way to Mexico City, from where they split into number of crossing attempts in the El Paso Border Patrol sector. In three broad routes, depending on their intended point of 1994, Operation Gatekeeper temporarily sealed the stretch of the border between the Pacific Ocean and the San Ysidro port of entry, entry into the United States. The first is the Gulf route, with the intention of pushing border crossing attempts eastward for those wanting to cross through the Rio Grande Valley (Nevins, 2010). The impact of the shift was visible, for example, in the increasing migrant apprehensions along the Tucson sector of and other points in eastern Texas. This appears to be the the Border Patrol, and in the number of migrant deaths recorded in most common route nowadays. The second is the Pacific Arizona since the late 1990s.

99 100 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 The northward route posesanumberofrisksforsmug- The humancost While crossing the border with smugglers constitutes an bally and/orphysically. fees, turn them over to the authorities or abuse them ver- their promises, abandon them along the way, steal their migrants oftenreport thatsmugglersfailtodeliver on activity. While traveling alongthenorthward route, for a successful journey, this is an inherently precarious ofmigrantstoincreaseattempt onthepart thechances back ofatractor-trailerinSan Antonio, Texas. found dead from heat exposure and asphyxiation in the quences, suchasinJuly 2017,when10migrants were also beendocumented,sometimeswithfatalconse orlorrieshavemigrants inthebackofcommercial trucks transiting inthisroute. –continues to be the leading cause of death among those migrants’ attemptstoavoid detection,arrest, orviolence Environmental exposure –oftenaconsequence of Source: IOM,MissingMigrantsProject. sons. United States-Mexicoborder. Doesnotincludenumbersofmissingper ** DeathsreportedtohaveoccurredinCentralAmericaoronthe * 2017datacovers1Jan-11Octonly. F 11 October indicateadecliningtrend. larly highnumbersoffatalities;thedatafor2017upto data set.2016appearstohave- beenayear withparticu reported underCaribbeanorSouth AmericaintheIOM but alsobecausedeathsrelevant tothisroute couldbe of the general risk of underreporting of migrant deaths, – Mexico border are minimumfigures, notonlybecause reported figures for Central America and United States to datafrom theIOMMissing Migrants Project. The gled migrants. The numberoffatalitiesishigh,according ig . 44: 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

0 2014-11 October2017 deaths alongthenorthwardroute,** Trend inthenumberofreported 423 2014 46 48 Cases of smugglers transporting Casesofsmugglerstransporting 437 Smuggled migrantsmayalso 2015 573 2016 338

47 2017*

- - along the northward route is the high incidence of extor- A troubling form ofvictimizationmigrantssmuggled rob themorengage inintimidation. ment ormembersofcriminalgroups whoassaultthem, encounter anti-immigrantmilitias,robbers, lawenforce- were some3,800casesinvolving nearly4,800victims. whereas in 2016, the Commission reported that there place between September 2008 and February 2009, cases involving nearly10,000kidnapped migrantstook Commission forHuman Rightsreported thatatleast198 tion andkidnapping.Asearlyas2011,Mexico’s National Source: CanadaBorder ServicesAgency. * 2017datauptoSeptember F dents, by particularly sea. For decades, migrants from Asia of smuggling inci has a significant history the country smaller scalethanthattakingplaceintheUnited States, Although migrantsmuggling into Canadaoccursona have beenreported throughout thecountry. route, although kidnappingincidentsinvolving migrants from Centraland South Americatraveling alongthis This criminalpracticehasprimarilytargetedmigrants the midwest regions and northeastern of the United States Ontario –whichshare borders withseveral largestatesin not available. The Canadian provinces of Quebec and Specific numbersconcerningsmugglingintoCanadaare nowadays dosoby landorair.arriving intothecountry Border Agencyshows Services thatmostofthepeople aboard theMVSun Sea. when nearly500Sri Lankanswere smuggledtoCanada ships.One largeeventcruise tookplaceinAugust 2010, arrived in Canada on board lifeboats, freighters, cargo and Canada Other northwardmigrantsmugglingroutes: 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 ig . 45: 0 0121 0321 0521 2017* 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011

bec landportsofentry, 2011-2017* Agency offices atOntarioandQue- processed byCanadaBorderServices Number ofasylumclaimants Quebec 755 1,900 52 However, datafrom theCanada Ontario 51

3,720 4,290 49 50 53 -

Regional overviews - The Americas II

Fig. 46: Trend in the number of asylum appli- the migrants smuggled into and through South America cations in Canada, 2007-2016 appear to be citizens of countries in the Caribbean. Some migrants are also smuggled from other continents, in par- 40,000 34,800 ticular, Africa and Asia.55 35,000 33,970 30,000 South American countries are sometimes destinations but 24,984 23,529 perhaps more often transit areas for smuggled migrants 25,000 27,865 20,223 19,511 heading northwards. While it is clear that some countries 20,000 22,543 are more frequently traversed than others, due to, inter 15,000 alia, geography, infrastructure, visa policies or a combina- 13,661 10,000 tion of these, it is difficult to single out specific routes. 10,356 5,000 The information available regarding where and when 0 migrants rely on smugglers is very limited. Migrants from Cuba transit some parts of South America 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 on their journeys northward to the United States.h One Source: UNHCR. main route begins with a flight to Ecuador or Guyana. – report the largest number of land arrivals registered in From there, migrants travel overland to Colombia, from 56 connection with processed claims for asylum. The num- where they board boats to Panama. It is not clear how bers of processed asylum claims emanating from overland much of this travel is facilitated by smugglers. border crossings is increasing, with most of the growth Among Haitians, Brazil is a popular destination country. due to numbers from Quebec and Ontario land ports of To reach Brazil, Haitians without a visa typically leave the 54 entry. It is not known how many of the border crossings capital Port-au-Prince by bus, traveling to Santo Domingo were facilitated by smugglers. in the Dominican Republic. Once there, they purchase a As for the northward route, Canadian smugglers are flight ticket to Panama, and continue from there on by organized in multiple ways. Smuggling operations may plane or bus to Quito, Ecuador. From there, they travel be carried out by migrant and refugee communities in through Peru to reach Iñapari on the border with Brazil, 57 Canada, organized crews operating locally or local resi- where they cross the border. Some sources noted that dents operating independently. smuggling of Haitians along land routes transiting Ecua- dor and Peru intensified around 2014, and that new routes Migrant smuggling in Canada may pose serious challenges via the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the Plurinational to migrants’ safety. The country’s cold climate, in particu- State of Bolivia and Argentina also started to be used for lar, may involve significant risk for those who are accus- this smuggling.58 tomed to warmer conditions and often lack appropriate equipment. The Chilean authorities have noted that more citizens of the Dominican Republic are arriving irregularly in THE SOUTHWARD ROUTE: Chile. Those that are smuggled would usually travel first MIGRANT SMUGGLING INTO AND to Ecuador or Colombia, and from there, towards the THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA northern parts of Chile overland through the Plurina- tional State of Bolivia or Peru. The number of deporta- The main smuggling hubs, departure and arrival points tions of Dominican citizens due to clandestine entry The trajectories of Caribbean, Central American and extra-continental migrants into South America constitute tal/v/6425/4/innova.front/residir-y-trabajar-en-el-mercosur. h Official statistics provided by the Cuban authorities report an increas- what in this report is designated as the southward route. ing intensity of legal travel from and to Cuba over the last five years Within South America, the MERCOSUR regional inte- (2013-2018). During this period, more than 800,000 Cubans travelled legally abroad, most of them for the first time. 11 per cent of gration arrangement has eliminated visa requirements for them established their residence abroad. In 2017, national authorities citizens of most countries, which obliterates the need for reported a 39 per cent increase in the number of travels from Cuba migrant smuggling of most South Americans.g Most of to the rest of the world. During the same year, about 460,000 Cuban citizens travelled to the United States; not all of them with the intention to migrate. More than 2 million Cubans residing abroad traveled g As of November 2017, the participating countries are Argentina, to Cuba over the last five years. In 2017, a 21 per cent increase of such Brazil, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, travel compared to the previous year was reported. These numbers Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay. MERCOSUR, Residir y Trabajar en show an increasing legal mobility out of and into Cuba; only a part el MERCOSUR, available at: http://www.mercosur.int/innovapor- of it for migration purposes.

101 102 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 atively low, atnearly600. increased significantlyinChile2015,butisstillrel- F African and Asianmigrantsinborder areas. It is unknown statistics. tion takesplacealthoughthere remains alackofprecise authorities inborder areas recognize thatirregular migra According toastudyby theBrazilian ofJustice, Ministry migrant smugglers. however, how manyoftheseentrieswere facilitatedby migrants inColombiafrom 2013to2016.It isnotclear, increase in the number of detected entries of irregular ification ofMigration ColombiaUnit shows asubstantial Data from theColombianSub-Division forMigrant Ver mixed migrationflows some nationalauthoritiesshow, however, thatirregular into andwithinSouth America.Official statisticsfrom littledataconcerningmigrantsmugglingThere isvery the southwardroute The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong flights hasbeenreported. of false or altered travel documents in order to board Middle EasternorEuropean countries. The use mainly inBrazil orEcuador, sometimestransitingAfrican, migrants flyfrom Europe orSouthern Africa,andarrive the assistanceofsmugglers. To reach theAmericas, most plete oftenintricateroutes, eitherontheirown orwith and South America as transit points.Many of them com to reach North Americamayrely oncountriesinCentral Undocumented Asian and African migrants who aspire Source: OAS/IOM2016 (citingdatafrom nationalauthorities). toAugust. * 2016dataonlycoverstheperiodfrom January irregular migrationflows from theCaribbean. increasing years. inthelastfew The sameisreported for ig . 47: 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 5,000

63 0 Trend inthenumberofdetected Colombia, 2012-2016* entries ofirregularmigrantsin The studynotesthepresence ofCaribbean, 674 2012 61 568 from AfricaandAsiahave been

2013 60 59 1,928 2014 8,798

2015 23,273 62

2016*

- - - 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 the topic of extra-regional flows migratory has received uncontroversial as a result of MERCOSUR’s agreements, While intra-regional migration has long been seen as The profileofsmuggledmigrants ofapplication. of smugglerstoreach thecountry seekers, itisunclearhow manyoftheapplicantsmadeuse in Brazil have beenlarger. Asforanystatisticsonasylum increased moderately in recent years, although increases tively. The number of asylumseekers in Argentinahas tion, although this is difficult to demonstrate quantita believed to be a significant destination for irregular migra Argentina hasahighlevel ofimmigration. Brazil irregularly between 2011and2015. Haiti cites an estimate of 47,000 Haitians having entered assistance of‘coyotes’. cases ofHaitians whohadcrossed theborder withthe on theborder withParaguay. There hadalsobeensome been smuggledintoBrazil attheborder town ofGuiará, reported episodeinvolved someSouth Asianswhohad how many of these migrants have been smuggled. A in Colombiaskyrocketed tonearly15,000,from only35 In 2016,thenumberofHaitian irregular entriesdetected flows are comprisedmainlyof peoplefrom theCaribbean. Data onirregular entriesinColombiaillustratesthatthe these flows. gious andculturaldiversity amongthosewhocomprise since 2010,andthatthere isvast ethnic,linguistic,reli mixed migration flows in the Americas have been growing Organization ofAmericanStates hasnotedthatirregular increased attention inrecent years. For example, the Source: UNHCR. F 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 ig . 48: 0 796 0021 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010

1,087 gentina, 2010-2016 for asylumlodgedinBrazilandAr Trend inthenumbersofapplications 67 871 Argen 4,980 1467 64 � na Arecent studyonmigrationfrom 1,124 614 4,724 831 8,950 Brazil 1264 65 14,770

66 It isalso 1871 10,220 - - - - Regional overviews - The Americas II

Fig. 49: Trend in the number of detected Fig. 50: Shares of citizenships among de- entries of irregular migrants in tected African and Asian irregular Colombia, total and by region of migrants in Colombia, January-August origin, 2012-2016* 2016 (n=3,504)

Other Asia, 25,000 91 Somalia, 205 Pakistan, 191 20,000 Ghana, 425 India, 286 15,000 Bangladesh, 304 10,000 Congo, 559 5,000 Nepal, 358 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016* Senegal, 361 Other Africa, 374 Caribbean 363 199 1,012 6,361 19,739 Cameroon, Africa 17 80 205 938 2,304 156 Mali, 112 Guinea, 112 Asia 294 289 711 1,499 1,230 TOTAL 674 568 1,928 8,798 23,273 Source: OAS and IOM, 2016 (citing data from national authorities).

* 2016 data only covers January-August. people from many parts of the world seek protection in Source: OAS and IOM, 2016 (citing data from national authorities). South America. In Brazil, in particular, the numbers and citizenship variety of asylum seekers have risen consider- the year before. The number of irregular entries by Cubans ably in recent years. was more than 6,000 in 2015 and nearly 5,000 during the first eight months of 2016. The number of detected The smugglers’ profile and organization irregular migrants from African and Asian countries There is limited data regarding smugglers and how the remained relatively low, but the number of Africans sur- smuggling is carried out along the southward route. Some passed that of Asians in 2016. sources indicate that smuggling involves ranging levels of The Colombian data also show that there is great geo- complexity and organization, given the variety of destina- graphical diversity among the detected irregular migrants tions that migrants seek to reach. Others suggest that most from outside the Americas. In the first eight months of movements are facilitated by local smugglers living in 2016, large numbers of citizens of seven African and four communities along the migrant trail who are well versed Asian countries (more than 100 from each of these coun- on the routes and mechanisms required for a successful tries) were detected while irregularly entering Colombia. journey. Men and women with whom migrants may share While these movements may not necessarily have involved social or cultural ties may also be involved in the smug- migrant smuggling, given the large distances, it is likely gling. Some smugglers may be particularly familiar with that many did, at least during some part of the journey. mechanisms conducive to irregular migration as a result of their own migration status.69 According to a 2013 study, between 2006-2012 in coyoteros Colombia, East Asian citizens comprised the largest group In South America, smugglers are known as and chilingueros. Contrary to the case of the northward route, of detected smuggled migrants by some distance (more there are no clear indications that migrant smuggling has than 38 per cent).68 However, the more recent data on close links to drug trafficking. Ordinary men and women irregular entries reported above showed a marked decline of varying ages and occupations are involved in the provi- among East Asian citizens in the first eight months of sion of smuggling services. The majority of those who 2016. Although the two data sets are not directly provide services appear to be individuals working with the comparable – one refers specifically to migrant smuggling, intention of generating supplemental income. Reports and the other to irregular entries - it does appear that the indicate that smugglers work as guides, connecting smuggling of East Asian citizens into Colombia has migrants with other smugglers at other locations, or trans- declined in recent years. port them along segments of the route. Members of indig- Statistics on the origin of asylum seekers confirm that enous communities along the migrant trail have also been

103 104 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 titles ascollateral. interest ratesandoftendemand theuseofhomesorland financed through moneylenders,wholend at high the journeysoftheirfamilymembers. Other tripsmaybe smugglers maybeapproached by peopleseekingtofinance than 20peoplewere detainedinthiscase. Bolivia withwhichtheymanagedtoenterBrazil. More migrants reportedly obtainedfalsifieddocumentsin in Brazils Mato Grosso do Sul state. The smuggled national State ofBolivia,attheborder town ofCorumba a flow ofBangladeshis that entered Brazil from thePluri- region, inBrazil. particularly In 2012,thepolicedetected The useofforgeddocumentshasbeenreported in the by word ofmouth. ter’s families,orwhenapproached by aspiringmigrants migrants tospecificdestinationsattherequest ofthelat operating inmigrants’ placesoforigin,transporting ports. visasorpass arrangements andobtainedcounterfeit hensive services. They recruited migrants,madetravel of Ecuadoreans totheUnited States, offeringcompre mitadores were reported tobeinvolved inthesmuggling identification cards. In 2011, individualsknown astra including residence visas, passports, authorizations and ods. Some may sell or lease false or fraudulent documents South America make use of multiple operational meth- As for other regions and routes, smugglers operating in arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel the samecrimeandtheywere allmales. males. During thesameyear, 22peoplewere indictedfor for smuggling of migrants in 2017,this country nine were Republic indicatethatamongthe10peopleconvictedin glers are typicallymales.Official datafrom theDominican of the journey.ent parts Chile, withnumerous othersmugglersfacilitatingdiffer- migrants andthensmuggledthemby airandoverland to Dominican Republic, through whichsherecruited cans, toChile.She managedatravel agencyin the work thatsmuggledmore than44people,mostlyDomini Dominican Republic wasconvictedforhavingledanet- trative inthisregard. In thiscase,awomanfrom the senior ‘organizing’ casefrom roles. Chileisillus- Acourt whenconsideringsmugglersincitizenship; particularly Smugglers andsmuggledmigrantsoftenhave thesame communities inEcuador andBrazil. identified asbeingengagedinsmuggling,primarily Smuggling are financed in different services ways. Some 73 More recent research documentsthatsmugglers 76 74 Littleisknown aboutsmuggling

71 Despite this specific case, smug 70 72 75

------F These figures donotincludemissingpersons,however. perished intheCaribbean,andnoneSouth America. reported thatuntillateOctober 2017,33migrantshad many otherroutes. The IOMMissing Migrants Project South America islower thanthefigures reported along The numberofmigrantfatalitiesintheCaribbeanand - couldamountto$3,000. Venezuela, Colombia or Peru into the state of Amazonas into thestateofAcre orfrom theBolivarian Republic of tosouth-includingthebordernorth crossing from Peru tians, thepricepaidtosmugglersforcrossing Brazil from border between Paraguay andBrazil atGuaíra. gled migrantspaid US$3,500 to smugglers to cross the prices. One study reported thatsomeSouth Asiansmug- and wellbeing ofpeople intransit. ronmental exposure whichmayinvolve risksforthesafety clandestine migrationsleadto significantlevels ofenvi and theAndes.In general,thedistanceandconditions of them through harshandremote sectionsoftheAmazon swim. sengers to jump into the ocean despite being unable to fearing detectionby theauthoritiesandforce theirpas not skilledinopen-seavoyages, whomaypanicwhen Bonaire mayattimesrely onboatspilotedby fishermen Colombia, Peru andBrazil ortheislandsofCuraçao or migrants attempting to reachezuelan countries like often involves traveling under dangerous conditions. Ven As forotherroutes, migrant smuggling inSouth America Source: IOMMissingMigrantsProject. –23October.* Datacoverage:1January The humancost ig . 51: 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 79 The routes followed by Haitian migrantsmaytake

and theCaribbean,2014-2017* deaths reportedinSouthAmerica Trend inthenumberofmigrant

South America South 2014

2015 78

233 32

Caribbean 2016 77 For Hai 2017* - - - - Regional overviews - The Americas II

It has also been reported that language barriers and the Fig. 52: Smuggled migrants detected in actions of organized smugglers may make some smuggled Trinidad and Tobago, by citizenship, migrants more likely to encounter situations of labour 2007-April 2012 (n=116) exploitation. Moreover, smuggled migrants – particularly those not fluent in the local language, for example Haitians Other Nigeria 5% – might be tricked into paying large sums for false 5% documents that are ultimately rejected by the authorities.80 Ghana 8% OTHER SMUGGLING ROUTES IN THE AMERICAS Guyana 8% The Caribbean island state of Trinidad and Tobago is Colombia 57% widely viewed as a destination for both regional and extra- regional migrants, due to its relatively high level of devel- Venezuela opment and available employment opportunities. It is also (Bolivarian used as a transit point by some irregular migrants en route Rep. of) to Canada or the United States; some of whom stay and 17% work for short periods to earn money for the rest of their journey.81 Due to the country’s small population of nearly Source: Waldropt-Bonair et al, 2013 (citing national authorities). 1.4 million,82 the numbers of smuggled migrants are small in the global picture, but nonetheless illustrate the wide geographical extent of migrant smuggling. According to a 2013 study by the ACP Observatory on Migration,83 most smuggling into the country relies on a combination of air and sea routes, and takes place along four main routes: • • Africa – Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) – Trinidad (by air and sea) •• Panama – Trinidad (by air) •• Colombia – Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) – Trinidad (by air and sea) •• West Africa – Brazil – Trinidad (by air) In terms of citizenships of the smuggled migrants detected in Trinidad and Tobago between 2007 and April 2012, the majority were from Colombia. Citizens of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela also comprised a large share; perhaps due to the fact that the main island of Trinidad is located only 12 kilometres from the Venezue- lan north coast. Most of the smuggled migrants were aged 20-34, with women comprising two thirds (66 percent) of the total.84 Many of those interviewed for the 2013 study perceived close linkages between the smuggling of migrants and contraband such as firearms and narcotics. The study also noted that migrant smuggling fuels the market for fraudulent documents, particularly since new arrivals need documentation to access services and employment opportunities.85

105 106 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 18 16 15 13 11 10 17 14 12 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 nited States Border Patrol (2017a),Southwest Border Sectors: total 1 ENDNOTES -THEAMERICAS

R I S Americas andtheCaribbean from, December Africa,Asia, 2016,p. 37. for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/withinthe O I Rica. 43; data from Direccion General de Migracion y Extranjeria of Costa Americas fromandtheCaribbean Africa,Asia, ,December 2016,p. for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the O gob.mx/es_mx/SEGOB/Boletines_Estadisticos). Boletines Estadísticos (available at: http://www.politicamigratoria. M U dos 2013-2017,October 2017. Refugiados, M U land Security, November 2010,p. 4. Bulletin ofLatinAmerican Research, 34(3)324-339. soras deMigrantes, Migrantes invisibles,violenciatangible:Informe gov/immigration-statistics/enforcement-actions). Enforcement Actions, annualreports (available at:https://www.dhs. Offenses, Fiscal Year 2016,March 2017. ing paper, Office of Immigration Statistics, US Department of Home Analysis ofMigrant Smuggling CostsalongtheSouthwest border, Work - 2015. S (eds.), Zhang, S.X.,‘ I 303-324, 2016. emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, pp. and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue1,pp. 174-193,March 2018. and Achilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican Academy ofPolitical migrants in Mexico’s southern borders,’ in Zhang, S.X., Sanchez, G.E. González, Y., ‘Navigating withcoyotes: pathwaysofCentral American sites/default/files/Mixed_migration_routes-Americas.pdf; Guevara Routes: Americas I O O Zh ber 2016,p. 9. America Migration Dialogue Policy Brief Series, PBno. 14,Decem- irregular porMexico: nuevas cifras ytendencias,CentralAmerica-North Rodriguez Chavez, E.(2016),Migración centroamericana enmigracion tera Norte (2016),Migrantes enMexico: Vulnerabilidad yRiesgos,p. 7; 7. the Americas andtheCaribbean from, December Africa,Asia, 2016,p. Migration (2016),Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the Americas andtheCaribbean from, December Africa,Asia, 2016. Migration (2016),Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within tion, pp. 303-324,2016,p. 318. of theemergingevidencebase,International Organization forMigra - Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review U 2015, BoletíndePrensa 29/16,28January 2016. Migracion Internacional condatosdelaENOEaltercer trimestre de tuto Nacional deEstadísticayGeografía (2016),Información de illegal alienapprehensions by fiscalyear , statistics,2017;Mexico, Insti- nternational Organization forMigration andEl ColegiodelaFron- nternational Organization forMigration (IOM),Mixed Migration bid., p. 51. zcara-Palacios, S.,‘Coyotaje twodifferent anddrugs: businesses’, anchez, G. E., Humananchez, Smuggling andBorder Crossings , Routledge, ocios delaRed deDocumentación delasOrganizaciones Defen- oberts, B.,Hanson, G.,Cornwell,oberts, D.andBorger, S.(2010),An nited States Sentencing Commission,Quick Facts: Alien Smuggling nited States ofHomeland Department Security, Immigration rganization ofAmericanStates andInternational Organization for rganization ofAmericanStates andInternational Organization for rganization ofAmericanStates andInternational Organization rganization ofAmericanStates andInternational Organization exico, Secretaría deGobernación, UnidaddePolíticaMigratoria, exico, Secretaría de Gobernación, Comisión Mexicana de Ayuda a ang, S. X. (2016), ‘The Unitedang, S. X. (2016), ‘The States,’ in McAuliffe, M. and Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobalreview ofthe Estadísticas delaComisiónMexicana deAyudaaRefugia- The United States,’ inMcAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. , map, available at: http://missingmigrants.iom.int/ -

30 29 28 27 25 24 22 21 32 31 26 23 20 19 33

S The dataispublishedb M S R Zhang, S.X.,‘ U U G Zhang, S.X.,‘ S Migration, June 2016,pp. 18-19. Tracing ofDead andMissing Migrants, International Organization for B tions, Congressional Research 25April Service, 2017. B in Mexico, Mexico City, 2016,p. 14. el tráfico ilícitodemigrantes, UNODCLiaisonandPartnership Office U 48(5), pp.1380-1399, November 2016. illicit regimes and their impacts on the US–Mexico border,’ S www.ussc.gov/topic/alien-smuggling). 207-238. realidad: Menores decircuito’, Estudios fronterizos , 16(31),2015,pp. rity, November 2010,p. 7. Office ofImmigration Statistics, ofHomeland USDepartment Secu - Migrant Smuggling CostsalongtheSouthwest border, Workingpaper, Crossings, Routledge, 2015. pp. 303-324,2016;Sanchez, G.E.,Human Smuggling andBorder emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, (eds.), nized crimeinCentralnized America andtheCaribbean: athreat assessment, 303-324, 2016. emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, pp. (eds.), American Research, 34(3)324-339,2014. S., ‘Coyotaje twodifferent anddrugs: businesses’, Bulletin ofLatin Science, L. (eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican Academy ofPolitical in the U.S. Southwest,’ in Zhang, S. X., Sanchez, G. E. and Achilli, traffickingnexus themigrantsmuggling-drug tions, andsurvival: pp. 135-151,March 2018. the American Academy ofPolitical in Zhang,S.X.,Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals of traffickingnexusintheU.S.Southwest,’the migrantsmuggling-drug and Zhang,S.X.,‘Rumors, encounters,collaborations,andsurvival: letin ofLatinAmerican Research, 34(3)324-339,2014;Sanchez, G.E. Izcara-Palacios, S.,‘Coyotaje twodifferent anddrugs: businesses’, Bul on the Texas-Mexico border, CornellUniversity Press, November 2009; 1, pp. 174-193,March 2018. of theAmerican Academy ofPolitical ders,’ inZhang,S.X.,Sanchez, G.E. and Achilli, L.(eds.),The Annals pathways ofCentralAmericanmigrantsinMexico’s southernbor- pp. 269-302,2016;Guevara González, Y., ‘Navigating withcoyotes: emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, (eds.), sions#. at: https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/usbp-sw-border-apprehen- Southwest Border Apprehensions by Sector, online statistics, available 2014, July 2015,p. 23. March 2018. Academy of Political Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican American migrantsinMexico’s southernborders,’ inZhang,S.X., ee, forexample,Spener, D.,Clandestinecrossings: Migrants andcoyotes ee, forexample,Slack, J.andCampbell,H.,‘On narco‐coyotaje: anchez, G.E.andZhang,S.X.,‘Rumors,anchez, encounters,collabora- anchez, G. E.,‘Latin America,’anchez, in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. rian, T. andLaczko,F. (eds.),Fatal Journeys, vol. 2:Identification and eittel, J.S.,Mexico: trafficking crimeanddrug Organized organiza- oberts, B.,Hanson, G.,Cornwell,oberts, D.andBorger, S.,An Analysis of nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Set sobre deinformación nited States Customs andBorder Protection, U.S.Border Patrol nited Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, Transnational orga- uevara González, Y., ‘Navigating with coyotes: pathwaysofCentral oreno Mena, J.A.andAvedaño Millán, R.M.,‘Arrinconados porla Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobalreview ofthe Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobalreview ofthe Migrant smuggling data and research: a global review of the vol. 676,issue1,pp. 135-151,March 2018;Izcara-Palacios, The United States,’ inMcAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. The United States,’ inMcAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue1,pp. 174-193, y theUSSentencing Commission(see:https:// and Social Science, and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue vol. 676, issue 1, and Social Antipode, - Regional overviews - The Americas II

