Translated and edited by Master´s students of WEM IV University of Groningen M M X V I I
Johan Meerman
Some Messages Concerning Great Britain and Ireland
Translated and edited by WEM 4 Class of 2017
University of Groningen, Oude Boteringestraat 44 9700 AB, Groningen PO Box 72 Tel: +31 50 363 9111
© University of Groningen
Original name: Eenige Berichten omtrent Groot-Britannien en Ierland “ri)inally published by J. van ;lee(, s Graavenhaa)e 1787 Author: Johan Meerman Translated into English by WEM 4 class of 2017 (RUG)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the authors.
All pictures used in this volume have been appropriately cited and were either in the public domain, free to use for educational purposes, or permission was asked. If there remain any pictures for which you feel you hold the rights, please let us know by contacting [email protected]. Table of Contents
Preface ...... v List of Abbreviations ...... vii List of Illustrations ...... viii
Introduction ...... ix Johan Meerman ...... xi Print history of Eenige Berichten Omtrent Groot- Britannien en Ierland ...... xiv Historical Context ...... xvii The Kingdom of Ireland and Protestant Ascendancy .. xviii The Kingdom of Scotland – The Capitals, Highlands and Jacobite Rising of 1745 ...... xx British Parliament and State of Affairs in the Eighteenth Century ...... xxiii English Cities in the Eighteenth Century ...... xxvi The Travellers, Their Destinations, and Their Audiences ...... xxix Travel Writing and Its Conventions ...... xxxiii
Some Messages Concerning Great Britain and Ireland ...... 1 Dedication ...... 3 Foreword ...... 5
iii
England: Part One The Country ...... 9 England: Part Two The Inhabitants ...... 65 England: Part Three The Government ...... 201 Scotland ...... 269 Ireland ...... 335
Glossary ...... 386 Bibliography ...... 390 Print Sources ...... 390 Web Sources ...... 392 Maps and Illustrations...... 397 Index ...... 399
About the Course WEM 4 ...... 412
iv
Preface
Finally, a good 200 years after its initial publication, here before you lies the first English translation of Johan ‘eerman s account of his travels through England, Scotland, and Ireland. For our ‘aster s de)ree pro)ramme in Writin), Editing and Mediating at the University of Groningen, it was the goal of this course to translate and produce an English edition o( ‘eerman s Eenige Berichten Omtrent Groot- Britannien en Ierland. This book is the result of four months of tireless toiling and invigorating discussions on the finer points of translating and editing. Naturally, some difficult choices had to be made regarding the source material and our translation thereof. Meerman was a classically trained eighteenth-century intellectual and his writing style reflects this. As modern English generally neither employs the convoluted sentence structure Meerman used in his original, nor accepts his lengthy Latinate sentences, we chose to significantly modernise his syntax. However, in order to offer you an authentic reading experience, most of the original foreign words were retained, unless they have since become a part of the English language. Moreover, we also omitted ‘eerman s translations o( En)lish terms into Dutch to avoid repetition. Additionally, eighteenth-century political and cultural sensibilities are maintained in our translation. Consequently, the text contains opinions and words which may not be politically correct today. Thus, we implore you to keep in mind that these are not the translators and editors ideas but
v those of the author and that these sensibilities have significantly changed in the past centuries. Due to the time constraints inherent in the set-up of this project and because this product was a joint effort of twenty people, there remain some slight differences in style of translating and writing. We have endeavoured to keep these to a minimum by setting strict rules on style and by having a smaller group do the final edit. We would like to thank Dr Dekker and Dr Hoag for their guidance and their help throughout the project. We are also grateful for this unique opportunity to show our capabilities. By offering this English edition o( ‘eerman s work to the public, we hope it sparks new interest in Johan ‘eerman s work outside of the Netherlands. Similarly, we hope that you will enjoy our edition of his text.
