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the Introduction of Minority Language Education for the Vlachs inSerbia the IntroductionofMinorityLanguageEducationforVlachs In partialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfordegree Folk LinguisticsandPoliticizedLanguage: Advisor: ProfessorAndrásPap Nationalism StudiesProgram Central EuropeanUniversity By DianeManovich Budapest, Hungary Master ofArts Submitted to 2014

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settings. multilingual in policies education language minority of design the for implications potential have findings These language. Vlach the of usage than rather knowledge children’s augmenting with is concern primary their that show revival and decline, function, language about beliefs homogen internal and purity desired the about reflect nationalistundertones and linguists that of are incongruentwith beliefs their some ways in that indicate parents and teachers with conducted interviews The boundaries. language defining of process the and shift, language community, speech the within language of functions the highly about is language which in statements inform that beliefs underlying the context of some identify to attempts thesis this a politicized, Given minority. the within controversy of source political a is Romanian to relation with language their of classification the education and language previously, minority had never have Vlachs The Serbia. in minority national Vlach the for education language minority begin to program pilot a in involved parents and teachers of beliefs the investigate to used are methods research of Qualitative language. beliefs about nonlinguists the examine to seeks which linguistics, folk of framework the utilizes thesis This

ABSTRACT y of languages as sharply bounded units. Their units. bounded sharply as languages of eity i

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language questions, and aiding me with difficult transcription passages. language questions,andaidingmewithdifficulttranscriptionpassages. mytranslations,answering times. AndIamparticularlyindebtedtoZlatkofordouble-checking settings. IamgratefulforJovanaandJelenawhoansweredmyculturalorlinguisticconcernsat Tanja forallowingmetotalkaboutthisresearchawhollyinappropriateamountinvarioussocial commiseration andcamaraderie.IamespeciallythankfulformydearfriendsAlexa,Gugga, providing moralsupportfromafar,andmyfriendscolleaguesinBudapestfortheir whose helpIwouldnothavehadanydatatoanalyze.alsolikethankmyfamilyfor issues throughouttheyear. Professors LucaVáradi,KarenLiebhart,andAndrásKovácsforhelpingwithmethodological thank ProfessorsSzabolcsPogonyiandMariaKovácsforhelpingmetoclarifymyideas encouragement, andfeedbackthroughouttheprocessofwritingthisthesis.Iwouldalsoliketo would liketothankmythesissupervisor,ProfessorAndrásPap,forprovidingvaluableguidance,

There are many people to whom I am very grateful for their involvement in this thesis. I There aremanypeopletowhomIamverygratefulfortheirinvolvementinthisthesis. I would like to thank all those who helped me with my field research inSerbia,without I wouldliketothankallthosewhohelpedmewithmyfieldresearch

ACKNOWLEGMENTS ii

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEGMENTS ABSTRACT

7.3 7.2 7.1 6.2 6.1 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.2 4.1 3.2 3.1 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 METHODOLOGY BACKGROUND FRAME THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS LANGUAGE DEFINING SHIFT LANGUAGE FUNCTION LANGUAGE ii. i. ii. i. ii. i. ii. i.

Contested identity: the stances of Serbia and Romania Romania and Serbia of stances the identity: Contested framework International nationalism and Language identity of construction Social L L L L L P S C D D T T M F M L I Competing stances of minority elites minority of stances Competing legislation Domestic Sociolinguistics ethnicity Everyday DENTITY OLK RESTIGE AND STIGMA YMBOLIC VALUE ANGUAGE PURIFICATION ANGUAGE BOUNDARIES ANGUAGE AND POLITICS ANGUAGE REVIVAL ANGUAGE HEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION OF HE ANGUAGE OMMUNICATIVE VALUE IGLOSSIA IGLOSSIA ATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS INORITY RIGHTS IN RIGHTS INORITY RIGHTS INORITY

