magmatic segments, show creep and some stick-slip behavior (with cumulative LOS displacement up to ~30-40 mm over a ~5 years period) accompanied by low-level seismicity.

Some of the creeping faults are also spatially associated with hydrothermal springs. We

interpret that the temporal behavior of the faults in the linkage zone is controlled by the

interplay between tectonic extension, high heat flows and fluid circulation near the magmatic

segments where creeping of some faults is favored.

Plain Language Summary

The exterior of the Earth is teared apart along mid-ocean ridges where magma rises and

new oceanic crust is created. Mid-ocean ridges have an unmissable zig-zag pattern because

while some portions, called ridge segments, are being teared apart others, called offsets, slide

past each other. However, how the Earth deforms in these offsets is today poorly understood.

The Afar region is the perfect place to address this open question as it is one of the few pales where a mid-ocean ridge is emerged and the segment and offsets can be observed on-land. Article In this study we combine satellite and earthquakes measurements to film how the surface of

the Earth moves in an offset. We show that the netw ork of fractures at the surface of an offset

can move either with sudden motions generating major earthquakes or they can slip

continuously over years and produce many smaller earthquakes. Our results provide one of

the few direct observations of the different type of motion of the Earth in an offset of the

mid-ocean ridge system.

1. Introduction

During continental rupture, the plate boundary zone is segmented along its length to

form discrete rift segments which accommodate plate divergence through tectonic and

magmatic activity (Hayward & Ebinger, 1996; Manighetti et al., 2001; Keir et al., 2009). As

plate divergence proceed to continental break-up, adjacent rift segments grow and interact

through linkage zones which may develop into oceanic transform faults (e.g. Taylor et al.,

2009 ; Gerya, 2013; Leroy et al., 2012; Le Pourhiet et al., 2017) . Therefore, linkage zones

play a key role in shaping the future plate boundary. However, how deformation is

distributed across a linkage zone and how much strain is accommodated by stick-slip faulting

or by continuous creep is largely unknown. The complex fault patterns of linkage zones have

prevented achieving a clear understanding of their kinematics. In recent years, deformation

of different styles of oceanic transforms have also been measured in Iceland using geodesy,

Accepted seismicity and structural geology (e.g. Brandsdóttir & Einarsson, 1979; Einarsson & This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi: 10.1029/2020JB021387.

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This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article Brandsdóttir, 1979; O pheim & G udm undsson, 1989 undsson, udm G & pheim O 1979; Brandsdóttir, lateral m otion betw een E rta A le and Tat A li is take is li A Tat and le A rta E een fre betw A that otion m show in lateral results ur atics O kinem strain. the of fault the of evolution M ith w observations direct few earthquakes ajor m o tw identified al. linkage this debated hether w still but an ents, is segm Plain odeling rift m li frera A A Tat the and that erical num suggested icity, ents seism analy easurem m e-series P passing tim frera R A encom the of InSA atics bined studies kinem com e w present-day study the this probe In to linkage rift of atics opportu kinem the perfect the resolution, offers poral s tem system rift continental 2012 but also analyzed new data from tw o local seism ic n ic seism local o tw from data new analyzed also but 2019 z al., et (e. linkage odels m 2012 rift al., et in theoretical llken A on based ation ainly m deform is ledge active know about n know is aaous20-00( lce zo se elachew linkage (B how the 2005-2010 across e tim investigated catalogues and also space We in ation 2019). deform al., obliqu et ith w osa planes R (La S-striking ~N along observatio i otion w the m ed faults show throughout creep different fault also along but 2018 ation disp deform ulative cum of identified spannin We e-series tim catalogues produce to (S1) 2014-2019 Sentinel-1 1). and (Figure AT IS V o EN ponents ith trans w com from faults left-lateral and al S-striking W-SE-trending ~N N norm both inant dom by right-lateral, odated m a accom of M a ith w consisting ici associated seism , R frera A in InSA slip used fault a (2019) al. et osa R La by study 2017; , ;

G eirsson et al., 2012; M etzger et al., 2013; al., et etzger M 2012; al., et eirsson G a s e a. 22) o td te es c sequenc ic seism the study to 2021) al., et osa R La ; La R osa et al. 2019). al. et osa R La ; (Bonatti et al., 2017; Illsley 2017; al., et (Bonatti ; ; rn ta. 07 n aeosrain eg ou D (e.g. observations rare and 2017) al., et Brune Today, the grow ing body of SA R acquisitions on exp on acquisitions R SA of body ing grow the Today, et al. 2011; al. et - L L kem p et al. 2018; La R osa et al., 2019) al., et osa R La 2018; al. et p kem 5.0 in 2007 and proposed a m odel of rift linkage linkage rift of odel m a proposed and 2007 in 5.0 > 5 (Figure 1a). This study presents one of the the of one presents study This 1a). (Figure 5 > Illsley- M etzger & Jónsson, 2014). H ow ever, little little ever, ow H 2014). Jónsson, & etzger M ra is a linkage zone w here the overall right- overall the here w zone linkage a is ra zones. zones. zone m ay evolve into a transform fault is is fault transform a into evolve ay m zone lain in N orthern A far (E thiopia). Previous Previous thiopia). (E far A orthern N in lain n period. M odeling of both types of faults faults of types both of odeling M period. n n up by N S-striking faults w ith dom inant inant dom ith w faults S-striking N by up n a rift-linkage also detailing the tem poral poral tem the detailing also rift-linkage a active linkage zone betw een the Erta A le le A Erta the een betw zone linkage active H ere, w e processed a large SA R dataset dataset R SA large a processed e w ere, H Einarsson, 2008 Einarsson, g. g. nity to investigate, at high spatial and and spatial high at investigate, to nity K em p et al., 2018; La R osa et al., 2019) 2019) al., et osa R La 2018; al., et p em K lacem ents and the related uncertainties. uncertainties. related the and ents lacem ty and structural geology to investigate investigate to geology structural and ty etw orks orks etw ne. To this aim , w e used the available available the used e w , aim this To ne. th both stick-slip faulting, in January January in faulting, stick-slip both th e kinem atics, sim ilar to the 2007 event event 2007 the to ilar sim atics, kinem e Tapponier & Varet, 1974; 1974; Varet, & Tapponier ones of continental rifts w ith our our ith w rifts continental of ones blique kinem atics characterized by by characterized atics kinem blique , field observations and geodetic geodetic and observations field , ism icity accom pany the observed observed the pany accom icity ism fer zone w here deform ation is is ation deform here w zone fer g the tim e periods 2005-2010 and and 2005-2010 periods e tim the g sis and m odeling w ith seism icity icity seism ith w odeling m and sis (D oubre et al., 2017b; K eir eir K 2017b; al., et oubre (D e in January 2018 and w e e w and 2018 January in e ; ; D ecriem & Á rnadóttir, rnadóttir, Á & ecriem D bre et al., 2017 al., et bre C orti, 2012 orti, C . A recent recent A . a; a; Pagli Pagli osed osed et et ; ;