WEM 4 CLASS OF 2017 Groningen, June 2017
vi
List of Abbreviations
E Encyclo.nl
EB Encyclopedia Britannica
GTB Geïntegreerde Taalbank
L Larousse
OED Oxford English Dictionary
In instances where these abbreviations are used, they refer to the article of the annotated term, if not indicated otherwise.
vii
List of Illustrations
1. Portrait of Johan Meerman by Willem van Senus (1817) From Wikipedia, public domain. 2. Jacobite uprising of 1745, final battle at Culloden in 1746. From Wikipedia, public domain. 3. Dublin ca. 1831 (from Phoenix Park) by George Petrie. Wright, G.N. Ireland Illustrated, from Original Drawings. London, 1831. 4. George III by Allan Ramsay. (1762) From Wikipedia, public domain. 5. William Pitt the Younger (ca. 1787) From Wikipedia, public domain. 6. Grand tour - British Connaisseurs in Rome Ölgemälde von James Russel (1750) From Wikipedia, public domain 7. Dover castle. 19Th century drawing from The castellated and domestic architecture of Scotland from the twelfth to the eighteenth century (1887) Public domain. 8. Map of England, marked with places Meerman mentions in England: Part One 9. Map of England, marked with places Meerman mentions in England: Part Two 10. Map of England, marked with places Meerman mentions in England: Part Three 11. Map of Scotland, marked with places Meerman mentions in Scotland 12. Map of Ireland, marked with places Meerman mentions in Ireland
viii
Introduction
JOHAN MEERMAN
Fig. 1: Portrait of Johan Meerman
x
INTRODUCTION
Johan Meerman
Son of Gerard Meerman and Maria Catharina Buys, Johan Meerman (The Hague, 1753-1815) was a travelling bibliophile, politician and author. He was raised in a family of regents and Ministers which allowed him to be educated at the Latin School of Rotterdam (Van den Burg), as it was only accessible to boys from the middle and upper classes. There, Meerman was taught writing, history and eloquence, all in the Latin language (Beter Onderwijs Nederland). This education is a possible explanation (or ‘eerman s overly Latinate style o( writing. He was educated in Dutch and French, and later also in Latin and Greek, by the most educated teachers. He excelled at his studies and eventually passed with honours (Te Water 6). At the age of ten and with the help from his grandfather, Meerman printed one edition of his translation o( ‘oliere s comedy Le mariage forcé as a surprise for his parents (Van Heel 39). This spectacular gift does not merely show Johan s love (or his parents, but it also indicates a deep love for and keen interest in books and languages. Meerman explored these passions further in his later education. After his time at the Latin School of Rotterdam, Meerman received private education in the Netherlands between the years 1764-1767. After this, he left for Germany with his governor to pursue further education at the University of Leipzig where he studied History, Greek and Latin Literature, Ancient Studies, Rhetoric, and Philosophy. After two years, he returned home to his parents, although he soon left again to continue his education at the University of
xi
JOHAN MEERMAN
Göttingen. He remained in Göttingen for about two years and followed courses by Christian Gottlob Heyne, a scholar of Greek and Roman sculpture, and early professor of Archaeology and Ancient History. These were the classes which (urther developed ‘eerman s knowled)e o( ancient history and their arts. This familiarity will become apparent throughout this volume; he seems especially fond of buildings designed by Robert Adam. This fondness is unsurprising, as Adam was a neoclassical architect and would therefore have designed buildings in a style reminiscent of the classical style Meerman had become so intimately familiar with. Over the years, Meerman also developed an awareness of the cultural relations between the Dutch Republic and other countries. Because of his love of travel, Meerman had been exposed to a considerable amount of high-culture in his youth. Later, he would write that travel belon)ed to the ;ivil or Government “bli)ations qtd. in Van Heel 55 . In other words, Meerman believed that travel is important to personal development. However, ‘eerman s interests did not stop at lan)ua)es and culture. Having grown up in a family of regents had also made Meerman a convinced Orangist, who considered it vital that a prince of “ran)e serves as national Stadtholder as a check on the re)ents )overnment Reinders 12 . Meerman desperately wanted to pursue a career in government himself but, due to periods of republican sentiment in the Dutch Republic in the 1780s and 1790s, was forced to put these plans on hold. He did manage to secure a position for himself on the city council of Leiden in 1788, from which he was ousted
xii
INTRODUCTION at the start of the Batavian Revolution in 1795, which returned power to the Patriotic States. During these republican times, Meerman and his wife, Anna Cornelius Mollerus, travelled all over Europe – the journey to Great Britain and Ireland in 1786 would be their first journey together. Additionally, they went to Germany, Austria, Italy, Sicily, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. They returned to the Dutch Republic only when it was safe for them to do so. ‘eerman s political views also (ind their expression in this travelogue. For example, he says about the English )overnment that the general experience undeniably shows that the majority of people never thinks and acts for themselves. Instead, those who know how to lead and govern . . . are the masters 214 . :ecause o( the tens o( thousands o( hypocrites inspired by patriotism, according to Meerman, it is natural in many ways to have a group of hereditary nobility stand between the Crown and the nation 380; 210). His contempt for republican rule is clearly expressed throughout the book; he describes the different political systems in Greta Britain and their faults at length. Through his marriage to Mollerus, Meerman gained valuable political connections. Therefore, in 1807, he was able to procure the position of director-general of the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science, as the Ministry of the Interior was led by his brother-in-law, Johan Hendrik Mollerus. In this position, Meerman was tasked with mana)in) anythin) concernin) the state o( science in the Kingdom, especially the state of learned and literary societies,
xiii
JOHAN MEERMAN universities, gymnasiums, Latin schools, prestigious libraries, and other scienti(ic collections qtd. in Van den :ur) par. 12). The knowledge he gained from his travels greatly aided him in this endeavour. He greatly expanded the Royal libraries and museums with manuscripts, art collections, statues, minerals, exotic flora, and coins (Molhuysen and Blok 957). He was appointed as ;omte de l Empire under Louis Napoléon Bonaparte in 1811 before he died in 1815. In 1820, his wife erected a memorial in his honour which can still be found in the Pieterskerk in Leiden.