September 2012, p. 48. Especial de la Comisión Nacional De Los Derechos Humanos Sobre Desaparición de Personas y Fosas Clandestinas en México, April 2017, 34 Dominguez Villegas, R., Central American migrants and “La Bestia”: pp. 69-70. the route, dangers, and government responses, Migration Policy Institute, 10 September 2014. 51 Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos, Mexico, Informe Especial de la Comisión Nacional De Los Derechos Humanos Sobre 35 Ibid. Desaparición de Personas y Fosas Clandestinas en México, April 2017; 36 Martinez, D., Reineke, R., Rubio-Goldsmith, R., Anderson, B., Hess, Socios de la Red de Documentación de las Organizaciones Defensoras G. and Parks, B., A continued humanitarian crisis at the border: undoc- de Migrantes, Migrantes invisibles, violencia tangible: Informe 2014, umented border crosser deaths recorded by the Pima County Office of the July 2015. Medical Examiner, 1990-2012, The Binational Migration Institute at 52 Bin Han, C., Smuggled migrant or migrant smuggler: erosion of sea- the University of Arizona, June 2013. borne asylum seekers’ access to refugee protection in Canada, Refugee 37 Izcara-Palacios, S., ‘Coyotaje and drugs: two different businesses’, Studies Centre Working Series Paper no. 106, University of Oxford, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 34(3)324-339, 2014; Slack, February 2015. J. and Campbell, H., ‘On narco‐coyotaje: illicit regimes and their 53 Canadian Border Services Agency, Asylum Claimants Processed by impacts on the US–Mexico border,’ Antipode, 48(5), pp.1380-1399, Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) Offices, January 2011-June November 2016. 2017 (available at: https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refu- 38 Roberts, B., Hanson, G., Cornwell, D. and Borger, S., An Analysis of gees-citizenship/services/refugees/asylum-claims/processed-claims. Migrant Smuggling Costs along the Southwest border, Working paper, html). Office of Immigration Statistics, US Department of Homeland Secu- 54 Ibid. rity, November 2010. 55 Organization of American States and International Organization 39 Sanchez, G. E., Human Smuggling and Border Crossings, Routledge, for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the 2015. Americas from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, December 2016. 40 Roberts, B., Hanson, G., Cornwell, D. and Borger, S., An Analysis of 56 Organization of American States and International Organization Migrant Smuggling Costs along the Southwest border, Working paper, for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the Office of Immigration Statistics, US Department of Homeland Secu- Americas from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, December 2016, p. 32. rity, November 2010, p. 7. 57 Ibid., p. 31. 41 Olson, E. L., Migrant smuggling and trafficking at the Rio Grande Valley: ten observations and questions, Latin American Program, 58 Bernal Carreras, G., ‘La Migración Haitiana hacia Brasil: Ecuador, Wilson Center, September 2016. país de tránsito,’ in La migración haitiana hacia Brasil: características, oportunidades y desafíos, Cuadernos migratorios no. 6, International 42 Sanchez, G. E., Human Smuggling and Border Crossings, Routledge, Organization for Migration, Regional Office for South America, July 2015. 2014, p. 54. 43 Olson, E. L., Migrant smuggling and trafficking at the Rio Grande 59 Chile, Departamento de Extranjería y Migración, Boletín Informativo Valley: ten observations and questions, Latin American Program, No. 2: migración dominicana en Chile, December 2016, pp. 6 and 10. Wilson Center, September 2016, p. 3. 60 Organization of American States and International Organization 44 Mexico Migration Project, 2017: Border Crossing Costs 1975-2013 for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the (US Dollars adjusted to CPI 2017). MMP 161, University of Prince- Americas from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, December 2016, p. 28. ton. Available at: http://mmp.opr.princeton.edu/results/001costs-en. aspx. 61 Understood to be complex population movements including refugees, asylum seekers, economic migrants and other migrants. 45 El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Encuesta sobre Migración en la Fron- tera Sur de México, Secretaría del Trabajo y Previsión Social, Consejo 62 Organization of American States and International Organization Nacional de Población, Unidad de Política Migratoria, Secretaría de for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the Relaciones Exteriores, Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discrimi- Americas from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, December 2016, pp. nación, Secretaría de Desarrollo Social. Available at: www.colef.mx/ 7-8. emif. 63 Brazil, Secretaria Nacional de Justiça, Assessment of trafficking in per- 46 Martinez, D., Reineke, R., Rubio-Goldsmith, R., Anderson, B., Hess, sons in the border areas, ENAFRON research, October 2013, p. 121. G. and Parks, B., A continued humanitarian crisis at the border: undoc- 64 Ibid., pp. 121-123. umented border crosser deaths recorded by the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner, 1990-2012, The Binational Migration Institute at 65 International Organization for Migration and MERCOSUR, Diag- the University of Arizona, June 2013; International Organization for nóstico regional sobre migración haitiana, IOM Regional Office for Migration and El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Migrantes en Mexico: South America/MERCOSUR Institute for Public Policies and Vulnerabilidad y Riesgos, 2016. Human Rights, August 2017, p. 49. 47 International Organization for Migration, Migrant deaths on the rise 66 Organization of American States, International migration in the Amer- on the US-Mexico border: Analysis of Missing Migrants Project data icas: Third report of the Continuous Reporting System on International January-July 2017, briefing, August 2017. Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), 2015, p. 69. 48 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Set de información sobre 67 Organization of American States and International Organization el tráfico ilícito de migrantes, UNODC Liaison and Partnership Office for Migration, Regional report: Irregular migration flows to/within the in Mexico, Mexico City, 2016; Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Americas from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, December 2016, p. 7. Humanos, Mexico, Informe Especial de la Comisión Nacional De Los Derechos Humanos Sobre Desaparición de Personas y Fosas Clandestinas 68 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and Migración Colom- en México, April 2017. bia, Dimensión del delito de tráfico de migrantes en Colombia: realidades institucionales, legales y judiciales, August 2013, pp. 19-20. 49 Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos, Mexico, Informe especial de la Comisión Nacional De Los Derechos Humanos sobre secuestros 69 Stone-Cadena, V. and Álvarez Velasco, S., ‘Historicizing mobility: de migrantes en México, February 2011, p. 12. coyoterismo in the indigenous Ecuadorian migration industry,’ in Zhang, S.X., Sanchez, G.E. and Achilli, L. (eds.), The Annals of the 50 Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos, Mexico, Informe American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 676, issue 1,

107 108 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 81 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 70 85 84 83 82 80 79 71

Ibid. I I W U W Human Rights,August 2017. South America/MERCOSUR Institute forPublic Policies and nóstico regional sobre migración haitiana,IOMRegional Office for I I I 127-128. persons intheborder areas, ENAFRON research, October 2013,pp. B European University Institute, 2011. Policy Institute andRobert SchumanCentre forAdvanced Studies, a comparisonoftheEcuador-US andEcuador-Spain cases,Migration 211, March 2018; Kyle, D. and Goldstein, R., Academy ofPolitical S.X., Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican oterismo intheindigenousEcuadorian migrationindustry,’ inZhang, S sons intheborder areas, ENAFRON research, October 2013,p. 130. B March 2018. Academy ofPolitical S.X., Sanchez, G.E.andAchilli, L.(eds.),TheAnnals oftheAmerican oterismo intheindigenousEcuadorian migrationindustry,’ inZhang, S Institute, 2011.p. 5. Robert SchumanCentre forAdvanced Studies, European University Ecuador-US andEcuador-Spain cases,Migration Policy Institute and K UNODC. and Trafficking inPersons sentby theDominican Republic to O case no. CHL007. available from theUNODCsmugglingofmigrantscaselawdatabase, Case name:R pp. 194-211,March 2018. Observatory onMigration, 2013. Observatory gling ofmigrants andtrafficking inpersons in Trinidad and Tobago, ACP Seales, T., 2017. Population Prospects, the2017 Revision, Population Division, June onMigration, 2013,p.Observatory 14. gling ofmigrants andtrafficking inpersons Trinidad and Tobago, ACP Seales, T., Regional Office forSouth America,2013. en America delSur: estudiodecasos,Cuadernos Migratorios no. 5, nternational Organization for Migration and MERCOSUR, nternational Organization forMigration, Migrantes extracontinentales bid., p. 28. bid., p. 27. bid., p. 126. tone-Cadena, V. andÁlvarez Velasco, S.,‘Historicizing mobility:coy tone-Cadena, V. andÁlvarez Velasco, S.,‘Historicizing mobility:coy razil, Secretaria Nacional deJustiça, of trafficking Assessment inper - razil, Secretaria Nacional deJustiça, oftrafficking Assessment in yle, D.andGoldstein, R.,Migration industries:acomparisonofthe nited Nations, ofEconomic Department andSocial Affairs,World fficial datafrom theSpecial Prosecutor onSmuggling ofMigrants aldropt-Bonair, L.-A.,Sherma Foster, J.,Gray, G.,Alfonso,S.and aldropt-Bonair, L.-A.,Sherma Foster, J.,Gray, G.,Alfonso,S.and Invisible immigrants: Aprofile ofirregular migration, smug- Invisible immigrants: Aprofile ofirregular migration, smug- esolución n. 4445 of Corte deApelacionesesolución n.4445ofCorte deIquique; and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue1,pp. 194-211, and SocialScience,vol. 676,issue1,pp. 194- Migration industries: Diag- - - PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF large number of these migrants try to join the Eastern MIGRANT SMUGGLING FROM Mediterranean route to Greece and the European Union. SOUTH AND SOUTH-WEST ASIA A second section describes the different routes used for the smuggling of South Asians into Europe or to the coun- Migrant smuggling is widely documented in South and tries of the Gulf Cooperation Council. A third section South-West Asia, a vast and diverse region stretching from analyses the routes from South and South-West Asia Syria and Afghanistan to Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangla- towards North America. These routes are relatively well desh. Several irregular migration and migrant smuggling documented, but the flows are smaller in magnitude than routes depart from and cross the region. The routes those towards Europe. A final section considers smuggling departing from South Asia and from South-West Asia to Australia. While these routes were sizable a few years often converge and ultimately head to Europe, to the Gulf ago, they have since diminished. As for most routes countries, Australia and North America. described in this study, the individual routes should be considered as indicative, as most migrants’ actual journeys This chapter starts by presenting the West Asian route, vary considerably according to a myriad of factors, such leading migrants and refugees from Afghanistan, the as resources, time available, travel group, visa regimes, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and Pakistan to Turkey. A border security, terrain, weather, and so on.

THE WEST ASIAN ROUTE TO EUROPE

0 1,000 2,000 km Istanbul TURKEY Van Salmas Izmir Zakho Tehran SYRIAN Urmia Peshawar ARAB ISLAMIC Kabul REPUBLIC IRAQ REPUBLIC AFGHANISTAN OF IRAN Shiraz Zahedan Quetta PAKISTAN

Land Karachi

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the partThe of designations the Secretariat employed of the United and the Nations presentation concerning of material the legal on thisstatus map of doany not country, imply territory,the expression city or of area any or opinion of its authorities, whatsoever or on con - cerningthe part the of delimitation the Secretariat of its of frontiers the United or boundaries.Nations concerning Dotted linethe legalrepresents status approximately of any country, the territory, Line of city Control or area in Jammuor of its andauthorities, Kashmir agreedor concerning upon by Indiathe delimitation and Pakistan. of itsThe frontiers final status or boundaries. of Jammu andDotted Kashmir line represents has not yet approximately been agreed the upon Line by of the Control parties. in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The ﬁnal status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Smuggling from Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and terrain. Risks of exploitation and violence in origin, Iraq and Pakistan to Europe is well documented.1 In recent transit and destination countries. years, Europe appears to have become an increasingly Profile of smugglers: attractive destination for many South-West Asians. According to recent field research in Pakistan, a popular Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the route runs from Afghanistan to Pakistan via the Islamic borders that are crossed. Smugglers in organizing roles Republic of Iran and Turkey, joining the Eastern Medi- often share citizenship with the smuggled migrants. Some terranean route to Europe.2 high-level smugglers are based in origin countries. Profile of migrants: Organization: Mainly Afghan migrants and refugees smuggled both as A mix of local smugglers who facilitate short legs of the individuals and as families. Pakistani and Iranian migrants, journeys and larger transnational networks. mainly young males, are also smuggled along this route. The main smuggling hubs, departure and In recent years, Syrians, including many families. arrival points Human cost: Migrants and refugees are smuggled along land routes Some fatalities, mainly due to the harshness of the weather from South-West Asia towards Europe. For many Afghans,

109 110 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 stan almost exclusively by land, either on foot or by bus. whereas otherstravel firstviaPakistan. They enterPaki- istheIslamic Republictheir firsttransitcountry ofIran, was 175,752. when the number of apprehensions ofirregular migrants pared to2016,aslightincrease wasrecorded in2017, hensions ofirregular migrants in2015and2016.Com- show thatthere wasarapidandsteepincrease inappre- irregular migrantsdetected inthecountry. Their data ofInterior,ment, withintheMinistry collectsdataabout The Turkish Directorate General ofMigration Manage- smugglers. unclear towhatextentirregular migrationisfacilitatedby of migrantsmugglingbasedonsuchdata,sinceitisoften caution shouldbeexercised inestimatingthemagnitude irregular entriesandexitswillbeconsidered. However, of specific data on migrant smuggling, Turkish data on forsomeIranianstion country andIraqis. before reaching theEuropean Union. It isalsoadestina- refugees travelling by land routes from South-West Asia Turkey formigrantsand isusuallythelasttransitcountry ofAsia. or otherparts through in Europe, major airports Africa, the Middle East oforiginortransiting either directly from theircountry and refugees are smuggled by air to European destinations by airtoEurope. Pakistani, Iranian andIraqi migrants Some citizens South-West Asian countries are smuggled key’s landborders withBulgaria andGreece. Mediterranean route, ortoIstanbul andonwards to Tur- head towards the Turkish west coasttojointhe Eastern Idlib governorate, west ofthecityAleppo. They then cross theborder intosouth-central Turkey, from Syria’s of otherSouth-West Asiansinto Turkey. Most Syrians As of 2011-2012,many Syrians have also joined the flow controls. in order toavoid problems incaseofroutine police smugglers provide forgedtravel documentstothemigrants Istanbul andIzmir, aboard busesandminivans. Often, they are takentowards Turkey’s western cities,inparticular crossing themountainous border area. Once in Turkey, are smuggledinto Turkey from Iran farnorth-western by From theIslamic Republic of Iran, migrantsand refugees for Tehran.head Iran. Once inIran, mostAfghanandPakistani migrants cities forpeopleheadingtowards theIslamic Republic of In Pakistan, Karachi,Peshawar andQuetta are transit smuggling fromSouth-West AsiatoEurope The magnitudeofmigrant 5 8 Research on irregular migrationto Turkey 4 6

7 In theabsence 3

F Source: Turkish MinistryofInterior. F the Syrian Arab Republic were among the most commonly ing tocomefrom theIslamic Republic ofIran, Iraq and and seaborders; some4,400at air borders. People claim- more atEUland than 7,000personswere deniedentry European Union or Schengen area countries. In 2016, fraudulent documentsforthepurposeofentering Migrant smugglers are usuallyinvolved in supplying increased sharplyin2015(seefigure). borders. duetostrictermonitoring along partly Turkey’s western eastern border withtheIslamic Republic ofIran. This is Very irregular few border crossings are detectedat Turkey’s of migrantsmugglers. irregular migrantstravelled to Turkey with theassistance tion in 2012 suggested that about half of the apprehended carried outfortheInternational Organization forMigra Source: Turkey MinistryofInterior. ig ig 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000 200,000 . 54: . 53: 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 10 500 0

The numberofdetected smugglersin Turkey 94,514 0 2010-2016 smugglers detectedinTurkey, Trend inthenumberofmigrant hended inTurkey peryear, 2000-2016 Number ofirregularmigrantsappre- 2000 1,711 92,365 2010 56,219 1,292 2002 82,825 61,228 57,428 9 2011 2004 51,983 1,484 64,290

2012 1,469 2006 34,345

2013 2008 65,737 44,415 32,667 1,506 2014 2010 47,510 4,471

2012 146,485 2015 39,890 58,647 3,314

2014

2016 174,466

2016 - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 55: Trends in detections of document Fig. 56: Trend in the number of South-West fraudsters claiming to originate from Asian citizens among irregular selected South-West Asian countries migrants apprehended in Turkey, at external EU borders,* 2011-2016 2014-2017*

1,600 200,000 1,447 180,000 1,400 1,281 160,000 1,200 140,000 120,000 1,000 100,000 800 80,000 745 60,000 600 40,000 400 486 20,000 234 0 200 83 2014 2015 2016 2017* 0 Others Syrian Arab Republic Afghanistan Iraq

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Pakistan Iran (Islamic Republic of)

Syrian Arab Republic * 2017 data only covers the period 1 January-15 August. Iran (Islamic Republic of) Source: Turkey Ministry of Interior. Iraq * 2011 data for Iraq is not available as Iraq was not among the top ten citizenships detected that year. ther away.12 Afghan migrants and refugees are smuggled Source: Frontex. both as individuals and as families. Those smuggled individually are mainly young men who intend to settle in the detected citizenships. The number of detected Syrian doc- destination country. Recent research has indicated that an ument fraudsters spiked in 2013 and 2014, for then to increasing number of Afghan families are on the move.13 decline rapidly. Detections of Iranian and Iraqi document fraudsters have remained broadly stable over the last few The number of unaccompanied minors smuggled from years.a Afghanistan to Europe – most of whom are boys - is significant and growing.14 According to a 2014 study on South-West Asians may be smuggled to Western Europe Afghan unaccompanied minors travelling to Europe, chil- not only by land but also by air, directly from the country dren who engage in unaccompanied travel are usually of origin or from countries along this route. Data about between 13 and 17 years old, and most of them are neither smuggled migrants could only be found for the United the only male nor the eldest child in the family.15 Inter- Kingdom for a limited period. Between 2010 and 2013, views with Afghan migrants already in Europe have also the number of South-West Asian migrants smuggled to indicated that there may be a relation between the age of the United Kingdom ranged around 1,400 per year.11 the migrant and the fact that decision to migrate is not a The profile of smuggled migrants personal choice, but rather a family decision. The younger The citizenship profiles of Middle Eastern and South-West the migrants, the more likely that the decision to migrate 16 Asian irregular arrivals in Turkey have changed consider- was taken as a household coping strategy. ably in recent years. Not only has the number and share Iranians who are smuggled to Europe - or Australia or of citizens of the Syrian Arab Republic among irregular North America - are mainly male, as are most Iraqi migrants fluctuated greatly, but so has the number of migrants. A relatively large number of unaccompanied Afghans, Iraqis and Pakistanis. minors, most of them male teenagers, have also been For Afghan nationals, their final destination largely detected among Iraqi smuggled migrants arriving in 17 depends on the wealth of the migrants and their families. Europe via Turkey. Pakistani smuggled migrants are also 18 Migrants with limited social and economic resources tend predominantly men, mostly aged between 18 and 30. to be smuggled to neighbouring countries, whereas those The smugglers’ profile and organization from wealthier families are smuggled to destinations fur- Smuggling networks operating from and in South-West a The data only shows the number of people claiming to have a particu- Asia are usually loosely connected, informal and not lar citizenship who have been detected using fraudulent documents strictly hierarchical. Different individuals and groups upon entry into the EU or Schengen area. Some may have presented counterfeit passports or identity documents, whereas other may have form flexible chains, where members can be easily replaced tried to use fraudulently obtained visas or residence permits. with little or no disruption to the network’s activities.19

111 112 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 smugglers are of transnational networks, often part lic ofIran. The available sources indicatethat thesmug- organization ofsmugglersoperating intheIslamic Repub limitedinformation abouttheprofileThere and is very continue theirjourneytointendeddestination. inthesmugglingofotherstocollect moneyto participate activities. Migrants stranded in transit countries may also transit countries, where they get involved in smuggling destination. In othercases,theyremain inorreturn to of smuggled migrantsbecomesmugglersintheircountry smuggled andare familiarwiththeregion. Bulgaria mostsmugglersare Afghanswhowere previously on the routes from western Turkey onwards to Greece and along thesameroute onwhich they operate.For instance, Sometimes, smugglers are migrants who were smuggled refugees. lent identityandtravel documentstomigrantsand also involved intheproduction andprovision offraudu- Turkey intoGreece. usually rely on Turkish orGreek smugglerstomove from operate. For instance,Pakistani migrantsandrefugees gler ‘agents’ where are they oftennationals ofthecountry In transitanddestinationareas, localsmugglersandsmug in transitcountries. the clientsandorganise their journeyinAfghanistanand outside Afghanistanandlocalsmugglers(‘agents’) recruit whereby themainsmugglersmanagebusinessfrom recommended tothemby friendsorrelatives. lage, neighbourhood or district of their clients, and are countries theycross. step-by-step, relying onpersonalnetworks ineachofthe Most Afghanmigrantsappeartoorganize theirjourney More thanhalfare between 30and49years old. stani migrantsmugglers(or human traffickers) are males. Agency, forexample,90outofthe92mostwantedPaki- According toa2016report by thePakistani Investigative fromroutes South-West departing Asiaare adultmales. vast majority of migrant smugglers operating along the and primarily originate from the border regions. tic, ethnic and cultural ties with the local communities Smugglers operatingalongthisroute have strong linguis ties arise. migrant smugglingorgetinvolved initwhenopportuni basis. They supplementothersources ofincomethrough Asia generallydosocasually, temporarilyoronanadhoc Individuals involved inmigrantsmugglingSouth-West or Pakistan. Localsmugglersare oftenfrom thesamevil- passage from Afghanistanto the Islamic Republic ofIran who willarrangethefirstlegofjourney, namelythe 27 20

25 23 26

They firstrely onalocalsmuggler, Localindividualsandgroups are 28 Sometimes, 24 22 Local 21 The 29 - - - - Afghans enterPakistan alongtwomainroutes. The first arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel gling ofmigrantsinIran islargelymanagedby localand From Pakistan, migrants are smuggled through border smugglers. route, instead,generallyhave theirjourneyfacilitatedby and difficulttopatrol. Those travelling alongthesecond ofborderengage smugglersasthatportion ismountainous refugees crossing theborder at Torkham donotnecessarily region, inparticular, itscapital,Quetta. border atChamanandleadsintoPakistan’s Balochistan dahar -Afghanistan’s secondlargestcity-crosses the arrives inPeshawar, Pakistan. The secondleaves from Kan the border atthe Torkham border crossing pointand from Kabul,passesthroughone departs Jalalabad, crosses ing theprofits. migrants, producing fraudulentdocumentsandlaunder- 10 othersmugglersinvolved smuggled intransporting consists of 3-4 smuggler ‘organizers’ and approximately loosely connectednetworks. Atypicalsmugglingnetwork n addition, from 6 per cent reported having departed the Islamic b five. Migrants andrefugees smuggledalongtheseroutes to the Turkish border, usuallyby taxiingroups oftwoto tainous areas nearthecitiesofUrmia and Salmas, close From Tehran, migrantsand refugees travel tothemoun- Iran travel withoutany documents. ney. The majority ofAfghannationalstransitingthrough work for some time to finance the next leg of their jour- migrants andrefugees smugglersandalso mayfindnew Iran. acrossfoot orby theborder car(orbusortruck) into migrants inbatchesbetween 10and80peopleeitheron pean Union. through only Iran and Turkey before reaching the Euro- pean countriesfoundthat58percent around Herat. ofnearly2,000AfghansinEuro Asurvey Republic ofIran from Afghanistan;oftenfrom thearea Many Afghansare smuggleddirectly intotheIslamic and Tehran.Shiraz the border toIranian coastalcities,before continuingto the south-western coastofPakistan, from where theycross ran. totheregionnorth nearMashhad, and onwards to Teh- the Iranian cityofZahedan. From there, theycontinue Republic ofIran, crossing pointsalongthelandborder withtheIslamic

prior todeparture forEurope. Republic ofIran, indicatingthattheyhadlived there forsometime I 34 37 Analternative route takesmigrantsandrefugees to These migrantsthenheaddirectly to Tehran where 32 36 Smugglers inwestern Afghanistanmove 30

33 35 withmanycrossing theborder near 38 31 b hadtransited Migrants and - - Regional overviews - Asia II regroup there, before crossing into Turkey.39 The border $4,000 and 6,000.51 According to a 2016 survey con- crossing is usually undertaken on foot in large groups of ducted by IOM in the Balkans, the vast majority of up to 1,000 people.40 Two or more smugglers usually assist Afghans travelling along the Western Balkans route paid with the crossing, which takes 12-15 hours. More rarely, $1,000 to 5,000. Few reported having paid more than migrants and refugees are smuggled across the border in US$5,000.52 Smuggling by air from Afghanistan is more taxis, private cars or trucks. There are also reports of expensive, with the cost for a passport, visa and air tickets migrants and refugees using forged documents at the offi- reportedly ranging between $20,000 and 25,000.53 Paki- cial border crossing points.41 stani migrants and refugees reportedly pay a bit less than Afghans. Estimates suggest that smuggling fees for Paki- Most movements from Iraq to Turkey are facilitated by smugglers.42 Iraqis – particularly from Baghdad and stanis range between US$3,000 and 8,000 for smuggling north-western Iraq - are often smuggled across the border by land, whereas smuggling by air to Europe costs between 54 near the city of Zakho.43 According to an IOM survey of $12,000 and 18,000. Recent field research involving Iraqi migrants and refugees who left Iraq in 2015 and are migrants from Pakistan has shown that the average price currently residing in Europe, most of them transited for being smuggled to Germany is $11,000, while smug- legally through Turkey and continued their journey irreg- gling to Sweden costs $6,800. The same study found that 55 ularly to Europe.44 the journey to Greece would cost $4,000. Once in Turkey, Van, Ağri and Dogubeyazit are major Most of the time, these fees are not paid in one lump sum. transit points used to organize the rest of the trip through Rather, they are the sum of fees charged and paid at each that country.45 Migrants and refugees primarily use public leg of the journey, so that particular land or sea crossings transportation to reach the outskirts of Istanbul where can cost between several hundred or a few thousand dol- they stay while waiting for the smugglers to organize their lars each.56 Every border has a specific price, and the pay- onward journey to Western Europe.46 ment is only effected upon successful crossing of the border.57 South-West Asians often rely on the hawala People from the Syrian Arab Republic have undertaken money transfer system to pay the smuggling fees. Before the bulk of irregular entries into Turkey since 2013. They departure, most Afghans leave an upfront deposit with a generally cross the border away from official border cross- third-party guarantor, who will pay the smuggling fees ings, often in the area around the border village of Khirbet either entirely or in instalments upon milestones en route. al-Joz, in Idlib governorate. It is not clear to what extent Smugglers with occasional and limited tasks seem to be migrant smugglers are involved in those movements. A paid cash by the migrants and refugees.58 Sometimes, few others are smuggled by boat from the Syrian coastal smuggling services include several attempts to enter a cities of Latakia and Tartus to Turkey.47 country. Sham marriages are also reportedly used to smug- Until a few years ago, Syrians could freely cross into Jordan gle South-West Asian migrants to European countries.59 and Lebanon. But between 2012 and 2015, Lebanon and The human cost Jordan partially or totally closed their border with the Syrian Arab Republic. As a result, a growing number of The land journey from South-West Asia to Turkey and Syrians (and Palestinian refugees who have been living in Eastern Europe involves several other risks and difficulties Syria for years) have sought the assistance of migrant for smuggled migrants. The Afghans travelling through smugglers to reach the neighbouring countries.48 Lebanon Pakistan have to cross the dangerous Hindu Kush moun- and Jordan have become increasingly significant transit tains and the insecure Nangarhar province.60 The border countries for Syrian refugees. From there, some Syrians between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Turkey is also are smuggled by land or sea to Egypt and Turkey, whereas mountainous and difficult to cross in some areas. Many others fly to Cairo or Istanbul.49 migrants and refugees are ill equipped to make this journey and some have died trying to cross the border in With regard to prices, there are several different sources freezing temperatures.61 Moreover, migrant surveys have and estimates, and prices also seem to vary considerably. revealed that those who cannot keep up with the walking UNODC reported in 2015 that Afghan migrants seemed pace of the smugglers may be beaten up or abandoned to pay, on average, US$10,000 to be smuggled to western along the way.62 European countries, based on information from 2008- 2014 from a range of different sources.50 Other, more Migrants and refugees are also at risk of exploitation, vio- recent sources report lower fees for the journey to an lence and abuse by smugglers. In Afghanistan, delays in unspecified destination in Europe, ranging between payment could lead to migrants and refugees being forced

