Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

Environment Friendly : Re-Engineering the Jeepney

Jose Regin F. REGIDOR Karl N. VERGEL Associate Professor Associate Professor Institute of Civil Engineering Institute of Civil Engineering University of the University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines Philippines 1101 Fax: +63-2-928-8305 Fax: +63-2-928-8305 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Ma. Sheilah G. NAPALANG University Extensión Specialist National Center for Transportation Studies University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City Philippines 1101 Fax: +63-2-928-305 E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Paratransit remain very popular modes of in developing countries and have effectively filled the gap between the private car and traditional like the and rail. They are, however, still perceived as unsustainable modes of transport. Jeepneys in the Philippines, for example, utilize reconditioned diesel engines and poor maintenance have led to significant carbon among other emissions. This paper presents an updated profile of the jeepney including operational characteristics such as average distance traveled, idle time, net income for drivers, and fuel consumption. Data were classified according to route into short, medium, long and extra-long routes. Current technologies concerning the jeepney are also discussed including the electric jeepney. An assessment is made on the potential for carbon reduction if such technologies or simple engine replacement is applied. Conclusions deal mainly with the current directions pertaining to the transformation of conventional paratransit into environment friendly vehicles.

Keywords: EST, paratransit, jeepney

1. INTRODUCTION

Environmentally sustainable transport (EST) includes the provision of sustainable public transportation. Such public transport is premised on other aspects of EST such as emission reduction, green fuels or sustainable energy sources, noise, and inclusive services and safe vehicle design. Most paratransit modes found in the developing countries are customized vehicles of 2 to 4 wheels. Customized vehicles are often lacking in safety features and produce greenhouse gases at a significantly higher rate than conventional vehicles. As such, the former are perceived to be unfriendly to people and the environment, and therefore, unsustainable.

In the Philippines, for example, paratransit includes motorcycle taxis, tricycles, Asian utility vehicles (AUV), , and the jeepneys. With the exception of motorcycles, AUVs and vans, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009 the two most dominant transport – the tricycle and the jeepney – are customized vehicles. This paper presents a profile of paratransit modes in the Philippines and focuses on the characteristics of the jeepney. Continuing concerns about the mode are discussed as well as current innovations that are perceived to have a significant impact on the evolution of what is usually termed as the “King of the Road” in the Philippines.

2. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the research are the following: ƒ To present the profile of paratransit services in a typical developing country, in this case the Philippines; ƒ To discuss jeepney characteristics based on surveys conducted; ƒ To present the estimation of carbon reduction based on adopted formulas; ƒ To present current innovations and efforts pertaining to the transformation of the jeepney into an environment friendly mode of transportation.

3. PARATRANSIT IN THE PHILIPPINES

3.1 Road public transport services The distribution of services in the Philippines is shown in Tables 1 and 2. The differences in the numbers of franchises and units can be explained by franchises covering several units. The data shown in the Tables confirm the jeepney’s position as the dominant mode of transport in a country where roughly 80% of trips are made using public transport.

Table 1 Distribution of road transport services in the Philippines

Public Utility SERVICES Public Utility Bus Mini Bus Taxi Jeepney

REGIONS Franchise Units Franchise Units Franchise Units Franchise Units CO 1,155 10,107 37 67 7,337 9,175 11,094 14,333 NCR 0 0 0 0 48,209 49,057 3,863 4,386 I 1,337 1,697 12 14 9,965 11,025 0 0 II 750 1,493 128 145 9,889 10,455 0 0 III 9 95 328 977 23,868 28,221 4 36 IV 366 1,105 703 998 40,255 42,701 45 190 V 880 1,658 72 103 7,417 7,909 9 10 VI 579 743 1,323 1,393 13,564 14,596 1,803 2,266 VII 1,435 2,517 146 146 15,510 17,290 6,665 8,962 VIII 803 1,160 988 1,076 5,445 6,680 75 97 IX 101 209 493 576 3,665 4,212 16 10 X 6 730 196 237 5,332 6,843 888 1,700 XI 133 809 75 95 8,600 9,746 1,652 3,743 XII 6 28 148 200 2,407 2,895 76 124 TOTAL 7,560 22,351 4,649 6,027 201,463 220,805 26,190 35,857 Source: Land Transport Franchising Regulatory Board, 2008

Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

Table 2 Distribution of road transport services in the Philippines (continuation)

Tourist SERVICES Shuttle Transportation Fil Cab Transportation

REGIONS Franchise Units Franchise Units Franchise Units Franchise Units CO 329 456 213 2,842 271 886 47 79 NCR 1,936 1,959 6 6 989 1,090 0 0 I 235 278 2 7 0 0 26 26 II 1,306 1,330 2 5 2 2 325 329 III 307 362 5 34 160 232 0 0 IV 1,176 1,640 30 48 351 1,166 757 842 V 217 248 0 0 2 2 2,135 2,236 VI 1,092 1,125 18 72 10 11 1,427 1,501 VII 1,923 2,006 409 494 13 17 5,051 6,582 VIII 1,216 1,430 23 74 62 87 4,188 4,395 IX 204 189 5 9 119 119 331 343 X 66 66 39 52 10 32 1,050 1,278 XI 24 27 26 62 1 4 463 481 XII 138 165 0 0 0 0 2,568 2,788

TOTAL 10,169 11,281 778 3,705 1,990 3,648 18,368 20,880 Source: Land Transport Franchising Regulatory Board, 2008

While the preceding tables showed various public transport modes in the Philippines, it is incomplete since information on tricycles is not included. Tricycles are not regulated by a national agency but instead are registered with local government units (LGUs). The vehicle registered is the motorcycle that powers the tricycle. It is very difficult if not impossible to determine just how many tricycles are used for public transportation throughout the country. This is partly due to many being unregistered for public utility even at the local level. The result has been unreliable estimates although it is generally accepted that their numbers exceed those of the other transport modes as evident in their operations. Table 3 shows an estimate of the number of three-wheel paratransit in Metro that includes both motorized and non-motorized tricycles.

Table 3 Three-wheel paratransit in TRICYCLE PEDICAB Land Area Population (Motorcycle– (Bicycle– NAME OF CITY (Square (2007 Census) powered 3- powered 3- Kilometers) wheeler) wheeler) Caloocan 53.33 1,378,856 13,464 * Las Piňas 41.54 532,330 4,271 * 27.36 510,383 * * Malabon 15.76 363,681 4,600 1,473 11.26 305,576 3,819 245 Manila 38.55 1,660,714 * * 33.97 424,610 * * 46.70 452,943 4,936 570 Navotas 10.77 245,344 2,000 2,300 Paraňaque 47.69 552,660 * * 19.00 403,064 2,388 215 Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

Pasig 31.00 617,301 10,350 * Pateros 2.10 61,940 1,472 * Quezon City 161.12 2,679,450 24,609 * San Juan 5.94 125,338 * * Taguig 47.88 613,343 4,422 * Valenzuela 44.58 568,928 11,630 1,792 Total 638.55 11,496,461 87,961 6,595 Source: Metro Manila LGUs thru NCTS Survey Note: Asterisk (*) means data is not yet available with LGUs

Note that for Metro Manila alone, incomplete statistics indicate almost 90,000 units operating. Unauthorized units will easily bring this number to more than 100,000 tricycles. This compares with the more than 30,000 units estimated for Cabanatuan City, a city in Luzon Island dubbed as the tricycle capital, which has a land area of 252 square kilometers and a population of 220,000.

