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Information and the Problems of Urban Agriculture in Tanzania: Intentions and Realizations

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Information and the Problems of Urban Agriculture in Tanzania: Intentions and Realizations INFORMATION AND THE PROBLEMS OF URBAN AGRICULTURE IN TANZANIA: INTENTIONS AND REALIZATIONS by MALONGO R.S. MLOZI Dip. (Agric), MATI Ukiriguru, Tanzania, 1978, B.Sc, West Virginia University, Morgantown, U.S.A., 1981, M.Sc, West Virginia University, Morgantown, U.S.A., 1982 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of Educational Studies) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA November 1995 ©Malongo R.S. Mlozi, 1995 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT Urban agriculture is practised in most Third World societies not as a hobby but as a necessity both for subsistence food production and to earn extra income. Africa, and in particular, Tanzania, is no exception. In Tanzania, and especially Dar es Salaam the practice of urban agriculture damages the urban environment. The question addressed by this study was how to explain the persistence of urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam in the light of its evident damaging effects on the urban environment. This study uses data obtained through (a) documentary sources such as government reports and statistics, and (b) field data from interviews and observations. Interviews were held with twenty-nine urban agriculturalists and twenty-seven public officials. On average, urban agriculturalists earned annual net profits from livestock enterprises that were about 15 times the total annual salary income of a low income worker, and six times that of a senior public official. The study also found that respondents with high salary earnings also earned high incomes from their urban agriculture enterprises. Most respondents expressed agreement with most statements about the issues about environmental damage due to keeping livestock. However, less than half the interviewees agreed with those statements related to disease-health issues. Most respondents said that people did urban agriculture mainly for economic motivations. They also agreed that people persisted in doing damaging urban agriculture in part because the City Council did not enforce its bylaws. They also said that the government policy explicitly and implicitly encouraged people to do urban agriculture. Most pubhc officials interviewed agreed that ii most agriculturalists had knowledge about the damaging effects of their practices. This study used factors nested at four contextual levels (government, ministry, city council, and individual) to explain people's persistence in doing urban agriculture in spite of its damaging effects. To lessen environmental damage, this study recommends that: (1) A policy be formulated, (2) The government foster multidisciplinary and coordinated participatory educational approaches that adopt holistic views, (3) The City Council enforces its bylaws aided by other parties, (4) MALCD extension agents offer information inequitably. The study also discusses implications and recommendations for policy, practice, and other areas for further research. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi LIST OF APPENDICES xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xv 1 THE BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 1 Background 1 Purpose and Research Questions 5 Overview of the Dissertation . 6 2 TANZANIA AND THE CITY OF DAR ES SALAAM: HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY 8 TANZANIA: A BRIEF HISTORY 8 The Region in Precolonial Times 9 The Period of German Rule 11 The Period of British Rule 12 Independent Tanzania: Population and Institutions 14 The Arusha Declaration 16 The Inspiration of Nyerere 17 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TANZANIA 17 A History of Crisis 18 Decline of Agricultural Production 23 Inflation and the Enterprise of Urban Inequalities 25 THE CITY OF DAR ES SALAAM 32 History and Patterns of Urban Development 32 Economic Patterns in Dar es Salaam 37 The economy: The formal sector 37 The economy: The informal sector 41 SUMMARY 47 iv 3 THE PHENOMENON OF URBAN AGRICULTURE 49 URBAN AGRICULTURE AND ITS BENEFITS 50 Urban Agriculture in its Global Context 51 Urban Agriculture in Africa 56 Urban Agriculture in the City of Dar es Salaam 62 Benefits of Urban Agriculture 67 Urban agriculture for nutrition 68 Urban agriculture for income generation or poverty reduction 69 Urban agriculture for community well-being 70 Urban agriculture for waste management and the environment 70 Urban agriculture for conversion of food items 71 URBAN AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 72 The Concept of Environmental Degradation 72 Degradation Due to Animals 74 Risks to health 72 Aesthetic and social concerns 83 Degradation Due to Plants 85 Risks to health 85 Aesthetic and social concerns 87 THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN URBAN AGRICULTURE . 