V L LACHS LACHS IN

INGUISTICS

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METHODS

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III 54 52 50 48 47 47 44 42 42 39 36 35 34 34 29 29 29 24 22 22 19 18 18 18 16 14 11

II

9 9 8 5 5 5 1

I

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that focus on everyday ethnicity and nationhood, provides a conceptual framework for providesaconceptualframeworkfor that focusoneverydayethnicity andnationhood, thisthesis.Theliterature onsocialidentityconstruction,particularly thosetexts conducted for and minorityrights.Theseareasofinquirywillform thetheoreticalbasisofresearch language andnationalism,sociolinguistics, social identityconstructionandeverydayethnicity, implemented andinwhichlanguageishighlypoliticized. isjustbeginning tobe relevant toabilingualcommunityinwhichminority languageeducation encompass abroadrangeoftopics,butthisthesiswillfocusspecificallyonbeliefsthatare linguistics seekstounderstandnonlinguists’beliefsaboutlanguage.Beliefslanguagecan anecdote above? Thisthesiswillattempttoanswerthisandotherquestions.Thefieldoffolk in the languages aredistinguishedfromoneanotherunderlieovertstatementssuchasthe points toamuchmoreinterestingphenomenonthansimplehypocrisy.Whatbeliefsabouthow are eachcommunicatingthroughoneofthesedistinctlanguages,thisinterviewexcerptactually participants two languagesandshortlythereafterconductanentireconversationinwhichthe them. ButsheassertedthatherselfdidnotspeakRomanian. her ifsheunderstoodRomanianandansweredaffirmatively,sayingthat the friendwithwhomshehadbeenspeaking:“SheisfromRomania.SheRomanian.”Iasked for severalminuteswithafriendinRomancelanguage.Afterhangingup,shetoldmeabout aconversation these words,theteacherIwasinterviewingansweredaphonecallandcarriedon but noonecanequatethatVlachsandRomaniansarethesame.”Fiveminutesafteruttering 1. Introduction “Romanian andVlachlanguagearenotthesame.Indeed,maybetheresimilarwords, In thesecondchapterofthesis,Iwilldiscuss someofthemajorworksinstudyo to insistuponthedifferencebetween While itmayseemlikeanapparentcontradiction

1

f

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Serbia andhadneverpreviouslybeentaughtinlocal primaryorsecondaryschools.

3 2 1 different.OtherstatethatVlachs Others claimthattheVlachsandRomaniansare completely that Vlachsdonotexist;theyaresimplyRomanians livingoutsidethebordersofRomania. of theminorityrightsVlachs.Differentstakeholders takedifferentstances.Someclaim census, thereare40,054VlachsinSerbia;39,953livecentralSerbia. a minoritygroupthatlivesprimarilyinEast-centralSerbia.Accordingtothe2002Serbian generally forminorityrightsinSerbiaandspecificallythecaseofVlachs.TheVlachsare studied inthisthesis.First,Iwillexplainthelawsandinternationaltreatiesthatarerelevant inform claimsmadeaboutlanguage. lens fortheanalysisinthisthesis.Thistheoryseekstounderstandunderlyingstructuresthat linguistics, thestudyofnonlinguists’beliefsaboutlanguage,willprovideprimarytheoretical beliefs arearticulated.Folk elucidates thelegalandinstitutionalcontextinwhicheveryday and maintenancethatareembeddedinidentityconstruction.Researchonminorityrights and nationalismprovidesinsightontheroleoflanguageinprocessesboundarycreation Thescholarlyliteratureonlanguage about minoritylanguageeducation. articulate theirbeliefs relates thisfieldbyanalyzinghowsomenonspecialists through theireverydaychoices.Mythesis examining howordinarypeoplereproduce,challenge,subvert,andconstructethnicidentity Daco-Romanian. Vlachs speakanEasternromancelanguagethatisstructurallysimilartotheBanatdialectof The in thecountiesofBorandZaječarareanearborderswithRomaniaBulgaria.