3.2 Common paratransit services

3.2.1 Jeepneys The jeepney is the most popular mode of transport in the Philippines especially in cities because of its cheap and the convenience afforded to passengers to board and alight almost anywhere they want. In many parts of the Philippines, jeepneys provide long-distance transport services (rather than the bus) and may carry cargo, goods or freight in addition to passengers. Jeepneys in the provinces have also evolved to become significantly larger and tougher than those in the cities and are built to take on bad roads in all weather conditions. Jeepneys are locally manufactured and utilize surplus or second-hand diesel engines. Figure 1 shows various jeepneys in the Philippines.

Figure 1 Different versions of the jeepney in the Philippines Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

3.2.2 Tricycles and pedicabs A tricycle is a motorcycle with a sidecar, while a pedicab is a bicycle with a sidecar. These modes are very convenient for passengers on short distance trip and feeder trip between residential area and arterial roads. Especially in the provinces, these modes play an important role because of insufficient bus and jeepney services. In Metro Manila the operation of tricycles is restricted partly because they cause traffic congestion. Franchising and supervision of tricycles including pedicabs have been devolved to the local government units (LGUs). Figures 2 and 3 show typical motorized and non-motorized three-wheeled paratransit vehicles in the Philippines, respectively.

Figure 2 Tricycles

Figure 3 Pedicabs

3.2.3 Asian utility vehicles and vans for hire Asian utility vehicles (AUVs) refer to a variety of models designed according to the road and passenger characteristics of Asian countries particularly those in the Southeast Asian region. Vans include vehicle models produced by major Asian automakers like Toyota, Mitsubishi and Hyundai. AUVs and vans are four-wheeled vehicles with a seating capacity of seven to eleven persons including the driver. They provide services within a zone or fixed route of not more than 15 km. may be set on a zonal asis or based on distance. FX services (so called FX because of the Toyota FX AUV that was very popular with those providing the service) evolved from the taxi as demand for a faster alternative to jeepneys arose in the 1990’s. Fares were higher than those for jeepneys but were eventually considered acceptable as longer times when using jeepneys became a major consideration for Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009 passengers, especially those who have constraints in their schedules like students and typical office workers (i.e., those who do not have the luxury of flexi-time). In 2003, the LTFRB issued a moratorium on the issuance of AUV franchises and pursued conversion and regulation of services into the Garage-to-Terminal Express (GTExpress). However, there is still a proliferation of vans for hire services, particularly those plying long distance routes in the rural areas. Meanwhile FX services remain in other cities in the Philippines. Figure 4 shows typical FX vehicles in cities. Figure 5 show typical vans for hire plying routes in the provinces of the Philippines.

Figure 4 FX vehicles

Figure 5 Vans for hire

3.2.4 Motorcycle taxis Motorcycle taxis are also popular in the less urbanized areas including the small towns throughout the Philippines. These include the “habal-habal,” which are not regulated but have similar operations as their relatives in other countries like Thailand and Indonesia. Then there is the “skylab,” which is also a but with a wooden plank perpendicular to the motorcycle that allows for additional passengers balanced by the driver. Hence, the vehicle is made to appear like the fallen satellite of which it is named after. These paratransit are illustrated in Figure 6.

Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

a. Habal-habal (motorcycle taxi) b. Skylab (motorcycle taxi)

Figure 6 Motorcycle taxis

3.2.5 Other paratransit Other paratransit modes are used in the Philippines in both urban and rural settings. There is the “kuliglig,” which uses a farm tractor to pull a wagon that is customized for passengers. These are mostly found in the country side where formal transport is lacking and even tricycles are unable to satisfy the demand for transport. Another paratransit mode is the “motorela,” which is a four-wheeler version of the motor tricycle. However, it is configured with the motorcycle in the front and middle instead of a one side such that it appears like the Thai “tuktuk.” These operate in cities and have capacities that are typically higher than the tricycles but significantly less than those for jeepneys. These vehicles are shown in Figure 7.

a. Kuliglig (farm tractor) b. Motorela (quadricycle)