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article faults w hich are the northern-m ost tip of TA and al and TA of ea tip ost the to northern-m the bounded are hich w clearly is 1 faults P A (Figure The (b springs 1970). level al sea ürsten, K hydrotherm below by Pl m fed frera A Lake) ~100 as frera n (A reaching know area region arra ide -w are depressed e and ~20km osa a R 330°E (La ~N TA ithin w to strike respect overlap ents ith w segm TA and left-stepping EA ent The segm ajor m a and 2012), 2019). al., al., et et (Field 2010 in eruption 1996 to 1993 during e etim ( the som of ents event segm volcanoes faulting ) the al (TA on norm li A occurred Tat and episodes ) atic ents (EA agm segm m le A atic agm Erta to m ain 15° The m ~N o far: Tw at A fa A /yr m 2020). m orthern N al., in ~6.7 et that, from show (Viltres ents ard easurem m southeastw PS G ecent R increases ajo m the here w (e.g. ents occur segm now rift Q atic the agm m Since est. w the en-echelon to of faults Plateau et border Ethiopian Eagles the large-scale by from (e.g. far odated A m accom orthern N in initially stepp rift Sea epression D ed R the a, anakil M D ~11 from N Starting the 1970 of Varet, & 2005). ee betw (Barberi a separation M 30 the junction last the triple odating during the m is accom rifts depression far Sea A ed The R g Settin ic Tecton 2. high by controlled be could circulation. hy and behavior ents fault segm atic agm creeping m active the to ity proxim in t l, 02, n fnly t ra e n intrusion an le A Erta at finally and 2012), al., et 2012), obile al., (N et allol D at 2004 in intrusion zone linkage frera A the (Fig across atics partitioned kinem al are slip norm and strike-slip left-lateral H ayw ard & Ebinger, 1996; K eir et al., 2009) al., et eir K 1996; Ebinger, & ard ayw H ; M anighetti et al., 1998; 1998; al., et anighetti M ; and observe that creeping faults are located located are faults creeping that observe and ure 1b). We docum ent how creep and stick- and creep how ent docum We 1b). ure an eruption in 2008 at A lu-D alafilla (Pagli (Pagli alafilla lu-D A at 2008 in eruption an so cut the eastern shore of the lake (Bonatti (Bonatti lake the of shore eastern the cut so eruption in 2017 (X u et al., 2017 al., et u (X 2017 in eruption in 2004 (Barnie et al., 2016b), a sm all all sm a 2016b), al., et (Barnie 2004 in uaternary, extension m igrated to a series series a to igrated m extension uaternary, ed on land south of ~16°N , creating the the creating , ~16°N of south land on ed w hich today bounds the A far rift floor floor rift far A the bounds today hich w t al., 2019). The tw o segm ents partially partially ents segm o tw The 2019). al., t b) (Bonatti et al., 2017 al., et (Bonatti b) drotherm al springs, suggesting that the the that suggesting springs, al drotherm EA segm ent: a m agm a w ithdraw al and and al ithdraw w a agm m a ent: segm EA tGaaAle A ada G at st by system s of w est-dipping norm al al norm est-dipping w of s system by st rity of m agm atic activity and faulting faulting and activity atic agm m of rity heat flow s and hydrotherm al fluids fluids al hydrotherm and s flow heat accom m odate extension in N orthern orthern N in extension odate m accom n the East A frican, G ulf of A den and and den A of ulf G frican, A East the n ubian, Som alian and A rabian Plates Plates rabian A and alian Som ubian, al., 2002). Extension in A far w as as w far A in Extension 2002). al., .s.l.) and hosting a salt w ater lake lake ater w salt a hosting and .s.l.) ~16 m m /yr at ~N 12° (Figure 1a) 1a) (Figure 12° ~N at /yr m m ~16 ain (A P) (Figure 1). The A P is a a is P A The 1). (Figure P) (A ain Figure 1). H ere, the m ost recent recent ost m the ere, H 1). Figure r, the ~N 50°E-directed extension extension 50°E-directed ~N the r, . . nged en-echelon, w ith the EA EA the ith w en-echelon, nged

(A m elung et al., 2000), an an 2000), al., et elung m (A Beyene & A bdelsalam , , bdelsalam A & Beyene ; Bicman&& ann Brinckm ; M oore oore M

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article psd b L Roa t l (09, n bu dt are dots blue th and are (2019), dots al. red et osa (2011); R al. La et by elachew B episode by TA 2007 le, A and Erta = A E triangles). reversed (green study of the A frera Plain recorded during 2005-2013; gree 2005-2013; during recorded a Plain et frera A (Viltres the of ubia N w.r.t velocities full-spreading ination term estern w the onversely, C 2017). al., et Figure 1 – 1 Figure 2019). al., odate et m osa R accom (La is 1b) ents segm (Figure a TA faults and A E interpreted the ere w een betw hich w shear bin faults, com a ed S-striking show ~N data along structural and icity seism ith w characteriz M is ith w P M A the is earthquakes at oderate m icity Seism panying accom 1b). syst fault (Figure these along (B active far icity A in seism ed orks netw show 2018) porary al., tem from catalogs ic Seism .TA and er EA w een and betw (2011) fluids al. et atic ond agm m m am H by V functions crustal receiver igh H cove yo is dated. s area flow the been in lava not activity atic and agm m cones that scoria suggesting of ents fresh and alignm deposits ith w Evaporitic ell-defined. w as not A t the center, the A P is dissected by a system of of system a by dissected is P A the center, the t A L 5.0 of 2 O ctober 2007 (La R osa et al. 2019). Fault 2019). al. et osa R (La 2007 ctober O 2 of 5.0 Tectonics and seism icity of N orthern A far far A orthern N of icity seism and Tectonics P /V s ais > .) r as mesrd n h ae using area the in easured m also ere w 2.0) (> ratios

L > 5. The only previously analyzed earthquake earthquake analyzed previously only The 5. > l., 2020) and seism ic netw ork used in this this in used ork netw ic seism and 2020) l., ung, although these eruptive products have have products eruptive these although ung, basalts outcrop in the A P (K eir et al., 2013) 2013) al., et eir (K P A the in outcrop basalts of the A P, as it links to the EA segm ent, is is ent, segm EA the to links it as P, A the of = Tat A li, A P = A frera Plain frera A = P A li, A Tat = em s indicating that the A P is tectonically tectonically is P A the that indicating s em s evidence that the overall right-lateral right-lateral overall the that otions m evidence s left-lateral and al norm of ation n dots are the seism icity betw een 2005 2005 een betw icity seism the are dots n e interpreted as due to the presence of of presence the to due as interpreted e e seism icity during the 2007 seism ic ic seism 2007 the during icity seism e the seism icity during 2011-2013 by by 2011-2013 during icity seism the elachew et al., 2011; Illsley-K em p et et p em Illsley-K 2011; al., et elachew a) ed by low -m agnitude earthquakes earthquakes agnitude -m low by ed ring system s of tectonic fractures, fractures, tectonic of s system ring Mamai emet nAfr S PS G far, A in ents segm atic agm M d by oblique slip on ~N S-striking S-striking ~N on slip oblique by d ~N S-striking faults (Figure 1b). 1b). (Figure faults S-striking ~N m odeling of InSA R data along along data R InSA of odeling m b) b) Seism icity icity Seism

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article Ethiopia during 2017-2018 (Figure 1a) (D oubre et al et oubre (D 1a) (Figure t by 2017-2018 recorded dis during icity is peri seism e Ethiopia ation tim local the deform the how analyzed spanning finally Eu investigate the and to by ages im zone R SA respectively, of frera A dataset the vast a analyzed We covering ta a D ic Seism d n a R SA n I 3. (2019). al. e ome 9 itreorms rm S mae o the of ages im R ge SA 049) from (track s descending interferogram and 028) 92 ed (track form We ascending g ocessin r p ta a D R SA n I 3.1. 2021). al., m atic kinem hydroth plified are Sim c) onds diam (1970). al. et fau yellow ann are The lines Brinckm black (2019). al. The et (2018). osa R al. et p em Illsley-K acquisitions w ith high level of noise (Figure S2). S2). (Figure noise of level periods high ith w spanning and acquisitions 2 baselines since acquisitions perpendicular all sm frequent ost ore m alm uch m processed e w i onsidering S1, C A few For IS of V S1). N E of (Figure exception the noisy case are ith w the in acquisitions, hich w satellite etri baselines, poral interferom tem old (G processed and We . ethod m EM D SRTM branch-cut sec U 1-arc IC the the oldste ith (G w 0.5 of rapped unw strength then ith w filter decorre and noise er-spectral pow esidual using R ed 2007). al., perform et ere w (Farr al., EM oval et D rem osen (R phase package topographic are the softw E) altec (ISC JPL/C ent the using asc Environm both period, in SR ages 2014-2019 im e the sam for satellite 079) the S1 using from s olds (G geocoded interferogram then Werner, algorithm ere w & s branch-cut U oldstein IC interferogram (G the filter using 2007) rapped al., spectrum et unw er (Farr pow EM D a RTM S using sof resolution) contributio m C I_PA phase O (~90 R sec the Topographic using 2004). al., et osen generated (R ere w s interferogram nterferogram s w ith large baselines or that that or baselines large ith w s nterferogram lts and fractures m apped in the area by La La by area the in apped m fractures and lts in & Werner, 1998). Interferogram s w ere ere w s Interferogram 1998). Werner, & in w o tem porary seism ic netw orks active in in active orks netw ic seism porary tem o w lation w ere then filtered w ith an adaptive adaptive an ith w filtered then ere w lation ns w ere rem oved using an external 3-arc 3-arc external an using oved rem ere w ns all acquisitions betw een 2014 and 2016. 2016. and 2014 een betw acquisitions all h/Stanford InSA R Scientific C om puting puting om C Scientific R InSA h/Stanford ending and descending tracks (014 and and (014 tracks descending and ending betw een 12 to 36 days, excluding som e e som excluding days, 36 to 12 een betw om etries from 2005 to 2010. EN V ISAT ISAT V EN 2010. to 2005 from etries om odel for the A frera Plain by La R osa et et osa R La by Plain frera A the for odel 016, w e processed interferogram s w ith ith w s interferogram processed e w 016, tributed across the linkage zone. We We zone. linkage the across tributed , 2017b , erm al springs reported in the area by by area the in reported springs al erm -r e ~0m eouin RMSRTM resolution) m (~30 sec 1-arc a 2012). The S LC s co-registration and and co-registration s LC S The 2012). c pairs w ith both sm all perpendicular perpendicular all sm both ith w pairs c . Interferogram s w ere then filtered filtered then ere w s Interferogram . stein et al., 1988) and geocoded to to geocoded and 1988) al., et stein TM D EM . We also produced 142 142 produced also We . EM D TM tein et al., 1988). The unw rapped rapped unw The 1988). al., et tein ropean satellites EN V ISAT and S1 S1 and ISAT V EN satellites ropean T im plies using all the available available the all using plies im T tw are developed by JP L/C altech altech L/C JP by developed are tw 1998) w ith strength of 0.6 and and 0.6 of strength ith w 1998) ods 2005-2010 and 2014-2019, 2014-2019, and 2005-2010 ods eirK ; EN V IS AT satellite in both both in satellite AT IS V EN et al., al., et 2017; 2017; La R osa et et osa R La