113 114 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Trend inthenumbersofarrivalscitizensSyrianArabRepublicandIraq Syrians andIraqis escapingconflict smuggledtoneighbouringcountries remains unclear. ings have beenclosed,andmigrantsmugglingisdocumentedattheSyria-Jordan border, althoughtheextent smugglers tocross intoJordan. However, ofconflictinSyria, sincetheeruption previously openborder cross- Jordan border wasopenwithoutrestrictions. It can thus be assumedthatSyrian citizens didnotneedmigrant UNHCR provides dataonarrivals inJordan from theSyrian ArabRepublic andIraq. Until 2012,theSyria- Source: UNHCR. Asylum applicationssubmittedinLebanonperyear, 2009-2016 Source: UNHCR * NotnecessarilyregisteredwithUNHCR. b uropean Commission,Directorate General forMigration andHome Affairs,Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and a documented, butagainitsmagnitudeisdifficulttoassess. 2015, Jordan closedtheborder, following asuicideattackonitsforces. Migrant smugglingatthisborder is As fortheIraq-Jordan border, Iraq hascloseditseveral timessincethebeginningofcivilwarin2014.In 300,000, according toinformationfrom UNHCR. in Jordan,*2009-2016

Ibid. E cooperation withthird countries,Case Study -Italy 1: Syria/Lebanon, 2015. –Egypt Total Other Sudan SyrianArab Republic Iraq Iraq Rep. Arab Syrian a The numberofarrivals from theSyrian Arab Republic inJordan peakedin2013atnearly 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 50,000 0 0 0921 0121 0321 052016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 7 7 6 3 0 4 1 595 718 449 507 737 547 633 365 148 164 349 390 173 806 672 244 172 359 118 23 ,3 ,6 ,5 ,2 5,098 2,829 2,658 2,168 1,530 0921 0121 0321 052016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 ,8 ,8 ,0 3,264 2,108 1,687 2,083 6 8 962 784 860 22,508 7,3 295,631 171,835 b ,7 ,6 ,8 2,852 7,186 6,466 1,473 49318,171 14,953 ,1 1,208 9,059 1,213 6,825 17,817 0503,8 41,157 33,385 80,540 ,8 8,858 8,682 4,393 938 8

Regional overviews - Asia II

Data about clandestine entry attempts into Lebanon could only be found for a few months in 2012 and 2013. Detections were extremely limited, ranging between 0 and 3 per month. Statistics about newly registered Syrian and Iraqi asylum-seekers as well as field research indicate that large numbers of Syrians and Iraqis migrate to Lebanon, and that many of them rely on migrant smugglers to enter the country.c The number of Syrian and Iraqi asylum applications in Lebanon grew sharply in 2014 and 2015, while the number of Syrian applications in particular decreased from more than 9,000 in 2015 to only eight in 2016.

c Ibid.; Achilli, L., Tariq al-Euroba: Displacement Trends of Syrian Asylum Seekers to the EU, MPC Research Report 2016/01, Migration Policy Centre, European University Institute, 2016. to carry drugs, or they may end up in a situation of human PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF trafficking.63 In Pakistan, migrant interviews have revealed MIGRANT SMUGGLING IN that many smugglers working as ‘agents’ run away with CENTRAL ASIA the money once a deposit has been paid.64 Smuggled migrants also risk being captured and held hostage by Central Asia, encompassing the five former Soviet repub- criminal organizations operating along this route.65 lics of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, is a transit area for irregular migration According to a survey conducted by IOM in 2016 among and migrant smuggling from South, South-West and East Afghans in Calais, France, the majority of respondents Asia to Europe. After transiting through Central Asia and reported incidents of detention and violence. A smaller the Russian Federation, South West and East Asian group reported having food, money, phones, clothes and migrants continue to Ukraine and Belarus, from where other personal belongings stolen. The perpetrators are they enter the European Union in Poland, Slovakia or often the smugglers or their affiliates, border control or Hungary. Alternatively, a few irregular migrants also pass police officers. Furthermore, several respondents recounted through the Russian Federation, the Baltic countries and having been abducted for ransom by smugglers operating then enter one of the Nordic countries.69 along this route.66 Within Central Asia, irregular migration is relatively rare, Other migrant smuggling routes since the citizens of most Central Asian countries can from South-West Asia freely move within the region, without a visa. Irregular migration status mainly results from overstaying, the fail- A minor smuggling route connects South-West Asia to ure to register as a temporary resident or unauthorized the European Union via Azerbaijan and Georgia. From employment, rather than from irregular movement across 70 the Islamic Republic of Iran, migrants are smuggled to national borders. Still, some Central Asians also migrate Azerbaijan, continue to Georgia and on to the Russian irregularly within the region and to the Russian Federa- Federation. From there, they are smuggled either to the tion, sometimes with the assistance of migrant smugglers. Baltic countries and/or Belarus and Ukraine, and smug- These are mainly people who do not possess valid travel documents, or citizens of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan gled into the European Union along the Eastern borders who need a visa to travel to most of the countries within route. Those smuggled along this route reportedly use the region. Kazakhstan and in particular the Russian Fed- fraudulent identity or travel documents to cross borders, eration are the main destinations for these migrants.71 rather than clandestine movements.67 More than 1,000 Iraqi citizens were refused entry at Georgian borders in Although Central Asia remains mainly a transit point for the first half of 2014, making Iraq the most frequently irregular migration and migrant smuggling, the continued refused citizenship in Georgia. During the same period, rise in living standards in some Central Asian countries 72 853 citizens of the Islamic Republic of Iran were also has made them increasingly desirable as destinations. refused entry.68 It is not clear how many of the entry refus- Kazakhstan, in particular, has recently become attractive als involved facilitation by smugglers. for irregular migrants from neighbouring countries due to its relatively high levels of economic development and There is also a minor route connecting South Asia to political stability.73 Because most Central Asians can travel Europe via Central Asia and the Russian Federation. This within the region without visas, irregular migration mainly route is discussed in more detail in the section on South takes place in order to avoid expensive and time-consum- Asia to Europe. ing formalities and evade other entry regulations.74

115 116 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Human cost: Mostly young malesfrom South Asia. Profile ofmigrants: between theRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. agreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.Dotted line representscerning approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmir thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat oftheUnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities,con- The designationsemployedandthepresentation ofmaterialonthismap donotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveron the It appearsthatmostmigrantsmuggling toEurope is whenmigrantsaretries; particularly smuggledby air. Europe. the countriesofGulf CooperationCouncil to India, forinstance–andmayalsobesmuggledonwards within theregion –from Sri Lanka,Nepal orBangladesh be facilitated by smugglers. Within South Asia,muchirregular migrationappearsto neys andlargertransnationalnetworks. legsofthejour A mixoflocalsmugglersfacilitatingshort Organization: are basedinorigincountries. with thesmuggledmigrants.Some high-level smugglers borders thatare crossed; somesmugglersshare citizenships Smugglers are often citizens ofthecountries along the Profile ofsmugglers: ticularly alonglandpassages. reported inorigin,transitanddestinationcountries;par- Risks ofexploitationandvarious formsofvictimization FROM SOUTHASIATOEUROPEANDTHEGCCCOUNTRIES Final boundary betweentheRepublicofSudanandSouthhasnotyetbeendetermined. Final boundary Kashmir agreeduponbyIndiaandPakistan.TheﬁnalstatusofJammuhasnotyetbeentheparties. or concerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersboundaries.DottedlinerepresentsapproximatelyLineControlinJammuand the partofSecretariatUnitedNationsconcerninglegalstatusanycountry, territory, cityorareaof itsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplyexpressionanyopinionwhatsoever Destination Land Sea Air

77 The Gulf countries are also used as transit coun destinations in Western Europe Many 75 Some migrantsare smuggled Moscow 76 orto Cooperation Council - - Gulf RUSSIAN FEDERATION Central Mediterranean routes. city andonward smugglingby seaalongthe Western or Other air routes involve flights to a West or North African toentertheUnitedfrom where manytry Kingdom. Gulf countries,mainlytoBelgium, France andGermany, Some migrants are smuggled by air via Pakistan or the Jalandhar are transitcitiesinIndia. important heading toEurope. Chennai,New Delhi, Mumbai and India, theyjoinIndian migrantsonthelandandairroutes travel regularly, othersuseforgeddocuments. Once in sea. to India alsoenterirregularly by land,althoughafew by smugglers. ularly, sometimeswiththeassistanceofmigrant tage ofbilateralfree-movement agreements -othersirreg travel regularly – withrequired documents,takingadvan Along thedifferent routes, someSouth Asianmigrants Asia. Some are alsosmuggledalonglandroutes across Central to Turkey, and enter Europe via the Eastern Mediterranean. routes. Some follow landroutes across South-West Asia smuggling. carried outby airorinacombinationofandland arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand 81 UZBEKISTAN 79 Sri LankannationalsenterIndia by airorsea.Many

Islamabad PAKISTAN 80 78 Karachi Lahore Bangladeshi migrantsare mainlysmuggled Many South Asiansalsofollow different land KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN Delhi New Mumbai Jalandhar INDIA Chennai NEPAL 84

BANGLADESH 0 1,000 Final boundary 82 2,000 km 83

- -

Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 57: Trend in the number of South Asian countries. The smuggling of Bangladeshi migrants also nationals refused entry at the United appears to take place across the Gulf of Oman in the 2010-2016 Kingdom’s air border, opposite direction, from Oman to Iran.87 1,200 Some South Asians are also smuggled via Central Asia to 1,130 the Russian Federation and ultimately to various countries

1,000 910 in the European Union. These routes often combine air 765

800 705

650 and overland travel. South Asians may enter Central Asia 630

600 565 in Tajikistan or Kyrgyzstan, from where they make their 470

390 way through Kazakhstan, sometimes via Uzbekistan, and 400

225 on to the Russian Federation. Migrant smuggling is docu- 155 200 145

90 mented from Tajikistan and Kazakhstan to the Russian 75

0 Federation, and from there onwards to Ukraine and the 88 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 European Union. Bangladesh India Sri Lanka Nepal The magnitude of migrant smuggling from Source: Eurostat. South Asia to Europe Data from the United Kingdom shows that some South South Asians heading to Europe may be smuggled by air Asian migrants and refugees choose the United Kingdom from New Delhi to the capital cities of Central Asian as their destination. This is a traditional migration route countries, using fraudulent documents. From there, they with a long history.89 In 2010, 170 smuggled migrants continue by land to Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, from India were detected, whereas the numbers for 2011 Ukraine and Belarus.85 Some migrants are smuggled from and 2012 were lower, 80 and 50 respectively. Additionally, New Delhi directly to Moscow via air and then enter the United Kingdom reported the detection of 10 Sri Europe through Ukraine. The journey to Moscow is usu- Lankan smuggled migrants for each of the years from ally undertaken by air with a legitimate visa, whereas the 2010 to 2012. The data does not specify whether the travel by land to the European Union is often facilitated migrants were smuggled by land, sea or air.90 by migrant smugglers.86 Considering entry refusals of South Asians at European Most South Asian migrants heading to the Gulf States via air borders, the United Kingdom has the highest totals, land and sea routes travel to Pakistan and the Islamic although the trend is declining. In 2016, the United King- Republic of Iran (together with migrants and refugees dom refused 565 Indian citizens, and less than 100 other heading to Europe). Entry into Pakistan and Iran usually South Asian citizens entry at airports.91 occurs across land borders, either on foot or by motor vehicle. From Iran migrants are smuggled to Oman by Other European countries also reported refusals of South sea. From Oman, some migrants continue to other GCC Asians at their air borders, though in far smaller numbers.

Fig. 58: Trend in the numbers of criminal cases launched in Kyrgyzstan for irregular migration and border crossing, 2010-2014

250

200

150

100

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Unlawful crossing of borders 72 167 198 165 189 Orchestra�ng unlawful migra�on 4 24 7 6 6 Orchestra�ng unlawful crossing of borders 7 52 59 85 117

Source: IOM, 2016 (quoting data from the Kyrgyz Ministry of Internal Affairs).

117 118 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 Source: SaudiArabia, Border Guards. * Monthsandyearsareapproximated fromtheIslamiccalendar. F While regular migration flows may bear little resemblance are seekingassistancefrom smugglers. glers is increasing. This might indicate that more migrants declining steeply, whereas the number of arrested smug- is in that country detections of attempted irregular entry Data from Saudi Arabiashow thatthetotalnumberof apprehended thatyear, withnearly2,400apprehensions. frequently detectedcitizenship amongirregular migrants to officialdata,in2016,Bangladesh wasthesixthmost Bangladeshi citizens were frequently detected.According via thelandroute through Turkey intoEurope, in2016, While ingeneralrelatively South few Asiansare smuggled of Iran andPakistan. much smallerthanthoseheadingtotheIslamic Republic flows to Tajikistan, Turkmenistan andUzbekistan are forAfghannationals,althoughthe and transitcountry from Afghanistan, Tajikistan appears to be a destination be unrelated to migrant smuggling. Regarding the flow migration legislationwere detected;manyofwhichmay With regard to Tajikistan, in 2013, 736 violations of smuggling. however, unclear how many of these cases involve migrant related criminal cases launched from 2010 to 2014. It is, increasing trend inthenumberofirregular migration- ofInternalthe Ministry AffairsofKyrgyzstan recorded an As for smuggling along land routes through Central Asia, thererefused in2016. entry ders are lower, from the 115 apart Indians who were entry, andFrance about200.Refusals atGerman airbor In 2016,Italy refused about250South Asiancitizens ig . 59:

smugglers, SaudiArabia,2012-2015* Trends inthenumberofdetectedattemptsirregularentryandarrestsmigrant Number of attempted irregular entries 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 50,000 93 Attempted irregular entry (scale on the left) the on (scale entry irregular Attempted 0 92 305,456 2012 229,511 5,916 2013 94 - families who remained in in their home countries. who previously their emigrated, toearn money to support They are generallysmuggled alone,oftentojoinrelatives Europe are young menfrom familiesofmodestincome. Most South Asianswhoare smuggledby landroutes to search ofwork opportunities. areas,from rural have low levels ofeducationandleave in men ofmiddleclassbackground. They generallycome Indian migrantswhoare smuggledtoEurope are young to Europe. According totwo2009UNODCstudies,most profiles ofsmuggledmigrantsfrom South Asiadirected littleinformationavailableThere regarding isvery the The profileofsmuggledmigrants and Pakistanis (nearly3millioneach). group, withnearly8.2 million,followed by Bangladeshis lion, or61percent.Indian citizens make up thelargest South andSouth-West Asianscomprisesome15.4mil stock intheGCCcountries,some25.4millionpeople, considerable migrantworkforces. Out ofthetotalmigrant South oftheGCCcountries’ Asianscompriseavast part thatto smugglingflows, itisnonethelessnoteworthy usually smuggled out of their country by fellow citizens.usually smuggledoutoftheircountry largely carriedoutby localsmugglers.Bangladeshis are Smuggling intoIndia from neighbouringcountriesis The smugglers’profileandorganization grounds typicallycomefrom southernIndian states. work. porary are oftenyoung menseekingunskilled, low-skilled ortem countries. have connectionswithrelatives livinginthedestination South AsianswhoseektobesmuggledGulf countries 232,198 5,044 2014 Arrested Arrested (scale on smugglers right) the 98

99 Unskilled Indian migrantsfrom poorback 82,183 2015 7,416 96 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 95 Number of arrested smugglers 97 Many 100 - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

In transit countries, South Asians smuggle other South Document fraud is commonly used by migrant smugglers Asians on the basis of their ethnic background, together operating on routes departing from India or Pakistan.114 with locals.101 From here, they board international flights to Europe, the Gulf countries or South-East Asia.115 In 2013, the Paki- In origin countries, smugglers usually belong to the stani Federal Investigation Agency reported about an Afri- migrants’ local community. They may be friends, relatives, ca-based cartel that sold stolen or expired passports to community members or returnees. According to a 2013 smuggling networks in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and study on labour migration from South Asia, more than Egypt. Visas were lifted from the passports and pasted on 60 per cent of the surveyed stated that they had met their the migrants’ authentic passports.116 smuggler through friends.102 Migrants generally pay between US$35 and US$50 to be The recruitment of migrants is usually undertaken by local smuggled from Bangladesh to India, although lower fees 103 smugglers, or ‘agents’, especially in rural areas. They have also been reported.117 The fee for being smuggled work for a few main smugglers based either in large cities from India to Western Europe is considered to range or close to international borders. Many smugglers run between US$15,000 and 30,000.118 Smuggling fees from 104 travel agencies as a cover for their smuggling business. India to Eastern Europe may be considerably lower. A 2012 study noted that more and more migrants were According to a 2011 report, Indian migrants pay between using smugglers in major cities, rather than their local €1,500 and 4,500 to be smuggled to Eastern Europe, and 105 smuggler ‘agents’. US$1,500-2,000 to continue onwards to the European 119 The same 2012 study found that most smugglers operat- Union. Migrant smugglers in India are estimated to 120 ing in some parts of India were male, although a few earn between US$250 and $750 per migrant. In 2011, females were also involved; sometimes working with their the cost of the entire journey from Bangladesh to Europe 121 husbands. Most of the smugglers were reported to be in was estimated at €12,000-18,000. 106 their 30s. Another study of the profiles of more than According to a recent survey of Pakistani migrants, the 11,000 individuals involved or suspected of being involved smuggling journey from Pakistan to Dubai, United Arab in irregular migration in Punjab found that nearly all the Emirates, costs approximately US$1,000, but that smugglers were locals. Some 94 per cent of the interme- excludes the cost of travel documents.122 Somewhat older diaries came from Punjab, while the remaining were from research cited fees for destination countries in the Middle elsewhere in India. Very few were based abroad.107 East varying between €1,400 and 4,300. Higher fees are The available sources suggest that Indian smuggling orga- charged when the smugglers accompany the migrants to 123 nizations continue to be involved throughout the smug- their destination. gling process to Europe and engage local groups and The human cost individuals in transit countries. Smugglers of Indian origin Harassment, assault and occasional killings of smuggled or with Indian citizenship also operate in a range of Euro- migrants have been reported along the different routes 108 pean transit and destination countries. With regard to here considered.124 Women are particularly vulnerable to the smuggling of Bangladeshis, diaspora communities trafficking and sexual violence by criminal gangs or border living in destination countries may provide some officials.125 support.109 Several sources report that migrants are often deceived by The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel smugglers or charged exorbitant fees for their services.126 arrangements Moreover, there are reports of South Asian smuggled Bangladeshi and Nepalese migrants are mainly smuggled migrants ending up in situations of debt bondage or to India by land to New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Ban- forced labour to pay back money owed to the smuggler galore and other major Indian cities.110 After crossing into or to friends and relatives.127 India, Nepalese typically settle in India, while those who can afford to fly to the GCC countries contact other FROM SOUTH AND SOUTH-WEST smugglers who can provide them with the necessary doc- ASIA TO NORTH AMERICA uments and plane tickets.111 Most Bangladeshis head across the country towards Pakistan. A few are smuggled Some migrants are smuggled by air from South and South- to Europe by air.112 For many Bangladeshi smuggled West Asia to North America, but information on routes migrants, Pakistan is a transit country.113 and methods is sporadic and limited.128 Some of the routes

119 120 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 provide an indication of the potential magnitude of the collected by ofHomeland theUSDepartment Security migrant smuggling,other immigration-related data could notbefound.In theabsenceofspecificdataon Statistics aboutmigrantssmuggled totheUnited States South andSouth-West AsiatoNorthAmerica The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingfrom recorded. Since arrivals ofthiskind then haveno further been nationals by sea to North America was foiled in 2011. those migrants.AnotherattempttosmuggleSri Lankan astransitcountriesfor some of East Asiamayhave served the Canadianauthorities,different countriesin South- on vessels originatingfrom South-East Asia.According to nationals were smuggled toBritish Columbia,inCanada, recorded. In hundred 2009 and 2010, a few Sri Lankan by seatoCanadainvolving Sri Lankannationalswere also Between cases of 2009migrant andsmuggling 2010 a few heading totheUnited States by air. countries by migrantsandrefugees from South-West Asia Syrian ArabRepublic are alsoreportedly usedastransit often involves fraudulentdocuments. gling ofthesemigrantstotheUnited States andCanada detected, usually on their way to the United States. Smug- which smuggledmigrantsfrom South-West Asiawere Several LatinAmericancountrieshave reported casesin Asian countriestoNorth America. as transitpointstosmugglemigrantsfrom South-West Syrian Arab Republic and the United Kingdom are used Canada. States issometimesusedasatransitpointenroute to tries forSouth Asiansmuggledmigrants. The United Canada andtheUnited States are bothdestinationcoun Americas. America by airdirectly orviathird countriesinthe South-West Asian migrants are smuggled to North are sometimesusedastransitlocations.South Asianand also toCanada.South andCentralAmericancountries America, primarily to the United States of America, but most South andSouth-West AsiancountriestoNorth There isscattered evidenceofmigrantsmugglingfrom arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand tively small. land andby sea)themagnitudeofthissmugglingisrela- limited numberofflights(compared to smuggling over- on other continents. Due to the costs involved and the involved are complex;involving transitsthrough countries 130 134 129 According to the British authorities,Spain, the

131 133 132

Lebanonandthe - phenomenon. For instance,theUSimmigration Source: USDepartmentofHomelandSecurity. 2015). * Fiscalyears(FY2015ranfrom1October2014to30September F Canada. The number of immigration apprehensions in in North America,somemigrantsare alsosmuggledinto While theUnited States isthemaindestinationcountry slightly more than1percent. more than460,000apprehensions infiscalyear 2015, and South-West Asiansaccountedforsome4,700ofthe sions are unlikelytobeduemigrantsmuggling.South apprehensions were reported. Many oftheseapprehen October 2015 –30September 2016),whensome530,000 was, however, amodestincrease forfiscalyear 2016(1 Customs Enforcement hasdeclinedinrecent years. There violations by theUSBorder Patrol andImmigration and The numberofapprehensions forsuspectedimmigration deemed inadmissibletotheUnited States. Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Iranian citizens were also of India comprised thelargest share. Smaller shares of representing more than4percentofthetotal.Citizens zens ofcountriesin South andSouth-West Asia, missibility infiscalyear 2015,nearly10,800were forciti Out ofthemore than250,000determinationsofinad migrant smuggling. security-related reasons. These instancesmaynotinvolve immigration violations,aswell ascrimeandnational requirements,inability to satisfy documentary previous Inadmissibility grounds includethoserelated toan each year, withincreasing numbersduringrecent years. authorities deemalargenumberofpeopleinadmissible ig . 60: 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 0

2009-2015* entry intotheUnitedStates, determined inadmissibleatportsof and South-West Asiancitizens Trend inthenumberofSouth 8,837

2009 9,334 2010 Total Asia South/South-West 8,329 2011 9,008 2012 14,140

2013 11,449

2014

10,796

2015 - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 61: Number of smuggled South and The smugglers’ profile and organization South-West Asian migrants apprehended in Canada, by citizenship, According to Canadian officials, smugglers facilitating the 2008-2012 journey from South Asia - and in particular from Sri Lanka - to Canada operate in loosely organized net- 2,500 works.139 Members of the Sri Lankan community in 2,264 Canada are sometimes involved in the smuggling of other 2,000 Sri Lankans. They may serve in different smuggling roles 1,500 - as organizers, agents or facilitators - but may also help

1,190 provide genuine Canadian passports for use by other Sri 1,000 Lankan migrants.140

500 The smugglers’ modus operandi and the travel arrangements 0 Various countries in South and Central America are used India

TOTAL as transit countries for migrant smuggling between South Pakistan Sri LankaSri and South-West Asia and North America. Sometimes this Afghanistan 2008 2009 is due to visa arrangements. Between 2009 and 2011, for Iran (Isl. Rep. of) Iran (Isl. Rep. 2010 2011 example, Indians used a visa waiver scheme for Indian Source: UNODC. 2012 nationals in Guatemala to gain easier access to the United States via Mexico. After the termination of this scheme, Canada has steadily declined since 2012. As for the United Ecuador, which had a similar program, emerged as a tran- States, immigrants may be apprehended for a number of sit point for the smuggling of migrants from India.141 reasons; many of which may not be linked to migrant Other South Asian citizens use fraudulent Indian pass- smuggling. ports to be smuggled on the same route.142 The Canadian authorities provided UNODC with data Moreover, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela is some- about smuggled migrants from South and South-West times used as transit country by Iranians. Taking advan- Asia apprehended between 2008 and 2012. While the tage of the visa-free policy adopted by Venezuela in the data are slightly out of date, they nonetheless indicate the mid-2000s, Iranian migrants would fly there and continue size and composition of the migrant smuggling flow into to the United States and Canada with the assistance of Canada. In 2008 and 2010, Sri Lankans were the most smugglers.143 According to the Canadian authorities, commonly detected, whereas in the other years, Indians approximately 80 per cent of the Iranian nationals who outnumbered the other citizenships. arrived in Canada irregularly by air between 2008 and Migrant smugglers often facilitate irregular movements 2012 had their journey facilitated by migrant smugglers.144 by air from India.135 The scale of migrant smuggling by There have also been reports of Iraqi citizens who have air from India is corroborated by data about people appre- been smuggled into the United States by air, relying on hended while trying to irregularly leave India from the fraudulent travel or identity documents.145 major international airports in the country. Between 2008 Sri Lankan nationals are also smuggled to Canada and the and August 2012, 1,173 cases of irregular migration were United States by air. This often involves fraudulent travel recorded at Indira Gandhi International airport in New or identity documents. According to the Canadian author- Delhi. Most of those departing were Indians, but citizens ities, an estimated 55 per cent of the Sri Lankan nationals of many other countries - Afghans, Bangladeshis and Sri who were apprehended attempting irregular entry by air Lankans in large numbers - were also detected. The United between 2008 and 2012 had used the services of smug- States or Canada was the destination in nearly 20 per cent glers. The smuggled migrants who arrived in Canada by 136 of the cases. air over the same period often used fraudulent documents. The profile of smuggled migrants This included the use of genuine Canadian passports that some Canadians had ‘rented’ to smugglers or the use of The Canadian authorities have reported that around two forged foreign passports.146 thirds of the Indian and Iranian migrants who were smuggled into Canada between 2008 and 2012 were male.137 Smuggling routes from South Asia to North America can Most Sri Lankan smuggled migrants are reported to be be complex. To illustrate, one route involved Sri Lankans males between 30 and 40 years old.138 who were smuggled first from India to Kenya and the