“Final results of the census.”2002 Ethnic Minori Ethnic Minorities in Serbia

The issue of the identity of the Vlachs is highly politicized and saturates every discussion The issueoftheidentityVlachsishighlypoliticized andsaturatesevery The thirdchapteranditssubchapterswilldiscussthebackgroundofspecificcase ties in Serbia in ties

2

Until this year, Vlach language was not usedinanymunicipal governmentsin Until thisyear,Vlachlanguagewas

. .

25. 25.

2

1

Most areconcentrated

3

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regular electiveclassnextautumn. 10 schoolsthroughouttheterritoryinwhichVlach isspokenandareexpectedtocontinueasa elective classinprimaryschool.Theclassesbegan inapilotprojectformthespringof2014 villages haveregisteredfortheclass“Vlachlanguage withelementsofnationalculture”asan the Vlachnationalminority.”AsofNovember,nearly 500first-gradersinseveraltownsand educationof Serbia fortheirproject“Affirmationofmulticulturalisminthroughinclusive customs, andidentityoftheVlachs.In2013,groupreceivedfundingfromOpenSociety “Gergina” wasformedin2009Negotinforthepreservationoftraditions,language,culture, the uniquenessofVlachlanguageandneedforitspreservationpromotion.TheNGO multitude ofperspectivestoonestance. thanreducinga of particularindividualsororganizations, rather stances, attitudes,andbeliefs thefocusbackto minority groupsmustnotbetakenasagiven,realentity.Thisshifts figures. Italsocomplicatesmythofahomogenousormonolithicminority,asreminderthat of identityandlanguagethatareformulatedarticulatedbyelectedVlachofficialsorpublic role ofminorityelitesisimportantforanalyzinghow,ifatall,ordinarypeoplereproduceclaims implications ofaparticularclaimmadebyspecificactors. of theVlachsandwhatpossiblemotivationsclaimsare.Iwillalsodiscuss in context;itwillexaminewhosayswhatabouttheidentity will attempttosituatetheseclaims Romanized Serbs,orRomanianswhohavebecomeassimilated.Thethirdchapterofthisthesis and Romaniansaredifferentethnicgroupswholinguisticallysimilar,thatVlachs

The minoritylanguageprograminitiatedthisyearstemsfromonesuchperspectiveabout The ofminorityelitesintheidentitydebates. The thirdchapterwillalsocontaintherole

3

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it presents. importance thatitmustberesearchedfromanacademic perspective,despitethechallengesthat remove allbiasfromdiscussionsoftheVlachs,it ismyopinionthatthistopicofsuch difficult to documents, mediareports,publicofficials,andeveryday people.Althoughitis claims ofmanydifferentactorsinthematrix,represented throughformalgovernment identify themselvesandchoosetoframetheirdecisions.Iwillattemptpresentneutrallythe sides ofthedebate.However,itismygoalinthisthesistopresentfaithfullyhowsomeVlachs Even choosingtoreferthemasVlachsisadecisionthatalignstheresearcherwithoneof thatpermeates anydiscussionofthisgroup. Serbia withouttakingastanceonthecontroversy gap betweendesignandimplementation. the potential may contributetoscholarshiponlanguagerevival,minorityeducationand provide insightintotheunderlyingbeliefsthatinformcitizens’claimsaboutlanguage,which an opportunitytoexaminethepotentialwaysinwhichnonlinguistsspeakaboutlanguage.Itwill unusual caseduetothecontroversialidentityofminority,butitisstillrelevantinproviding along withsomeofthelimitationsresearch. The datacollectionandanalysiswillbeexplainedinfurtherdetailthemethodologychapter, one focusgroupinterviewwithparentsofthestudentsenrolledinVlachlanguageclasses. included participantobservation,problem-focusedsemi-structuredinterviewswithteachers,and research project.This utilized qualitativemethodsforgatheringthedataanalyzedinthis The fourthchapterwillbrieflyexplainandjustifythemethodologyusedinthisthesis.I One caveattonotebeforeproceedingisthatitimpossiblediscusstheVlachsin This thesiscontributestotheexistingtheoriesoffolklinguistics.Itisaparticularly