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article abrupt displacem ents w ere identified and extracted extracted and o but identified P ere A w the ents of north displacem the occurr to abrupt is intrusion ation ain m deform the after volcano P A the hence from ay 2005, aw km ctober O ~100 is abbahu D during area. 20 far study A our al., in et ents (Ebinger eruption displacem le A abbahu D Erta at sudden other intrusions only The 2005-2010 det further ith w co-seism described is ultiple m This lack event. the this to in just due it included to is vis signal applied is The not f). signal and the S3e of part (Figure only Lake but 2018 February in M reported filter previously PS the A than the interferogr other of that series found the e applying w analyzed e w before ents 2014) displacem al., e-ser tim the et from dist (Pagli extracted ospheric also atm ere w ents other all ize displacem inim m 2008) to al., et filter (Elliott PS) al., (A noise et ospheric (Biggs atm filter correlated linear-function a orbital ith w applied e are them w there fitting approach, that ork ensure netw a sing patterns excel U the fringe hile w dense 2012), of al., lack et adopting by (Wang the data Trees AT IS for V as EN Spanning in resolution identified e ere w sam the errors also is this noise, rr cnrl al sse Fgr Sc n d. Fig s d). nother A and episode. S3c 2018 January (Figure the for system displacem correlation fault abrupt 2019), central al., et frera A osa R (La b) and S3a to s interferogram S1 (Figu the 079 track ulti-looked m e w descending S1 analysis, for descend 87 ISAT V and EN for 014, 41 track 028, track ascending their AT IS V and EN inte ents the in displacem errors the of S LO using sources ize satellite inim m to ulative cum order In of lysis a n A ies er e-S im T R SA n I 3.2. Π -R ATE softw are (Wang et al., 2012). We analyzed 51 51 analyzed We 2012). al., et (Wang are softw ATE -R (X u et al., 2017; M oore et al., 2019) al., et oore M 2017; al., et u (X ail in section 3.2.2. 3.2.2. section in ail and applied an A tm ospheric Phase Screen Screen Phase ospheric tm A an applied and 07.W as rmoe topographically- oved rem also We 2007). m all sudden ground m otion also occurred occurred also otion m ground sudden all m L the tim e series but cross-correlation w as as w cross-correlation but series e tim the am s and local seism icity catalogues, and and catalogues, icity seism local and s am no unw rapping m istakes in this study. study. this in istakes m rapping unw no EN V ISAT interferogram s. U nw rapping rapping nw U s. interferogram ISAT V EN from the interferogram s (Figure S4), w e e w S4), (Figure s interferogram the from ic independent interferogram s covering covering s interferogram independent ic ies using the cross-correlation technique technique cross-correlation the using ies ible and som e is covered by the A frera frera A the by covered is e som and ible 5 earthquake of 2 O ctober 2007 (Figure (Figure 2007 ctober O 2 of earthquake 5 urbances (Ferretti et al., 2001). A brupt brupt A 2001). al., et (Ferretti urbances utside of the selected study area. A fter fter A area. study selected the of utside ing to the geocoded interferogram s by by s interferogram geocoded the to ing a pixel size of 90m -by-90m to reduce reduce to -by-90m 90m of size pixel a lent level of coherence in S1 data and and data S1 in coherence of level lent 08 ed. The area affected by the E rta A le le A rta E the by affected area The ed. re S1 and S2). Before the tim e-series e-series tim the Before S2). and S1 re ents occurred in January 2018 in the the in 2018 January in occurred ents hs lsr to nMii m um inim M on ethod m closure phase a uncertainties for each InSA R track, track, R InSA each for uncertainties adorE STdtstsat rmfrom starts dataset ISAT V EN our and rferogram s, w e estim ated tim e-series e-series tim ated estim e w s, rferogram r S so h rsls f cross- of results the show S4 ure ; ; , both of w hich occurred outside of of outside occurred hich w of both , . To identify the tim e of abrupt abrupt of e tim the identify To . Barnie et al., 2016a) and the 2017 2017 the and 2016a) al., et Barnie ing track 049, 55 for S1 ascending ascending S1 for 55 049, track ing the observation period are the the are period observation the interferogram s for for s interferogram

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article then applied A PS using a com bination of tem poral hi poral tem of bination com a using PS A applied then c sri a fut re drn 20-09 Conver C (~10- s 3 2005-2009. that pixel at during ing fault show the creep ), m fault m as fault strain (~30-40 ing 2 uch m deform pixel at abruptly along continuously increase range total occurring period creep observation indicating ever, ow H ents S6). and 4 c displacem O the Figures in B during and A and faulting 2-4 Profiles 3; stick-slip (Figures P A the indicating sh otion across m also ents anners m displacem different in ulative cum of -l km e-series 2-5 tim The along alls consis hanging-w is the of tracks otion m both in n-dip R ation dow InSA increase deform the een R range betw InSA The the exists. relationship a that that ing show onstrates dem ent S6, and displacem R tr 4 InSA AT IS V Figure ulative N ~N E cum of ar en-echelon to profiles ing of descending deform series and corresponding three patterns show ation ascending deform e-series tim both in ulative cum The values) 2005-2010 lts: esu R ies e-Ser im T 3.2.1. c e-series. O tim of ents resultant varyi the give displacem with to back abrupt added ated observations estim raw entioned the aforem with results consistent the show are S5) Sum (Figure tests Residual Our the S5). and (Figure roughness smoo a solution selected the We 2012). between al., et Lap a (Wang of using oval rem basis e-series PS A tim variance-co ated pixel-by-pixel a on estim the then uncertainties from We ated noise. estim correlated years cutoff 0.5 of -pass low length ith w ith w filter aussian G poral tem a (pixels 2 and 3 in Figure 3; Profile C in Figure 4 4 Figure in C Profile 3; Figure in 3 and 2 (pixels 30 m m ) (pixel 3 in Figure 3; Profile D in Figure S6 Figure in D Profile 3; Figure in 3 (pixel ) m m 30

along different sub-parallel faults during the the during faults sub-parallel different along are reliable because the inverted time-series time-series inverted the because reliable are lacian sm oothing w ith interferogram s after after s interferogram ith w oothing sm lacian tent w ith dom inant norm al faulting w ith ith w faulting al norm inant dom ith w tent tober 2007 earthquake (pixel 1 in Figure Figure in 1 (pixel earthquake 2007 tober follow ed by a spatial B utterw orth filter filter orth utterw B spatial a by ed follow losetmetim see also e w across different faults are displayed in in displayed are faults different across gh-pass and spatial low -pass filter w ith ith w filter -pass low spatial and gh-pass ow that deform ation is accom m odated odated m accom is ation deform that ow of Squares (RSS) of the displacements displacements the of (RSS) Squares of thing factor that minimizes the trade-off trade-off the minimizes that factor thing deform ation patterns and active faults faults active and patterns ation deform S-striking faults m apped in the area. A A area. the in apped m faults S-striking S6). We see sudden steps in ground ground in steps sudden see We S6). s is com parable to those deform ing ing deform those to parable com is s ong faults. faults. ong their and ents displacem ental increm sely, less deform ation is taken up by by up taken is ation deform less sely, ng smoothing factors. Finally, the the Finally, factors. smoothing ng tober 2007 and January 2018 w ere ere w 2018 January and 2007 tober tick-slip faulting accom m odates as as odates m accom faulting tick-slip variance m atrix of the spatially spatially the of atrix m variance clearly m atch the faults. This This faults. the atch m clearly eas of range increase (positive (positive increase range of eas acks (Figure 2 and 3) w ith ith w 3) and 2 (Figure acks -progressive continuous continuous -progressive and Figure S6g Figure and ).