Print history of Eenige Berichten Omtrent Groot-Britannien en Ierland
Meerman published three extensive accounts of his travels: one on Great Britain and Ireland in 1786, the translation of which you shall find in this volume, one on Austria and Sicily in 1793, and a series of five books on Northern Europe in 1804- 1806. In order to distinguish between our English translated version and its Dutch predecessor, we shall continue to refer to ‘eerman s ori)inal as Eenige Berichten. Eenige Berichten was especially popular in the Dutch Republic, Heimerick Tromp even called it one o( the most (amous Dutch descriptions of Great Britain and Ireland of the second half of the ei)hteenth century 15 . Eenige Berichten also enjoyed a certain degree of popularity in Germany. The fruits of ‘eerman s education can be (ound in many o( his works. For instance, Eenige Berichten not only showcases the intimate knowledge Meerman had of the arts and sciences, it also
xiv
INTRODUCTION displays a deep familiarity with the Latin language, as he makes extensive use of long and complicated Latinate sentence structures. Eenige Berichten was published in 1787 by J. van Cleef, also known as Isaac van Cleef, in The Hague. The book was dedicated to ‘ollerus. ‘eerman states, I dedicate these pages to you, my beloved travel companion through the three neighbouring kingdoms, just as you accompany me through the entirety of li(e s journey (3). Interestingly enough, only Van Cleef is mentioned on the cover. Meerman himself is not credited at all, even though he was the text s author, nor is his name is mentioned on any o( the pages at all. This is in stark contrast to his works on Northern Europe, where he is named in full, with the inclusion o( one o( his titles, Heer van Dalem en Furen (Lord of Dalem and Furen). The civil unrest in the Dutch Republic at the time of publication could be the reason that Meerman was not credited in or on the cover of the earlier work. Furthermore, although Meerman sings England s praises in the book, he is also a harsh critic of the countries he visited. It is possible that the omission of his name was an attempt by Meerman to prevent being linked to the work. Two German translations of Eenige Berichten were printed and published in 1789: Johann Meermanns, Freyherrn van Dalem, Nachrichten von Großbritannien und Irland, by an unknown translator, was published by Friedrich Albrecht Monath in Nuremberg while Paul Gotthelf Kummer published J. Meermanns, Freyh. van Dalem, Reisen durch Groß-
xv
JOHAN MEERMAN
Fig. 2: Jacobite uprising of 1745, final battle at Culloden in 1746.
Fig. 3: Dublin ca. 1831 (from Phoenix Park)
xvi
INTRODUCTION britannien und Irland, translated by Christoph Wilhelm Eschenbach, in Leipzig (Van Heel et al.).