Figure 7 Other motorized paratransit modes

4. THE EVOLVING JEEPNEY

4.1 Jeepney characteristics

4.1.1 Vehicle characteristics The jeepney is a result of the conversion, for public transport use, of American military right after Second World War. At the time, the Philippines’ transport system was practically non-existent after destruction during the occupation and in the process of liberation. Those destroyed included what was once an extensive system in Manila and railway systems in the islands of Luzon and Panay. Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

Jeepneys typically seat 16 to 24 passengers depending on their length, which is not regulated by any standards. Newer vehicles often are the longer versions as the demand for higher capacity jeepneys became common especially in fast growing cities. Most if not all public transport jeepneys use second-hand or surplus diesel engines that were actually designed for small . These are popular and necessary in part because of the typical loads that include, in addition to seated passengers, standing or “hanging” passengers (often about 2 to 6) and their baggage. Jeepneys in many parts of the Philippines also carry freight including agricultural products, livestock and other items, in addition to passengers. Thus, the vehicle’s body as well as its engine should be able to haul such typical loads.

4.1.2 Operational characteristics Secondary data collection and field surveys were conducted to determine current operation characteristics of jeepneys. These data collections were conducted over an expanded area for Metro Manila to include jeepneys plying routes with ends in Metro Manila but ultimately serve cities and municipalities in its periphery. This area is often referred to as Mega Manila, defining the actual influence area or sprawl of Metro Manila. Coverage distances according to the franchises granted by the Land Transport Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) were categorized and are shown in Table 4. These included all Metro Manila jeepney routes in the LTFRB database.

Table 4 Jeepney Route Classifications based on Travel Distance

Route Class Coverage Distance Short 5 kilometers or less Medium 6 – 9 kilometers Long 10 – 19 kilometers Extra Long 20 kilometers & above

Field surveys employed a questionnaire to derive information about typical operations. Respondents are jeepney drivers and interviews were conducted at jeepney terminals all over Metro Manila. A total of 3,452 valid interviews were made. Questions included those on the estimated number of round trips in a day, the time spent idle (i.e., parked at terminals or garages), and average net income. The average total distance traveled per day were derived based on the average number of round trips and the route distances as defined in the jeepneys’ franchises. The average distances traveled per day for each route class are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Average total distance traveled per day

Distance Traveled Route Class (Kilometers) Short 68.75 Medium 98.24 Long 111.22 Extra Long 164.00

Idle time refers to the accumulated waiting times as jeepneys queue at terminals or stations at either ends of their routes. Much of this is attributed to the off-peak periods during their shifts when there are not enough passengers for jeepneys including those they could pick up in the middle of their routes. The average operational idle times are shown in Table 6 and it is evident that while there are no significant differences in idle times for medium and long trips Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009 idle times for short routes are less and those for extra long trips are more. Such may be explained

Table 6 Operational idle time per route class

Idle Time Route Class (hours) Short 1.32 Medium 2.07 Long 2.00 Extra Long 2.47

The net income for jeepney drivers was estimated by subtracting from the gross income the fuel and other operating costs, and boundary fee. The boundary fee is defined as the cost of leasing or renting a jeepney from its owner (i.e., the operator). This amount is neglected when the driver happens to be the operator. This amount varies according to the size of the jeepney (i.e., the number of passengers) and the route. Higher boundary fees are charged for higher capacity jeepneys and those having longer routes as these are associated with higher revenues. The opposite can be assumed for shorter routes and lower capacity vehicles. The driver is assumed to be responsible for the operating costs during the day, including fuel costs and repair costs. For example, a gross revenue for a short route of 3,000 pesos can be significantly reduced when factoring in 600 pesos of fuel, 100 pesos for a repair of a tire, and a boundary fee of 1,000 pesos (i.e., the net income will be 1,300 pesos). Figure 6 shows a profile of net income for jeepney drivers in Mega Manila, indicating that most drivers earn between 200 to 500 pesos daily.