88 National Policies Governing Urban Agriculture 90 The period from 1961 to 1966 90 The period from 1967 to 1970 91 The period from 1971 to 1976 91 The period from 1977 to 1985 93 The period from 1985 to the early 1990s 94 City Policy Affecting Urban Agriculture 96 Means of Ensuring Policy Adherence 97 MALCD extension agents 97 The police and militia 97 The mass media 98 Other agencies for policy adherence 98 SUMMARY 99 4 FIELD RESEARCH PROCEDURES AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 101 SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS AND DATA COLLECTION . 102 Selection of Respondents - 102 Clearance procedures 102 Selection of urban agriculturalists 103 Selection of public officials 104 v Data Collection 105 Gaining access 105 Urban agriculturalists 106 Public officials 108 Field visits and observations, and experience 109 DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS 110 Data Transcription 110 Data Verification Ill Reduction, Coding and Interpretation 112 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 112 Characteristics of Urban Agriculturalists 113 Characteristics of Pubhc Officials 116 URBAN AGRICULTURALISTS IN DAR ES SALAAM: WHAT THEY DO AND WHAT THEY KNOW 119 WHAT URBAN AGRICULTURALISTS DO 120 Keeping Livestock: Dairy Cattle 120 Keeping Livestock: Chickens 123 Keeping Other Livestock: Goats and Sheep 124 Earnings From Keeping Livestock 125 Observations of Environmentally Damaging Aspects 130 THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF URBAN AGRICULTURE: BELIEFS AND KNOWLEDGE 133 The Opinions of the Twenty-Nine Urban Agriculturalists . 133 Psycho-social issues 133 Socio-political-legal issues 138 Disease-health issues 143 Accident issues 149 City-landscape issues 153 Summary and Commentary 158 The Views of the Public Officials 160 REASONS PEOPLE GIVE FOR THE PERSISTENCE OF URBAN AGRICULTURE IN SPITE OF ITS DAMAGING EFFECTS 167 Motivations to Continue Urban Agriculture 168 Economic motivations 168 Nutritional and other motivations 172 Encouragement For Not Stopping Doing Urban Agriculture 175 Lax bylaws enforcement 175 Government encouragement 179 Respondents' Views on Solutions to the Problem 186 SUMMARY 188 vi 6 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 194 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 194 PERSISTENCE IN URBAN AGRICULTURE IN SPITE OF ITS DAMAGING EFFECTS 197 Government Level Factors 199 Economic climate 199 Government policies 201 Problems of coordination 204 Culture of status and rewards 205 Ministerial Level Factors 207 Operations of extension services 207 Operations of veterinary services 210 Regulation of livestock 211 City Council Level Factors 212 Bylaw enforcement 212 Municipal contextual factors 216 Individual Level Factors 218 Economic circumstances 218 Production of food 219 Limited understanding of environmental damage .... 219 Interpretation of authority's actions 221 Summary of Factors that Explain Persistence 222 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 223 Limitations of the Study 223 Conclusions . 225 Recommendations 228 Recommendations for policy and practice 228 Recommendations for further research 234 REFERENCES 237 APPENDICES 257 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Trends in Some Indicators for External Trade From 1981/82 to 1992/93 (US$ Million) 21 2 Tanzania's Crop Exports From 1981 to 1992 (Value in US$ Million and Volume in Thousand Metric Tons) 25 3 Real and Noniinal Monthly Wages (T Shs) 27 4 Retail Price Index for Dar es Salaam Minimum Wage Earners (T Shs) ... 30 5 Dar es Salaam's 1991 Informal Sector Enterprises and Their Percentages . 46 6 Livestock Numbers in Dar es Salaam From 1985 to 1993 65 7 Dar es Salaam's 1991 Employees in Urban Agriculture, Other Enterprises and Their Earnings (T Shs) 66 8 Some Government, Ministerial, and City Council Policies 89 9 The Characteristics of Respondents, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 114 10 Properties, Items and Equipments That Respondents Doing Urban Agriculture Reported to Own 115 11 Sources of Information About Urban Agriculture That Respondents Used 116 12 Pubhc Officials Interviewed and Their Areas of Training, Degree and Diploma Held 117 13 Patterns of Cattle Holdings Among Respondents 121 14 Patterns of Chicken Holdings Among Respondents 123 15 Other Livestock That Respondents Kept 124 16 Ranges of Total Annual Net Profits Earned From Urban Agriculture
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