-j). The The -j).

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article observed in areas around pixels 2 and 3 indicating indicating 3 icity. and 2 seism pixels inor m around M the areas hen in w occu observed sequence ic seism earthquakes 2007 of ber ctober O num e the highest the (Belachew th 3) that the s dur (Figure in show 3 icity icity catalogues seism seism local the using R een InSA betw analyzed e w ents, relationship displacem the M the Thi ~N investigate of along 2005-2010. odels faulting m during that P icity A show the seism in ation observations R deform of InSA ode The m fau suggesting tracks, hite-to-red descending (w the in show increase ascending range asterisks of both s at bered ent Patterns num 3. blue, displacem Figure The ulative data. AT cum S IS V LO of EN aps M – 2 e r igu F L erhuk i 20 (a s e a. 21) T fu To 2019). al., et osa R (La 2007 in earthquake 5 L 5 also happened. Few earthquakes are also also are earthquakes Few happened. also 5 colors) across m ajor faults are observed in in observed are faults ajor m across colors) that fault creep is likely associated w ith ith w associated likely is creep fault that lting w ith dom inant norm al kinem atics. atics. kinem al norm inant dom ith w lting t al. 2011 al. t rred in the central fault system during during system fault central the in rred lce pcs(1ya nevl rmfrom interval) (~1-year epochs elected ree deform ing areas as identified by by identified as areas ing deform ree location of the tim e-series show n in in n show e-series tim the of location s is also consistent w ith InSA R and and R InSA ith w consistent also is s n 20-00 n te nAR R InSA the and 2005-2010 ing S-striking faults is the dom inant inant dom the is faults S-striking ; ; La R osa et al. 2019). Figure Figure 2019). al. et osa R La rther rther

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article an the scaled during are M earthquakes bars the of ber arks m error num line the The sho are ) s d ones. and ) istogram b H in filtered triangles the blue are The epoch. last the extracted from pixels as show n in Figure 2. a ) and and ) a 2. e Figure in n displacem S show LO as pixels ulative cum from of extracted e-series Tim – 3 e r igu F L 5 earthquake of 2 O ctober 2007. 2007. ctober O 2 of earthquake 5 w the raw tim e-series w hile the black dots dots black the hile w e-series tim raw the w c) show the cum ulative displacem ents at at ents displacem ulative cum the show c) d the scale is reported in the legend. legend. the in reported is scale the d InSA R observation period and the red red the and period observation R InSA nts (including sudden displacem ents) ents) displacem sudden (including nts

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article wih epc t toe aue i te a area e sam the in easured m those to respect ith w ) m m seism a to fault of corresponds ber num also 4 a pixel along at ent stick-slip displacem ing by s confirm show 6) odated episode, m and 5 2007 accom (Figure 4 ctober O pixel the at of east e-series the tim to The also ents displacem abrupt f continued new and also 3), and period S-striking 2 ~N Figure 2005-2010 short, an the 5 along during (Figure observed otions deform m ain tracks m o ith w tw show descending consistent e-series and tim ulative ascending cum S1 the The in 2014-2019 lts: esu R ies Furt e-Ser im T lines). 3.2.2. (black f the sud to section both cross in n that corresponding s show occur show also d) are (panels clearly ation e-series deform tim The lines). in the descending track show higher displacem ents i ents displacem higher 2005-20 show track during observed descending as the w in e-ser hat w tim to the ilar sim January event, 31 this ongoing of the east to the To 2018 5). January section 10 from earthquakes asc in di S profiles LO of ulative cum Locations of a) e-series profiles. tim ISAT V different EN - 4 e r igu F ending track 028 and m apped faults (black (black faults apped m and 028 track ending ies at pixel 2 show s that fault creep is still still is creep fault that s show 2 pixel at ies her tim e-series are show n in Figure S6. S6. Figure in n show are e-series tim her aults. The m ajor faults that w ere m apped apped m ere w that faults ajor m The aults. n the eastern sector and near pixel 2 (~40 (~40 2 pixel near and sector eastern the n that extension in the center of A frera is is frera A of center the in extension that occurred (pixel 4 in Figure 5 and 6). 6). and 5 Figure in 4 (pixel occurred den (panels b-c) and tim e-progressive e-progressive tim and b-c) (panels den that the abrupt displacem ent occurred occurred ent displacem abrupt the that deform ing in 2014-2019 (pixels 2 in in 2 (pixels 2014-2019 in ing deform 10 (Figure 5 and 6). The tim e-series e-series tim The 6). and 5 (Figure 10 ault planes. A deform ation pattern pattern ation deform A planes. ault d 6). The deform ation patterns are are patterns ation deform The 6). d 2018 (the seism icity is analyzed in in analyzed is icity seism (the 2018 c eune nldn t M o tw including sequence ic splacem ents and active faults along along faults active and ents splacem in the ascending track (~20 m m ) ) m m (~20 track ascending the in ing areas of range increase both both increase range of areas ing segm ents. The January 2018 2018 January The ents. segm L ~5 ~5

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article east of pixel 2 and north of the Afrera Lake in Feb a with interaction to due is This 6). and 5 (Figure 5 and 6). and 5 6). higher than those duringobserved 2005-2010 because but it is smoothed by the APS filter. Therefore, di d motion ground abrupt the hence cross-correlation, c for analysis time-series the in 2018 February the fully andobserved it is partlycovered the by lake signa the of magnitude the included), is event 2018 fact that we do not have two interferograms spannin a for possible not was this However, episodes. 2018 a cross-correlation the using filter the APS before extra to Wetried real. is signal the that confirms but not in the ascending one. Yet the presence of t normal and lateral component of the fault motion ad in just observed is and small is pattern The 2017). e the bounding faults west-dipping hosts area study f ~NNW-striking short, a along increase range of mm he he signal in two independent interferograms splacements splacements at the eastern tip of the AP are ct the February 2018 abrupt displacement abrupt 2018 February the ct (Figure and S3e f). We decided to include ruary 2018 (Figure S3e and f), when a ~19 nother abrupt displacement that occurred that displacement abrupt nother s done for the October 2007 and January January and 2007 October the for done s the descending track likely because the the because likely track descending the g the February 2018 event only (January l is small and its spatial pattern can’t be can’t pattern spatial its and small is l d d constructively in the descending track oes not show as an offset in Figure 6d 6d Figure in offset an as show not oes the to due primarily reasons, of series astern shore of the lake (Bonatti et al. et (Bonatti lake the of shore astern mltns bt ihu apyn the applying without but ompleteness of the February 2018 episode (Figure ault is observed. This sector of the of sector This observed. is ault

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article LOS. normal-slipcomponents add constructively in descen zero.This could bedue tothe oblique fault kinema S1 descending track, are lower than those measured faultsobservedas ENVISATin data. Indeed, similar Figure2-4and Such S6). patterns are likelyrelated wheretime-progressive displacement signalswereob Finally,range time-series the from ascending track increase 014 corresponding to mapped faults in th Figure 6. that period. The blue, numberedfrom asterisksdata. S1 in A gapthe present is in 2017 ma inthe ascen Figure 5 - Maps of cumulative displacements respect ps show the location of the time-series in toongoing deformation along the same dingtrack due tolack acquisitions of in e western sector of the AP (Figure 5a-f), in the ascending track, if not completely ticsand the fact that the strike-slip and to the satellite LOS at different epochs dingLOS but cancel out in ascending ly to ENVISAT,to ly thedisplacements in servedinduring 3 (pixel 2005-2010 lo hw oe other some patterns show also of