30

25

20

15

10

5

Share of Respondents, % 0 NR < 100 < 2,000 3,000 1,001 - 1,001 - 2,000 > 3,000 > 101 - 200 101 - 300 201 - 400 301 - 500 401 - 600 501 - 700 601 - 800 701 - 900 801 - 901 - 1,000 901 - Net Income, Philippine Pesos

Figure 6 Net income profile for jeepney drivers in Mega Manila

4.1.3 Fuel consumption An improvised methodology was employed to estimate fuel consumption. This involved actual measurements of fuel levels for each jeepney considering many vehicles had defective fuel level meters. The use of a fuel flow meter was considered and was ideal for the purpose. However, it was also too expensive to acquire and install, not to mention time consuming, considering the number of vehicles that would have to be fitted with one to be able to measure Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009 fuel consumption. The average fuel consumption was computed based on the difference between initial volume of fuel prior to the first trip and the fuel volume at the end of the last trip plus the total volume refueled during the entire day. This was estimated using such instruments as a measuring stick dipped into the fuel tank of the jeepney. The results of measurements for various route classes are provided in Table 7.

Table 7 Average daily fuel consumption and computed fuel efficiency

Route Class Km / Liter Liters / day Short 6.00 11.00 Medium 5.53 19.97 Long 5.68 20.64 Extra Long 5.61 31.67

It is noted from Table 7 that the average per Liter consumption doesn’t vary greatly over short to extra long distances (i.e., 5.5 to 6.0 Kilometers per Liter). The differences lie mainly in the amount of fuel consumed in a day since long and extra-long routes would obviously result in less number of roundtrips but more fuel consumed.

4.2 Re-engineering the jeepney In light of environmental concerns particularly focused on jeepneys emissions, a number of initiatives have been put forward in order to “clean-up” the jeepney. These initiatives include traditional programs like advocating proper maintenance to the more radical phasing out of jeepneys in favor of higher capacity vehicles such as . The more noteworthy, and probably more practical and realistic are those that propose re-engineering the jeepney.

These initiatives are not simple. In fact, the simplest proposal that involves replacing current jeepney engines requires creative financing schemes that will be attractive to operators as well as initial capital for the new engines to be made available. Other prospects include converting diesel engines to either LPG or CNG. Of these two, conversion to LPG seems to be the more attractive and practical since the infrastructure for auto-LPG is already in place. This was the result of the government’s program of converting taxis to use LPG instead of gasoline.

Another prospect is the use of electric motors and there are already electric jeepneys currently being road-tested in the Philippines. Figure 7 shows the electric jeepney that is currently in use in Makati City in Metro Manila.

Figure 7 Electric jeepney Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009

The same model is also being operated for demonstration in Bacolod City and Silay City in Negros Province in Central Philippines. Notable for the current version of the electric jeepney is it having less seating capacity (only 14 seats) than conventional jeepneys. There are also concerns pertaining to electric motor maintenance, battery life and power that needs to be addressed since until now, there have been no systematic tests undertaken for such vehicles to establish, among other performance and operational costs. Proponents are currently pursuing the local assembly of electric jeepneys as well as introducing more local content in as far as components are concerned. In the latest models, only the motor and controller are imported from China.

5. IMPLICATIONS AND IMPACTS

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from Metro Manila jeepneys using predominantly second- hand diesel engines were estimated based on the quantity of fuel combusted and the CO2 emission coefficient of the fuel. It was derived from the Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM-SSC-PDD) Version 03 on the “Envirofit Tricycle-taxi Retrofit Program” that was conducted for City, Ilocos Sur and City, Palawan in the Philippines in 2007. The methodology was also referred to Annex 9: Methodological tool “Tool to calculate project or leakage CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion” (Version 01) EB 32 Report Annex 9, page 1, CDM – Executive Board, UNFCCC/CCNUCC.

Base emissions for Metro Manila were estimated at 1,295,324.60 tCO2e per year. Meanwhile, the estimated potential CO2 reduction assuming four scenarios of engine replacement (i.e., replacing old diesel engines with new ones) are shown in Table 8.