121 122 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 halt in2014andthesearoute isnow largelydormant. Irregular maritimearrivals inAustralia nearlycametoa Australia isalsoasignificantdestinationforSouth Asians. along thisroute, whichusuallytransitsSouth-East Asia. West Asia.Migrant smugglingiswidelydocumented tination forirregular migrants andrefugees from South- Since theearly2000s,Australia hasbeenasignificantdes ASIA TOAUSTRALIA FROM SOUTHANDSOUTH-WEST of apprehension thanthesafearrival oftheirclients. who may be more concerned about theirprofits and risks for otherroutes, migrantsare atthemercy ofsmugglers a failedexperiencemightincursevere debts.Moreover, as However, migrants travelling by air pay high prices, and physicalrisksthanseaorland-basedsmuggling.fewer routes are exposed to. Migrant smuggling by air entails human rightsrisksthatsmuggledmigrantsalongthese There isnospecificinformationregarding thevarious The humancost bound forCanada. brought to Belgium, from where they boarded a flight they obtainedfraudulentBritish passports. They were then along aroute viaIstanbul andHelsinki toParis, where United Republic of Tanzania. From there theycontinued between theRepublicofSudanand theRepublicofSouthSudanhasnotyetbeendetermined. agreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan. ThefinalstatusofJammuandKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries.Dottedlinerepresentscerning approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmir thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat ofthe UnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities,con - The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthe Final boundary betweentheRepublicofSudanandSouth hasnotyetbeendetermined. Final boundary Kashmir agreeduponbyIndiaand Pakistan.TheﬁnalstatusofJammuandKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties. or concerningthedelimitationofits frontiersorboundaries.DottedlinerepresentsapproximatelytheLine ofControlinJammuand the partofSecretariatUnited Nationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthe presentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression anyopinionwhatsoeveron Air Land Sea

147 REPUBLIC ISLAMIC OF IRAN AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN INDIA 148 BANGLADESH -

gled togetheralongthesameroutes. The journeyusually Profile ofmigrants: Almost allirregular migrants andrefugees from theSouth- arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand neys andlargertransnationalnetworks. legsofthejour A mixoflocalsmugglersfacilitatingshort Organization: Some high-level smugglersare basedinorigincountries. often have thesamecitizenship asthesmuggledmigrants. borders that are crossed. Smugglers in organizing roles Smugglers are oftencitizens ofthecountriesalong Profile ofsmugglers: origin, transitanddestinationcountries. Risks ofexploitationandgross humanrightviolationsin Fatalities have beenrecorded; mainlyalongseapassages. Human cost: young adultmales. Migrants from South-West AsiaandSouth Asia.Most are East Asia,and smuggling by land andsea to southern involves smuggling by air from South-West Asia to South- their journeytowards Australia. West Asiancountriesrely of onsmugglersforatleastpart (Keeling) Islands Cocos THAILAND Lumpur Kuala Bangkok (Australia) Christmas MALAYSIA Island Cisarua INDONESIA Ashmore Reef (Australia) AUSTRALIA 149 They are oftensmug- 0 1,000 Final boundary 2,000 km

- Regional overviews - Asia II

Indonesia, where migrants and refugees board vessels Fig. 62: Irregular maritime arrivals in bound for Australia or its offshore territories.150 Australia, 2009-2016*

Pakistan is a departure as well as transit point for migrants 25,000 and refugees from South-West Asia heading to Australia. 20,587 As there are few flights from Afghanistan to South-East 20,000 17,204 Asia, Afghans often head to Pakistan first. They usually 15,000 make their way to Karachi or Islamabad, and board flights to major international airports in South-East Asia.151 Some 10,000 6,555 South-West Asians also fly to South-East Asia via Gulf 5,000 152 4,565 countries. From South-East Asia, they continue towards 2,726 0 160 Indonesia, by land, air or sea. Other South Asians are also 0 0 153 smuggled along this route. 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

For maritime departures, in Indonesia, migrants and ref- * Financial years (July 1-June 30). ugees from South and South-West Asia embarked on Source: Parliament of Australia, Australia Parliamentary Library. board boats to Australia from the main island of Java. The town of Cisarua was reportedly a transit point. From Cis- ing the number of smuggled migrants detected in 2012 arua, migrants would travel by land to Java’s southern and the first half of 2013 to UNODC. About 23,000 coast, where they would board boats to Australia’s Christ- originated from countries in South and South-West Asia, mas Island.154 Pelabuhan Ratu was a known embarkation including both smuggling by air and sea, during that point for Christmas Island.155 Departures for Ashmore period. Reef – located south of the western part of Timor island Migrant smuggling by air is also documented along this – would usually take place further east in Indonesia.156 route, sometimes with the help of sophisticated fraudulent Some Sri Lankans also tried to reach the Australian Cocos documents. There are reports of small numbers of South (Keeling) islands, about half way between Sri Lanka and Asians having been smuggled by air to Australia.159 A few Australia. smuggled migrants from South-West Asia head to New The magnitude of migrant smuggling from Zealand; usually involving either fraudulent documents South and South-West Asia to Australia or the swapping of a boarding pass in the airport transit As for most maritime routes, most migrants and refugees lounge.160 reaching Australia by sea would have had their journey The profile of smuggled migrants facilitated by smugglers. A 2013 survey of irregular maritime arrivals in Australia found that 55 per cent of the Almost all migrants and refugees that have entered Aus- respondents admitted to having used the services of some- tralia by sea come from South and South-West Asia. Since one who helps people travel (for example, migrant smug- November 2011, the Australian government has granted gler).157 Many respondents (41 per cent) also reported a particular type of visa, ‘Bridging Visa E (BVE)’ to some having travelled on a false passport at some stage during irregular maritime arrivals (IMAs). This type of visa is the journey,158 which indicates the involvement of smug- only granted to IMAs; many of whom may have arrived glers. The Australian data about maritime irregular arrivals prior to 2011. The purpose is to release holders from can thus be considered broadly representative of the immigration detention and allow them to remain lawfully migrant smuggling flow to Australia by sea. The number in Australia while their immigration status is being of irregular maritime arrivals increased rapidly from 2009, resolved.161 As of the end of March 2017, a total of more peaking at more than 20,000 in 2012-13. Irregular mar- than 36,000 such visas have been granted. Statistics by itime arrivals to Australia started to decrease in late 2013, citizenship of the more than 24,000 current BVE holdersd following the implementation of Operation Sovereign show that Iranians, Sri Lankans, Afghani and Stateless Borders.c migrants are among the largest groups granted this visa. The Australian authorities provided some statistics regard- Although the implementation of Operation Sovereign c A military-led border security operation aimed at combating maritime d Of the more than 36,000 BVEs granted since November 2011, some migrant smuggling and protecting Australia’s borders, established in 12,000 holders had either been granted substantive visas, departed September 2013. (Operation Sovereign Borders; www.osb.border. Australia, returned to immigration detention or died, as of 31 March gov.au). 2017.

123 124 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 airports inSouth-Eastairports Asia.Iranian, Iraqi andPakistani when attemptingtoboard aflight tomajorinternational in Pakistan withfraudulent travel oridentitydocuments Afghan migrants are frequently apprehended at airports information from thePakistani authorities,smuggled involves theuseoffraudulentdocuments.According to refugees inrecent years. ity astransitforthesmugglingofAfghanmigrantsand South-East Asiancountries seemtohave gainedpopular arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel smuggling. forcaptainingorcrewing thevessels usedforthe salary hire young, local Indonesians, who may receive asmall Indonesia toAustralia, smugglersintherole of‘organizer’ smuggled migrantsthemselves. For theboatjourneyfrom same countriesasthemigrants,manyofwhomwere once tralia seems to be organized mainly by people from the The smugglingofSouth andSouth-West AsianstoAus- less likelytodrawtheauthorities’ attention. (as well astoCanada)by air, probably becausetheyare smuggling ofmigrantsfrom South-West AsiatoAustralia sources note that women are sometimes involved in the Most migrant smugglersare male.Nevertheless, some The smugglers’profileandorganization with lessthanhalf(22)ofthe56attemptsin2012. ular departure by seain2013involved children, compared Criminal Investigation allattemptsofirreg Department, their village.According todatacollectedby theSri Lankan do soinsmallgroups, oftenwithrelatives orpeoplefrom Sri Lankanmigrantstravelling directly toAustralia usually route towards Australia. not have sought the assistance of migrant smugglers en 50 women and 45 children. total registered atthepeakinApril 2014. These included 1,200 asylumseekersinthetwocentres; abouthalfofthe by South Asians.In October 2016,there were more than Asian citizens comprise thelargestgroup by far, followed operationsinlate2012,showstarted thatSouth West cessing facilitiesinNauru andPapua New Guinea, which Statistics regarding theAustralian offshore asylumpro Border Protection. April 2017speechby theMinister forImmigration and countries by the Australian authorities, according to an who were intercepted atseawere returned totheirorigin Between early 2014 and April 2017,nearly800 people Australia, there are irregular stillafew seacrossings. Borders hasnearlyhaltedirregular maritimearrivals in 166 162 167 163 Smuggling by airtypically Asylum seekers may or may 165 164 - - - to other Middle Eastern countries, from where they con- enter Malaysia. migrants often use remote paths through the jungle to journey. Once theyhave reached the border region, time untilthesmugglerscanarrangefortheironward transit points, where migrants usually have to wait a long travel to Thailand. Bangkok andSongkhla are important Most Bangladeshi migrantssmuggledalongthisroute first Sri Lankancoast. bound forAustralia from along the various depart ports Islands typicallytakesbetween 10and20days. Vessels The seajourneyfrom Sri LankatotheCocos(Keeling) approximately midwaybetween Australia andSri Lanka. offshore territories,especiallytheCocos(Keeling) Islands from Sri LankatotheAustralian mainlandorone ofits West Asians,describedabove. The secondisasearoute main routes. The firstistheroute usedby mostSouth- Sri Lankannationalsare smuggledtoAustralia alongtwo nationals alsotravel alongthisroute. arranged by local smugglers. The cost of a smuggling the sea voyage from Indonesia to Australia is usually migrants andsmugglersinPakistan. only, according among toarecent small-scale survey Many smugglers inPakistan offer deals toreach Indonesia routes. ulent documentsappearstobecommonalongthose tinue to South-East Asia and Australia. nesia orMalaysia. through oneoftheGulf countriesbefore flyingtoIndo - migrants and refugees from South-West Asia transit Smuggling routes toAustralia complex.Some canbevery travel through South-East Asia. Some are smuggledby airdirectly toAustralia, others limitedinformationisavailable aboutthisroute.very Indian citizens alsoseemtobesmuggled toAustralia, but per cent). stan (60percent)andtheIslamic Republic ofIran (24 main hostcountriesidentifiedby respondents were Paki- to travelling to Australia, whereas Iranians few did so. The foratleast12monthsprior had lived inanothercountry the majorityofAfghans(57percent)indicatedthatthey refugees whohadarrived irregularly inAustralia by sea, Australia. lic ofIran forsometimebefore theywere smuggled to istan longagoandlived inPakistan ortheIslamic Repub Many smuggledAfghanmigrantsinAustralia leftAfghan shore coastline. islandsornorth-western nesia, where theyboard boatsheadingtoAustralia’s off- 177

172 173 According of migrants and toa2013 survey

170 169 They thencontinuetosouthernIndo- 175 Moreover, some Iraqis are smuggled 174 178 168 176 This impliesthat The use of fraud- 171 - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Migrant smuggling in the Pacific

The scattered nature of the states and territories in the vast Pacific limits most smuggling activity to the international airline industry and to a lesser extent, the shipping industry. Migrant smuggling by air usually involves people travelling individually or in small groups of 2-5, as opposed to sea vessels which can carry hundreds of migrants at a time. Main departure and arrival points The Pacific island economies are heavily dependent on tourism and in order to support the growth of this industry, a number of countries have announced new direct flights into Asia and are considering other destinations. The exact list is subject to change, but, for example, it was reported in 2014 that Fiji had direct flights to Hong Kong, China and the Republic of Korea. Papua New Guinea had flights to the Philippines and Singa- pore, and Palau to several Chinese destinations, the Republic of Korea, Japan and the Philippines.a The magnitude of migrant smuggling in the Pacific The Pacific is viewed mainly as a transit point for smuggled migrants of Asian origin attempting to enter Aus- tralia, New Zealand and the United States. Members of the Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference (PIDC)* reported varying levels of detected smuggled migrants between 2003 and 2011, ranging from 30-220. However, in 2012, because of a large jump in the Australian data, there were 18,000 detections. Since 2012, the number has dropped to the higher end of the range of pre-2012 numbers, around 200. The Pacific region has experienced an upward trend in border refusals since 2009. In that year, the number of border refusals was approximately 3,000, whereas by 2013, it had increased to 3,930.b Immigration-related fraud has also increased in the region, from 32 cases in 2009 to 905 cases in 2013. The types of immigration fraud reported included false or altered immigration documents, genuine immigration documents obtained fraudulently, false or altered supporting documents and imposters. False passports appears to be the most common type of immigration-related fraud.c Most of the migrants attempting to cross borders by fraudulent means are Asians (48 per cent), followed by Pacific Islanders (19 per cent) and Europeans (16 per cent).d There have been occasional large cases of migrant smuggling in the Pacific, involving large numbers of people travelling via boat. For example, in November 2014, the Federated States of Micronesia detected a vessel near the island of Yap carrying 53 individuals, primarily from India and Nepal, who had paid smugglers for transit to the United States.e The gender breakdown of the smuggled migrants reported in 2013 by PIDC members was 70 per cent adult male, 13 per cent adult female, 11 per cent boys and 6 per cent girls.f * Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zea- land, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

a Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference, People smuggling, human trafficking and illegal migration in the Pacific, 2014. b Ibid. c Ibid., p. 12. d Ibid., p. 13. e United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational organized crime in the Pacific: a threat assessment, Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, September 2016, p. 40. f Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference, People smuggling, human trafficking and illegal migration in the Pacific, 2014. package from Pakistan to Australia is estimated at The human cost US$10,000-12,000, with $7,000 for the leg from Pakistan South and South-West Asians smuggled to Australia face 179 to Indonesia, and some $4,000 from Jakarta to Australia. several risks, in particular during sea crossings. South A 2013 survey reported an average price of US$12,600 Asians risk their lives in the Bay of Bengal.181 Moreover, for smuggling to Australia, with some variations according the vessels used to smuggle migrants and refugees from to citizenship (Sri Lankans reportedly paid $9,200, while Indonesia to Australia are often in poor condition and Afghans paid $13,500).180 overcrowded, and carry insufficient water, food and life-

125 126 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ippines andBangladesh. migrants from withintheregion, from Indonesia, thePhil for destination. Malaysia isalsoadestinationcountry munities and have ofThailand as the main country lic, Myanmar and Thailand, ofteninvolve border com includes Cambodia,theLaoPeople’s Democratic Repub The smuggling flows in theMekong subregion, which transit anddestinationforsmuggledmigrants. gional flows. Countries in this area are countries of origin, are diverse andvaried, withlocal,regional andtransre- In EastandSouth-East Asia,smugglingflows andpatterns ASIA AND TOEASTSOUTH-EAST MIGRANT SMUGGLINGFROM PATTERNS ANDTRENDSOF saving equipment. cerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries. cerning thelegalstatusofanycountry,part oftheSecretariat ofthe UnitedNationsconcerning territory, cityorarea orofitsauthorities,con - The designationsemployedandthe presentation ofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthe challenges facedinsomedestinationcountries. sibility ofbeingreturned toone’s are other origincountry violence. Moreover, detentionuponarrival andthepos- theft by smugglers, kidnappingforransom,arrest, and risks, asdescribedforotherroutes. These risksinclude Migrants and refugees are also exposed tomany other risk ofdrowning duringaseacrossing. ticular Afghans,cannotswim,whichgreatly increases their concerning thedelimitationofitsfrontiers orboundaries. the partofSecretariatUnited Nationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaofitsauthorities, The designationsemployedandthe presentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpression anyopinionwhatsoeveron Land Sea Air 182 BANGLADESH Cox’s Bazar Many smuggledmigrants,inpar 185

MYANMAR Rakhine State 183 Mae Sot

District Straits of Malacca Bangkok LAO PEOPLE'S 184 DEM. REP. Kampot

THAILAND Mekong River MALAYSIA CAMBODIA - - - - Prey Veng Province Asia, one significant route runs towardsAsia, onesignificantroute runs European desti- In termsofsmugglingroutes outofEastandSouth-East ment services. andjobplace may offerbothfacilitatedirregular entry expensive andtime-consuming.In thisarea, smugglers migration channelsoftendoexist,makinguseofthemis ofsmugglersfordifferent reasons.services While formal subregion wishingtogoabroad oftenseemtoseekthe risk venture. Republic andMyanmar, which makes smuggling alow land borders withCambodia,theLaoPeople’s Democratic region. Thailand shares extensive andunevenly monitored for smuggledmigrantsfrom countriesintheMekong sub tries in South-East Asia. Thailand is the main destination There ismigrantsmugglingbetween manyofthecoun- South-East Asia Smuggling ofmigrantswithin networks. by highlevels oforganizationthesmuggling nations andNorth America. This route ischaracterized as Bangladesh and Myanmar. These movements appear ularly for citizens of Indonesia and the Philippines, as well sees significantlabour-related irregular migration,partic sia’s relative it economicprosperity andlabourshortages, gling withinSouth-East AsiaisMalaysia. Due toMalay- formigrantsmug The othermaindestinationcountry Sarawak 186 187 People from thecountries oftheMekong

INDONESIA Sabah PHILIPPINES 0 1,000 2,000 km - - - - Regional overviews - Asia II to be facilitated by smugglers to a significant extent.188 unclear.193 Migrant smuggling from Myanmar to Thailand The route between Malaysia and Indonesia, in particular, takes place over the heavily forested land border. The dis- is reportedly ‘busy and lucrative’ for smugglers,189 and trict of Mae Sot has been singled out as a frequent entry Indonesian and Filipino migrants are believed to comprise point into Thailand, although crossings also occur the bulk of flows into Malaysia.190 Moreover, migrant elsewhere.194 smuggling from other regions into South-East Asia is only It is also likely that, in the attempt to flee from the vio- significant with regard to the smuggling of Bangladeshi lence, the Rohingyae ethnic group is generating significant migrants to Malaysia.191 smuggling activity destined into Thailand and Malaysia, Profile of migrants: as well as into the Cox’s Bazar district on the south-eastern Migrants are smuggled from most countries within the coast of Bangladesh. Deprived of citizenship, they have subregion; mainly migrant workers but also people fleeing no access to legal migration channels. In mid-2015, persecution. UNODC reported - on the basis of information from UNHCR and IOM - that the most common route Human cost: involved travelling by sea to the province of Ranong, Thai- Many fatalities along both sea and land routes. Mass kill- land, across the border from the southernmost tip of ings of migrants have been reported. Exploitation, extor- Myanmar, followed by a one-day land journey across the tion and physical injuries are not uncommon. Malaysian border.195 After reaching Malaysia - either by Profile of smugglers: sea or land, usually transiting Thailand either way - they often search for work within established Rohingya com- Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the munities in Kuala Lumpur and Penang.196 borders that are crossed. Some smugglers (‘organizers’) have the same citizenships as the smuggled migrants. Some Indonesian nationals are smuggled into Malaysia by sea or high-level smuggler organizers are based in origin overland. The sea route departs from the island of Sumatra, countries. crosses the Strait of Malacca and lands along the coast of the Malay peninsula. The land route starts from Kaliman- Organization: tan, the Indonesian part of Borneo, and crosses the land A mix of well-organized operations on some routes, and border into the Malaysian states of Sabah or Sarawak. looser organization along others. Local smugglers often From the Philippines, migrants are smuggled to Malaysia facilitate short legs of the journeys. by sea or air. The sea routes often start from the islands The main smuggling hubs, departure and of Sulu and Balawan in south-western Philippines and arrival points head to Sabah state in the far north of Malaysian Bor- With regard to smuggling into Thailand, the routes that neo.197 Migrants from the Philippines are also smuggled smugglers use from Cambodia are well established. One to Malaysia by air; although information is scarce, this main route leads from Prey Veng Province, in the east of might be the more prevalent method.198 the country almost on the border with Viet Nam. This Most smuggled migrants from Bangladesh have transited route follows the main railway line to Battambang and Thailand on their way to Malaysia. They may have reached the border town of Poipet, and then across the border into Thailand by land, sea or air, and generally pass through Thailand. Another main route involves the coastal passage Bangkok. Another common transit point is Songkhla in from Kampot to Koh Kong and into Thailand. In addi- the south of Thailand where migrants may have to wait tion to the established routes, irregular crossings are pos- for some time for smugglers to organize the onward jour- sible at many points along the border, through forests, ney.199 Then, they cross the land border into Malaysia by rivers and unstaffed checkpoints. These crossings are gen- driving through the thick jungle and forest.200 erally attempted on foot, at night and in small groups to avoid patrols.192 The magnitude of migrant smuggling within South-East Asia The smuggling of migrants from the Lao People’s Dem- There is little migrant smuggling-specific data available ocratic Republic to Thailand occurs primarily over the for this region. In 2013, UNODC estimated that more Mekong River, which makes up a long stretch of the than 660,000 irregular migrants enter Thailand each year border between the two countries. Although irregular crossings at official border checkpoints likely occur, the e The Government of Myanmar disputes the term ‘Rohingya’ and methods used and the frequency with which it occurs are prefers the term ‘Bengalis’.

127 128 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 in late August 2017,whennearly500,000 people left in alaysia hasusedregularizations several times.In the2011wave, all f migrants from Bangladesh andMyanmar are smuggled and Myanmar were notreported). deshis (registration numbers forcitizens ofthePhilippines were Indonesians, butthere were also270,000Bangla tered about1.3millionundocumentedworkers. Most authorities carriedoutaregularization drive, been smuggled.For example,in2011,theMalaysian of course,manyundocumentedworkers maynothave give anindicationofthemagnitudeflows, even though, immigration status of undocumented workers can also over halfbeingIndonesians. more than2millionirregular migrantworkers, withwell sia, there are 2.5millionundocumentedworkers inMalay irregular movements. In 2011,OECDestimatedthat gled migrants)theygive arough indicationofthescale are inconsistent(andofcoursedonotentailonlysmug- been publishedinrecent years, andalthoughtheestimates irregular orundocumentedmigrantsandworkers have mation is even scarcer. Several estimatesofthestock of With regard to migrant smugglingintoMalaysia, infor- as well. likely to have increased thedemandfor migrant smuggling the spanofone month. lasted fordecades, mar’s Rakhinestate across theborder into Bangladesh have migrant smugglers. These movements are believed tobegreatly facilitatedby migrants leftfrom Myanmar andBangladesh by boat. between 2012and2015,some170,000refugees and Regarding maritimedepartures, UNHCRestimatesthat entries are facilitatedby asmuggler. why the Thai data suggests that only a fraction of irregular to nearly700forthe2010–2013period. smuggled migrants, however; ranging between some 200 covered. The authoritiesonlyidentifysmallnumbersof to more than200,000onaverage peryear duringtheyears irregular entriesthatare detectedin Thailand amounted Data from the Thai authoritiesshows thatthenumberof each year. migrants are smuggled from these countries into Thailand smugglers. This wouldindicatethatabout550,000 that more than80percentofthemusetheassistance from neighbouringcountriesand,basedonfieldresearch, Data from government-initiated toregularize efforts the

206 with theirbiometricinformation. foreign workers, includingthoseholdingalegalstatus,hadtoregister M andin2016,itwasreported thatMalaysia hosts 201

204 203 thesituationescalateddramatically While thesizable flows from Myan 205 developmentsThese arenew 207

208 It islikelythat 202 It isnotclear f andregis - - - - peak year of2013,more than50,000suchapplications Myanmar appliedforasyluminMalaysia peryear. In the 2010 and 2016, on average, some 20,000 citizens of refugees insearch ofinternationalprotection. Between Some migrantsmugglingtoMalaysia mayalsoinvolve oftheirjourneytoMalaysia.for atleastsomepart Source: UNHCR. F 16 from Cambodia. ities recorded 261smuggledmigrantsfrom Myanmar and of smuggledmigrantswas2011. In thatyear, theauthor - tion of this. The year withthehighest reported numbers number ofdetectedsmuggledmigrantswasamere frac- Democratic Republic, itwasjustover 42,000. The was some60,500,whileforcitizens oftheLaoPeople’s land irregularly. The corresponding figure forCambodians than 84,500citizens ofMyanmar whowere entering Thai which dataisavailable -the Thai authorities detectedmore above would imply. In 2013 –the most recent year for the country, butnotby aslargeamargin asthefigures the most frequently detected group irregularly entering Official Thai statisticsshow thatcitizens ofMyanmar are the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic. from Myanmar, 55,000 from Cambodia, and 44,000 from into Thailand ofabout450,000migrantsandrefugees tries into Thailand eachyear wouldimplyannualinflows estimate of550,000migrantssmuggledfrom thesecoun lic. Assumingthisdistributionforthe2013UNODC and 8percentfrom theLaoPeople’s Democratic Repub- cent were from Myanmar, 10percentfrom Cambodia, irregular migrantworkers in Thailand shows that82per Data from large-scalegovernmental toregister efforts The profileofsmuggledmigrants in thepeakyear of2016. sia, althoughthenumbersare low, reaching almost200 were Indonesians lodged. A few also seek asylum in Malay ig . 63: 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 0

of Myanmar, 2010-2016 cations lodgedinMalaysiabycitizens Trend inthenumberofasylumappli- 0021 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 23,768

210 14,623

18,030

50,757

22,272 209

18,285

15,069 - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 64: Trend in the numbers of detected The smugglers’ profile and organization irregular entries into Thailand of citizens of Myanmar, Cambodia and the As for many parts of the world, most migrant smuggling Lao People’s Democratic Republic, organizations in South-East Asia seem to be loose associ- 2010-2013 ations of individuals operating on a small scale, rather than structured, hierarchical criminal syndicates. These 140,000 networks tend to act on a very local level, so that smug- 117,681 120,000 glers are known to migrants or somebody close to them.216 100,000 93,735 84,543 Much of the smuggling within the region also appears to 80,000 be opportunistic.217 60,000 60,543 40,000 42,249 However, with regard to smuggling of Indonesians to 20,000 21,122 Malaysia, it has been reported that smugglers operate 0 extensive networks in the two countries, capable of offering very well organized smuggling services. Recruitment