Historical Context Meerman set out on his tours of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1786 during a time of peace. Three years had passed since the end of the War of American Independence and the French Revolution had not yet infused continental Europe with its ideas of liberty, democracy, and popular rule. Economic growth was transforming the physical and social landscape of the region, securing a concentration of wealth and power in the capital cities of London, Glasgow, and Dublin. As cities grew, many inhabitants abandoned the countryside and headed into nearby towns and urban centres to seek out new work opportunities. These migrations were the first tell-tale signs of the advent of the Industrial Revolution. In the next centuries, Great Britain would experience unprecedented economic, social and cultural change establishing it as the centre of modern society in Europe. Throughout his travels, Meerman witnessed early victories of industrialization such as road building, architecture, land clearings, construction of specialized factories and consolidation of educational institutions. He evidenced the difference between the existing social conventions of rural and urban populations, recognized social inequality, and placed emphasis on the visible effect it had on the aesthetic of the city. As his travels unfolded between rural and urban settings, he came into contact with different inhabitants and
xvii
JOHAN MEERMAN their way of living, and made a point of delineating the existing social conditions which were affecting them. In Ireland, the pervasive issue was the English Protestant domination of the Irish Catholics during the period referred to as the Ascendancy. In Scotland, the latest Jacobite s rebellion of 1745, was the last failed attempt to restore the throne of Britain to House Stuart, and it resulted in a severe redistribution of land and rights known as the Highland Clearances. The pa)es o( ‘eerman s travelo)ue convey an exhaustive account of the particulars of each region he visits. The scope of his travels is impressive, in large part, thanks to ‘eerman s intellectual prowess. And while the herculean task of documenting a comprehensive history of eighteenth century Britain, Ireland and Scotland, eludes the purpose of this introduction, an overview of some key historical aspects present in the (ollowin) translation o( ‘eerman s travelo)ue might prove helpful going forward.
The Kingdom of Ireland and Protestant Ascendancy
The end of the seventeenth century marked the end of a period of wars and revolts in Irish history. They entered a time of peace, but also a time of recovery from political and social chaos. The English Civil War in 1640 and its culmination in 1649, with the victory of the English Parliamentarians over the Royalists, had a direct effect on the Irish population. For the next century, English Protestants would establish Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. This
xviii
INTRODUCTION entailed a sweeping dispossession of landownership from Irish Catholics. It eliminated their rights to hold office, vote, and bear arms, and consequently debased their status to second rate citizens in their own country. The power rested mostly in the hands of a protestant minority supporting the Crown, which allowed the passing of laws of suppression that excluded Catholics from participating in many areas of public life. The period of Ascendancy and its governance created a wide spread poverty of the nation. Plagued with the famines of 1721-1722, 1728-1729 and a particularly severe one in 1739- 1741, the Irish countryside was in a truly deplorable situation. There was a blatant discrepancy between the city and countryside. During the eighteenth century, Dublin was thriving and growing as a city. Shortly after the turn of the century, the capital s population had more than doubled. The famines plaguing the country also played a significant role in the change of demographic in the capital. During these dire- straits people left smaller towns to search for work and food in more populated areas. The result of this migration was a large influx of poor inhabitants, many of which found no work and resorted to begging in the streets. The overwhelming amount of poverty in the capital damaged the city s reputation, especially in the minds o( (orei)n visitors such as Meerman. In Dublin, the poor and rich stood in stark contrast to one another. The wealthy built large mansions and sponsored beautiful parks and squares as well as bridges and roads in Dublin to ensure the city maintained an image of affluence
xix
JOHAN MEERMAN and nobility. In his travels, Meerman often pays tribute to the eminence of Dublin as can be seen in the following passage: Few cities are generally as well designed as Ireland s capital, with its strai)ht and broad streets, pretty squares, and beautiful private and public buildings. These buildings are made bigger and better each day. (340) While the country did face many internal issues at the time, the eighteenth century was also a time of growth for the Irish economy, especially for foreign trade (Foster 143). This economic growth ensured that apart from Dublin, many other cities in Ireland also developed during the century. Market towns and large ports benefitted from increased international trade, and the growth of rural economy would help steadily shape the landscape of the countryside, where many new roads, bridges and mills were built (Foster 145). All of which Meerman thoroughly treats in his text.