4

CEU eTD Collection identify themselves. as astaticqualitythatonepossesses,thisthesisaims toanalyzethemeansthroughwhichpeople process ofsituationandinviteinvestigationinto the agentofact.Ratherthantakingidentity this thesisareidentificationandcategorization(both selfandexternal),whichemphasizethe for themultitudeofmeaningsoftensignaledbyidentity.Themostrelevanttheseterms

4 construct. InEthnicitywithoutGroups, Brubakerwarnsagainst “groupism,” theassumptionthat clarification oftheterm“identity”asananalyticalconstruct. concepts relatedtoidentityandethnicity.In“BeyondIdentity,”RogersBrubakerproposesa 2.1 thesis buildsonthetheoreticalframeworksproposedinworksdiscussed. rights protection.Thischapterwilldiscusspreviousscholarshiponthesetopicsandhowthis social identityconstructionandeverydayethnicity,languagenationalism,minority academic literatureforthisthesismaythusbegroupedintoseveralbroadthematicclusters: politicalperspectives.Themostrelevant broader contextthatincorporateslegal,historical,and up micro-levelresearchinnationalismstudies,onemuststillsituatetheparticularcasewithina developed outofthebroaderliteratureonsocialidentityconstruction.Whileconductingbottom- theories ofnationalismstudies,includingeverydayethnicity,abottom-upapproachthat concerned withthebeliefsofnonlinguistsaboutlanguage.Itwillalsodrawuponexisting 2.

Brubaker and Cooper, “Beyond ‘Id Theoretical Framework TheoreticalFramework

Identity This thesiswilladdtothecurrentscholarshiponfolklinguistics,abranchoflinguistics Rethinking identityalsocallsfortherethinkingof ethnicidentityasananalytical anddeconstructionofkey Recent scholarshipinsociologyhascalledforclarification i.

Socialconstructionofidentity

entity.’”

5

4

He suggestsseveralclearerterms

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surrounding Vlachethnicity. reifying thegroup“Vlachs”allowsforamorenuancedinquiryintocontroversies because differentactorswithaimsmayperformgroupnessdifferently,andavoiding studyingtheVlachs using “groupness”asacontext-specificvariable.Thisapproachisusefulfor instead consideringethnicityinprocessual,dynamic,anddisaggregatedterms,specificallyby research mayreinforcethereificationofgroupsthatethnicentrepreneursundertake.Heproposes 7 6 5 ethnicity. to analyzeclaimsabouttheboundariesbetween languages. are, butrather address theissueofhowdissimilarorsimilar VlachandRomanianlanguages regardtotheidentityof Vlachs.Thisthesisdoesnotaimto claims ofdifferentactorswith relevant forthisproject.Languageasameansofdefiningboundariesiscentraltothecontested cultural content(suchaslanguage)ameansofdifferentiationandcategorizationwillbe the selectiveattentiontospecific social processesandinteractions.Barth’sunderstandingof cultural stuffthatitencloses.”Boundariesmustbeactivelyconstructedandmaintainedthrough Barth arguesthatthecriticalfocusshouldbe“theethnicboundarydefinesgroup,not ethnicity providesananalyticalframeworkforthestudyofconstructionsocialgroups. theorize themechanismsthroughwhichtheseconceptsareconstructed.FrederikBarth’stexton interests. groups arereal,discrete,boundedunitsthatsubstantiveentitiesmayhaveagencyor categorization andemphasizetheneedtoconsider race,ethnicity,nationalism,andother

Brubaker, Loveman, and Stamatov, “Ethnicity as Cognition.” Barth, Brubaker,

Ethnic Groups and Boundaries “Ethnicity ascognition”respondstoBarthandothers whore-conceptualizedthestudyof With staticnotionsofidentityandethnicitychallengedassuch,scholarshavesoughtto 5 7

Ethnicity Without Group

He arguesthatusinggroups,particularlyethnicasunitsofanalysisinsocial Brubaker, Loveman, and Stamatov reference social-psychological theoriesof Brubaker, Loveman,andStamatovreferencesocial-psychological

s .