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article (~45 m m ) com ponents (Figure S7). M odel 1 has relati has 1 odel M S7). (Figure obli is ponents com fault ) m The m S7). (~45 S-str ~N (Figure a 67° of of angle consists an ith w hile w solution 1 ledge, odel M know an best-fit priori a 330°E The N as een area the (betw in fault the structures of w strike s (2002). al. and et interferogram Jonsson location from The 1). algorithm odel M partitioning as o tw referred inverted e is w (this Initially, cross-correlation. ith w procedure 2012) al., based et Pagli derivative a 2002; by ed follow , algorithm 10 x 3.2 of half-spac ) (µ (O elastic odulus 2 m dislocation conventional a in January shear bo plane in kada from O fault s an the ing observed assum ent interferogram orbits displacem (079) independent the S1 o e tw k odelled a m u q We th inverting r ea 2018 y r a u n a J e th of g elin od M 4.1 g elin od M Jan in R SA n event I ic 4. a seism t the scaled of e are show ) tim bars d the ), error b arks m he in T line ones. red ) a triangles 4. filtered blue the Figure in The show ents pixels epoch. from last displacem the extracted ulative S cum LO of satellite e-series Tim - 6 e r igu F 1 0 . We inverted both the observed interferogram s and and s interferogram observed the both inverted We . a o h dln,weue neCal i ulat sim arlo C onte M a used e w odeling, m the For Pa. e w ith a Poisson’s ratio of 0.25 and a shear shear a and 0.25 of ratio Poisson’s a ith w e que w ith left-lateral (~33 m m ) and norm al al norm and ) m m (~33 left-lateral ith w que 36-days long independent interferogram s, s, interferogram independent long 36-days For M odel 1, w e set narrow bounds on the the on bounds narrow set e w 1, odel M For nd the scale is reported in the legend. The The legend. the in reported is scale the nd , c) show the cum ulative displacem ents at at ents displacem ulative cum the show c) , uary 2018. 2018. uary w e let the other param eters free to vary. vary. to free eters param other the let e w he raw tim e-series w hile the black dots dots black the hile w e-series tim raw he iking fault (N 357°E ) dipping to the east east the to dipping ) 357°E (N fault iking (including sudden displacem ents) in the the in ents) displacem sudden (including , (C ervelli et al., 2001; Jonsson et al., al., et Jonsson 2001; al., et ervelli (C , d N 30°E) using the strike of m apped apped m of strike the using 30°E) N d kada, 1985) w ith uniform slip across across slip uniform ith w 1985) kada, ere sub-sam pled using the quadtree quadtree the using pled sub-sam ere vely low R oot-M ean-Square (R M S) S) M (R ean-Square oot-M R low vely th ascending (014) and descending descending and (014) ascending th 018 as fault slip by jointly jointly by slip fault as 018 those extracted extracted those ed annealing annealing ed

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article simulation simulation of correlated noise parame model each with associated uncertainties the mm of left-lateral and ~55 mm of normal components,normal of mm ~55 left-lateraland of mm comparable to Model 1. The fault strikes ~N358°E an left-later oblique an again is model the and exists shows 2 Model S8). (Figure 2) Model as referred is searchwindow. Wethe on bounds the constrain then S7and table Furthermore, S7and S1). the best-fit fault wi of width a with ratio aspect anomalous an has plane descending and ascending both in mm ~3 of residuals moment moment is 2.3x10 resp tracks, descending and ascending in mm 3.2 and pre the comparable to residuals has 3 Model RMS mm. asso mm ~39 of component normal dominant a has slip km-wi 4.8 and km-long 3.6 is length fault The ~68°. is again an oblique left-lateral fault striking N35 bou large relatively set again we modeling, the For qua again been have interferograms cross-correlated nois the minimizing inversion the run to us allowed displa 2018 January the Finally, inverted time-seriesprocessing also using the cross-correlation we ratio(Figure S8). a has 2 Model yet S2), (Table tracks descending and S8 table S2). Model 1 and Model 2 show similar RMS etltrl lp ln ~Ssrkn fut. h lo The faults. ~NS-striking ki along fault similar show slip models the all To summarize, left-lateral compone thealso strike-slip C.I.cm, as of 3.8-4.1 sli respectively.Normal km, 4.2-5.4 and km 3.5-3.7 t for C.I.(Table 90% solutions The S4). 100 the of has parameter each for (CI) Interval Confidence 90% noise. Such simulations have then been added to the covariance matrices of the input data to create 100 16 Nm corresponding to a M (Wright et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2014) w 4.9 4.9 earthquake 9°E and9°E dipping to the east with an angle of simulations of spatially correlated random dth corresponds dth the upper to of bound the nt with a 90% C.I. of 1.1-1.5. a with 90% C.I. nt 1.1-1.5. of method (this is (this method referred as 3). Model This he fault length and width range between range width and length fault he vraiiy n tie knmtc and kinematics strike, in variability w input data and inverted (Figure S9). The nds, except for the fault strike. Model 3 Model strike. fault the for except nds, l al wt goer ad kinematics and geometry with fault al ~10 km and a length of 3.5 km (Figure km 3.5 of length a and km ~10 dtree partitioned (Jonsson et al., 2002).al., et (Jonsson partitioned dtree that a solution with a 3 km fault width fault km 3 a with solution a that p is very well constrained with a 90% 90% a with constrained well very is p e of the observed interferograms. The The interferograms. observed the of e fault width to be between 1-3 km (this km be1-3between to width fault d d dips ~76° to the east. The slip has 69 de (Figure 7 and Table S3). The fault fault The Table S3). and 7 (Figure de been calculated from the distribution the from calculated been tracks (Table tracks However, S1). fault the geologically reasonable fault aspect fault reasonable geologically residuals of ~3 mm in both ascending resulting in a geodetic M geodetic a in resulting cement signals as extracted from the the from extracted as signals cement vious solutions and equal to 2.7 mm equalmm 2.7 to and solutions vious e b aotn te ot Carlo Monte the adopting by ter ciey Tbe 3. h geodetic The S3). (Table ectively ciated with a left-lateral slip of 13 13 of slip left-lateral a with ciated nematics characterized by oblique oblique by characterized nematics

(Table S3). We also calculated . . We used the variance- w 5 (Figure 5

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article inversion for a better research of the global minim global the of research better a for inversion in minima local related the and noise the reducing improvement great a shown has 3) (Model correlation rather are parameters these that suggests magnitude 4.2 Modeling of time-progressive displacement displacement time-progressive of Modeling 4.2 in earthquakes occurred orangearemajor stars the proj the is line dashed red The plane. fault the is geode the is beachball red The residuals. f) e, and cr b) a, 3). (Model model fault Best-fit – 7 Figure in mode of ~NS-strikingdeformation the dominant is October of event the to similar also is 3 Model of 3, Model in space model-misfit the across research no since however, kinematics, and geometries fault solution best-fit the for CI 90% narrow the by and 10 the by shown parameters fault the in variability ection of the fault top at surface. The two, surface.The at top fault the of ection tic focal mechanism while the red square square red the while mechanism focal tic January 2018. January 2018. 2007, suggesting that oblique slip along slip oblique that suggesting 2007, similar have 3 and (Table 2 Models S4). um. This is also shown by the very low low very the by shown also is This um. oss-correlated deformation. c, d) model d) c, deformation. oss-correlated 0 Monte Carlo simulations (Figure S9) S9) (Figure simulations Carlo Monte 0 we favor that solution. The kinematics The solution. that favor we the of central the faults AP. constrains have been imposed to the to imposed been have constrains h ms-i sae ad loig the allowing and space, miss-fit the el osrie. sn te cross- the Using constrained. well n h qaiy f h ipt data, input the of quality the in

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article m (al S) h mansok s olwe b sever by ed follow as w ain-sh m ain-shock a m ith w The S6). 2018 (Table January km 10 ±2.2 the and km ( started ) ±2.8 km of P, sequence A (1-10 errors the at crust vertical and cluster upper the horizontal ithin earthquakes w located occur 499 and the ll A system A correction of (2017). distance al. the et odel m applying and eters, velocity om seism 2.5D a p (M im and or agnitudes m 2000) m algorithm or al., search et four ct-Tree by ax O (Lom the recorded using earthquakes earthquakes for (loca 009 aves N S-w station at and pe arrival that ave P-w during first record the ith ic w earthquakes seism the all identify continuous to of 2018 onth m 2017b one al., et 2018 oubre inspected (D a We e January w in 2017-2018 in R events, far A InSA in by stick-slip deployed the identified slip characterize fault better To the lysis a n A ic fr A Seism 5. the across faults stick-slip the to ilar sim are respect dip-slip, M a to and ( correspond left-lateral area of the m m in ~40 fault and apped m m m a atching -long, m km 5.7 is perfectly , fault obli km The an of east. the to consists ~64° S5) for Table dipping as s and S10 algorithm e (Figure sam the odel m using 2005 een tracks, betw ents descending displacem ulative fa cum is it the because inverted 3) and 2 Figure selected in e 2 w (pattern odeling m lake the For ation. deform of types that tw o m ajor earthquakes occurred. H ow ever, just just ever, ow H occurred. earthquakes ajor m o tw that M ) km (~2 er shallow another ith w yoeta oain r ossetwihteIS R InSA the ith w consistent are locations hypocentral We also m odelled a creeping fault to understand the understand to fault creeping a odelled m also We L b mesrn te eot-ek mpiue n i ula sim on plitude am zero-to-peak the easuring m by ) W 5.2 earthquake. The creeping fault geom etry, kinem etry, geom fault creeping The earthquake. 5.2 L 5.1±0.4 on the 11 January (Figure 8 and Table S6). Table and 8 (Figure January 11 the on 5.1±0.4 r from other abrupt displacem ents. We jointly jointly We ents. displacem abrupt other from r era linkage-zone. linkage-zone. era ted at A frera) and m anually picked both P- P- both picked anually m and frera) A at ted 4 km -w ide and is located at a depth of 0.9 0.9 of depth a at located is and ide -w km 4 riod. We found a total of 499 earthquakes earthquakes 499 of total a found We riod. km , respectively (Table S 6). The seism ic ic seism The 6). S (Table respectively , km for the D anakil region from Illsley-K em p p em Illsley-K from region anakil D the for the creeping fault just north of the A frera frera A the of north just fault creeping the Figure 4). The fault accom m odated ~86 ~86 odated m accom fault The 4). Figure a single fault w as assum ed in the InSA R R InSA the in ed assum as w fault single a ; ; the stick-slip fault m odel. O ur best-fit best-fit ur O odel. m fault stick-slip the tim e-series and m odeling and indicate indicate and odeling m and e-series tim ively, during 2005-2010, w hich w ould ould w hich w 2005-2010, during ively, que left-lateral fault, striking ~N S and and S ~N striking fault, left-lateral que and 2010 of tw o InSA R ascending and and ascending R InSA o tw of 2010 and K eir et al., 2017 al., et eir K and recorded by the seism ic netw ork ork netw ic seism the by recorded and nalyzed the seism icity accom panying panying accom icity seism the nalyzed ocks of M of ocks average ith w S6) Table and 8 Figure along the m ain N N W-trending fault fault W-trending N N ain m the along lem ented into the N LLoc softw are are softw LLoc N the into ented lem ings, from 1 January to 31 January January 31 to January 1 from ings, l fesok wih M ith w aftershocks al geom etry and kinem atics of these these of atics kinem and etry geom e stations. We then located the the located then We stations. e far. We finally estim ated local local ated estim finally We far. L ~5.2±0.3 at depth of 9±4 9±4 of depth at ~5.2±0.3 ; La R osa et al., 2021 al., et osa R La ; ted Wood A nderson nderson A Wood ted atics and m agnitude agnitude m and atics L > 4.5 along along 4.5 > The The ). ).