2010 2011 2012 2013 is often handled by local smugglers living in the migrants’ Myanmar 218 Cambodia home communities. It appears that smugglers involved Lao People's Democratic Rep. in the facilitation of movements from Indonesia to Malay- Source: UNODC. sia often engage in related forms of crime, in particular document fraud.219 The networks that smuggle Bangla- The available data for Malaysia only refers to irregular deshi migrants through Thailand into Malaysia are also migrants, who may or may not have been smuggled into reported to be well organized. These networks can often the country. In 2015, UNODC reported that more than assist migrants in obtaining tourist visas - permitting them 60 per cent of irregular migrants in Malaysia are Indone- to enter or transit through Thailand - and arranging their sians, with citizens of Bangladesh, the Philippines and onward travel to Malaysia. Some of the groups appear to Myanmar constituting the second, third and fourth largest have links to construction firms in Malaysia.220 groups.211 Migrant smugglers in the Mekong subregion are com- Smuggled South-East Asian migrants tend to be econom- monly citizens of the origin country of the migrants they ically disadvantaged and have low levels of education.212 smuggle. In the case of Cambodian migrants, Cambodian With regard to smuggling into Thailand, migrants can be smugglers transport them across the border into Thailand. divided into two categories, with corresponding differ- With migrants from the Lao People’s Democratic Repub- ences in the services they commonly request from smug- lic, Thai and Lao smuggling groups work together to 221 glers. First are those from rural border areas who cross the smuggle migrants from one country to another. Many border to Thailand to take advantage of seasonal agricul- smugglers were irregular migrants themselves, and most 222 tural work and may employ the assistance of smugglers rely on word-of-mouth to promote their services. for transport and to avoid patrols by Thai border guards. In the Mekong subregion, migrant smugglers also tend to The second category are longer-term migrants, who move offer a wider range of services than what is common along all over the country and work in a broad range of sectors. most other routes. Smugglers not only make it possible These migrants either seek the services of smugglers for for migrants to evade border controls, but they also act as assistance in job placement, or are recruited by someone job brokers and often offer accommodation.223 they know.213 The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel Most of the available data and research suggest that the arrangements majority of smuggled migrants within the Mekong sub- Some migrants that cross into Thailand via the land bor- region are young men, although the smuggling of females ders are smuggled closer to Bangkok by private car or is also significant. Research from 2011 indicated that the public transportation. Other smugglers then arrange trans- majority of irregular migrants from the Lao People’s Dem- portation to a final destination. If law enforcement inter- ocratic Republic living in Thailand are women, working cepts the smuggling, migrants are generally arrested, fined, as domestic workers.214 The same is true for Indonesian and then deported. The smugglers are often not penal- smuggled migrants. Although most are men, there are also ized.224 It seems that many smugglers along this route rely significant numbers of women, and these women often heavily on other smugglers who live in border communi- seek employment as domestic workers.215 ties, especially at particular border crossings.225

129 130 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 According tothe Thai authorities, migrantsfrom South mar reportedly paythehighestfees,whilemigrants from the feestructures basedonorigin.Migrants from Myan- Corruption oftenseems toplayarole inthissubregion,Corruption state, permittingthemigrants towadeashore. the boatsanchornear the shoreline of Malaysia’s Sabah often usedby localtraders. The smugglerswhonavigate sea are toMalaysia usuallytransported aboard smallboats, Smuggled migrantsfrom thePhilippines whotravel by record ofsuccessfulsmugglingoperations. local figures who live among their clientele and have a gling networks. These smugglers are often well-known brokers, recruiters oragentsthatare organized intosmug smugglers operateonbothsidesoftheborder andactas there are also reports that Indonesian and Malaysian Malaysian smugglershandle jobplacement. nesian smugglersendswitharrival atdestination,where Malaysia, someresearch hasfoundthattherole ofIndo- Regarding smuggling operations from Indonesia into criminal networks. documents themselves or outsource the work to other Migrant smugglingorganizationsmayeitherforgethe ing movements from Indonesia andthePhilippines. Malaysia isrelatively regard well documented,particularly fraudulent documentsforthepurposeofsmugglinginto andjobplacement. both irregular entry and in Malaysia. try These smugglersusuallyfacilitate unlicensed recruitment agenciesinboththeorigincoun- labour connotation,andmuchofthesmugglinginvolves Much ofthemigrantsmugglingintoMalaysia hasastrong considerably less. the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic andCambodiapay 500 baht) per worker. The amountrangesfrom someUS$6 toUS$16(200and act as recruiters also collectfees from the Thai employers. employer andenroute accommodation.Smugglers who the border, food, water, to the transportation Thai imately US$325.Fees typicallycover thecostofcrossing to anemployer in Thailand willcostthemigrantapprox- vices required. Asafeborder crossing andtransportation being smuggledinto accordingThailand vary totheser- A UNODCreport from 2013shows thatthefeesfor province. debarking insouthern Thailand, includingRanong Songkhla Province. Most ofthemare smuggledby sea, Asia are smuggled into Thailand through Bangkok and provide thisservice. selves, insteadrelying on specialized criminalgroups to smuggling groups usually do not forge documents them- 226

228 230

231 In operationsfrom thePhilippines, 227 There may also be differences in 229 233 232

The useof 234 However, - - region. nearly 200migrantremains were discovered inthe on land go unrecorded. In 2015, mass graves containing on board ships.However, itislikelythatmigrantdeaths deaths causedby gunfire, torture orbeatingsthatoccurred migrant deathsinvolved maritimetravel. This includes January 2014 and June 2017, 89 per cent of recorded routes, the majority of fatalities occur at sea. Between and Bangladesh by boat. attempted toreach Thailand andMalaysia from Myanmar 2014 and2015,whenlargenumbersofstatelesspersons lost their lives intheBay ofBengal and AndamanSea in smuggling inSouth-East Asia.Anestimated800people Significant numbersoffatalitieshave beenreported during South-East Asia. (is) endemicand(has)proved difficulttomanage’ in that facilitatesmigrantsmugglingandhumantrafficking tion forMigration behaviour arguedthat‘…thecorrupt Recent research publishedby theInternational Organiza with a wide range of officials potentially benefitting. Mediterranean and European Eastern Borders routes, as East andSouth-East Asiansare smuggledalongtheEastern Europe andNorth America. East andSouth-East of Asiaisdispersedinseveral parts ippines and Viet Nam, aswell asfrom othercountriesin smuggling ofmigrantsfrom Cambodia,China,thePhil- who are smuggledtoEurope andNorth America. The East andSouth-East Asia are regions oforiginformigrants AMERICA ASIA TOEUROPEANDNORTH FROM EASTANDSOUTH-EAST route. trafficked amongthemigrantssmuggledalongthis tims oftraffickingaswell asmigrantsvulnerable tobeing syndicates. Thai authorities reported having assisted vic- provinces of Thailand may fall prey to human trafficking Asian migrantswhoare smuggledby seatothesouthern and becomevictimsoftraffickinginpersons. imum wage. hours, unsafeconditionsandpaymentwell below themin may have nochoicebuttoacceptexcessively longworking of theirregular migrationprocess. Smuggled migrants as well asvulnerabilitytolabourexploitationaresult gers, bothenvironmental andatthehandsofsmugglers, The smuggling of migrants along this route entails dan- in South-East Asiaare alsofraughtwithdanger. The humancost 240 237 This indicatesthatirregular overland movements 238 Some smuggled migrants are also exploited 235

236 In South-East Asia, as for most 239 South - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Air 01,000 2,000 km Land Sea Transit zone Destination Western UNITED Europe STATES OF AMERICA Gulf Cooperation East and Council South-East Asia

South America

TheThe designations designations employed employed and and the the presentation presentation of of material material on on this this map map do do not not imply imply the the expression expression of of any any opinion opinion whatsoever whatsoever on on the partthe of part the ofSecretariat the Secretariat of the of United the United Nations Nations concerning concerning the legal the statuslegal status of any of country, any country, territory, territory, city or city area or orarea of orits of authorities, its authorities, or con - cerningor concerning the delimitation the delimitation of its frontiers of its frontiersor boundaries. or boundaries. Dotted lineDotted represents line represents approximately approximately the Line the of ControlLine of Controlin Jammu in Jammand Kashmiru and agreedKashmir upon agreed by India upon and by Pakistan. India and The Pakistan. final status The ﬁnal of Jammu status ofand Jammu Kashmir and has Kashmir not yet has been not agreed yet been upon agreed by the upon parties. by the Final parties. boundary betweenFinal boundary the Republic between of Sudan the Republic and the ofRepublic Sudan andof South the Republic Sudan has of Southnot yet Sudan been hasdetermined. not yet been determined. well as through air routes. Similarly, East and South-East often via the European Eastern Borders route.241 Asians are smuggled to North America via air routes to UNODC research from 2015 identified three key migrant major international airports in the United States, as well smuggling routes from East Asia to the European Union. as through that country’s southern border. One involved migrants flying from major international Profile of migrants: airports in the region to major international airport in From various East and South-East Asians countries; Eastern Europe. The air passage to Europe may be regular mainly individual males, but also women. or undertaken with altered documents or genuine documents belonging to someone else. Migrants then contin- Human cost: ued overland to one of the Baltic States and/or Eastern Various forms of victimization have been recorded along European countries into Western Europe.242 Frontex certain land passages. reports that most detections of irregular border crossing by East and South-East Asian citizens take place at the Profile of smugglers: Eastern EU border with Latvia.243 Poland is also a transit Smugglers are often citizens of the countries along the country for the smuggling of these migrants, and there borders that are crossed, or related to the citizenship of appear to be links between some smuggling networks and the migrants smuggled. the East Asian communities there.244 Organization: The second route involved direct flights to some European Mainly large transnational smuggling networks. transit airports, mainly in South-eastern or Central Europe. From there, migrants were transported overland The main smuggling hubs, departure and to other destinations in Western Europe.245 arrival points A third smuggling route involved East and South-East Smuggling from East and South-East Asia to Europe Asians making use of the Eastern Mediterranean route. involves a range of different routes and methods. Most Typically, they would fly into Turkey with fraudulent doc- commonly, migrants fly as close as possible to their desired uments, and travel onwards from Turkey to Greece by destination, and are smuggled overland for the remaining boat. Many would continue to Italy, and then transit stretch. The choice of transit airport is guided by consid- through various other European countries to reach either erations regarding cost and visa requirements for these France or the United Kingdom.246 migrants. In recent years, many migrants have flown to Eastern European major cities with fraudulent travel doc- With regard to smuggling from East and South-East Asia uments. Smugglers then transport migrants over land, to North America, it appears that different nationalities

131 132 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 ing themagnitudeoftheseflows. able, andthere isnoconsensus amongacademicsregard- littlespecificmigrantsmugglingdataavailThere- isvery North America East andSouth-EastAsiatoEurope The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingfrom Source: USDepartment ofHomelandSecurity. 2016). * Fiscalyears(FY2016ranfrom1October 2015to30September F 3,000 peryear in2016. The trend isincreasing, butstill number hasrangedbetween 1,800peryear in2012and citizens attheEuropean Union externalborders, the With regard refusals ofEastandSouth-East toentry Asian tinuing overland tothe border region. Central America,migrantsare smuggledtoMexico, con- towardsthen headnorth the United States overland. From they may fly directly to a South and American country Europe, thenonwards toSouth orCentralAmerica.Or migrants are orto smuggledfirstby airtoaGulf country Smugglers may use anumber ofair routes. Sometimes to theUnited States orvia aneighboringcountry. those countries.Others maybesmuggledby airdirectly with aCanadianorAmericancitizen in order to enter Asian migrantspaysmugglerstoarrangeashammarriage with thehelpofasmuggler. Some EastandSouth-East possibility, forexample,thatagenuinevisaisobtained method mayornotinvolve smugglers. There isa ine documentsandthenoverstay theirvisa. This travel use different smugglingmethods.Some arrive withgenu 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 ig . 65: 0 3,730 8,018

2007 the UnitedStates,2007-2016* immigration enforcementactionsin South-East Asiansapprehendedin Trend inthenumberofEastand

2008 8,070

2009 8,030

2010 7,129

2011 7,920 5,458 249

2012 248

2013 4,762 5,204 2014 3,512

2015 247

2016 - legs ofthetriptolocalgroups withcontactsandknowl- groups operatinginorigincountries,outsourcing certain Some EastAsiansmugglingnetworks seem to work with late 20s)andlesseducated. ofEuropeother parts were bothyounger (mostlyintheir 40s orolder, andfairlywell educated. Those detected in persons whoare smuggledintoGermany are oftenintheir mostly agedbetween 18and40years. Vietnamese instance, Vietnamese irregular migrantsinEurope are between originanddestinations.Forappear tovary The sex,ageandeducationalprofile ofsmuggledmigrants smuggling. communities indestinationcountriesplaysarole inthis tries East Asiacomefrom specificprovinces intheircoun The majorityofsmuggledmigrantsfrom EastandSouth- The profileofsmuggledmigrants to 2015. immigration offenceswasdecliningfrom fiscalyear 2009 apprehensions ofEastandSouth-East Asiancitizens for ment ofHomeland Security shows thatthetrend for citizens intothe United States, datafrom the USDepart als atEuropean borders in2016. a mere refus fraction of the more- than 388,000totalentry dled likebusinessrelationships, withfrequent communi - into thedestination country. Such arrangementsare han handle travel through transit countriesaswell asentry edge. They may also engage other criminal groups to horizontal. The networks have beendescribedasinterconnected and side theirorigincountriesinEurope andNorth America. smuggling alongtheseroutes have extensive contacts out the mainsmugglingroutes. The groups involved inthe tion ofdifferent groups andnetworks thatcooperatealong Smuggling from EastAsiaappearstoinvolve acombina- many womenare alsoinvolved in thesenetworks. extended period of time. legal residence there and have been living abroad for an 50. Smugglers basedintheEuropean Union typicallyhave activities. Smugglers are usually men aged between 20 and and contacts,donotseemtoconductotherillicit a range of backgrounds, often with good family networks been reported indestinationcountries. between groups from different EastAsian background has citizenship withthemigrants, East Asianmigrantsmugglerstypicallyshare thesame With regard tosmugglingofEastandSouth-East Asian The smugglers’profileandorganization 251 . It is likely that the presence of established diaspora 257

255 252 Although men dominate,

253 250 althoughcooperation

254 They comefrom 256 - - - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Smuggling of migrants from the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) shares land borders with China and the Republic of Korea. It appears that the Republic of Korea is the preferred destination for most smuggled migrants from the DPRK.a The Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Unification publishes statistics on the number of ‘defectors’ from the Democratic Republic of Korea that enter the Republic of Korea (ROK) each year. While it is not clear whether or to what extent these movements involve migrant smugglers, it is likely that a large share of them do, given the border fortifications between the two Koreas and the convoluted alternative routes into the ROK for DPRK citizens. The data show a declining trend, and average yearly arrival numbers around 1,500.b According to the Ministry of Unification data, the age groups of 20-29 and 30-39 accounted for 57 per cent of the DPRK ‘defectors’ who arrived in the ROK between 1998 and 2016. Children and young people (age groups 0-9 and 10-19) accounted for some 16 per cent of the arrivals. In 2016, nearly 80 per cent of the ‘defectors’ were females. Regarding the specific place of origin of the irregular migrants, research for the United Nations Human Rights Council found that most of the migrants originated from regions bordering China. Approximately 80 per cent of the more than 26,000 former DPRK citizens who left for the Republic of Korea by late 2013 and acquired citizenship there originated from the North Hamgyong and Ryanggang border provinces in the country’s north- east.c

a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: East Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 1. Song, J., ‘North-East Asia,’ in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 243-267, 2016, pp. 245-246. b Republic of Korea, Ministry of Unification, Policy on North Korean Defectors, online statistics (available at: http://www.unikorea.go.kr/ eng_unikorea/relations/statistics/defectors/). c United Nations, Human Rights Council, Report of the detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (A/HRC/25/CRP.1), 7 February 2014, p. 111. cation and close follow-up.258 For example, European Europe is usually carried out by a combination of air and smuggling groups seem to be involved in assisting migrants overland travel. Eurostat data on entry refusals by border with information and onward travel arrangements, some- type shows that more than 50 per cent of refusals of these times also including forged or fraudulently obtained doc- citizens take place at airports in the European Union. uments. Reports indicate that some migrants are travelling About one third of the refusals were reported at land bor- (regularly or irregularly) directly to capitals in Eastern ders and much less at sea borders. Europe from East Asia, where they continue by truck into Migrants who make their way to Western Europe via East- 259 Western Europe. ern Europe are often smuggled first by air from their origin More organized smuggling networks seems to integrate countries to an international airport in one of the Eastern several smugglers who serve as ‘stage coordinators,’ con- European countries. From these transit points, migrants 261 trolling different parts of the geographical movement and/ are smuggled westward to the European Union. Smug- glers may provide migrants with forged or altered docu- or certain aspects of the smuggling process. The ‘stage ments or genuine documents under false identities, at coordinators’ have some seniority and oversight, and may origin countries or en route. Sometimes smugglers employ delegate certain tasks to lower-ranking smugglers. The sophisticated techniques. Smuggled migrants may be pre- ‘stage coordinators’ appear to report to senior smugglers, sented as students seeking to study in Europe and travel ‘organizers’ in origin countries, who maintain responsi- with academic transcripts, language proficiency certificates bility for the financial aspects of the smuggling crime. and enrolment documents that may be forged.262 Document forgery and falsification is also generally carried out in East Asia.260 Czech and Slovak authorities have reported various methods of document fraud and false representations in appli- The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel cations for visas and travel documents by these migrants, arrangements for example, photo substitution in temporary Czech pass- Smuggling of East and South-East Asian migrants to ports. In other cases, visas have been fraudulently obtained

133 134 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 such informalmethodsoftransferringfees. after theywere detected. several othersfellunconsciousandhadtoberesuscitated ple, resulted inthedeathofonesmuggledmigrantwhile bin bagsfrom France totheUnited Kingdom,forexam- entries have been reported by the Chinese authorities in China andMacao SAR,China.Anumberofirregular Administrative Regions ofChina;thatis,Hong Kong SAR, Smuggling ofmigrantsflows seemtoaffectthetwoSpecial Other routes in EastAsia ing conditions. workof debtbondage,sometimesentailingyears ofbrutal migrants have been reported to be vulnerable to situations repayment tacticsthatmayleadtoexploitation.East Asian associated withtheseroutes subjectmigrantstosevere human trafficking.In addition, thehighsmugglingfees countries alsomakesthemvulnerable to exploitationand The migrants’ irregular statusintransitanddestination air. migrants dyinginsideshippingcontainersfrom lackof and even lifethreatening. There have beenreports of Europe andNorth Americacanbeextremely dangerous The smugglingofEastandSouth-East Asianmigrantsto The humancost family. ofthefeeisrefundedunsuccessful, part tothemigrant’s smuggler in destination country. If the smuggling is isgiven thecashandarrangespaymenttoanother country a hawala-likesystem.Asmuggler(‘broker’) intheorigin smuggling groups handlefinancialtransactionsthrough smuggling organization or the migrant’s nationality. Some Methods ofpayment seemtochangeaccording tothe pay therest atdestination. in order toobtainfraudulenttravel documents,andthen Migrants typically pay an upfront fee of $1,000 to $2,000 Eastern Europe islessexpensive thanto Western Europe. US$7,000 and$15,000. Reported estimatesforsmugglingintoEurope are between tination, travel routes and time spent in transit countries. Asian migrantstoEurope greatly, vary dependingondes The feeschargedforthesmugglingofEastandSouth-East where theyare given tothesmuggledmigrants. tured oraltered inEastAsiaandsenttotransitpoints visas. ulent travel oridentitydocumentstoobtainSchengen authorities, someSouth-East Asiancitizens present fraud have alsobeenreported. through embassies in origin countries. Forged passports 270 264 Acaseinwhichmigrantswere concealedinplastic 268 The fraudulentdocumentsare typicallymanufac Some othersmugglinggroups seemnottouse 272

271 266 267 263

In general,smugglinginto

According toHungarian 269 265 - - - - F Source: Official informationfrom HongKong SAR,China. F recorded inHong Kong, Chinabetween 2012andthe of organization.About 56percentoftheirregular entries which suggestsatravel methodrequiring aminimumlevel intoHonging irregular Kong, entry China travel by sea, The majority of migrants who are detected when attempt (55 per cent of the entries) are South-East Asian migrants. the firstsixmonthsof2017. The majorityofmigrants zens, 45percentoftheillegalentriesbetween 2012and larly enteringinHong Kong, Chinaare South Asianciti- Many ofthemigrantswho have beendetected forirregu migrants andthesecondismethodoftransportation. tated by smugglers. The firstistheoriginofdetected gest thatmanyoftheseirregular entrieshave beenfacili reference tothesetwoareas inrecent years. Two factssug- Source: Official informationfrom HongKongSAR,China. ig ig . 67: . 66: 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 500 500 0 0

By land By by methodoftravel,2012-June2017 entries intoHongKongSAR, Trend inthenumberofirregular 2017 by regionofcitizenship,2012-June entries intoHongKongSAR, Trend inthenumberofirregular 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 0221 0421 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 269

451 South Asia 383 342 372 By sea By 796 760 424

617 Asia South-East

By air By 957 760 1,180 1,247 2,009 1,480 Unknown 2,278 683 1,325 1,081 1,073 months of 2017 months of 2017 First 6 First First 6 First 210 China, China, 190 144 317

- - - Regional overviews - Asia II

Fig. 68: Trend in the number of migrants smuggled into Macao SAR, 2012-June 2017

600 511 500

400 309 300

200 128 105 100 85 0 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 First 6 months of 2017 Source: Official information from Macao SAR, China. first six months of 2017 involved travel by sea; 33 per cent by land, while for 11 per cent of the irregular entries the method of travel was unrecorded. None of the detected irregular entries took place at airports. For Macao, China, the data refers specifically to smuggled migrants. The number of smuggled migrants recorded in Macao, China is much lower than the number of irregular entries into Hong Kong, China, and almost all refer to South-East Asian citizens. There are no indications that South Asian migrants are smuggled into Macao, China. Linguistic ties due to the colonial past of these areas could help explain the flows from parts of South Asia to Hong Kong, China, as well as the absence of such flows to Macao, China. Both Special Administrative Regions recorded increasing trends of irregular entries until the peak in 2015. A sharp reduction was recorded in 2016 and the decreasing trend is confirmed by data for the first half of 2017.

135 136 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ee, for example, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1 ENDNOTES -ASIA

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Ibid. cessing of asylum seekers in Nauru and PNG: aquickguideto statistics D time-arrivals). corporate/information/fact-sheets/65onshore-processing-illegal-mari- 17 September 2017(available at:http://www.border.gov.au/about/ sheet – Bridging visas for illegal maritime arrivals A (restricted distribution), p. 36. Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 Profiles: Country smuggling in Asia. South-West Asia, I U I Programme, 05/13,November 2013,p. 4. of Immigration andBorder Protection, Irregular Migration Research drivers andmigration, Australian journeys Government, Department M p. 50. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West UNODCRegional Asia, Office for U Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015, p. 14. Profiles: Country Asia. UNODCRegional SouthAsia, Office for U U Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015, p. 6. Profiles: Country Asia. UNODCRegional SouthAsia, Office for U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 29-30. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges , UNODC Regional Office U I pp. 50,66. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia. South-West UNODCRegional Asia, Office for U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 29. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 29. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 51. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U p. 58. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country Asia, UNODCRegional SouthAsia, Office for U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 30. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution),p. 34. P es/1000-days-strong-secure-borders.aspx). (available at:http://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/peterdutton/Pag- tion, for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 51. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Office Pakistan,Country July 2013, p. 39. Trafficking andMigrant Smuggling To andFrom Pakistan , UNODC bid., pp. 34,50. bid., p. 26. bid., p. 30;United Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant arliament ofAustralia, Parliamentary Library, Australia’s offshore pro- ustralian Department ofImmigrationustralian Department andBorder Protection, Fact nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Recent Trends ofHuman nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin utton, P., Australian Minister for Immigration andBorder Protec - cAuliffe, M.,Seeking theviewsofirregular migrants: decisionmaking, 1000 daysofstrong andsecure borders, speech,23April 2017 , online, accessed UNODC 182 181 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 164 166 165

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Pakistan, July 2016 (restricted distribution), p. 72. movement in South-East Asia in 2015, February 2016, p. 3; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, International Organiza- 183 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in tion for Migration and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Asia. Country Profiles: South-West Asia, UNODC Regional Office for Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea: proposals for action, May 2015, p. 1. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 17. 204 For example, the United Nations has had a Special Rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar since 1992. That year, the Office of the 184 Raghavan, R. and Jayasuriya, D., People smuggling field insights report High Commissioner for Human Rights in its resolution Situation – Pakistan, Red Elephant Research, 2016, pp. 26-28. of human rights in Myanmar (E-CN_4-RES-1992-58) noted ‘with 185 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in deep concern the continuing exodus (…) of almost 80,000 Myan- Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office mar Muslim refugees to Bangladesh’ in recent months (p. 2). More for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. recent reports are legion; see, for example, A/HRC/32/18, Situation of human rights of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar, 186 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of Migrants 29 June 2016. - A risk assessment of border communities: Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the 205 Inter Sector Coordination Group, Situation update: Rohingya refugee Pacific, August 2014, p. 12. crisis, 26 September 2017. 187 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized 206 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Interna- Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC tional Migration Outlook 2012, OECD Publishing, 2012, p. 184. Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, p. iii. 207 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in 188 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 216. 189 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in 208 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Interna- McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and tional Migration Outlook 2012, OECD Publishing, 2012, p. 185. Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 216. 209 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC 190 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, pp. 12-13. Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012, p. 155. 210 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 191 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 279-280. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 57. 211 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 192 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office pp. 31-32. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 63. 212 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Smuggling of Migrants 193 Ibid. - A risk assessment of border communities: Cambodia, Lao PDR and 194 Ibid. Thailand, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2014, p. 12. 195 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 213 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC p. 32. Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, p. 9. 196 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 214 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 64. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, pp. 61-62. 197 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in 215 Ibid., p. 62. Asia: a thematic review of literature, UNODC Regional Office for 216 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2012, p. 154. Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office 198 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 70. Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 217 Gallagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), McAuliffe, M. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Migrant Smuggling Data and p. 49. Research: a global review of the emerging evidence base, International 199 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Organization for Migration, pp. 211-241, 2016, p. 217. Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 218 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia. Country Profiles: Southeast Asia, UNODC Regional Office for p. 6. Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), 200 Ibid., p. 64. p. 16. 201 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized 219 Ibid. Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC Migrant smuggling in Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2013, pp. 12-13. 220 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Asia, Country Profiles: South Asia, UNODC Regional Office for 202 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office p. 12. for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, April 2015, p. 279. 221 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in 203 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Mixed maritime Asia: Current Trends and Related Challenges, UNODC Regional Office

141 142 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 249 239 237 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 225 224 223 222 248 247 246 245 244 243 242 241 240 238 236 235 234

Frontex, Ibid. east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015 (restricted distribution), p. 23. Profiles: Country Asia. East UNODCRegional Asia, Office forSouth- U I I I U I U I U Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012, p. 173. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, UNODCRegional Office for U tion forMigration, 2017,p. 14. 1:Improvingpart Data onMissing Migrants, International Organiza- Laczko, F G I I Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012, p. 15. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, UNODCRegional Office for U I I Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2012,p. 132. athematicreviewAsia: ofliterature, UNODCRegional Office for U I Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 13. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment U Security of Thailand toUNODC. I I Pacific, August 2014,p. 13. Thailand, UNODCRegional Office forSoutheast Asiaandthe - Ariskassessmentofborder communities:Cambodia, LaoPDRand U I Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. iii. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment U for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 69. S for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 65-66. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,pp. 65-66. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office Security of Thailand toUNODC. Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. iii. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment Organization forMigration, pp. 211-241,2016,p. 211. Research: aglobalreview oftheemergingevidencebase,International McAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. (eds.),Migrant Smuggling Data and nformation sent by the Ministry ofSocialnformation sentby theMinistry Development andHuman nformation sent by the Ministry ofSocialnformation sentby theMinistry Development ofHuman bid., p. 158. bid., p. 160. bid., p. iv. bid., p. 12. bid., p. 9. bid., pp. 68-69. bid., pp. 67,81. bid., pp. 66,81. bid., pp. 65-66,79-81. bid., pp. 157-158. bid., p. 16. ong, J.(2016),‘North-East Asia,’ inMcAuliffe, M.andLaczko,F. nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Smuggling ofMigrants nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin allagher, A. and McAuliffe, M., ‘South-East Asia and Australia,’ in Risk Analysis for2017,February 2017,p. 20. ., Singleton, A.andBlack, J.(eds.),Fatal Journeys, vol. 3, 272 266 256 251 250 271 270 269 268 267 265 264 263 262 261 260 259 258 257 255 254 253 252

Ibid. Eurostat, pp. 78-79. Southeast AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution), Profiles: Country UNODCRegionalAsia. Southeast Asia, Office for 20-21. east AsiaandthePacific, August 2015(restricted distribution),pp. Profiles: Country Asia. East UNODCRegional Asia, Office forSouth- I U I U U U of_immigration_legislation). eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Statistics_on_enforcement_ briefing anddatabase,updatedinMay 2017(http://ec.europa.eu/ 243-267, 2016,p. 253. emerging evidencebase,International Organization forMigration, pp. (eds.), for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 82. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U U I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 84. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office U Regional Office forSoutheast Asia andthePacific, 2013,p. 32. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment U I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 71. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges , UNODC Regional Office U U I I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges , UNODC Regional Office U I I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 81. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges , UNODC Regional Office U I for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 82. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 70. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office for Southeast AsiaandthePacific, April 2015,p. 73. CurrentAsia: Trends andRelated Challenges, UNODC Regional Office United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 28; Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment Regional Office forSoutheast AsiaandthePacific, 2013,p. 28. Crime inEast andthePacific: Asia A Threat, UNODC Assessment bid., p. 82. bid., p. 84. bid., p. 66. bid., p. 66. bid., p. 81. bid., p. 83. bid., p. 83. bid., p. 83. bid., p. 83. nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Migrant Smuggling in nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Transnational Organized nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin nited Nations Office onDrugs andCrime, Migrant smugglingin Migrant Smuggling Data andResearch: aglobalreview ofthe Statistics onenforcement ofimmigration legislation,online EUROPE

ITALY SPAIN Lesvos Balikesir Chios Izmir TURKEY Sicily Samos Lampedusa GREECE Tangier Ceuta Melilla

MOROCCO Sabratha

Land 0 1,000 2,000 km Sea

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on Thethe partdesignations of the Secretariat employed of and the theUnited presentation Nations concerning of material the on legal this statusmap do of not any imply country, the territory, expression city of or any area opinion or of its whatsoever authorities, on the partor concerning of the Secretariat the delimitation of the United of its frontiersNations orconcerning boundaries. the Final legal boundary status of betweenany country, the Republicterritory, ofcity Sudan or area and or the of Republicits authorities, of South or concerningSudan has not the yet delimitation been determined. of its frontiers or boundaries.