.

6

6

CEU eTD Collection created andmaintained. analytical constructinordertounderstandtheprocesses throughwhichsocialidentitiesare provides afoundationofacademicworktojustify thedeconstructionofsocialidentityasan

10 9 8 process ofcategorization. self Psychology isoneofthefirstmanypsychologicaltextsontheorysocialidentityand categorization practicesemployedbyeverydaypeople.” micro-interactionist studiesoftheunofficial,informal,“everyday”classificationand allthestate…[and]ethnographicand employed bypowerfulandauthoritativeinstitutions-above practices political, andinstitutionalstudiesofofficial,codified,formalizedcategorization They identifytwoclustersofresearchthatareinformedbythiscognitiveturn:“historical, concepts notasentitiesthatexistintheworld,butratherprocessesofsocialorganization.

and Romania. cluster ofresearch,buttheformerwillinformbackgrounddiscussionsstancesSerbia intergroup available tominorities.Otherpsychologistshaveelaboratedonthetheoryofsocialidentityand order ortheperceivedpermeabilityofsocialboundaries,influencepsychologicalstrategies minority psychologyexplainshowsocialconditions,suchastheperceivedstabilityofso strategies availabletominoritiesincopingwiththeirdisadvantagedstatus.Thischapteron

Tajfel, Brubaker, Loveman, and Stamatov

Ellemers, Spears, and Doosje, -categorization. Tajfeldevelopsanoverviewofatheoreticalframeworksocialidentityas

Human Groups and Social Categories Henri Tajfel’sclassicworkHumanGroupsandSocialCategories:Studiesin

relations.

10

This academic literature on the constructed natureofsocial identity This academicliteratureontheconstructed

9

He describesdifferentformsofminority-majorityrelationsandthe Social Identity.

, “Ethnicity as Cognition.” Cognition.” as , “Ethnicity

.

7

33. 8

This thesiscontributestothislatter

cial

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illustrates thearbitrarynatureofdistinguishingbetweenlanguages: He also but itisonlywiththeriseofnation-statethatpeoplebegantospeaklanguages. hecontendsthatpeoplealwaysspoke, how languagescameintobeingalongsidethenation-state;

terms, andelaboratesonbilingualscode-switching betweentwolanguagesbasedonthecontext 13 12 11 everyday lifeofordinarypeople. micro-social researchconductedtoexaminehow nationalidentitydoesornotpermeate Everyday EthnicityinaTransylvanianTownbyRogersBrubaker,anexampleofempirical into theunderlyinglanguageideologiesofclaimsmadeaboutlanguage. life andhowone’sownnationalismisforgottenviewedaspatriotism. identity. MichaelBillig’s up approachthatfocusesontheagencyofeverydayactorsinconstructingnationalandethnic nationalism andethnicityfromelitestoordinarypeople.Thisthesiswillalsousesuchabottom- sociologists haveattemptedtoanswerthisquestionbyshiftingthefocusofstudies boundary construction,howdonormalpeopleengageintheseprocesses? Anumberof construction. Ifidentityandethnicityareconstructedthroughprocessesofcategorization The decisionsabouthowtoclassifydifferenceswithinandbetweenlanguagesmayofferinsight

Billig, Brubaker, Rogers. Billig,

Banal Nationalism Theories ofeverydayethnicitybuildonthebroadertheoriessocialidentity ii. Continuing thisbottom-upapproachtonationalism studiesis some willbeclassifiedasdifferenceswithinthesamelanguage. differences ofspeakinghavetobeclassifiedasinstancesbeingdifferentlanguagesand another. Notallthespeakersofalanguagespeakinsameway.Thus,some problem confrontsanyonewhoattemptstomakedistinctionsbetweenonelanguageand worldofdifferentlanguagesrequirestheconstitutioncategoricaldistinctions.A A Banal Nationalism

Everyday ethnicity

Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town. . .