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article InSAR is mainly due to the shallow earthquake, whil corresponding to a Ma to corresponding W 3. Model preferred our of kinematics and geometry same the used we simulation, the For km. 9 of depth interferograms an assuming Okada dislocation shear hypo this test To displacement. surface the to much focal mechanisms for the earthquakes with M with earthquakes the for mechanisms focal The cumulative seismic moment release (Figure 8b) (Figure release moment seismic cumulative The the two days (8 and 9 January 2018) preceding the m the M displacementsof mm. 3.5 the hypothes supports This sim the S11, Figure in seen be can As data. seismic Changes (CSC) (See section 6 and 6 Figure (See Changes(CSC) section S12). cal by this verified We mainshock. the by triggered small some that suggesting likely 8a) (Figure west solutions. The majority of the aftershocks followin gaps of the seismic network in the studyarea, weh oeig s h to vns ol nt e eaae t separated descending tracks. Sincethe depth of the M be not could events two the as modeling km) andkm) data seismic estima depth hypocentral the between correspondence as displacement, InSAR observed the to contributes L 5.2 main-shock on 10 January (~ 9 km), it is likel

(2.0 km) forkm) the 11 (2.0 earthquake. January w 5.2 and approximately comparable to the Mthe to comparable approximately and 5.2 L 5.1 on 11 January was shallower (2.6 km) than L > 4.5. However, due to the large azimuthal large the to due However, 4.5. > g the major earthquakes are shifted to the ave not been able to unambiguousobtain ain earthquake. We attempted to process e the deeper M source having the top edge located at a homogeneous elastic half-space, fault half-space, elastic homogeneous ulations show negligible surface LOS surface negligible show ulations is the only is the M slip along nearby fault segments was was segments fault nearby along slip uaig h rltd olm Stress Coulomb related the culating ted from both InSAR inversion (2.6 inversion InSAR both from ted thesis, we produced two simulated simulated two produced we thesis, e then set a fault slip of 134.5 mm, 134.5 of slip fault a set then e y that the displacement captured by moal i bt acnig and ascending both in emporally lo niae b te ey good very the by indicated also shows earthquakes occurring in in occurring earthquakes shows L 5.2 does not contribute L L 5.2 calculated from calculated 5.2 5.1 of January 5.1 2018

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article uo Srs Chne ( C) aclto we sd th used e faul w and calculation b-3), ) SC are/coulom (C w.usgs.gov/softw hanges w C (https://w Stress M the b hether oulom w earthquakes, C ajor m explore three We the een rupture. betw their w fail, to it inhibiting bring faults can fault) (call slip receiver fault a the by (called caused ou C the changes ith w stress b quantified 19 oulom C be can arris, H changes 1994; al., stress et These ing K (e.g. slip inhibiting tion la lcu ca ) SC (C ges n a h C ess Str 12 b of lom ou binning C a 6. has plot histogram The January. 11 during the sam e tim e-period. The tw o red lines in b in lines red e o om tw m ic The seism een e-period. betw tim ulative e um C frera sam A ) b in the lines). during located icity (black Seism ) fractures a – 8 e r igu F Earthquakes m odify the stress conditions on nearby nearby on conditions stress the odify m Earthquakes L 5 in 2007 and the tw o M o tw the and 2007 in 5 hile negative C oulom b stress changes unload unload changes stress b oulom C negative hile 98; 98; ed the source fault) on a pre-stressed fault fault pre-stressed a on fault) source the ed hours. hours. lom b failure criterion, w hereby positive positive hereby w criterion, failure b lom som e stress-triggering effect occurred occurred effect stress-triggering e som ) m ark the tw o m ajor events of 10 and and 10 of events ajor m o tw the ark m ) i & & Lin 1 and 31 January 2018 w ith fault and and fault ith w 2018 January 31 and 1 nt release and num ber of earthquakes earthquakes of ber num and release nt ts are m odeled as O kada shear shear kada O as odeled m are ts Stein, 2004; Stein, faults by either prom oting or or oting prom either by faults e C oulom b 3 softw are are softw 3 b oulom C e L ~5 in 2018. For the the For 2018. in ~5 Toda et al., 2005). 2005). al., et Toda

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article faults are observed to be active at different tim e e tim different at active be an to the In P. A observed the at are We ation faults ents. acros deform segm odate atic m agm m accom distributed TA faults is and A E ation osa the R of ith deform (La w P A the interaction the along on how of study odeling, m picture previous and of the atics ith w e-series kinem tim bined present com the R ent InSA docum to used We calculations ssion iscu D 7. 2018. January earthqu 11 on deeper the earthquake by afte er the caused shallow s ith w SC C ell w the fits that surface indicate the at hy SC C fault receiver the positive the at here w bar) 5 depth (> km 2.6 at change bar 0.5 stress ( S12 positive a Figure ing fault). generated follow (receiver shortly depth the km on 2.6 at fault) 2018 (source depth km ~9 ulation accum strain ere w tectonic sequence. as events such 2018 the factor that nother A conclude e w years, 11 of rm hs nadto ote20 n 08simic seism 2018 and f 2007 eans the m to SC C addition in negative this, The b). From S12a, (Figure occurred eaie tes hne < 2 a) t dph f 2.6 of depth a at bar) -2 Furth (< depth. change km ~9 stress at negative occurred this ea as unlikely is it 2018 2007 the January therefore , that km 6 s than show b) greater t for depths as S12a, atics (Figure kinem and etry calculation m geom not e as w sam event the has deeper fault 2018 the s A 2018. January of al. et osa R (La results both of odeling m atics R InSA kinem the and on etry based geom The odeling. m R InSA dislocations w ithin a uniform , elastic half-space w half-space elastic , uniform a ithin w dislocations We also calculated the CSC im parted by the M the by parted im CSC the calculated also We We first analyzed the effect of the 2007 earthquake 2007 the of effect the analyzed first We that it triggered the M the triggered it that periods suggesting that deform ation is not not is ation deform that suggesting periods pocenter is positioned. A lso, the area under under area the lso, A positioned. is pocenter c and d) show s that the M the that s show d) and c base of the receiver fault w ith values of of values ith w fault receiver the of base ith the sam e elastic m oduli as used in the the in used as oduli m elastic e sam the ith the A P linkage zone in A far. This dataset, dataset, This far. A in zone linkage P A the m, ee h M the here w , km rshock distribution. These observations observations These distribution. rshock is the likely cause of the 2018 seism ic ic seism 2018 the of cause likely the is alyzed tim e-period, different individual individual different e-period, tim alyzed L esalw 08erhuk.TeCS SC C The earthquake. 2018 shallow he , 2019 and this study). study). this and 2019 , events being separated by a fair delay delay fair a by separated being events M erm ore, the 2007 earthquake caused a a caused earthquake 2007 the ore, erm 5.2 earthquake on 10 January 2018 at at 2018 January 10 on earthquake 5.2 not triggered by the 2007 earthquake. earthquake. 2007 the by triggered not ake on 10 January 2018 triggered the the triggered 2018 January 10 on ake odeled by InSA R w e assum ed that the the that ed assum e w R InSA by odeled rthquake caused negligible C SC s at at s SC C negligible caused rthquake ault slip w ould have been inhibited. inhibited. been have ould w slip ault s the linkage zone form ed by the the by ed form zone linkage the s (source fault) on tw o receiver faults faults receiver o tw on fault) (source show that en-echelon, ~N S-striking S-striking ~N en-echelon, that show L source and receiver faults w ere set set ere w faults receiver and source 5.1 earthquake on the 11 January January 11 the on earthquake 5.1 et al., 2019), provides a detailed detailed a provides 2019), al., et seism ic data and C SCs SCs C and data ic seism L L 5.1 of January 2018 2018 January of 5.1 5.2 seism ic event of of event ic seism 5.2 L 5.2 earthquake earthquake 5.2