Profile of migrants: PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF Along the Central Mediterranean route, most smuggled MIGRANT SMUGGLING TO AND migrants are from the Horn of Africa and West Africa. ACROSS EUROPE Along the Eastern Mediterranean route, many people from South-West Asia, mainly the Syrian Arab Republic, Since 2014, Europe has seen a significant increase in the as well as Afghans and Iraqis. Most of those using the number of arrivals of irregular migrants and refugees com- Western Mediterranean route are West Africans, plus Syr- pared to the first few years of this decade. Flows along ians and Moroccans. Most of the smuggled migrants are some traditional migratory routes have increased and some men. new routes have emerged. Human cost: Although so far no accurate and comprehensive statistics on migrant smuggling to and within Europe have been Thousands of smuggled migrants have died during the produced, there is extensive evidence that many of the sea passage, mostly along the Central Mediterranean irregular migrants and refugees arriving in European coun- route. Deaths have also been reported along the other European routes. Exploitation of migrants and gross tries have been smuggled. Europol has reported that more human rights violations have been recorded in origin, than 90 per cent of irregular migrants use facilitation ser- transit and destination countries. vices – usually migrant smugglers - at some point during their journey to Europe.1 In early 2016, Europol launched Profile of smugglers: the European Migrant Smuggling Centre in response to Smugglers are often citizens of the countries of departure the unprecedented increase in the number of irregular or of the same citizenship as the smuggled migrants. Some migrants arriving in the European Union since 2014. high-level smuggling organizers are based in destination There are currently three major smuggling routes into countries. Europe. The Central Mediterranean route departs from Organization: North Africa, most commonly Libya, and arrives in Italy, Depending on the route, a mix of local smugglers facili- usually in Sicily. The Eastern Mediterranean route con- tating short legs of the journey and larger transnational nects the Turkish coast to various Greek islands, and the networks. Sea journeys generally require more organiza- Western Mediterranean route departs from Morocco and tion than overland travel. arrives in Spain, either by sea or overland. For most of the migrants and refugees who make use of these routes, being smuggled across the Mediterranean is only one part of a longer journey that may have started in South-West Asia, the Horn of Africa, West Africa or elsewhere.

143 144 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 everal internationalorganizations,includingFrontex, theInter- a smuggling alsooccurselsewhere in Europe. Irregular The three Mediterranean routes dominate,butmigrant origins ofmigrantssmuggledintotheEuropean Union. decreased to23percent,alongsideadiversification ofthe from the Syrian ArabRepublic, in2016,thisshare had and before. of arrivals remained above thenumberrecorded in 2014 decrease compared totheyear 2015,however thenumber terranean route. The years 2016and2017sawastark million peoplearrived, mostlyalong the Eastern Medi even more dramaticincrease in2015,whenmore than1 Central Mediterranean route. This was followed by an nificantly, driven by more than 170,000 arrivals on the In 2014, however, the number of arrivals increased sig- these years. numbers oneitherroute never exceeded 65,000during sharply between 2009and2013,although yearly arrival the CentralandEasternMediterranean routes fluctuated a sharprisetonearly40,000arrivals in2006. and 20,000peryear from between 1999and2016,apart the lowest arrival numbers,rangingbetween some4,000 The Western Mediterranean route hasconsistentlyseen Source: Frontex. F

100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 ig 50,000 agencies, butthesevariations donotaffectoverall trends. and regularly report data. between somewhat The exactfigures vary tination countries,monitorarrivals alongtheMediterranean routes Commission forRefugees, aswell asnational authoritiesinsomedes- national Organization forMigration and theUnited Nations High S . 69: 0

Central Mediterranean ern Mediterraneanroutes,2009-2016 crossings alongtheCentralandEast- Number ofdetectedirregularborder a 3 While nearlyhalfofthearrivals in2015 were 11,043 2009 39,975 4,448 2010 55,688 64,261 2011 57,025 10,379 2012 37,224 Eastern Mediterranean 40,304 2013 24,799 170,664 2014 50,834 2 Arrivals on 153,946 2015 885,386 2016 181,459 182,277 - 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 Source: SpanishMinistryofInterior. F b 11,000 in 2013, been decreasing inrecent years. From apeakofmore than from third countriesintotheEUorSchengenarea has number ofdetectionsfraudulentdocumentsonentry in Europe, oftenusingfraudulentdocuments. The Migrants are alsosmuggledtoarangeofmajorairports and meansoftransport. gling asirregular migrantsuseavariety ofmodioperandi how many ofthe‘secondary movements’ involve smug ments’ over 130,000. 764,000. By 2016,thesedetectionshaddecreased tojust with detectionsofirregular border crossings ofmore than The useofthe Western Balkans route peakedin2015, migrants andrefugees alongthe Western Balkans route. small compared tothe othersearoutes. across theBlack Sea increased, althoughthenumberswere 2017, detectionsofmigrantswhohadbeensmuggled detected alongtheEasternBorders route. In 2016,some1,350irregular border crossings were how manyofthoseare facilitatedby migrantsmugglers. borders year, every althoughitisdifficulttodetermine entries are reported through the European Union’s eastern Moreover, smugglersfacilitatesomeofthemovements of

5,000 ig EU asylumsystem,Briefing, October 2017). (European Parliament, movements Secondary ofasylum-seekersinthe first arrived, toseekprotection or permanentresettlement elsewhere. ers, who forvarious reasons move in which they from the country The phenomenonofmigrants,including r . 70: 0 b

within theEuropean Union. It is difficulttogauge

1999 4,859 Canary Islands,1999-2016 in continentalterritoryandthe grants arrivedatSpanishcoasts, Trend inthenumberofirregularmi- 15,025 6 Smugglers alsofacilitate‘secondary move 18,517

8 2001 there has been a gradual decline to just 16,670 2003 19,176 7

15,675 2005 11,781 39,180 2007 18,057 13,424

efugees andasylumseek- 2009 7,285 5

3,632 2011 5,443 4 In autumn 3,804 2013 3,237

4,552 both 2015 5,312 - - 8,162 Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 71: Shares of citizenships among people who arrived in the European Union along the three Mediterranean routes, by country of citizenship, 2015 and 2016

Others, 13% Syrian Arab Others , 15% Republic, Syrian Arab Nigeria, 2% 48% Republic, 23% Pakistan, 2% Somalia, 2% Sudan, 3% Iraq, 9% Mali, 3% Senegal, 3% 2015 2016 Somalia, 2% Gambia, 4% Afghanistan, Eritrea, 4% Côte d'Ivoire, 4% 12%

Guinea, 4% Iraq, 8% Eritrea, 6% Afghanistan, 20% Pakistan, 3% Nigeria, 10% Bangladesh, 2% Source: UNHCR. more than 8,000 in 2016. The most frequently detected those using the Central Mediterranean route to reach Italy type of fraudulent document is passports (34 per cent in depart from Libya.11 Smuggled migrants usually leave 2016), followed by visas.9 from Tripoli and its surroundings, including Zawiyah and Zuwara to the west of the capital and Misrata to the east. THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN Some migrants also leave from Benghazi, which is some ROUTE 1,000 km east of Tripoli.12

The Central Mediterranean route – from North Africa to Libyan departure points to Europe change quickly Italy (and Malta) – is a common entry point to Europe depending on a number of factors, including the actions for irregular migrants and refugees travelling by sea. Apart of local communities, the local security situation and the from the year 2015, when arrivals in Greece on the East- presence of checkpoints. For example, in 2016, smuggling ern Mediterranean route surpassed those in Italy, most departures moved eastwards along the Libyan coast, with migrants who travel by sea use the Central Mediterranean departures from Zuwara decreasing significantly. One of route. The route’s arrival and departure points, the mag- the drivers of this decrease was the capsizing of a boat and nitude, and the profiles of the people comprising the flows subsequent drowning of 183 migrants off the coast of along this route have changed considerably over time. For Zuwara. This sparked a wave of public outrage, and many many migrants smuggled across the Mediterranean, this locals turned against the smugglers.13 Sabratha – some 40 is but one leg in a longer journey. km to the east of Zuwara – then became the main departure point along the Libyan coast. Accurate data specific to migrant smuggling is not available. Nevertheless, according to the extensive literature Egypt is much less significant as a transit and departure available, it can be concluded that virtually all migrants point. Until 2013, people departing from Egypt were travelling along this route depend on smugglers for the mainly Syrian refugees. After 2013, the majority of sea crossing.10 Such a crossing, by boat, is far more diffi- migrants departing from the northern Egyptian coast were cult to accomplish alone than traversing a land border. It people claiming to be Sudanese, Eritreans and Somalis.14 can thus be assumed that data about irregular migration According to Frontex, in 2017, the migrant smuggling along the Central Mediterranean route also broadly depict flow from the Horn of Africa to Europe via Egypt virtu- the migrant smuggling situation. ally stopped.15 When the route was still active, departures The main smuggling hubs, departure and mainly took place between Damietta to the east of Alex- arrival points andria and El-Hamam to the west.16 Libya has traditionally been and is still the main departure The route connecting Tunisia to Sicily was popular among point for this route. The exact share is difficult to deter- Moroccan, Tunisian and Algerian seasonal workers in the mine and may also fluctuate, but up to 90 per cent of 1990s. Since 1998, the signing of a readmission agreement

145 146 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 unisia andItaly signedanagreement onbothreadmission andpolice c and Libya. Lampedusa, asmallislandbetween thevastly largerSicily of arrivals takeplaceontheislandofSicily, including recorded inItaly dropped to119,369. 153,842 arrivals in2015.In 2017,thenumberoflandings 2016; anincrease ofnearly 18percentcompared tothe in Italy, where 181,436migrantsandrefugees landedin Most oftheCentralMediterranean route arrivals occur Italy. and 569in2015whousedthisdeparture pointtoreach increase compared tothe999migrantsrecorded in2016 Tunisia country. asdeparting This represents alarge than 5,900migrantswere smuggledby seatoItaly with gling route is,tosomeextent,active again.In 2017,more Data from theItalian authoritiesindicatesthatthissmug andtheareain thenorth-east southofMonastir. Boats wouldleave from several areas, includingCapBon contributed toreduce thenumberandsize oflandings. between Italy and Tunisia Source: ItalianPolice,Direzione CentraleAnticrimine,ServizioOperativo. F

ig 100,000 120,000 140,000 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 UFFICIALE. autorizzazione allaratifica.. Supplemento ordinario allaGAZZETTA nel periodo16settembre -15dicembre 1999nonsoggettialeggedi ana, January 15, 2000 on September 23,1999.See: Gazzetta Ufficiale dellaRepubblica Itali- their respective nationalterritories. The agreement entered intoforce tion ofthenationalsArabMaghreb Union) whotransitedfrom their own nationalsaswell nationals(withtheexcep asthird-country - cooperation in August 1998. The countries committed to readmitting T . 72: 18

Sea arrivalsinItaly, bypointofarrival,2016-2017 123,706 Sicily 79,798 Atti internazionali entratiAtti internazionali in vigore per l’Italia c andincreased controls have 12,164 19 The vast majority Apulia 6,444 17 2016 - 31,617 Calabria about 120,000seaarrivals. some decrease compared totheprevious three years, with relatively stablein2015and2016. The year 2017marked reaching more than170,000. This highlevel remained number of arrivals marked order a new of magnitude, ugees arrivinginItaly andMalta. Three years later, the sharp increase, withmore than64,000migrantsandref- level ofless than40,000peryear. In 2011,there wasa tral Mediterranean route fluctuated, but remained at a and refugees entering the European Union along the Cen Between 2002and2010, the numberof irregular migrants the CentralMediterraneanroute The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong involve migrantsmuggling. Europe. Those legs of the journey do not necessarily Middle EastorAsia,andoftencontinuestonorthern a longer journey, in which starts West or East Africa, the Mediterranean route, theseacrossing toEurope of ispart For mostofthemigrantstravelling alongtheCentral not foresee disembarkation inMalta either. replacement by theFrontex Operation Triton, whichdoes in 2015, afterfurther the end of Mare Nostrum and its only. October 2013, which envisaged disembarkation in Italy to the Operation Mare Nostrum, by Italy started in Malta. Some research hasattributed thisdecrease mainly decreased, andin2016,IOMreported noarrivals in As of2014,seaarrivals inMalta have significantly 2,633 2017 20 The numberofarrivals inMalta decreased even

9,078 Sardinia 5,541 4,871 Campania 6,953 - Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 73: Trend in the number of sea arrivals in Italy and Malta*, 2002-2017

200,000 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Italy 23,719 14,331 13,635 22,939 22,016 20,165 36,951 9,573 4,406 62,692 13,267 42,925 170,100 153,842 181,436 119,369 Malta 1,639 520 1,388 1,822 1,780 1,702 2,775 1,475 47 1,579 1,890 2,008 568 104

* Data on Malta for 2016 and 2017 was not available. Source: IOM and Italian Police.

The profile of the smuggled migrants of Africa along the routes described in other sections of this report. The vast majority of the smuggled migrants making use of the Central Mediterranean route are originally from The citizenship profiles of the smuggled migrants arriving Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East or Asia, but among in Italy via the Central Mediterranean route are broadly them are also a few citizens of North African countries.21 stable, though with some significant fluctuations. Whereas Many have been smuggled from West Africa or the Horn in 2015, Eritreans (or people claiming to be Eritreans)

Fig. 74: Shares of arrivals in Italy by the Central Mediterranean route, by citizenship declared at landing, 2015-2017

Nigeria, 15% Other, Nigeria, Other, 22% 21% 29% Bangladesh, 8% Somalia, 4% Total 2017: Guinea, Total 2016: Eritrea, 119,369 171,309 11% 8% Bangladesh, Sudan,5% 4% Guinea, Sudan, 5% Morocco, Côte d'Ivoire, 7% 5% 8% Mali, 6% Eritrea,6% Tunisia, 5% Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, 6% Senegal, 6% Senegal, 5% Gambia, 7% 7%

Other, Eritrea, 22% 25% Morocco, 3% Total 2015: Bangladesh, 3% 153,842 Mali, 4% Senegal, 4% Nigeria, 14% Syrian Arab Republic, 5% Gambia, Somalia, 6% Sudan, 6% 8% Source: Italian Police, Direzione Centrale Anticrimine, Servizio Centrale Operativo.

147 148 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 rians, in2016,thesituationwasopposite.In theyear comprised thelargestshare ofarrivals, followed by Nige- stable relationships. route, butthetwotypesoforganizationtend toestablish land to the departure points of the Central Mediterranean different from those that recruit andmove migrants by the organizationswhichsellseacrossing toEurope are highly structured andhierarchical organizations. different localandtransnationalnetworks, ratherthanon on flexibleandadhocagreements andinteractionsamong Migrant smugglingintoEurope seemstobelargelybased The smugglers’profileandorganization their families. where theylookforajobinorder tosendmoneyback for exampleEgyptians are more likelyto settle inItaly, transit country, moving assoontheycan,whereas north cantly in2016. Africa. The numberofAfricanUAMs increased signifi in Italy come from countries in West, North and East Nearly all the unaccompanied minors (UAMs) who arrive more thanadoubling ofthetotalforprevious year. minors –nearlyallteenageboys –reached Italy in 2016; of unaccompaniedminors.Some 26,000unaccompanied significant changehasbeentherecent increase inarrivals nearly 15percentofarrivals in2015and2016. The most involve men. The share ofwomenremained stableat The vast majorityofarrivals inItaly, more than7in10, in themonthofMay. in arrivals ofBangladeshi noticeable citizens; particularly reported citizenships. Moreover, in2017,there was a surge Eritreans noteven amongthefive mostcommonly 2017, Nigerians were more frequently reported, with (UNHCR). Source: F ig 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% . 75: 2016 2015 0% United NationsHighCommissionerforRefugees

and sex,2015-2016 Central Mediterraneanroutebyage Share ofarrivalsinItalyalongthe 1 3 %14% 8% 2% 3% 13% 14% 71% 75% e oe Children Women Men 24 23 Eritrean UAMs tendtoseeItaly asa 26 This allows for easy geographical Unaccomp- separated anied and children 25 Usually, 22 - 10% 15% 20% functioning ofsmugglingnetworks operatingtowards Some uniqueinformationabouttheorganizationand turnover ofnetwork components. shifts and adjustments, as well as fast replacement and Source: UNHCR. F for saleinNorth Africa.Since thenthere have beenreports across the desert drugs reportedly made money by carrying trafficking. Since themid-2000ssomemigrants have Mediterranean Sea alsoappearstobelinkeddrug The smugglingofmigrantsacross North Africaandthe gesting thatdifferent illicitactivitiesare oftenlinked. Sub-Saharan AfricatoLibya andthere isevidencesug- ditionally usedby smugglersofdifferent goodsfrom routes usedby migrantsmugglersare thesameroutes tra numerous commoditiesto,withinandfrom Libya. The migrant smugglingand illicit trade and trafficking of The available literature alsoidentifiesalinkbetween North America. originating from 10different countriesinEurope and smuggling. The financialtransactionsrevealed payments journeys ortomakefinancialtransactionslinkedthe order ofthemigrants’ forthemtoorganize thelastpart would contactassociatesinotherEuropean countries in countries. Italy, andthentootherEuropean andNorth American and refugees from Libya toSicily, onwards tomainland composed ofEritrean nationalsinItaly, smuggledmigrants along theroute. The criminalgroup, whichincludedcells an organized criminalgroup operatingin smugglinghubs Glauco IIandIII Italian authorities (such as the Glauco I case, followed by gleaned from criminalinvestigations carried out by the Libya andalongtheCentralMediterranean route canbe 0% 5% ig . 76: 15%

Eritrea

The celloperatinginN sea, 2016(n=25,846) panied minorswhoarrivedinItalyby Top tencitizenshipsamongunaccom- 13% Gambia 28 12% 27

). These casesrevealed theexistenceof Nigeria 10% Egypt 9% Guinea 7% orth AfricaandinItalyorth Côte d'Ivoire 6% Somalia 5% Mali 5% Senegal 4% 29

Bangladesh - Regional overviews - Europe II of significant quantities of cocaine being transported Migrants reported that smugglers came to their neigh- across the desert from West Africa to North Africa.30 bourhood and asked them if they wanted to board a boat Although it is not clear who the key intermediaries in to Europe.37 these cocaine trades are, the prominence of the main When migrants look for smugglers, diaspora communities passeurs involved in migrant smuggling and their relations often play a key role in facilitating contact. These with the security forces suggest that it is quite likely that, communities can also often recommend or advise against at the very least, their businesses intersect those of the particular smugglers. While much information is shared major drug traders.31 by word of mouth, social media is also widely used for At the same time, Italian investigators highlight that no pre-departure research. Syrians, in particular, make structured connections are recorded between transnational extensive use of technology such as Facebook, Viber, Skype smuggling networks and the traditional Italian mafia-like and WhatsApp, to share comments and reviews of organized crime groups.32 smugglers.38 According to a 2015 study, the heads of smuggling orga- The smuggling fees depend on the services included in nizations are usually older than 35, whereas guides and the package, but also on the migrants’ citizenship, sex and other actors operating on the ground are usually younger. age. Along the different Central Mediterranean sub- Migrant smuggling is a male dominated business, but routes, smugglers tailor the prices to the – real or perceived women - often the smugglers’ girlfriends and wives - are - economic means of the migrants. Syrians, who are usu- also involved to a certain extent. For instance, women ally wealthier than African migrants, pay more for safer may be tasked with the recruitment of migrants, handling journeys. Negotiations are possible and the prices may 39 payments, and women may also receive and escort vary significantly. migrants to temporary accommodation between different One study reported that migrants from sub-Saharan Africa legs of the route.33 would pay around US$1,000 to be smuggled below deck Citizenship and ethnicity seem to play crucial roles in the on a boat from Libya to Europe, whereas a Syrian would pay $2,500 or more for a safer seat.40 In February 2015, internal organization of the networks, in their cross-border new arrivals to Italy from Libya reported having paid connections and in smuggler-migrant relations. Smug- smugglers between US$700 and 1,000 per person to gling networks operating transnationally generally include undertake the journey. Some reported having paid as little members with different citizenships, usually involving as $400 for the journey to Lampedusa.41 The EUNAV- citizens of the countries where the organization is operat- FOR MED Operation in the Mediterranean Sea estimated ing and/or smugglers who share migrants’ citizenships.34 that smuggling businesses generate between 250 and 300 Smugglers involved in recruitment and communication million euros in annual revenue for smugglers in Libya.42 with the migrant’s family generally share the same citizenship as the migrants. Departures from Egypt are fewer and appear to be somewhat pricier. Migrants leaving from Alexandria reported According to RMMS, in Libya migrants refer to smugglers having paid US$2,500 in advance to board a boat to Italy of their own national or ethnic community, the so-called in 2015.43 According to IOM, Syrians departing from the “connection men”, at all stages of the smuggling process. Egyptian shores paid around US$3,000, whereas for Pal- 35 These “connection men” work for Libyan smugglers. estinians, the sea crossing cost around US$2,000.44 Other Other research points to the role played by migrants them- sources reported fees ranging between US$2,000 and selves in the smuggling business: they operate as recruiters, 4,000.45 liaise with other migrants and collect information relevant to their business from them.36 When it comes to sea crossings, the contact between the smuggler who will facilitate the sea crossing and the The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel migrant usually takes place along the Libyan coast, close arrangements to the boat departure points. This smuggler is the migrant’s Migrants proactively engage smugglers, but smugglers link with the Libyan smugglers or other intermediaries, may also approach migrants to offer them their services. with whom the price and travel arrangements will be dis- Smugglers advertise their services in places where migrants cussed. Migrants usually pay the full amount in advance. can typically be found, such as railway stations, cafes or Some migrants travelling along this route pay for the bazaars. One example is the neighbourhood of Abu Salim entire journey from their country of departure or hub to in Tripoli, an area with a large Somali community. their country of destination. This payment method is

149 150 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 liest migrationroute intheworld. The CentralMediterranean isconsidered tobethedead- The humancost fickers are protected by well-known militias. in Libya is the fact thatmanyofthesmugglersandtraf- ties ofthethousandsrefugees andmigrantsindetention or exploited in forced labour. Compounding the difficul reportedly soldasslaves, whereas othersare tortured, raped smuggled toEurope are appalling.Some migrantsare Conditions formigrantsinLibya whoare waitingtobe risk ofdrowning formigrants. Mediterranean route isclearlyimbuedwithasignificant numbers ofdeathsfluctuate,travelling alongtheCentral North Africa andEurope in2017. While themonthly persons had lost their lives at sea on the way between to 2,876deathsregistered in2015. 4,581 personsdiedalongthisroute in2016,compared but usedonlyonce. tion. The boatsare usuallynotreturned tothesmugglers, display anyflag,numberornametoimpedeidentifica apprehension by the Libyan authorities. Boats usually leave the coast at night in order to avoid protect theactualdriver. all migrantsclaimthattheydrove thevessel, inorder to for hisservices. by Libyan smugglers.He mayeven receive somemoney departure, lodgedwithintermediariesandbrieflytrained sometimebefore is usuallychosenby theintermediary driven by professionals. When thedriver isamigrant,he in exchange travel forfree, whereas thelatterare generally ships. inflatabledinghiestolargerwooden boatsorrubber The vessels usedfortheseacrossings rangefrom small widespread inmanymigrantholdingfacilitiesLibya. to leave. Sexual violence and forced labour are reportedly facilities.Migrants areand sanitary generallynotallowed houses.’ These are oftencrowded andhave limitedkitchen accommodationreferredin temporary toas‘connection from one day toseveralvary months, migrants are hosted search operations.During thewaitingperiod, whichcan smugglers andtheactivitiesofborder control and weather conditions,thenumberofclientsgathered by the The departure timedependsonseveral factors,including journey across Europe. with someoneinthesmuggler’s network tofacilitatetheir just toItaly. Once theyreach Italy, theyare putintouch buy theirjourneytoaspecificdestinationinEurope, not called “integratedsystem”. 49 The formerare usuallydriven by migrants,who 50 Sometimes, whenquestioned onarrival, 53

51 46 In thiscase,migrantsoften 55 54 Asof30June, 2,232 According toIOM, 52 They do not 56 48 - -

are usuallynotprovided andlifejacketsmaynotbedis and overcrowded,unseaworthy sufficient food and water refugees asahorrificexperience. The boatsusedare often The seacrossing isgenerallydescribedby migrantsand Source: IOMMissingMigrantsProject. F n 2012, the European of Human Court Rights found different EU d unprecedented growth inthenumberofarrivals in2015, The EasternMediterranean route, whichsawan ROUTE THE EASTERNMEDITERRANEAN tion conditionsandlackofaccesstojustice. migrants mayfacecollective expulsions,inadequaterecep non-refoulement. Moreover, incountriesofarrival, security may be at risk, in violation of the principle of tothirdorigin ordeported countrieswhere theirlifeand and refugees are sometimesreturned to their countriesof ugees. According totheavailable literature, asylumseekers violations ofthefundamentalrightsmigrantsandref- Sometimes border control measures mayalsoresult in lems, losetheirwayatseaorfillupwithwater. common that vessels out of fuel, have run engine prob have little information about the journey. tributed. People smuggledonboard oftheseboatsoften 1,000 1,200

ig 200 400 600 800 health problems, maybeoverlooked (EUFRA,op. cit.,p. 95). vulnerabilities, such as victims of trafficking or people with mental the identificationofvulnerablemigrants: personswith“non-visible” detentionpoliciescomplicate by theEU FRA,mandatory As observed onthehuman rightsofmigrants,porteur François Crépeau, pp. 13-14). smuggled migrants(A/HRC/29/36/Add.3, Report by theSpecial- Rap detentionofexpressed concernsaboutthepracticeofmandatory United Nations Special onthehuman rightsofmigrants Rapporteur rights at Europe’s sea borders southern , 2013: 49). In his 2015 report, the back practice(EUFundamental RightsAgency(FRA),Fundamental countries violated international law for high sea interception and push- I . 77: 0 90

Jan-16 by month,January2016–June2017 the CentralMediterraneanroute, Trend inthenumberofdeathsalong 7 258

Mar-16 611 1,130

May-16 388 208 Jul-16 40 341

Sep-16 431 703

Nov-16 374 225

Jan-17 217 290 d 57

It is very Mar-17 58 610

279 May-17

537 - - - Regional overviews - Europe II connects Turkey to the European Union by sea and land. Greek islands. The sea close to the town of Çeşme – close Many of those making use of this route have been to both the large Turkish city of Izmir and the Greek island smuggled along the South-West Asian route. The Eastern of Chios – saw the largest number of apprehended Mediterranean route comprises two major sub-routes: a migrants.59 Other towns, such as Balikesir or Edirne are sea route leaving from the Turkish shores and heading to also transits for smuggling to the Greek islands60. the Greek islands, and a land route departing from Turkey The main landing point for boats departing from the and arriving in north-eastern Greece or Bulgaria. Western shores of Turkey is the Greek island of Lesvos. In The main smuggling hubs, departure and 2015, when arrivals skyrocketed, this island was the epi- arrival points centre of events with more than half a million arrivals, according to UNHCR data. The island of Chios is the Many Turkish coastal towns serve as departure points for second most common landing point, albeit with far fewer migrants heading to the nearby Greek islands. During the arrivals than Lesvos throughout 2015 and 2016. first half of 2017, IOM reported that most migrants were apprehended along the western Turkish coast facing the Smuggling activity is also recorded along the land sub- route. The Greek-Turkish land border is approximately Fig. 78: Number of irregular sea arrivals in 200 km long and follows almost entirely the Maritsa/Evros Greece, by port of arrival, 2014-2016 river. Crossing this river is extremely difficult due to the enhanced surveillance on both sides. Migrants travelling 2016 along the land route between Turkey and Bulgaria usually cross the border at the Kapitan Andreevo - Kapikule checkpoint.61 Migrants and refugees coming from Greece 2015 often cross the land border in the area of the Kulata-Pro- mahon border crossing point or via routes in the Petrich region.62 2014 The magnitude of migrant smuggling along the Eastern Mediterranean route

0 Over the period 2009–2014, the number of migrants irregularly entering the EU through the Eastern Mediter- 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 ranean route ranged between 25,000 and 57,000 per year. Other islands Kalymnos Agathonisi Leros In 2015, the flow skyrocketed, with more than 850,000 Samos Chios irregular border crossings; making the Eastern Mediter- Kos Lesvos ranean route the main entry point to Europe for irregular Source: UNHCR. migrants and refugees. In 2016, the flow declined rapidly; Fig. 79: Numbers and shares of irregular sea a decline that has continued into 2017. In addition to the arrivals in Greece, by port of arrival, 1 Jan – 6 Aug 2017 Fig. 80: Trend in the number of irregular arrivals along the Eastern Mediterra- Kos nean route, 2009-2016 202 Leros 2% 1,000,000 316 Other 900,000 3% 1,196 Kastellorizo 10% Lesvos 800,000 723 3,917 700,000

6% 33% 600,000 885,386 500,000 Samos 400,000 300,000

2,291 182,534 19% 200,000 57,025 55,688 50,834 39,975 37,224 100,000 24,799 Chios 0 3,274 27% 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Source: UNHCR. Source: Frontex.