31.

Banal Nationalismexploresthewaynationisflaggedineveryday

13

It discusseshowinstitutionsmayframechoicesin national

8

Nationalist Politicsand

12

11

Billig alsodiscusses

CEU eTD Collection my project. linguistic manifestationswillbefundamentalfor Serbia. Theconceptofeveryday(asymmetrical)

15 14 Nationalism inCentralEurope”offersanicehistorical overviewofthefunctionslanguage stuff,” inrealityitisoftenusedasaboundary-creating tool.“LanguageasanInstrumentof phenomenon. Suchliteraturerevealsthatalthough languagemaybeframedasBarth’s“cultural the instrumentalizationoflanguageforpoliticalaims helpstolocatethiscasewithinabroader framework ofpoliticalscience.Literatureonthe roleoflanguageinnationalistmovementsand 2.2 with co-authorCynthiaMillerIdriss. elaborates onempiricalapproachestostudyingeverydayethnicityin“EverydayNationhood” has beenobservedinmanycases. is awidespreadfindingthat majority ofRomaniansaremonolingual.Suchlinguisticasymmetry in Cluj;theminorities,Hungarians,mostlyspeakbothHungarianandRomanianwhile and theinterlocutor.Oneinterestingfindingfromthisworkisasymmetryofethnicaffiliation

nonspecialists speakaboutlanguageeveryday. education) andtalkingthenationarekeyconceptsthatwillinformanalysisofhow language consuming thenation.Forthisresearch,choosingnation(byoptingintominority produce thenation:talkingnation,choosingperformingand nations andethnicity.Theyidentifyfourcategoriesofpracticethroughwhichordinarypeople

Auer, Fox and Miller

Language

Code

Despite themicro-levelapproachofthisthesis,itmaystillbesituatedwithinabroader i. Jon E.Fox,oneoftheresearcherswhoworkedwithBrubakeronClujproject, Languageandnationalism -

Switching in Convers

- Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood.” Nationhood.” “Everyday Idriss,

atio n 14 .

This isanalogoustothesituationofVlachsandSerbsin 15

The authorsdiscussmicro-socialapproachestostudying

9

CEU eTD Collection raise thestatusoftheirlanguagevariety. background ofmythesis,particularlyintermshowminorityethnicentrepreneursmaytryto writing, standardizing,andmodernizingalow-statuslanguage.Thisarticleisrelevantforthe

questions oncensuses(mothertongue,language most-commonly spoken,proficiencyinofficial by whichanationisrecognizedtoexist,andhavetherightformstateonitsown.” of thosedifferenceswhichdistinguishonenationfromanother;itisthemostimportantcriterion serve innationalistprojects.AsKedourieobserved,“Languageistheexternalandvisiblebadge nation-building projects.Thistextshowsspecificallysomeofthefunctionsthatlanguagemay and orthography), andpresentsatheoreticalframeworkthatlinkslanguagestandardization commonly usedastoolsfordifferentiatingonelanguagefromanother(suchscriptor 19 18 17 16 language questionsoncensuses. Language inNationalCensuses,theauthorsidentifysomeofproblemsorambiguities of to politicalprojectsorclaims.In to asymbolic,ratherthansimplycommunicative,level. Boundaries ontheBasisofLinguisticChoices”discussesroleelitesinelevatinglanguage RedefiningPolitical involved intheinstrumentalizationoflanguage.“LanguageStrategists: nationalist claims,itcertainlymaybeanimportantfactorincertaincontexts. always themostimportantcriterionin Although othersmaydisputewhetherlanguageis during thebirthofnationalismin19

Kerzer and Arel, Weinstein, “Language Strategists.” Kedourie, Elie. Kamusella, “Language as an Instr

Language may also become politicized when census results onlinguisticdataarelinked Language mayalsobecomepoliticizedwhencensusresults Other worksthatexaminelanguageandpoliticsfurtherdiscussthespecificagents

Nationalism Census and Identity

. 58.

ument of Nationalism in Central Europe.”

