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Women's Self Defense Training WOMEN’S SELF DEFENSE TRAINING: AN EXAMINATION OF ASSERTIVENESS, SELF-EFFICACY, HYPERFEMININITY, AND ATHLETIC IDENTITY DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Lisa Hinkelman, M.A., PC The Ohio State University 2004 Dissertation Committee: Darcy Granello, Ph.D., Advisor ________________________ James Moore III, Ph.D. Advisor Joe Wheaton, Ph.D. College of Education ABSTRACT This study examined the effects of a 10-week women’s self-defense course on levels of assertiveness, hyperfemininity, and three types of self-efficacy: interpersonal, activities, and self-defense among college students who register for a self-defense course at a large Midwestern University. A post-test only control group design was utilized. Students in the treatment group (n = 68) completed a questionnaire at the end of their training period that consists of demographic information, including information about perceived athletic identity, the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS), the Hyperfemininity Scale (HFS), and an unpublished instrument that measures interpersonal, activities, and self-defense self-efficacy. The control group (n = 75) completed the same instruments prior to receiving self-defense training. It was hypothesized that students in the treatment group would evidence an increase in assertiveness and interpersonal, activities, and self-defense self-efficacy. Additionally, it was hypothesized that women with higher levels of hyperfemininity would have lower scores on the RAS and lower self-efficacy scores, and that women who report higher levels of athletic identity will report lower levels of hyperfemininity, higher levels of assertiveness, and higher levels of self-efficacy. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) examined the effects of the treatment on the dependent variables and two MANCOVAs examined hyperfemininity and athletic identity as covariates. Following ii the multivariate analysis, univariate t-tests were run to examine the relative effects of each independent variable. Results indicated that the women’s self-defense course significantly affected women’s levels of assertiveness, activities self-efficacy, self-defense self-efficacy, and interpersonal self-efficacy. Hyperfemininity and athletic identity were not significant covariates. The implications of these results are discussed. iii Dedicated to Deborah Schipper To validate your reality. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to first thank my husband and best friend Bob Heine. Thank you for your love, support and patience throughout this process. I appreciate everything you have done to try to make this process easier for me. You listened when I complained, took me out for wings when I was cranky, and hugged me when I cried and didn’t think I could finish. You’re the best! My parents, Rich and Joan Hinkelman, have offered every ounce of their love and prayers to assist me in finishing my degree. You have been spiritually, physically and emotionally available to me and your kindness has not gone unnoticed. Thank you for instilling in me persistence and a hard work ethic; without these things I certainly would not be at this point of my life. Richie, my loving brother, if it weren’t for you I would have thrown my computers out the window. You are always there for me in a pinch and I know I can count on you for anything. Thank you for you for always being available to me. I’m so glad that you are my brother and my friend. Thanks to Deborah Schipper for assisting me in the conceptualization of this dissertation and all of your editorial and emotional support along the way. You are the strongest woman I know and I admire you very much. Your passion for the work that you do is amazing. You have made the world a safer place for hundreds of women. Cheers to our dissertation! v To the faculty members I have been lucky enough to work with throughout this process: Dr. Darcy Granello, Dr. Joe Wheaton, and Dr. James Moore III. Thank you for your guidance and support throughout this process. You have challenged me and inspired me to become a better writer, a better researcher, and a critical thinker and I thank you for that. vi VITA September 13, 1977………………………… Born, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1999………………………………………….B. A. Chatham College 2000-2003……………………………………Program Assistant, The Rape Education & Prevention Program, The Ohio State University 2001 ………………………………………….M. A. The Ohio State University 2001………….……………………………….Licensed Professional Counselor, State of Ohio 2001-2002……………………………….……Counselor, Crittenton Family Services, Columbus, Ohio 2003-2004…………………………………… Graduate Assistant, The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS Hinkelman, L. & Granello, D. (2003). Biological sex, adherence to traditional gender roles, and attitudes toward persons with mental illness: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 25(4), 259-270. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Education vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract......................................................................................................................ii Dedication..................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments......................................................................................................v Vita.............................................................................................................................vii List of Tables .............................................................................................................xii List of Figures............................................................................................................xiv Chapters: 1. Introduction....................................................................................................1 1.1 Statement of the Problem.............................................................1 1.2 Background and Significance ......................................................2 1.3 Purpose of Study..........................................................................9 1.4 Research Questions and Hypotheses ...........................................10 1.5 Definition of Terms......................................................................11 1.6 Limitations of the Study...............................................................13 1.7 Summary......................................................................................13 2. Review of the Literature ................................................................................15 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................15 2.1.1 Effects of Sexual Assault Victimization.............................16 2.1.2 Government Educational Mandates....................................16 2.1.3 Educational Efforts .............................................................18 2.2 Rape Prevention Programming for Women.................................20 2.2.1 Rape Resistant Behavior.....................................................21 2.2.2 Women’s Self-Defense Training ........................................23 viii 2.3 Components of Women’s Self-Defense Training.......................27 2.3.1 Assertiveness.......................................................................30 2.3.2 Hyperfemininity..................................................................33 2.3.3 Self-Efficacy .......................................................................37 2.3.4 Athletic Identity ..................................................................40 2.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................45 3. Method ..........................................................................................................46 3.1 Research Questions.....................................................................46 3.2 Participants..................................................................................46 3.2.1 Population ..........................................................................46 3.2.2 Sampling Method...............................................................47 3.2.3 Sample Size........................................................................48 3.2.4 Demographic Information..................................................49 3.3 Variables .....................................................................................50 3.3.1 Independent Variable.........................................................50 3.3.2 Dependent Variables..........................................................53 3.4 Instruments..................................................................................55 3.4.1 The Hyperfemininity Scale................................................55 3.4.2 Rathus Assertiveness Schedule..........................................57 3.4.3 Self-Efficacy Instrument....................................................59 3.5 Data Collection Procedures.........................................................62 3.6 Research Design..........................................................................62 3.7 Threats to Validity ......................................................................63 3.7.1 Internal Threats to Validity................................................63 3.7.2 External Threats to Validity...............................................64 3.8 Statistical Analysis......................................................................65
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