Table 8 Estimated potential CO2 reduction assuming four scenarios

Potential Reduction in Percent reduction Scenario CO2 Emissions from base (in tCO2e per year) emissions 25% replacement 171,360.65 13.2% 50% replacement 342,721.30 26.5% 75% replacement 514,081.95 39.7% 100% replacement 685,442.60 52.9%

Since Metro Manila accounts for about 22% of all jeepneys in the Philippines, the potential for all jeepneys comes to about 3.1 million tCO2e per year if engine replacement is to be pursued aggressively. This potential increases as other cleaner alternatives are considered such as conversion to LPG, CNG or electric power. It can be argued that in these cases, carbon will be transferred elsewhere such as in the generation of LPG, CNG or power/electricity. These concerns, however, can be addressed by similar environmental or green initiatives in the energy sector.

6. CONCLUSIONS

The idea of environment and people friendly paratransit is always an attractive proposition. Given the current perceptions that paratransit like jeepneys and tricycles, there are many Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 7, 2009 initiatives that are now being seriously considered if not yet engaged by both the government and the private sector. Some have been proposed for quite some time such as engine replacement and although financial schemes have also been proposed there have been very few takers for the program. Then there are those proposals for devices that have not been tested or validated but offer quick fixes to the emission problem, particularly claiming significant carbon reduction for a small price. Such are to be viewed as doubtful solutions that should not be pursued unless there is strong proof of their effectiveness.

Many taxis in Philippine cities have been converted to use LPG. Electric and LPG powered tricycles are now also being promoted in the Philippines. In fact, Quezon City, the biggest city in Metro Manila, only recently enacted an ordinance requiring all tricycles to convert to clean fuels or energy sources within 3 years. Such local legislation probably marks the beginning of a genuine and, perhaps, sustained effort towards making paratransit environment friendly. In the national context, a national EST strategy is currently being formulated (NCTS, 2009) and will ultimately recommend for actions to improve public transport in general.

The assessment presented in this paper that focused on the jeepney is right on the mark and is validated by another study that is currently being finalized. The World Bank (2009) proposes medium and aggressive scenarios for the reduction of carbon in the transport sector. Among these scenarios are interventions for public transport particularly mentioning the conversion of jeepneys to CNG and assessing recent developments including options with high potential for carbon reduction, and technologies under testing such as CNG, LPG and electric powered vehicles. These are proof that the transformation of paratransit, in this case the jeepney, is well under way and it will be a matter of time when these popular modes of transport will gain the adjective “environment friendly.”

REFERENCES

Guillen, M.D.V. and Ishida, H. (2004) Motorcycle-Propelled Public Transport and Local Policy Development: The Case of “Tricycles” and “Habal-habal” in Philippines, IATSS Research, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 56-66. Iwata, S. (1993) Development of Public Transportation in Metro Manila, Proceedings of the 1st Annual Conference of the Transportation Science Society of the Philippines, July 30-31, 1993, The Manila Hotel, Manila, Philippines. Napalang, M.S.G. and Vergel, K.N. (2009) Alternative Methodology for Evaluating Fuel Efficiency of and Carbon Emission from Jeepneys, Proceedings of the 6th Regional Symposium on Infrastructure Development, January 12-13, 2009, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. National Center for Transportation Studies (2009) Formulation of a National Environmentally Sustainable Transport Strategy for the Philippines, First Draft, Prepared for the Department of Transportations and Communications and Department of Environment and Natural Resources, April 2009. The World Bank (2009) A Strategic Approach to Climate Change in the Philippines: An Assessment of Low-Carbon Interventions in the Transport and Power Sectors, Draft Final Report, Prepared by Transport and Traffic Planners Inc. and CPI Energy, Inc., May 25, 2009. UNFCCC (2007) Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM- SSC-PDD) Version 03 on the “Envirofit Tricycle-taxi Retrofit Program.”