151 152 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 arrivals ontheGreek islands,somemigrantsalsodepart Syrians comprisethelargestshare ofcitizenships among The profileofthesmuggledmigrants mixed migrationroutes where young malestendtodom families travel alongthisroute thanalongmostother fleeing warorleavingtheircountries offirstrefuge, more Since of the flow a large part is made up of Syrian refugees and Afghans. group of irregular arrivals in Greece, followed by Pakistani citizens comprisingthesecondmostcommonlyreported early 2017,thesituationseemstohave reversed, withIraqi prised alargershare ofthetotalthanIraqis in2016, also comprisesizableshares. While Afghanarrivals com- and 57percentin2015.Citizens ofAfghanistanandIraq of arrivals inGreece, compared to45percentin2016 of 2017, Syrian citizens accounted for some 38 per cent their share amongarrivals hasdeclined.In thefirsthalf those crossing the Turkish borders toGreece, although EU from Turkey directly (1:1mechanism)’. returned to Turkey, anotherSyrian will be resettled to the line withEUandinternationallaw. For Syrian being every after anindividualassessmentoftheirasylumclaimsin Turkey to the Greek islands will be returned to Turkey, ‘all irregular new migrantsorasylumseekerscrossing from government on18March 2016.Under thisagreement, Statement agreed by theEUheadsofstateand Turkish ascribed totheimpactofEuropean Union - Turkey The suddendrop inarrivals ontheGreek islandshasbeen hundred migrantshave usedthislandroute eachmonth. According to information from Frontex, in 2017, a few from Turkey border viathenorthern withBulgaria. Source: Frontex. F ig . 81: Land from Turkey to Greece to Turkey from Land Turkeyto from Sea islands Greek

sea route,byquarter, 2015–Q12017 Trend inthenumberofirregularbordercrossingsfromTurkey totheEU,bylandor 64 and Bulgaria and 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 0 2666,9 1,4 8,1 5,9 ,6 ,7 ,8 4,928 7,284 9,372 7,067 151,490 483,910 319,146 65,996 12,646 ,0 ,8 ,4 ,7 ,7 ,3 ,3 ,2 1,130 1,722 1,736 1,737 2,477 3,773 4,746 2,182 1,506 2015 Q1 63

2015 Q2 - 2015 Q3 100% 2016, among Syrian arrivals ontheGreek islandsinFebruary inate. According conductedby UNHCR toasurvey Source:UNHCR F contrast tothesituationinItaly, thevast majority-92per als inGreece in2016,and38percentwere children. In Women made up 22 per cent of the total number of arriv- ling). Only 7percenttravelled alone. close familymember(child,spouse,parent and/orsib- 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% ig 0% . 82: Afghanistan Eritrea Somalia Other 2015 65 Q4 the vast majority - 88 per cent - travelled with a

01/2015 03/2015 2017 in Greece,bymonth,Jan2015–Jun Shares ofcitizenshipsamongarrivals 2016

05/2015 Q1 07/2015 09/2015 2016 11/2015 Q2 01/2016 2016

03/2016 Q3 Syrian Arab Republic Arab Syrian Iraq Pakistan Iran (Islamic Republic of) 05/2016 07/2016 2016 09/2016 Q4 11/2016 2017

01/2017 Q1 03/2017 05/2017 Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 83: Profiles of arrivals in Greece by the provide information on asylum processes in destination Eastern Mediterranean route by age countries as well as forged documentation. The highest and sex, 2015-2016 demand is for Syrian passports, identification cards, birth certificates and residence permits, which illustrates how smugglers cynically profit from the Syrian crisis.70 2016 22% 40% 38% The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel arrangements Like in other parts of the world, in the major hubs along this route the smuggling business appears to be carried 2015 20% 45% 35% out publicly. In certain districts of major cities, people can easily find a smuggler or wait to be found by one in the street, in crowded squares, in coffeehouses. Migrants and 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% refugees usually meet with intermediaries who inform 71 Women Men Children them about the smuggling conditions. Source: UNHCR; Greek national authorities. While waiting for their departure to Greece, smugglers may place migrants and refugees in substandard accom- cent - of the children who arrived in Greece were accommodation without heating, running water or sanitation, panied. Some 8 per cent - more than 5,000 children - were and with little food.72 When a sufficiently large number unaccompanied; many of them teenage boys from the of passengers has been gathered, drivers take the migrants Syrian Arab Republic, Afghanistan or Pakistan.66 Many of the Afghan unaccompanied adolescents travel in groups, to the departure point, whilst other members of the group sometimes accompanied by a non-family member adult.67 look for a way to evade the security forces. Migrants undertake the crossing aboard a broad spectrum of vessels, The smugglers’ profile and organization although the most common vehicles are inflatable boats In addition to the general observation that most migrants and speedboats.73 The boat trip from Turkey to Greece travelling along sea routes rely on smugglers, there are usually takes a few hours.74 strong indications that most migrants travelling along the The price for the journey from Turkey’s coasts to any of Eastern Mediterranean route make use of at least one the Greek islands on the smallest inflatable boat reportedly smuggler during their journey. The actual number of ranges between €1,000 and 2,000 per person. The same smugglers used seems to vary depending on the migrants’ route could be offered at €900 or up to €7,000 according citizenship as well as other factors (number of borders to the demand, method of transportation or the season crossed, enforcement measures along the way, climate and of the year75. According to some sources, the fee for the terrain, and so on). For example, a 2015 survey targeting crossing from Turkey into Bulgaria and the onward travel irregular migrants arrested in Istanbul by the local author- to Sofia amounts to €2,500 - 3,000 per person76. ities found that nearly all the respondents (96 per cent) used at least three smugglers from their country of origin On the Eastern Mediterranean route, when advance pay- (mainly South and South-West Asia) in order to reach ment is required, the ‘package’ may include several Istanbul.68 Smugglers are key sources of information for attempts. In case the first crossing fails, the migrant is many migrants and refugees. About 73 per cent of 779 entitled to travel again for free. Sometimes migrants pay Afghanse interviewed in February 2016 reported that half of the fee in advance and the other half upon arrival. smugglers provided information about their travel.69 When relatives or friends make the payment, smugglers may supply pictures of the migrant in the destination Frontex reported in 2016 that smugglers operated in net- country as proof of safe arrival.77 works along the Turkish coast, with each network con- trolling a specific departure area and often serving The hawala system is widely used along the Eastern Med- migrants of specific origins. Beyond offering passage to iterranean route, which makes it practically impossible to Greece, or in some cases across the Turkish land border trace the money flow.78 Alternatively, migrants may use a with the Syrian Arab Republic, smugglers also reportedly formal money transfer service that secures the fee by issuing the migrant with a code. Once the migrant has safely e A similar set of interviews among Syrian refugees showed that only 16 per cent relied on information from smugglers, with most of them arrived at the agreed destination, the smuggler will then obtaining information from family or friends. receive the security code to release the money.79

153 154 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 migrants inseveral countriesalongtheroute. exploitative practices. dents hadpersonalexperience withtraffickingandother nean route indicatedthatsome7percentoftherespon- among migrantstravelling alongtheEasternMediterra- abuse andexploitation. dren totrafficking,recruitment by criminalgangs,sexual same sources emphasized thevulnerabilityofthosechil- selves strandedontheGreek islandsandinAthens. The financial resources to continue their journey, found them arrivals in2015includedsomechildren who,lacking IOM andUNICEFhave highlightedthatthewave ofnew migrants. ing with Turkey. They were of a group a part of 19 Afghan had frozen todeathneartheMalko Turnovo border cross garian policefoundthebodiesofagirlandwomanwho to theelements.In February 2016,forexample,theBul- who are oftennotproperly equippedmaydieofexposure could drop well below zero, andmigrantsrefugees be far less dangerous. Still, during winter, temperatures The land crossing from Turkey into Bulgaria appears to board. threaten the migrants with guns in order to make them they were designed for, or even more. Smugglers may even twice the number of passengers boarding dinghies carrying ofrefugeessources report andmigrants observations migrantsare oftenovercrowded.Boats carrying Several smuggled migrantsthere. reflecting thefactthat children makeupalargeshare of 30 percentofthedeceasedonthisroute were children; 2015. In 2015,IOMandUNICEFreported thatatleast reported fatalities,compared to434in2016and806 using theroute. In thefirsthalfof2017,there were 29 declined inlinewiththedecreasing numberofmigrants deaths alongtheEasternMediterranean route have According todatafrom IOM’s Missing Migrants project, The humancost which theycaneasilyescapetocontinuetheirjourney. they are transferred toanopenreception centre from in casetheylosetheirway, andtoapplyforasylumsothat themtocalltheBulgarianglers instruct policeforrescue containingstoredsmartphones pathstofollow. The smug assisted by smugglersuntiltheborder orequippedwith ugees cross thelandborder irregularly onfoot;either border onfoot.Afterreaching Edirne, migrantsandref- most irregular migrantsenterBulgaria from thegreen With regard tothelandroute, according totheIOM, denounced violence and mistreatments suffered by 82

83 85 84 81 Several sources have also A2015-2016IOMsurvey 86 80 - - - The overland crossing toMelilla typicallyoccursfrom arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand ing CeutaandMelilla. The operationalcooperationincludestheareas surround land andairborders andtheexchange ofliaisonofficers. law enforcement activities,suchasjointpatrolling ofsea, broad operationalcooperation,includingcoordination of Over theyears, Spain andMorocco have putinplacea Islands, Spain. and from AfricancoasttotheCanary thenorth-west the area around Tangier tothecoastofAndalucia,Spain acrossThe sea sub-routes the Strait run of Gibraltar from Melilla intheNorth situatedsome400kmapart ofAfrica. sub-routes head towards theSpanish citiesofCeutaand four sub-routes; twooverland andtwoby sea. The land and arrives inSpain. This route isbroadly comprisedof The Western Mediterranean from route Morocco departs ROUTE THE WESTERNMEDITERRANEAN siderably. In from 2017, theseacrossing departing Tangier, along the land and sea sub-routes, have fluctuated con and services. the forest, awayfrom thecity, withoutproper housing ney toEurope. In Oujda, migrants live in settlements in and refugees canfindsmugglersandarrangefortheirjour major citiesgeographicallycloseby. The mainsmugglinghubstoCeutaandMelilla are the cued atseaanddisembark ontheSpanish shores. ria. Most ofthemigrantsonboard theseboatswere res- Nador from Alge- boats also departed east.Afew further Asilah close to the Strait of Gibraltar, and El Hoceima and that departure pointsalongthisroute were Tangiers and the Strait of Gibraltar. AsofMay 2017, UNHCR reported routemost crossings across takingplacealongtheshorter be popularbutseemstolargelyinactive nowadays, with ofAndalusia,Spainlocations intheeasternparts usedto Moroccan coastto Almeria,Spain north-eastern and other The route crossing theAlboranSea andconnectingthe is oftenonlyonelegofalongerjourney. the other main smuggling routes into Europe, this passage toreach themby sea.Asfor cities, andsomemigrantstry inFnideq,Morocco.starts Bothdestinationsare coastal Nador, Morocco, whereas thepassagetoCeutausually Over theyears, thetotalflow along thisroute, aswell as the Western Mediterranean The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong 90

87 89 There, migrants 88 - - - Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 84: Trends in the number of arrivals of irregular migrants in Spain, both in continental territory and the Canary Islands, 2012-2016 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Ceuta and Melilla 2,841 4,235 7,485 11,624 6,443 Spanish coasts (including the Canary 3,804 3,237 4,552 5,312 8,162 Islands)

Source: Spain, Ministry of Interior. Morocco and arriving in Spain, only 14 to 30 km long, ish and Moroccan authorities, for instance, has led to the was the most widely used sub-route among migrants and dismantling of smuggling rings operating along this route. refugees travelling in the Western Mediterranean. The profile of the smuggled migrants Between the two overland flows, that into Melilla is larger The Western Mediterranean used to be the most popular than the one into Ceuta. In 2016, 3,901 irregular migrants route among Algerians and Moroccans trying to reach entered Melilla, whereas 2,542 entered Ceuta.91 Moroccan Spain, either with the intention of staying or in order to passport holders who live near the two Spanish cities can move on to another European country. Since the late enter them for limited periods without a visa. There is a 1990s, increasing numbers of people from sub-Saharan trend of using Moroccan passports to cross the borders by Africa have also made use of this route. Many migrants car, or by hiding in the cars of Moroccans for the crossing. travelling along this route are from West Africa. Passport However, this is an expensive method, which puts it out holders from a number of West African countries can enter of reach of most people from sub-Saharan Africa. Previ- Morocco without a visa for a period of 90 days.95 ously, this method was mostly used by North Africans; in As of 2010-2011, people from the Horn of Africa and recent years, by Syrians.92 from the Syrian Arab Republic also started to use this The share of smuggled migrants among those travelling route to reach Spain. According to the Spanish authorities, along the Western Mediterranean route is not easy to in 2014, Syrians accounted for more than 3,300 irregular determine. Some migrants, who cross the land border to entries, mainly in the city of Melilla. In 2015, the number Ceuta and Melilla, Spain, do so with the help of smug- of Syrians increased to nearly 7,200, accounting for more glers, who provide them with fraudulent documents or than 78 per cent of irregular migrants arriving in Melilla. transportation. On the other hand, many of those opting The number of arrivals of non-Syrians rose just over 5 per 96 for the sea passage from Tangier to Tarifa, Spain are in a cent from 2014 to 2015. stronger financial position, allowing them to buy a small Between January 2016 and May 2017, the most common 93 boat and attempt the sea crossing on their own. citizenship among arrivals to Spain was Guinean. Citizens The route from Senegal, Mauritania and Morocco to the of Guinea made up some 19 per cent of all arrivals, fol- Spanish Canary Islands - located off the southern coast of lowed by nationals of Côte d’Ivoire with 15 per cent, and Morocco - was once the busiest irregular entry point to Syrians at some 12 per cent of arrivals. Syrian arrivals Europe, peaking at almost 32,000 arrivals in 2006. Fol- declined towards the end of 2015 and into 2016, but increased again as of late summer 2016. Arrivals of Gam- lowing the strengthening of border control and enforce- bians and Moroccans have also increased since early 2016. ment measures and the conclusion of bilateral agreements (including on repatriation) between Spain and the coun- The vast majority (81 per cent) of migrants and refugees tries of origin and transit, arrivals along this route had travelling along the Western Mediterranean route – as on significantly decreased as of 200894, and have remained other routes - are young men. Most of the land arrivals relatively low since then. Cooperation between the Span- originating in Sub-Saharan African countries were young

155 156 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 then, the borders have become increasingly Both fortified. cities ofCeutaandMelilla sincetheearly1990s. toreachMigrants Europe have been trying viatheSpanish arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel broken up. Since 2002,more than 3,200suchnetworks have been 120 smugglingnetworks active along thisroute in2017. The Moroccan authorities reported having dismantled media. prominent sources ofinformationthaninternetandsocial recommendations from friendsorfamilyseemtobemore who work forthesmugglers.Personal connectionsand for thecrossing. They are oftenrecruited by fellow citizens migrants from Sub-Saharan Africarely onlocalsmugglers With regard totheseacrossing from Morocco toSpain, The smugglers’profileandorganization family. other times they are sent ahead as ‘pioneers’ of the they travel tojoinfamilymembersalready inEurope, and Gambia, Mali, Guinea, Cameroon and Ghana. Sometimes between 14 and 18 from countries such as Côte d’Ivoire, minors intoMorocco, however, tendtobeboys aged unaccompanied minorsinSpain. Flows ofunaccompanied There are noavailable statisticsregarding thearrival of inside vehicles tocross theborder. womenandchildrenfew travelling by landoftenhide men whohadjumpedover the border fences,whereas the Source: UNHCR(Spain:Arrivalsdashboard, May2017). F 600 100 200 300 400 500 ig 0 . 85: 98 99 Jan-16

Morocco Gambia Guinea arrivals inSpain,2016–May2017 mon citizenshipsamongseaandland Monthly trendofthefivemostcom- 100 Mar-16

May-16

Jul-16 290

Sep-16 97 Nov-16 Syrian Arab Rep. Arab Syrian d'Ivoire Côte 402 360 Jan-17 521

101 Mar-17 Since

May-17 border fencessawadecline. and Melilla, Spain, rose in2016.Attempts atscalingthe ders. Asaresult, apprehensions on thesearoute intoCeuta Spanish and Moroccan authorities heavily patrol the bor Source: UNHCR. F resources, oftenchoosesaferandfastertransportation. Moroccan migrants, who tend to have more financial play. Some 12-15 migrants may cram into these toys. set offinsmallinflatabledinghies usuallyusedinchildren’s those whocannotordonotwanttopaysmugglersmay doubled, from €500in2015to1,0002016.Some of average price paidby migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa With the increased popularityofthis route in 2016,the or Melilla, Spain. documents ofsomeoneelseinanattempttoenterCeuta of thedetectedallegedMoroccans usedthegenuinetravel 2016, the numbers seem to have remained stable. Most than 800whowere detectedin2015.In thefirsthalfof documents in2015;a15percentincrease from themore 950 allegedMoroccans were detectedwithfraudulent countries isfrequently reported alongthis route. Almost the useoffraudulentdocumentstoenterEuropean Union According to the Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community, and into2016. using thisapproach declinedsharplyattheend of2015 immediately applyforasylum. The numberofSyrians Melilla by posingastraders.Once inside,theywould idents of Tetuan andNador inorder toenterCeutaand pay smugglerstoobtainfakeMoroccan ofres passports - ‘rejections attheborder’. returnscities have and beenreported, includingsummary Melilla inSeptember 2014,difficultiestoaccessthesetwo Despite the opening of asylum border posts in Ceuta and ig 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% . 86: 0%

2016 –May2017 sea arrival,bysexandage, Shares ofarrivalsinSpain,bylandor 74% e oe Children Women Men 104 85% 105 103 Syrian to citizens thenstarted 12% 102

8% Sea Sea arrivals Landarrivals 14%

7% 106 -

Regional overviews - Europe II

They may travel to the Spanish coasts on board inflatable The flow at the European Union eastern border is much boats with powerful engines, or even on jet skis. Crossing smaller than other flows into the EU. The number of ille- the Straits of Gibraltar on a jet ski can take around 30 gal border crossings detected in 2015 at the EU’s eastern minutes at a cost of some €3,000.107 border - less than 2,000 people - represented only 0.1 per The human cost cent of the total number of illegal border crossings into the EU that year. In 2016, this flow was even smaller, at The numbers of deaths seem to be increasing in line with some 1,350 detections.110 Frontex noted in 2017 that the growing use of this route. According to data from the detections of illegal border crossings might have been low IOM Missing Migrants Project, between 1 January and along this route because irregular migrants tend to make 11 August 2017, 121 migrants had lost their lives along use of visa fraud and counterfeit border-crossing stamps the Western Mediterranean route. In 2016, the figure for rather than attempting to cross the border irregularly.111 the entire year was 83.108 Most casualties occur at sea, but some also take place along the land route to Ceuta and There is no data regarding the prevalence of migrant Melilla, Spain, especially in connection with attempted smuggling along this route, but there are some indications crossings of the fence. However, it is difficult to assess that its use is decreasing. Frontex reports that the number whether there is a connection between these risks and the of detected smugglers (‘facilitators’) along the Eastern bor- smuggling activity along this route. ders route significantly decreased in early 2016, from 205 in the first quarter to 45 in the second quarter of that year. The risk of trafficking in persons also appears to be high The apprehended smugglers were from Eastern Europe among much of the migrant population along this route. and the European Union.112 The decreasing trend contin- According to IOM, many of the Nigerian and Cameroo- ued into early 2017.113 People from different countries nian women making use of this route have been trafficked seem to be smuggled across different sections of the EU 109 for the purpose of sexual exploitation. eastern border. OTHER SMUGGLING ROUTES IN The Polish-Ukrainian border appears to be particularly EUROPE attractive for irregular migrants using fraudulent documents. According to Frontex, most of the detected docu- The three Mediterranean routes are not the only smug- ment fraud at the EU borders occurs at this border, which gling routes in Europe. Several other routes – with varying is largely attributable to Ukrainian citizens misusing fraud- 114 extents of smuggling activity – criss-cross the continent. ulently obtained Polish visas. As for most of the routes discussed in this report, the Not all the irregular border crossings at the EU’s eastern magnitude of these other European routes, the departure, border are associated with the purpose of irregular migra- arrival and transit point, the modes of travel and the tion. According to Frontex, in 2015, only half of the involvement of smugglers are all volatile and subject to detected border crossings between border crossing points sudden, drastic changes. were associated with irregular migration. A big share of The Eastern Borders route irregular border crossings were undertaken in order to smuggle goods or conduct illegal hunting or fishing.115 There is some migrant smuggling activity along the Euro- Moreover, irregular migrants may cross the border without pean Union’s 6,000 km-long eastern border. This includes the assistance of smugglers. parts of the eastern borders of Norway,f Finland, Estonia, The profile of migrants travelling along the EU Eastern Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria borders route has drastically changed over the last few and Romania. years. Until 2012, the route was mainly used by regional Broadly speaking, the Eastern borders route can be split migrants. As of 2011, the number of Vietnamese, Afghan into two sub-routes. The Baltic sub–route comprises the and Syrian citizens started to increase, and in 2016, Viet- crossing into one of the Baltic countries and the onward namese and Afghans were the two most frequently movement to the destination country via Poland. The detected citizenships, with Ukrainians comprising the second sub-route departs from Ukraine and enters any of third. Some of the detected Asians might have been smug- its neighbouring EU countries (Poland, Slovakia, Hungary gled by air prior to attempting to cross the EU eastern or Romania). border illegally. f Norway is not a European Union Member State, but is part of the Along the Baltic sub-route, the Latvian authorities report Schengen area of free movement. having detected some 50 smugglers in 2016. In the same

157 158 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 routes. Smuggling by airisgenerallyperceived as a safer in thefuture duetoincreased controls alonglandandsea rently lessfrequent, butislikelytobecomemore attractive According toEuropol, migrant smugglingby airiscur European airports Migrant smugglingflowsto Afghans andPakistanis. the boatsthatwere detectedin2017were Syrians, Iraqis, revive this route. Most ofthesmuggledmigrants aboard to 2017 couldbeanindicationthatsmugglersare trying smuggled migrantsbetween January andmid-September nearly600 small, theinterception ofsixboatscarrying Sea toRomania andBulgaria. Althoughthenumbersare migrantsareA few smuggled from Turkey across theBlack The BlackSearoute there issignificantsmugglingalongthisborder crossing. widespread useoffraudulentdocumentssuggeststhat number that remained broadly stable in2016. with Poland with fraudulent documents in 2015; a about 1,200 Ukrainians attempting to cross the border ferent EUcountries.Frontex reported thedetectionof Migrant smugglingisalsoreported from Ukraine todif- Viet Nam. ular migrantswere detained,including 309citizens of from Afghanistanand25from India. In 2015,463irreg 300 from Viet Nam, 44from theRussian Federation, 30 borders with the Russian Federation some and Belarus; year, about500irregular migrants were detained at Latvia’s Source: Frontex. F ig 100 200 300 400 500 600 . 87: 0 Viet Nam Viet Republic Arab Syrian

ships, 2009-2016 ern bordersamongselectedcitizen- der crossingsdetectedattheEUeast- Trends inthenumberofillegalbor 116 2009

2010

2011 118

2012

2013 Georgia Afghanistan 2014

2015

117 2016 The - - - than othersmugglingmethods. risk ofdetection.However, ittendstobemore expensive mode oftravel, offeringhighchancesofsuccessandlow F Source: Frontex. –mid-Septemberonly.* 2017datacoversJanuary F detected. residence permits,and Polish visas were frequently French Spanish passports, andItalian identitycards and appears tofluctuatebetween years. In 2016,fraudulent of issuance, and accordingment seems to vary tocountry identity cards andresidence permits. The typeofdocu (air, land andsearoutes combined),followed by visas, most frequently detected type of fraudulent document year, withadecliningtrend since2013.Passports are the documents have ranged between 3,500 and 7,000 per smuggled by air into the European Union using false travel Over years, the last few official detections of migrants Source: Frontex. ig ig 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 . 89: . 88: 0 0