The Kingdom of Scotland – The Capitals, Highlands and Jacobite Rising of 1745
The relationship between England and Scotland in the eighteenth century differed significantly from the Irish situation. As with Ireland, the culmination of the English Civil War in 1649 marked the beginning of English Protestant dominance. However, unlike the Irish, most Scots were Presbyterian or Episcopalian and saw fewer issues with Protestant rule. In 1707, both states signed the Act of Union and united into one Kingdom under the name of Great
xx
INTRODUCTION
Britain. In essence, this union dissolved the Parliament of Scotland and merged the English and Scottish economies. This newfound access to the English economy and its vast empire overseas, generated a much-needed influx of capital which boosted a country that had squandered its reserves on failed colonial projects in the New World. It was due to this economic revitalization that Scotland was able to grow both economically and socially. This also becomes evident in ‘eerman s writin)s, as he speaks hi)hly of the elegant architecture in Glasgow and Edinburgh, as well as of the prominence of their intellectual figures. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that a bibliophile and intellectual such as Meerman would revere these cities which were at the helm of pioneering scientific thought; they were home to prominent universities and would soon become the centre of Scottish Enlightenment. During the second half of the eighteenth century, Scotland took the lead in matters of intellectual and scientific progress, with notable figures such as David Hume writing influential philosophical works (Gascoigne par. 5). Glasgow had begun to strengthen its trading position around 1740 and had become a prosperous city by the second half of the eighteenth century as the city maintained the principal tobacco port in the United Kingdom. The city experienced an ill twist of fate at the end of the eighteenth century, when extensive fires destroyed parts of the city, and laws were passed forbidding the construction of wooden houses. In reaction, residences were rebuilt out of stone and in uniform designs, adding to the aesthetic allure of the urban
xxi
JOHAN MEERMAN centre. Indeed, ‘eerman too was sensitive to this stone stateliness ‘aver par. 7 when he showered praise on Glas)ow s remarkable beauty Glasgow, not only one of the most beautiful cities in Great Britain, but also in Europe, distinguishes itself greatly from the other towns in this part of the kingdom (273). As ‘eerman turns his attention away (rom the city and towards the countryside he encounters the vast northern expanse called the Hi)hlands, a re)ion known (or its untouched nature, tall ja))ed mountains, and, historically, the home o( clans and chie(tains. It is here that an important movement known as the Jacobite Rebellions be)an. The Jacobite movement extends (rom 1688 to 1745. Its cause was the support o( a dynastic claim to the throne o( En)land by the House o( Stuart. The Hi)hland Scots, a catholic sympathetic clan, believed a (ormer En)lish kin) had been ille)ally deposed o( rule in 1688. Their do))ed support (or the return o( a catholic monarch incited (our rebellions. The 1745 rebellion would be the last battle a)ainst the ;rown and in de(eat the Jacobite cause would cease to exist. In his travels ‘eerman encounters the hi)hlanders and is not very impressed, he notes that [t]here is not much to say about the character o( the Hi)hlander. Since the rebellion o( 1745, they have behaved as obedient subjects in public a((airs 302 . Indeed, Hi)hlanders were heavily subdued by the En)lish in several ways some were deprived o( their estates, carryin) weapons was (orbidden, and, as the ultimate symbol o( submission, they were no lon)er allowed to wear their traditional tartan clothin) althou)h this restriction was revoked in 1782 . This
xxii
INTRODUCTION reprisal was re(erred to as the Hi)hlands ;learances. The Hi)hland and Lowland Scots were divided on this matter, however, as the Lowland Scots were supporters o( ”rotestant Kin) William o( “ran)e and had little sympathy (or the Hi)hlander s uproars. Additionally, and contrary to the Hi)hlanders, the Lowland Scots also lived in more prosperous environments where they established towns and tradin), and in cities like Glas)ow and Edinbur)h, they were more occupied with intellectual pursuits. ‘eerman s accounts re)ardin) the Hi)hlands also re(lect another trend Scotland s natural environment had been chan)in). Trees were cut down (or (uel, timber, and to create space (or (armland. Forests in Scotland had reached an all- time low, and the human (ootprint on the environment continued to trans(orm the (ace o( the Scottish countryside.
British Parliament and State of Affairs in the Eighteenth Century
When ‘eerman travelled to :ritain, Scotland and Ireland, the rei)nin) monarch was Geor)e III. He ascended the throne at the a)e o( 22, when his )rand(ather suddenly died in 1760. Kin) Geor)e III was a very pious man and supported the ;hurch o( En)land. Interested in diverse subjects includin) the study o( science, which was a (irst (or a kin) at that time, he (unded the Royal Academy o( Arts and kept a lar)e collection o( books in his library open to scholars.