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article deeperearthquakethe shallower onto fault. t Also, Positi d). S12c, (Figure case triggering CSC likely peculiar aftershocks distribution, all to the west to all peculiardistribution, aftershocks from the 2007 earthquake. Conversely,earthquake. 2007 the ~ from doublet the le episodes, seismic the between time-span long the (Fi faults 2018 the onto fault 2007 the by imparted nega either that show calculations the but modeling limited to the central fault system (La Rosa et al. et Rosa (La system fault central the to limited three largest earthquakes of Mof earthquakes largest three timescales and size fault kinematics, similar with accommo segments fault various Here, behavior. slip the the AP, that of suggesting system fault central of types varying exhibit also that show Afrera interferogramsin individual faults the and The series sector, most where the APconnect the to TAsegment west-di active while faulting AP east-dipping at dominant extension that indicates this Overall, 2017). s eastern the along faults west-dipping dominant of shore of the Lake Afrera in February 2018. This is occ also slip abrupt addition, In 2018. January and occurred that earthquakes major the for data InSAR the at A observed supported displacements also episodic is major This faults. The east-dipping mapped different faultswith across behaviors the linkage includes two M two includes shows that fault slip occurs along a shallow obliqu shallow a along occurs slip fault that shows M b InSAR with observed displacement highest the with ear largest two 7).The (Figure east the to dipping L ~5 of 11~5of likely January the contributedobserved to Stress triggering induced by the co-seismic fault s fault co-seismic the by induced triggering Stress L > 5.0 along with several Mseveral with along 5.0 > L > 5.0. The most recent seismic sequence of January of sequence seismic recent most The 5.0. > L > 4.5 earthquakes. The best-fit InSAR model InSAR best-fit The earthquakes. 4.5 > ofthe faults. zone. zone. thquakes perfectly correspond to the area the to correspond perfectly thquakes se fault segments have a dominant stick- dominant a have segments fault se hearea well the explains CSC of positive , 2019) but instead it occurs on multiple multiple on occurs it instead but 2019) , also in agreement with field observations by the east-dipping faults modeled from from modeled faults east-dipping the by gure S12a, b). These results, along with with along results, These b). S12a, gure ve CSC were caused by the earlier and earlier the by caused were CSC ve abrupt fault slip events characterize the characterize events slip fault abrupt of seismic sequences that included the included that sequences seismic of hore of the Afrera Lake (Bonatti et al., et (Bonatti Lake the Afrera of hore e fault striking in a ~NS direction and direction ~NS a in striking fault e urs along west-dipping faults near the the near faults west-dipping along urs in October 2007 (La Rosa et al., 2019) al., et Rosa (La 2007 October in M tive or negligible stress changes were changes stress negligible or tive . . ad us to exclude any stress triggering stress any exclude to us ad pn fut caatrz te eastern- the characterize faults pping ut just the second shallower (2.6 km) (2.6 shallower second the just ut surface displacement. surface displacement. is mainly accommodated through through accommodated mainly is dated deformation at different times times different at deformation dated W temporal behavior. Both the time- the Both behavior. temporal lips was explored using the CSCs CSCs the using explored was lips 5 earthquakes in January 2018 is a a is 2018 January earthquakes in 5 P match the surface expression of expression surface the Pmatch 2018 2018

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article eue t ser tegh fvrn fut re (e. creep fault favoring strength, that shear its phyllosilicates reduce fl een generates and betw rocks interplay fault the the from 1970 resulting yerlee, B & circulation Brace ay m (e.g. zone creep fault a of ) fault km 15 > ( portions deeper the indicate S6g-h figures s in ents disp profiles zone displacem and linkage 2-6) the of (Figure e-progressive tim edges the The to ents. close Faults displacem f h mamai sg ns n whr ht pig exis springs hot here w and ents segm th at atic agm m stick-slip the and of creep of bination com ob a ( arily observe zone prim We linkage the faults. of center en-echelon o tw ultiple m links on zone slip transfer P A the verall, O 2020). al., faul pre-stressed on slip 1993 fault f of pressure significant the in induce increase an onversely, C 2007). 2014 al., et ochi A 2007; fluid 1968 Peltzer, of Brace, & presence yerlee B (e.g. perature, these tem passing encom ichel M factors de (e.g. ented 2017 docum arris, ell H w been have ena phenom beha along e fault tim of in types 2007alternate or several that n system fault know e ell sam w is the It of stick-slip. others (Fi and 2018 creep could February in faults e ents som es w that a displacem abrupt onversely, C ed icity. show P A icro-seism m tha ith in w possible thus is It occurring associated 3). and 1 earthquakes (Figure it w 2011-2013 agnitude m along low (2018) al. show et p em (2019) ddition A Illsley-K and tectonics. e (2011) sam S al. the (Figure odates m atics accom kinem and slip, pa left-lateral around ation oblique deform again has e-progressive tim the odelled m ; ; ; Becken et al., 2011 al., et Becken H arris, 2017). O ne of the best exam ples is the San San the is ples exam best the of ne O 2017). arris, H ; ; R ousset et al., 2019). The fault behavior can be in be can behavior fault The 2019). al., et ousset R ; ; Vidale & Shearer, 2006 Shearer, & Vidale rnk n e a. 1970; al., et ann Brinckm ; ; ri,21) thsbe hwnta ihtmperat tem high that n show been has It 2017). arris, H , 1970; 1970; , Hars 21) Smial, hlo r hydrotherm er shallow ilarly, Sim 2017). arris, H ; B yerlee, 1993 yerlee, B w eaken the fault zone in the upper crust and and crust upper the in zone fault the eaken w ts and therefore cause seism icity (B yerlee, yerlee, (B icity seism cause therefore and ts en-echelon m agm atic segm ents by oblique oblique by ents segm atic agm m en-echelon the sam e fault segm ent (D oubre & Peltzer, Peltzer, & oubre (D ent segm fault e sam the t the fault creep is not aseism ic, but instead instead but ic, aseism not is creep fault the t

g. g. luids circulating w ithin the fault zone m ay ay m zone fault the ithin w circulating luids uids and positive therm al anom alies alters alters alies anom al therm positive and uids change its rheological properties favoring favoring properties rheological its change e edges of the linkage zone, in the vicinity vicinity the in zone, linkage the of edges e ; ; 10), sim ilar to those deform ing by stick- by ing deform those to ilar sim 10), that these faults creep continuously. We We continuously. creep faults these that A ochi et al., 2014 al., et ochi A h relocated seism icity in La R osa et al. al. et osa R La in icity seism relocated h W intsch et al., 1995; M oore & Rym er, er, Rym & oore M 1995; al., et intsch W portion different along co-exist can vior t-dipping fault at the eastern tip of the the of tip eastern the at fault t-dipping ally, seism ic records from Belachew et et Belachew from records ic seism ally, served stick-slip fault behavior in the the in behavior fault stick-slip served Bonatti et al., 2017). C onversely, w e e w onversely, C 2017). al., et Bonatti s, fault lithology or a com bination of of bination com a or lithology fault s, ttern 2 show ing that the creeping fault fault creeping the that ing show 2 ttern how n by the tim e-series at pixel 2, 3 3 2, pixel at e-series tim the by n how lay both tim e-progressive and abrupt abrupt and e-progressive tim both lay gure S3e, f and Figure 5) indicating indicating 5) Figure and f S3e, gure ; ; e et al., 2011 al., et e these areas during 2005-2009 and and 2005-2009 during areas these Vidale & Shearer, 2006 Shearer, & Vidale t, close to the eastern faults. The The faults. eastern the to close t, fluenced by a w ide range of of range ide w a by fluenced these here w fault ndreas A ; H arris, 2017; 2017; arris, H ; ; ; Sam m is et al., 2016 al., et is m Sam ; ; ur & oubre D R oss et et oss R ures in in ures al al ; ;