120 to entertheEUbyair, 2009-2016 tected usingfalsetraveldocuments Trend inthenumberofpersonsde- 2012-2017 crossings ontheBlackSearoute, Number ofdetectedillegalborder 1 2009 6,544 2012

2010 7,151 148 2013 2011 3,652 433 2014 2012 4,401 119

68 2013 7,058 2015

2014 6,509 2016 1 2015 5,331 572 2016 4,368 2017* - Regional overviews - Europe II

In the EU, most detections of fraudulent documents take Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.122 place on air routes. Large international transit airports are The exact travel routes vary and are subject to sudden and particularly at risk, but smaller airports with fewer offi- dramatic fluctuations according to changes in legislation cials, often not adequately trained in document control, and border controls in the countries concerned. According may also be targeted. to Frontex, in 2016, the main migratory movement across Changes to regularly scheduled flight routes may directly the Western Balkans flowed from Greece to the former impact detections of smuggling activities. Just as the open- Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, into Serbia and towards ing of a new air route can bring about smuggling, cancel- the Serbian-Hungarian border. Many irregular entry lations can have the opposite effect. For example, the detections also took place at the Romanian and Bulgarian cancellation of direct services between Lagos and Rome land borders with Serbia; mostly involving migrants who in March 2015 brought detections on this route to a had illegally entered Bulgaria from Turkey and were trying halt.121 to reach other EU countries.123 Smuggling of migrants within In Greece, the main exit point prior to the significant Europe reduction in the flow along this route in 2016 was Ido- meni, on the border between Greece and the former Yugo- Smuggling of migrants has also been widely documented slav Republic of Macedonia.124 Migrants would then reach within Europe. Migrants and refugees not only resort to the small town of Gevgelija in the former Yugoslav Repub- the services of smugglers to cross into the European lic of Macedonia and make their way through the country Union, but also to move within the EU or to countries to the border with Serbia. Once in Serbia, many migrants which do not belong to the Schengen area of free move- headed north, to the border with Hungary. The Serbi- ment. The Western Balkans route is the main one, but an-Hungarian border has been a key gateway from the there are also several others, which will be discussed Western Balkans into the European Union for several together in the section ‘secondary movements’. years. In spite of enhanced border controls, enforcement measures and legislative changes put into place by Hun- THE WESTERN BALKANS ROUTE gary since 2014, Frontex reported in 2017 that the high pressure at this border still persisted.125 Departing from Greece and Bulgaria, the Western Balkans Irregular border crossings undertaken by Albanians trying route leaves European Union territory and then enters it to irregularly enter Greece comprise a very different, again in Hungary, Croatia or Romania. Depending largely minor flow. This crossing is often carried out with fraud- on the changing border control measures adopted by the ulent travel documents; a method that implies the use of countries along the way, the route passes northward some smuggling services.126 Detections along this route through the countries of the Western Balkans. declined from nearly 9,000 in 2015 to just over 5,000 in 127 For migrants arriving in Greece and Bulgaria along the 2016. Eastern Mediterranean route, the Western Balkans route In terms of magnitude, the use of the Western Balkans is the natural continuation towards northern Europe, the route skyrocketed in 2015, reflecting the dramatic intended destination for most refugees and migrants. increases in arrivals along the Eastern Mediterranean While the vast majority resort to smugglers to move from route. The number of detections of irregular border cross- Turkey to Greece - at least for the sea crossing - it is dif- ings at the EU borders with Western Balkans countries ficult to determine how many are smuggled along the reached more than 764,000. This number - unprece- Western Balkans route. Moreover, regional migrants on dented and beyond comparison with any previous period their way to central and northern Europe also use this – was mainly determined by the influx of Syrian, Afghan route, and in fact undertook the majority of detected irreg- and Iraqi migrants and refugees travelling along the East- ular border crossings there until the first quarter of 2015. ern Mediterranean route.128 By 2016, these detections had decreased to just over 130,000; far lower than the year Although there is no data on the share of migrants who before, but high compared to the years prior to 2015.129 cover the Western Balkans route or part of it with the help of smugglers, the services of smugglers are perceived to be The citizenship composition among migrants travelling less needed there than along the Mediterranean routes, along the Western Balkans route has considerably changed and many migrants cross the borders on their own. This over the past few years. Arrivals from the Syrian Arab seems to be particularly true for the passage between Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq dominated in 2015 and

159 160 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 g companied minorsregistered between January andJuly Syrian ArabRepublic. in 2016;mostofthemfrom Afghanistan,Iraq andthe or separatedchildren appliedforasyluminthatcountry Statistics from Bulgaria reveal that2,768unaccompanied or separatedchildren withinthe Western Balkans flow. There isalsoaconsiderablenumberofunaccompanied of womenincreased inthecourseof2015. origins. The sameassessmentalsofoundthattheshares with someminorvariations dependingontheirnational some 18 per cent and children 24 per cent of migrants, 2015 by UN A situationassessmentundertaken Women in flowsshare passingthrough ofthemigratory Balkans. Women and children appeartocomprise asignificant Kosovars andAlbanians. crossings by people originating within the region, such as 2016. In 2014,however, there were more irregular border Source: Frontex, BalkansAnnualRiskAnalysis,2017. Western * ThereferencetoKosovoshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextofUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilresolution1244(1999). F Western Balkans route.

ig 100,000 The assessmentincluded centers inSerbia andtheformer Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia. from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan andPakistan inreception andtransit withnearly30refugees NGOs, aswell assemi-structured interviews officials ofrelevant governments, international organizationsand . 90: 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 g found thatin November 2015, women comprised 2016 2015 2014 2013

0 States, 2013-2016* points, bymainorigins,reportedWestern BalkanandneighbouringEUMember Number ofpeopledetectedforillegalbordercrossingsbetweencrossing Syrian ArabSyrian Republic 0,2 1,0 4,3 2591,8 01653923,958 5,319 20,196 12,782 32,549 141,536 314,406 709,920 2561,6 4 6 162203 23,580 1,254 31 1,531 2,310 230 7,600 11,662 11,252 563 25,239 542 52,965 53,697 10,963 12,536 ,0 ,6 95121,7 3786,399 768 93 10,072 5,132 59 4,065 2,706

709,920 132 a literature review, with in-depth interviews In Serbia, thenumber of unac- 130 fhnsa rqPksa Albania Pakistan Iraq Afghanistan Many Pakistanis alsousethe

314,406 131 141,536 Greece. cels andcouriers,provided toirregular migrants in documents. The documentswere delivered viasmallpar- orders from migrantsmugglingnetworks toproduce false theprintshop,main suspect,whowasrunning received activityinAlbania. of adocumentcounterfeiting The along the Western Balkan route, andthedismantlement documentstotravelhas reported theuseofcounterfeit of themcarriedoutby personsfrom theregion. relatively low. In 2016,there were 855such cases, most fraudulent travel documentuse,thoughtheprevalence is The Western Balkans countriesdoreport detectionsof also highlylikelytobemale. whereas Iraqis were ofsimilaraverage agetoSyrians and (average: 24years) andeven more likelyto bemale, family). The average Afghanrespondent wasyounger with a group (86 per cent; more than three with quarters ity ofrespondents were male (76 per cent) and travelled the average Syrian respondent was29years old,themajor Republic ofMacedonia, Croatia, Slovenia andHungary, ber 2015andMarch 2016inGreece, theformer Yugoslav According conductedby IOMbetween toasurvey Octo were from thesamethree origincountries. 2015 exceeded 4,000 people; also there, the vast majority 136 Iran (IslamicIran Republic Republic of) 134 ooc Kosovo* Morocco 133 135 Europol - - Regional overviews - Europe II

Smugglers facilitating the passage from Greece to the applying for asylum, or by asylum seekers who choose to former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and onward to ignore the obligation under Dublin regulations to stay in Serbia often share a citizenship with their clients. Afghans, the first country of arrival - often just a transit - and move Pakistanis and nationals of countries in Sub-Saharan further to lodge an asylum application in their country of Africa reportedly operate along those routes. There are choice. The arrival country, where an asylum seeker first reports of well-structured smuggling groups operating entered the EU, is normally responsible for assessing that along this route. In 2016, the Hungarian Police disman- person’s application for international protection. Asylum tled a large, multinational criminal group that smuggled seekers should remain in their arrival country until the migrants from Serbia through Hungary and finally to refugee status determination procedure has been Austria. The group smuggled between 30 and 100 completed.i migrants per journey, using several minivans and a large number of drivers who worked in shifts. The smugglers The ‘Dublin system’ operates on the assumption that, as sent vehicles in advance on the highways, before the actual the asylum laws and practices of the EU States are based transportation process, to identify police presence and to on the same common standards, asylum seekers enjoy alert the actual drivers. A financial investigation into the similar levels of protection in all EU Member States. But crime group’s illegal activities revealed that large amounts in reality, asylum legislation and practice vary greatly from of generated profits had been transferred to Afghanistan, country to country. This, together with other factors where it was invested into real estate businesses.137 determining the migrant’s choice to move to another destination country - such as the presence of family members While deaths along the Western Balkans route are rela- or diaspora communities - push many asylum seekers to tively rare, they do occur. According to IOM data, 27 abscond during the asylum procedures and to continue migrants died along the Western Balkans route in 2015 their journey, often only a few days after having submitted 138 and 2016. Moreover, in August 2015, the bodies of 71 their application. migrants from the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq and Afghan- istan were found in an abandoned truck alongside an Aus- Some asylum seekers resort to the services of smugglers trian motorway.139 Although it is not clear whether the to move irregularly across Europe. When smugglers are migrants had moved along the Western Balkans route, the involved, their role tends to differ from what is observed case still illustrates the risks migrants face and the smug- along the smuggling routes leading into Europe. When it glers’ unscrupulous behaviour in their hunt for profits. comes to secondary movements, it appears that the role of smugglers often includes the provision of fraudulent Women and children, traveling without male family mem- documents rather than transportation.141 bers, depending on smugglers, may be at increased risk of sexual exploitation or trafficking. The same applies to Secondary movements reached an unprecedented volume unaccompanied minors. Women and girls may also suffer in 2015, in the wake of the massive increases in arrivals sex and gender-based violence en route, as well as physical in Greece, as well as sustained high levels of arrivals in harm from robbery or police brutality.140 Migrants and Italy.142 In 2016, the level of secondary movements refugees travelling across the Western Balkans, including remained high. Border control and enforcement measures those assisted by smugglers, may also be victims of human seem to have reduced the visibility of some flows. There rights violations by some national authorities of the dif- may also have been some displacement of flows.143 ferent countries along the route. h It is not possible to determine how many migrants and Secondary movements across the refugees had their journeys facilitated by smugglers. How- European Union ever, a comparison between data on irregular arrivals and asylum application statistics can indicate where secondary In the context of the European Union migration dis- movements take place within the EU. The total number course, the term ‘secondary movements’ encompasses travel within the EU undertaken either by people who i This regime was introduced in 2003 by the Dublin Convention; later entered the EU territory irregularly with no intention of replaced by the Dublin II Regulation and amended in 2013 with the adoption of Dublin III Regulation. The aim was to establish criteria to determine which State is responsible for examining an asylum h The European Court of Human Rights has found different coun- application. The criteria for establishing responsibility run, in order tries along this route to be in breach of the ECHR in connection of priority, from family considerations, to recent possession of visa with the detention of asylum seekers. See, for instance, application or residence permit in a Member State, to whether the applicant has no. 10816/10, judgment of 20 September 2011, application no. entered EU irregularly, or regularly. For more details, see European 13058/11, and application no. 13457/11, judgments of 23 October Commission, DG Migration and Home Affairs, Country responsible 2012. for asylum application (Dublin), online briefing.

161 162 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 100,000 120,000 140,000 that many do not apply for asylum in their first country that manydonotapplyforasylumintheirfirstcountry and distributionofasylumseekersintheEU-28suggest j (2,459), followed by Eritrean (951)andAfghan(758). citizenship wasby farthemostfrequently detected internal borders between Member States orinland.Syrian during theoperationwere apprehended eitheratEU Almost halfofthe19,234irregular migrants detected Schengen Associate Country, Switzerland, participated. EU and the Schengen area. 26 Member States and one movementssecondary of irregular migrants within the between irregular EU external border crossings and out inOctober 2014,withthegoalofidentifyinglink The jointpoliceoperation‘Mos Maiorum’ wascarried pean countries. located atSchengenexternalborders Euro andnorthern - movements usually occur between countries of asylum analysis of recent Dublin requests shows that secondary shouldadjudicatetheasylumapplication.An country state can submit such arequest in order to assess which seeker has transited through another country, the member where amemberstatehasindicationsthatanasylum asylum seekersisthedataabout‘Dublin requests.’ movementsAnother indicatorofintra-EUsecondary by Malta isillustrative (seefigure). European country. The data on Syrian arrivals in Italy and upon arrival, move but soon afterwards on to another of entry, butinanother. Some othersdoapplyforasylum Source: European Commission. * Approximately. F

20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 ig previous application. in another country, inmost of the cases the request corresponds to a seeker had really submitted an application for international protection Although aD . 91: 0

noteE Into Italy Into theEU in Italy/Malta,2014 applications bySyriansintheEUand irregular bordercrossingsandasylum Comparison ofthenumber 79,000* crossings crossings bySyrians ublin request doesnotnecessarilymeanthatthe asylum Irregular border and Malta 39,651 Asylum Asylum applica nteE In and Italy In theEU 122,115 Syrians Malta

� j In cases 810 ons by

Dangerous travel conditionsare reported alongmany English Channel–ahigherpricethanever before. between £4,000and£5,500perpersontocross the April 2016,UNICEFreported thatsmugglerscharged taken eitherby boat,oninflatabledinghiesorby lorry. In The passagefrom France totheUnited Kingdomisunder back oncetheyreached mainlandEurope. orsomeone’sfake passport whichtheythenpost passport, around US$1,100 in2013.Sometimes migrantsusea RMMS reports thataboattripfrom Malta toItaly cost Migrants are alsosmuggledbetween Malta andItaly. Europe. movementssmuggling hubs for secondary within tres forasylumseekersinlargeEuropean as citiesserving railway stations,markets, squares andeven reception cen are smuggled across Europe. Smugglers can be found at (182), France (176)andHungary (145). of Germany (977),Austria (480),theUnited Kingdom Most detections at internal borders occurred attheborders transportation. migrants reside temporarilywhilewaiting for onward violence andexploitationinimprovised ‘camps’ where pay for their travels. gle othermigrants,especiallyiftheycontracteddebtto mulesortorecruit and/orsmug asdrug be forced toserve of experiencinglabourorsexualexploitation,theymay after theirarrival intheEU. They maybeatahigherrisk tion by criminals and criminal networks both prior to and and Europol, irregular migrantsare vulnerabletoexploita- insufficient ventilation. Moreover, according to Interpol littlespaceandwith goods,invery lorries transporting intra-European smugglingroutes. Migrants mayhidein There isevidencethatsomemigrantsandasylumseekers 145

149 148 There have also been reports of 144 146

147

- - - ENDNOTES - EUROPE Regional overviews - Europe II

1 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 4. Med Research Network, Istituto Affari Internazionali, October 2015. 2 Spain, Ministry of Interior, Inmigración irregular: Balance 2016 lucha 26 Ibid. contra la inmigración irregular, online briefing, 2017 (and previous 27 Glauco I and II are available through the UNODC SHERLOC Case years). Law Database (https://www.unodc.org/cld/v3/sherloc/). 3 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017 (and previous years). 28 Ferrara, G., Prosecutor, Special Antimafia Directorate at Procura della 4 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. Repubblica di Palermo, Tackling the smugglers of migrants – a new approach: the ‘Glauco’ cases, Presentation at the Council of Europe, 5 Between January and mid-September 2017, six boats carrying nearly Strasbourg, 3 December 2015. 600 smuggled migrants were intercepted. (Frontex, Do the increased arrivals in Romania mean the opening of a new route via Black Sea ?, 29 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary hot topics online briefing, 20 September 2017.) Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 2014, pp. 49-50; Toaldo, M., Migrations through and from Libya: a 6 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 19. Mediterranean challenge, New-Med Research Network, Istituto Affari Internazionali, May 2015, p. 8. 7 Ibid., pp. 28-29. 30 Shaw, M. and Mangan, F., Illicit trafficking and Libya’s transition: 8 Frontex, Annual Risk Analysis 2014, May 2014, p. 77. profits and losses, United States Institute of Peace, 2014, pp. 15, 23. 9 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 54. 31 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized 10 See, for example, Europol, European Migrant Smuggling Centre: First crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union, Year Activity Report, Jan 2016 – Jan 2017, 2017; Regional Mixed January 2011, pp. 32, 46-47. Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary Migration Trends 32 Official information provided by the Italian Police, Direzione Central from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 2014. Anticrimine, Servizio Central Operativo to UNODC. 11 UNHCR Libya webpage (available at: www.unhcr.org/libya.html). 33 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 12 The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Smug- cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, pp. 52-53. gled Futures: The dangerous path of the migrant from Africa to Europe, 20 May 2014, p. 8; International Organization for Migration MENA 34 Ibid., p. 52. Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the 35 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 8. Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 13 Molenaar, F. and El Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning the tide: The politics 2014, p. 47. of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya , Clingendael – Nether- 36 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- lands Institute of International Relations, February 2017, pp. 60-61. gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies 14 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies November 2015, p. 28. and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, 37 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Altai Consulting November 2015. (2013), Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, November 2013, p. 53. 15 Frontex, FRAN Quarterly, Q2 April-June 2017, December 2017, p. 8. 38 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 16 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 55. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 8. 39 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 17 The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Smug- cooperation with third countries, Case Study 1: Syria/Lebanon – Egypt - gled Futures: The dangerous path of the migrant from Africa to Europe, Italy, 2015, p. 35. 20 May 2014. 40 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 18 Official data from the Direzione Centrale Anticrimine, Servizio Cen- Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and trale Operativo of the Italian Police. cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 45. 19 Ibid. 41 International Organization for Migration, IOM Monitors Italy Arriv- 20 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office als During Busy Smuggling Week in Mediterranean, online briefing, February 2015. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 7. 42 United Kingdom, House of Lords, European Union Committee, Operation Sophia, the EU’s naval mission in the Mediterranean: an 21 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office impossible challenge, 14th Report of Session 2015–16, 13 May 2016. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015. 43 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 22 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 46. Children’s Fund and International Organization for Migration, Ref- ugee and migrant children – including unaccompanied and separated 44 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office children – in the EU: overview of trends in 2016, April 2017. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 92. 23 Ibid. 45 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- 24 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Connecting the Dots, June 2015, pp. 75-76. November 2015, pp. 15-16. 25 Monzini, P., Abdel Aziz, N., Pastore, F., The changing dynamics of 46 Monzini, P., Abdel Aziz, N., Pastore, F., The changing dynamics of cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in the Mediterranean, New- cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in the Mediterranean, New-

163 164 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 68 67 66 64 63 62 61 59 57 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 70 69 65 60 58 56

Frontex, I dren’s Fund, Data brief:migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. I children oftrends –intheEU:overview in2016,April 2017. ugee andmigrant children –includingunaccompaniedandseparated Children’s Fund andInternational Organization forMigration, Ref U Greek islandsinFebruary 2016. Greece duringthatmonth.UNHCR,Profiling ofSyrian arrivals on this samplerepresentative oftheSyrian populationthat arrived in UNHCR inter O 17 March 2017. E 1Marchinformation, –31March 2017,April 2017. in theMediterranean andBeyond, Compilation ofavailable dataand I points, November 2014,p. 12. at land borders: findings from selected European Union border crossing E cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 30. Affairs, E I Europe’s seaborders southern , March 2013,p. 28. E U note, 17October 2017. and migrants heldcaptive by smugglersindeplorable conditions,briefing U I route: Migrant Fatalities, January 2014–July 2017,August 2017,p. 1. I 2014, p. 79. Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June R ing, U cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 40. Affairs, E bibliography ofrecent publications,2010,p. 23. into, through andfrom North Africa:Athematicreview andannotated U challenge, 14thReport ofSession 2015–16,13May 2016,p. 3. ation Sophia,theEU’s naval missionintheMediterranean: animpossible U note, 17October 2017. and migrants heldcaptive by smugglersindeplorable conditions,briefing U Connecting theDots, June 2015,pp. 90,92. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: I Med Research Network, Istituto AffariInternazionali, October 2015. arrivals onGreek islandsinFebruary 2016,2016. U human smugglersin Turkey’,, 5,2015. Advances inApplied Sociology 2017 –quarterly: June overview 2017. ing, nternational Organization for Migration, Missing Migrants Project data. cli, T.G., Sever, H.andSever, M.,‘A studyontheprofile of survey nternational Organisation for Migration and United Nations Chil- nternational Organization for Migration, TheCentral Mediterranean nternational Organization forMigration, Migration flows toEurope nternational Organization for Migration MENARegional Office nternational Organization forMigration, Mixed Migration Flows uropean Commission,Factsheet EU-Turkey statement–oneyear on, uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rightsat uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rights egional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West:Contemporary nited Kingdom,House ofLords, European Union Committee,Oper- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Profiling ofAfghan nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, United Nations nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Libya: Refugees nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Libya: Refugees fficial informationprovided toUNODCby theGreek authorities. Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 44. A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Profiting –how smugglersbringpeopletoEurope, from misery viewed 736Syriansviewed inFebruary 2016,andconsiders November 2013, p. 112. Smuggling of migrants - 76 94 93 92 91 90 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 79 78 77 75 74 73 72 71 89 88 80

Ibid. Connecting theDots, June 2015,p. 40. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: contra lainmigración irregular, onlinebriefing,2017. region, December 2014. Morocco and Tunisia: overview ofthecomplexmigratory flows inthe Connecting theDots, June 2015,p. 37. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: in theEU,February 2016monthlyreport. Mediterranean andBeyond, Findings: Counter-trafficking Survey. 2015 and14March 2016.See IOM,Mixed Migration Flows inthe migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. report, 1-29February 2016,p. 30. on thecurrent migration situationintheEU:February 2016monthly nia, 2016,p. 7. and migrant crisis,Greece andtheformer Yugoslav Republic ofMacedo- ment Report: protection risks for women and girls in the European refugee Population Fund and Women’s Refugee Commission, Initial- Assess migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. Maiorum”, 22January 2015,p. 35. Council oftheE E Greece, 2015,pp. 37-38. cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, E I cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 45. Affairs, E cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 42. Affairs, E Greece, 2015,p. 33. cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, E Europe’s seaborders southern , March 2013,p. 24. E cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 56. Affairs, E online briefing,18February 2016. U I I S I I dashboard May 2017,July 2017. U O S 2,385 migrantsandr I E U I cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 47. Affairs, nternational Organisation forMigration andUNICEF, Data brief: nternational Organisation forMigration andUNICEF, Data brief: bid., p. 39. bid., p. 46. nternational Organization forMigration MENARegional Office nternational Organization forMigration MENARegional Office nternational Organization forMigration, Migration inEgypt, pain, Ministry ofInterior,pain, Ministry Inmigración irregular: Balance 2016lucha ee: EU FRA, uropean Union, Fundamental Rights Agency, Monthly datacollection uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rightsat uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home uropean Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home nited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee protection nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, United Nations nited Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Spain: Arrivals fficial informationsenttoUNODCby theMoroccan authorities. A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Monthly data collection on the current migration situation uropean Union, Final report onJoint Operation “Mos efugees were interviewed betweenefugees were 7December interviewed Regional overviews - Europe II

and international migration: a review of UNHCR’s role in the Canary Republic of Macedonia – Serbia, 2015, pp. 24-25. Islands, Spain, April 2009, p. 1. 123 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 19. 95 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: 124 International Organization for Migration, Mixed Migration Flows Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 23. in the Mediterranean and Beyond: Compilation of available data and information, 14 January 2016, p. 10. 96 Spain, Ministry of Interior, Inmigración irregular: Balance 2015 lucha contra la inmigración irregular, online briefing, September 2016. 125 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 20.

97 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Spain: Arrivals 126 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2015, May 2015, pp. dashboard May 2017, July 2017. 21-23. 98 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office 127 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 24. 128 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016.

99 Frontex, Focus on Western Mediterranean route: Frontex in Spain, 129 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017, p. 38. online briefing, 2 August 2017. 130 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017. 100 Official information sent by the Moroccan authorities to UNODC. 101 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2010), The 131 UN Women, Gender assessment of the refugee and migration crisis in Globalization of Crime; A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Serbia and FYR Macedonia, January 2016, p. 13. Assessment, 2010, pp68-72. 132 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations 102 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, Children’s Fund and International Organization for Migration, Ref- April 2017, p. 24. ugee and migrant children – including unaccompanied and separated children – in the EU: overview of trends in 2016, April 2017, p. 1. 103 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Spain country update #1, October 2015. 133 International Organization for Migration, Addressing Complex Migra- 104 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, tion Flows in the Mediterranean: IOM Response Plan, Spotlight on April 2017, p. 29. South-Eastern Europe, October 2015, p. 5. 105 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, 134 International Organization for Migration, Mixed Migration Flows in April 2017, pp. 25-26. the Mediterranean and Beyond: Analysis – Flow Monitoring Survey, data 106 Frontex, Focus on Western Mediterranean route: Frontex in Spain, collected 8 October 2015 – 21 March 2016, 25 March 2016. online briefing, 2 August 2017. 135 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017, p. 29. 107 Ibid. 136 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 11. 108 International Organization for Migration, Migrant deaths and disap- Hungary concludes investigation into the death of 71 migrants pearances worldwide: 2016 analysis, March 2017. 137 Europol, , press release, 12 October 2016. 109 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: 138 International Organization for Migration, Migrant deaths and disap- Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 44. pearances worldwide: 2016 analysis, March 2017. 110 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. 139 Brian, T. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Fatal Journeys, vol. 2: Identification and Tracing of Dead and Missing Migrants, International Organization for 111 Ibid., p. 20. Migration, June 2016, p. 2. 112 Frontex, Eastern Partnership Risk Analysis Network Quarterly, Q2 April-June 2016, October 2016, p. 7. 140 UN Women, Gender assessment of the refugee and migration crisis in Serbia and FYR Macedonia, January 2016, p. 15. 113 Frontex, Eastern Partnership Risk Analysis Network Quarterly, Q1 January-March 2017, July 2017, p. 7. 141 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016.

114 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 23. 142 Ibid., p. 32.

115 Frontex, Eastern European Borders Annual Risk Analysis 2015, May 143 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, pp. 28-29. 2015, p. 18. 144 Council of the European Union (2015), Final report on Joint 116 According to statistics from the Latvian Border Guard (available at: Operation “Mos Maiorum”, 22 January 2015: 10-12. http://www.rs.gov.lv). Migrant smuggling in the EU 117 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016; Frontex, Risk Analysis for 145 Europol, , February 2016, pp. 6-7. 2017, February 2017. 146 Ibid., p. 89.

118 Frontex, Do the increased arrivals in Romania mean the opening of a new 147 United Nations Children’s Fund, “Neither safe nor sound”: Sexual route via Black Sea ?, hot topics online briefing, 20 September 2017. exploitation, trafficking and abuse engulfing the lives of children in the 119 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 6. camps of Calais and Dunkirk, press release, 16 June 2016.

120 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 22. 148 Europol and INTERPOL, Migrant smuggling networks: Joint 121 Ibid., p. 22. Europol-INTERPOL Report, Executive Summary, May 2016, p. 10. 122 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 149 United Nations Children’s Fund, “Neither safe nor sound”: Sexual Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and exploitation, trafficking and abuse engulfing the lives of children in the cooperation with third countries, Case Study 5: Greece – Former Yugoslav camps of Calais and Dunkirk, press release, 16 June 2016.

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