xxiii
JOHAN MEERMAN
Fig. 4: George III
b Fig. 5: William Pitt the Younger
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
Geor)e III was the (irst kin) in years to be born and raised in :ritain. Departin) (rom German Hanoverian tradition, Geor)e chose En)lish over German as his (irst lan)ua)e, deliberately distancin) himsel( (rom Germany and lookin) to reconnect with his subjects. His rei)n was pla)ued by both the Seven Years War and the American Wars o( Independence, which cost him much o( his popularity. Geor)e III was also notable (or his lack o( subtlety arbitratin) the tension and alliances between the Whi)s and the Tories. A(ter the American Independence, William ”itt the Youn)er was appointed ”rime ‘inister and Kin) Geor)e III re)ained popularity amon) the public under ”itt s tenure which lasted seventeen years. Kin) Geor)e III su((ered a period o( violent insanity in 1778, but recovered the next year and (or the next twelve years rei)ned as a beloved ruler. He was a symbol o( stability in contrast to the revolutionary turmoil in France. As the French Revolution pro)ressed, Geor)e s health declined, and in 1810 he slipped into an illness (rom which he would not recover. His event(ul 59-year rei)n would be the third lon)est rei)n o( the :ritish monarchs The curiosities o( Geor)e s rei)n undoubtedly persisted in the mind o( ‘eerman durin) his travels in Great :ritain. His deep interest in matters o( the state is revealed as he dedicates a (air portion o( his travelo)ue to describin) the monarchy and ”arliament, detailin) not only the system and the morals behind it, but also the activities o( Geor)e III and his queen.
xxv
JOHAN MEERMAN
English Cities in the Eighteenth Century
By the end of the eighteenth century almost ten percent of :ritain s population lived in London. Thousands of people migrated to the rapidly growing industrial cities in the north as well. There, they hoped to find work in the factories and textile mills that had begun to spring up there from the 1750s onwards (White Rise of Cities). The full force of the Industrial Revolution would not occur in the Dutch Republic until much later than it did in Great Britain, and Meerman was keen to observe its novel trends, writing in detail about industrial cities and their harbours. During this time, London suffered from factory pollution. The industrial factories and increasing population created a suffocating and cramped atmosphere in the cities. The rivers and open sewers running through the streets and carrying waste, butchers offal, and manure created what was probably a spectacularly atrocious odour, not to mention the effect these unhygienic circumstances would have had on the city's public health (White Rise of Cities). Around the time Meerman visited the British Isles, attempts were being made to improve the quality of living such as the paving and more regular cleaning of streets, as well as improving street lights (White Rise of Cities). Meerman regularly comments on these types of improvement of the quality of living. However, living conditions were still dreadful for most people. While the wealthy might escape the dirt of the streets through their use of horse-drawn carriages, and could escape to their estates in the country, the majority of people was
xxvi
INTRODUCTION incredibly poor, lived in cramped homes, and often worked dangerous and low-paying jobs, if they worked at all (White Health, Hygiene). The great rift between the rich and poor is made apparent as Meerman describes both the elaborate and lavish estates, and the many strict and cramped poorhouses in this volume. London was popular not only for the lower classes looking for work, but also the rich upper-class. The latter was attracted to the capital because the government met in London once every year, which encouraged the rich and their families, servants, etc. to stay in London permanently. The same government also established laws that called for more civil servants and lawyers. Other professions, such as doctors and architects, also increased in numbers. Other well-known areas of industrial urban growth were several cities in the Midlands and the North of England. In Manchester there were the cotton factories, while in Leeds and Halifax the industry was mainly focused on clothing with metalworking taking place in Sheffield and the West Midlands (White Rise of Cities). Meerman has a chance to observe the magnitude of these centres of production and their all-important cotton mills. In reflection, he writes: At night, when such a building is completely illuminated, it makes a great impression. In Manchester and in the surrounding countryside, nearly everything that can be made of cotton is produced. (235)
xxvii
JOHAN MEERMAN
Fig. 6: Grand tour - British Connaisseurs in Rome
xxviii
INTRODUCTION
The Travellers, Their Destinations, and Their Audiences
In the ori)inal (oreword to Eeni)e :erichten, ‘eerman states that, when travellin) throu)h En)land, Scotland, and Ireland I wrote down what I saw and observed, but I most certainly did not have the sli)htest intention o( subjectin) it to public scrutiny by publishin) it, there(ore disre)ardin) the accuracy that I would otherwise never have ne)lected 5 . This is the crux o( travel writin), or, as Tim Youn)s and “ttmar Ette, who revolutionized travel writin) studies, would say travellin) never occurs unmediated Van Dam . In the ei)hteenth century, this type o( writin) had become immensely popular and travel books were widely read and written. Travel writin) as a )enre inevitably has a complex relationship with the circumstances which prompted the writin), as will be demonstrated. :oth the Dutch and the :ritish have a lon)-standin) reputation as travellers merchants, diplomats, soldiers, sailors and artists travelled outside their home country (or several purposes Dekker 277 . In the ei)hteenth century, :ritain, the ’etherlands, and France had surpassed ”ortu)al and Spain as the centres o( European power, presti)e, and wealth :rid)es 54 . Exploration and travel outside o( Europe had been, up to now, the purpose o( travellin) as well as travel writin), whether (ictional or (actual. When :ritain surpassed the Dutch and the French, it caused travel writin) to become more explicitly concerned with trade, diplomacy, and the presti)e o( :ritain :rid)es 56 . All aspects o( this