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article A ck n ow led gem en ts ts en gem led ow n ck A creep. and fault flow heat allow and that tra the behavior interpret of e w edges here w the s creep, near oblique fault contrast, In S-trending ~N ation. zone, een deform betw transfer ation the w of P deform A the iddle odating m m for accom is proposed Th e zone w 2019). that transfer al., sho et study rift-linkage osa R of (La previous P odel our A m on the at expand ents segm observations fault ur O (2017). al. et p and Bonatti c and springs hot (1970) events ith w al. et activity episodic al inor m heteroge hydrotherm and strong icity onversely, C icro-seism m sequences. creep, ic slip seism episodic related by diffe and ents at segm characterized faults active behavior The are stick-slip behavior. ents their in segm easte the fault variability to close Various ar observed ent. are segm are charact hich faults w faults est-dipping faults, w east-dipping inant dom oblique en f architectures: segm TA S-striking, and ~N A E recordings the ic een echelon, seism betw P, A the at local ation ith w deform sate respectively, Sentinel-1 o and AT IS activ direct V 2019, o EN tw few from een the of betw dataset R one zone InSA vast linkage provided a e w across study, this In distributed sion clu on C 8. 2011). al., et hic w ond m am (H evidences frera A below geophysical fluids over-pressure independent by behavi generating by supported fault the rupture fault influences oting prom hich w ents segm atic agm m interaction betw een extensional tectonics, elevated tectonics, fre A the of extensional een atics betw kinem the interaction that results suggest the behavior, hot-springs fault of variability observed of the C SC s m odeling, and the presence of of presence the and odeling, m s SC C the of events associated w ith M ith w associated events at the center of the A P show a dom inant inant dom a show P A the of center the at erize the center of the A P w hile dom inant inant dom hile w P A the of center the erize heat flow and presence of fluids near the the near fluids of presence and flow heat hydrotherm al activity influence the fault fault the influence activity al hydrotherm ools have been observed by Brinckm ann ann Brinckm by observed been have ools nsfer zone there is also deform ation by by ation deform also is there zone nsfer ra rift-linkage zone is the result of the the of result the is zone rift-linkage ra e m agm atic segm ents. We com bined a a bined com We ents. segm atic agm m e s on the faults. This hypothesis is also also is hypothesis This faults. the on s ese new results support the kinem atic atic kinem the support results new ese rn edge, w here the A P m eets the TA TA the eets m P A the here w edge, rn tick-slip faults accom m odate m ost of of ost m odate m accom faults tick-slip here a right-lateral, N W-SE-trending W-SE-trending N right-lateral, a here haracterizes the eastern tip. H ere, a a ere, H tip. eastern the haracterizes llites, spanning 2005-2010 and 2014- and 2005-2010 spanning llites, the E A and TA segm ents. W ithin the the ithin W ents. segm TA and A E the neous fault behavior encom passing passing encom behavior fault neous h indicate the presence of m agm atic atic agm m of presence the indicate h or, either facilitating fault creep, or or creep, fault facilitating either or, rom the A far rift. We show that that show We rift. far A the rom ts, is accom m odated by several en- several by odated m accom is ts, bservations on how deform ation is is ation deform how on bservations w ing the tim e-evolving behavior of of behavior e-evolving tim the ing w rent tim e-periods, show ing great great ing show e-periods, tim rent ranged in tw o m ain structural structural ain m o tw in ranged L

≥ 5 earthquakes earthquakes 5

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. ThisAllarticleis rights by copyright. reserved. protected Accepted Article le, . Hus n, S, helt C. (2012). . C Thieulot, & S., . R ans, uism H V., llken, A ces en niver U efer R baba A ddis A adm of SSA their IG for the at states body staff hara m ider A w and Tigray far, A the of ds.eo.esa.int/oads/access) Barnie, T. D ., O ppenheim er, C ., & Pagli, C . (2016b) . C Pagli, & ., C er, ppenheim O ., D T. Barnie, ( C end M the at IS-D IR finishes period bargo em P_2017/ 3-year the once orks/detail/Y w.fdsn.org/netw w http://w i seism e continuous The the deploym ork (#2016-82). netw ent project porary ISTeP tem Environm and The atural N 10/64. 8/H the R by ent agreem supported are K -U IS SE of Barnie, T. D ., K eir, D ., H am ling, I., H ofm ann, B., B., ann, ofm H I., ling, am H ., D eir, K ., D T. Barnie, volca le A Erta The (1970). J. Varet, & F., Barberi, ., X achez, R ., R Toussaint, B., Poisson, ., H ochi, A Zebker, & P., Segall, ., C er, ppenheim O F., elung, m A AT) IS V (EN ination issem D nline O ESA ( the A by ISAT V N E 2017 Pi of (41672225). grant niversity project provided U IN PR FSC the N the by by through support supported ) R iU partial (M ledge Sciences icerca R acknow Earth in e Pegaso niversità U egionale R ottorato D the of https://scihub.copernicus.eu/ epn t rgoa mamai ad etnc vns A events? tectonic and atic agm m regional to respond Ph the of ork ew fram the in developed as w study This neato i bitedcie ope sse :A 3 A s: 1–18. system 13(5), coupled eosystems, G eophysics, brittle-ductile G in interaction mmod J O. . Aee A. Opehi r C. Wrig W ., C 149-163. er, 420, the tions, ppenheim O of ublica P volcanism l in ., A episode Specia trends for final London Ayele, the Society plications im of and S., study Ethiopia, . O J. ultidisciplinary m ond, m am H https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02596805 fr ehoi) Blei Vlanlgqe 3() 84 34(4), nologique, Volca Bulletin ethiopia). afar, G faults. along circulation 1544–1563. fluid to 196(3), due icity seism Interfer adar R by 3093–3096. observed 27(19), far, A Letters, Volcano, le ’A ada G n b te priu Opn cs Hu (Sentinel-1) ub H ccess A pen O opernicus C the by and https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggt356 ). Seism ic instrum ents w ere loaned by SE IS-U K . The The . K IS-U SE by loaned ere w ents instrum ic Seism ). https://doi.org/10.1029/2000G L008497 L008497 https://doi.org/10.1029/2000G tp/wwwfs.r/ewok/ealYQ_2017/ Q orks/detail/Y w.fdsn.org/netw w http://w tp:/o.r/012/02 004077 C https://doi.org/10.1029/2012G ). The data w ill becom e fully open access access open fully e becom ill w data The ). of 2021. We thank the regional authorities authorities regional the thank We 2021. of nic range (D anakil depression, northern northern depression, anakil (D range nic . D oes the lava lake of Erta ‘A le volcano volcano le ‘A Erta of lake lava the oes D . & Schm ittbuhl, J. (2014). Self-induced Self-induced (2014). J. ittbuhl, Schm & B elachew, M ., C arn, S., Eastw ell, D ., ., D ell, Eastw S., arn, C ., M elachew, B inistrative support. We also thank the the thank also We support. inistrative c data used in this study is archived on on archived is study this in used data c H . (2000). G round deform ation near near ation deform round G (2000). . H Factors controlling the m ode of rift rift of ode m the controlling Factors sity. sity. ) and is supported by the M inistero inistero M the by supported is and ) sa grant PR A _2018_19. H .W. w as as w .W. H _2018_19. A PR grant sa during the rifting cycle. G eologica l l eologica G cycle. rifting the during D num erical study. G eochemistr y, y, eochemistr G study. erical num D R esearch C ouncil (N ER C ) under under ) C ER (N ouncil C esearch R eophysica l J our na l Inter na tiona l, l, tiona na Inter l na our J l eophysica D project of A .L.R . (X X X III cycle cycle III X X (X . .L.R A of project D SA R and Sentinel-1 IW S LC s are are s LC S IW Sentinel-1 and R SA nt w as part of an A ctions-M arges arges ctions-M A an of part as w nt https://doi.org/10.1144/SP420.6 M anda H araro dyke sequence, sequence, dyke araro H anda M

om etry. G eophysical R esearch esearch R eophysical G etry. om n investigation using Earth Earth using investigation n P9AT72. A .L.R . and C .P. .P. C and . .L.R A P9AT72. ht, T., (2016a). A A (2016a). T., ht, ( https://esar- facilities facilities

8–917. 8–917.

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