xxix
JOHAN MEERMAN exploration – trade, diplomacy, and scienti(ic exploration, amon) other thin)s – have contributed to European expansion. All o( this needed to be reported on and documented readin) audiences had )otten used o( the stories o( (ar-away lands and now wanted to learn more (rom the empowered next door. ‘eerman was a notable exception. His recountin) o( his trips to the three kin)doms, as presented in translation in this book, shows a (ar more pro(ound interest in and observation o( countries and peoples than usual Dekker 284 . He includes, (or instance, marvellously detailed descriptions o( dress and poverty amon) Dubliners but also describes, in )reat detail, the cock (i)hts that were popular in :ritain. His attention to cultural practices, traditions, and his jud)ements on these phenomena could re(lect his educational back)round and )eneral (ield o( interest, but it may also indicate that ‘eerman was tryin) to discern what made :ritain di((erent (rom the ’etherlands, how this country surpassed them and what e((ect this had on sociolo)ical, political, and cultural environments Dekker 283-4 . This, however, also shows how travel and travel writin) are cross- cultural activities which reveal as much about the travellers and their environments as it does about the people and countries they are con(ronted with Van Dam . In this case, ‘eerman s work and its translation does not merely o((er a description o( Great :ritain, but also o( ‘eerman himsel(. James ;li((ord remarks that the traveller, by de(inition, is someone who has the security and privile)e to move about in relatively unconstrained ways 34 . Up until the second hal( o( the ei)hteenth century, only youn) men o( aristocratic and
xxx
INTRODUCTION noble birth enjoyed the privile)e o( the Grand Tour o( Europe, which (unctioned as a rite o( passa)e (or these men Seaton 116 and was meant to broaden horizons and enli)hten citizens, since knowled)e was rooted in experience and nowhere else :rid)es 37 . Accelerated social and economic chan)e, however, also increased social and physical mobility o( the middle class, creatin) the possibility (or tourism. Rather than learnin) (rom all the )reat nations in Europe and becomin) enli)htened citizens, moneyed, middle-class youn) men undertook journeys o( a more hedonistic and aestheticized desire ;li((ord 116 . In the ei)hteenth-century, travel writers were mostly white, middle-class, well-educated men, which is not to say that non-conventional writers, such as women, did not exist, but they were less able to move about in relatively unconstrained ways ;li((ord 34 . :etween 1763 and 1800, some twenty (emale-authored travelo)ues appeared, includin) those o( ‘ary Wortley ‘anta)u, Ann Radcli((e, and ‘ary Wollstonecra(t. Lesser known destinations became the (ocus o( new curiosity. While London became the cultural centre o( Europe, other parts o( :ritain also became o( more interest ”orter 26 . ‘eerman, in his (oreword, states that his two journeys across the island have )iven [him] the opportunity, however, to o((er my readers the curiosities o( nearly every county En)land has to o((er. 6 . In this, ‘eerman could be seen as a combination o( the two ways o( travel he travelled to cultural and scienti(ic centres such as London, “x(ord, and ;ambrid)e, but also to less well-known places throu)hout the Kin)dom. In this he too straddled the divide between the Enli)htenment and the
xxxi
JOHAN MEERMAN
Romantic period. With the emer)ence o( (ictional accounts earlier in the century, a more determined e((ort was made to distin)uish the (actual (rom the (anci(ul and to distin)uish between )enres in the last hal( o( the century ”orter 28 . Travel writin) was not merely seen as a way o( discoverin) and describin) unknown worlds and then communicatin) this to people who would, most likely, never visit the lands one described rather, now it had become cultural practice, where travellers construct (orei)n worlds that they encounter. It was catered to a readership o( ea)er consumers o( exotic – culturally othered – )oods :risson and Schweizer 85 . This audience, throu)h travel writin) such as ‘eerman s, could vicariously live the experiences, which meant that they could en)a)e in discourses about other lands and other people in hope o( appearin) more learned :risson and Schweizer 86 . Travel literature written in En)lish had become very popular outside o( :ritain, too, which had created an ima)e o( a :ritain which needed veri(ication. The readin) public outside :ritain became ea)er to be in(ormed and diverted by accounts o( the country that had, by now, so completely surpassed them. The reverse holds some truth as well non- En)lish travel writin) has o(ten been in(luential in :ritain Hulme and Youn)s 1 , with much o( the travel writin) appearin) in translation nearly immediately a(ter publication. However, travel writin) on :ritain was less in(luential, yet o((ered an interestin) perspective to look at one s own country.
xxxii
INTRODUCTION
Travel Writing and Its Conventions
Just like every other type o( literature, travel writin) is bound by conventions and expectations which di((er in style, content, and purpose o( writin) (rom time and place. In the case o( travel writin) in the ei)hteenth century, travel was everywhere, and as such it was in(luenced by a lot o( thin)s, (or example (ictional travellin), the Enli)htenment, and Romanticism :uzard 37 . The overlap between travel and (iction in the ei)hteenth century resulted in literary conventions dictatin) non-(ictional travel accounts (ictional literature o( the a)e is (ull o( travellin) heroes enmeshed in journey plots, and almost every author o( consequence . . . produce one overt travel book :uzard 37 . Travel writin) in the period that ‘eerman was travellin) was cau)ht between the decline o( the Enli)htenment and the rise o( Romanticism, which in(luenced its conventions. The Enli)htenment had inspired a scienti(ic style, as we can see in ‘un)o ”ark s Travels in the Interior o( A(rica, while buddin) Romanticism inspired a more sentimental style, as we can see in Laurence Sterne s A Sentimental Journey Throu)h France and Italy. This clash is also re(lected in ‘eerman s style, which is predominantly empirical, but does also contain more sentimental descriptions o(, (or instance, nature. A para)on o( Enli)htenment thinkin) is that those who could travel, should. As mentioned previously, ‘eerman wholly supported this idea, as he believed it an important way to develop onesel(. The relatively empirical writin) style o( his travelo)ue also supports this notion. ‘eerman believed that a
xxxiii
JOHAN MEERMAN certain level o( attention to detail and precision was required to be able to write a success(ul travel text. This is clear throu)hout this volume, (or instance when he describes the ;astle o( Dover The )round, which is surrounded by the outer walls, is (i(teen Dutch mor)ens. The castle itsel( contains nothin) other than empty prison cells. Additionally, one will (ind barracks (or soldiers and apartments (or the o((icers and a chapel as well. There is a 24-(eet lon) canon on show, which was )iven to Queen Elizabeth by the city o( Utrecht. The cannon is art(ully cut and can shoot a cannonball as (ar as seven miles. 253
Fig. 7: Dover castle
Here, he describes not only the precise size o( the )rounds and the speci(ications o( the canon, but also what the castle contains. In other sections o( the text there are also quite extensive descriptions o( architecture, art, urban plannin), political systems, etc., especially when one considers his
xxxiv
INTRODUCTION notes on his travels were initially not meant to be published. The style o( the text )ives it the (eel o( havin) been well- researched, almost scienti(ic, and, at times, somewhat overly detailed (or modern standards. This scienti(ic, intellectual, rational paradi)m was countered by another movement, where travellers were more drawn to the sublimity o( nature rather than culture. ’ature was the ultimate place (or comin) to terms with one s sel( and to let one s thou)hts run (ree and to be open to contemplation. Rational thou)ht was opposed by deep emotions intellectual jud)ements were replaced by instinct and intuition :uzard 45 . The beauti(ul, picturesque and sublime be)an to replace the aesthetic ideas bound to the Enli)htenment. The beauty o( nature inspired our deepest emotions and appealed to male sexual desire that drove the species to reproduce itsel( while the sublime with its a)reeable horror […] addressed our impulse towards sel(-preservation and a((orded us the (risson o( contemplatin) terri(yin) thin)s (rom a position o( sa(ety :uzard 45 . The personal, emotional response to the travels )rew in importance while the interest in empirical and rational descriptions waned. ’ear the end o( the ei)hteenth century, the picturesque (unctioned as a mediator between the beauti(ul and the sublime it ran between calm pastures and terri(yin) chasms. The picturesque is a beauty o( every kind, which either art, or nature may produce . . . this )reat object we pursue throu)h the scenery o( nature and examine it by the rules o( paintin). We seek it amon) all the in)redients o( landscape Gilpin . Accordin) to Hussey, a picturesque traveller is someone with
xxxv
JOHAN MEERMAN