19 . Census andIdentity:ThePoliticsofRace,Ethnicity, and

The textdistinguishesbetweendifferentframing oflanguage th

century.

10

16 It specifieswhichlanguagefeatureswere 18

Weinstein discussestheprocessesof

17

CEU eTD Collection social facts.” community “asafieldofactionwherethedistributionlinguisticvariantsisreflection

21 20 and“twovarietiesofalanguage language areusedbysome speakersunderdifferentconditions,” of diglossia,whichreferstowhen“in…speechcommunities twoormorevarietiesofthesame language usage.” of asharedbodyverbalsignsandsetofffromsimilaraggregatesbysignificantdifferencesin community as“anyhumanaggregatecharacterizedbyregularandfrequentinteractionmean defines aspeech “speech community.”Gumperz,inhisarticletitled“TheSpeechCommunity,” analyzed inthisthesis.Oneofthefirst,mostfundamentalconceptsrelevanceisthat only thosetheoriesandconceptsthataremostrelevantfortheparticularcontextwillbe andthestate. source ofpoliticalclaimsmadebyminorityelites of nonlinguists’beliefsaboutlanguagebecauseinthecaseVlachsis language andnationalismdirectly,thisliteratureinformsthebackgroundcontextualization minority languageeducation.Althoughthisthesiswillnotseektoanalyzethepoliticizationof data, includingminoritylanguageusageinofficialinteractionswithstateauthoritiesand used tosupportdemographicclaims.Italsoidentifiesthelinguisticrightsthataretiedcensus language) andelaboratessomeofthewaysthatspecificframinglanguagequestionscanbe

universal butlimitedtoagivenspeechcommunity. are mutuallyrecognizedsocialnormsthattheinterlocutors adheretoandthatthesenormsarenot

Ferguson, CA. "Diglossia." Gumperz, “The Speech Communi Ferguson buildsupontheconceptofaspeechcommunity bydescribingthephenomena The fieldofsociolinguisticsisquitebroad,sothepresentdiscussionwillbelimitedto ii.

Sociolinguistics 21

He thusadvocatesforthetreatmentofcommunicationasaprocessinwhichthere 20

Lest hebeaccusedofreifyinggroups,latercharacterizesthespeech

225

ty.”

219

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25 24 23 22 potentially separaterealms. beliefsabouttheirownlanguage withinthesetwo this researchtoinvestigatenonlinguists’ thesetwofunctions allows The separationof different valueasasymbolofidentityandculture. speakers. Languagemayhavespecificvalueinits functionasameansofcommunicationand This distinction,asEdwardspointsout,hasthepossibilityofbeingverysharpforminority concepts of“symbolicspace”and“communicativespace”. articulated bynonlinguists. purposes isunderstoodand stratification inwhichdifferentlanguagesareusedfor slightly.” situations onlyHisappropriateandinanotherL,withthetwosetsoverlappingvery of most importantfeaturesofdiglossiaisthespecializationfunctionforHandL.Inoneset refers tothetwovarietiesasHandL(forhighlow,respectively)arguesthat,“oneof as VlachandSerbia,diglossiamayalsobeausefulconceptinsuchspeechcommunities.He Although Fergusonspeaksoftwovarietiesthesamelanguage,ratherthanlanguagessuch exist sidebythroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.”

Edwards, John. Edwards, John. Ferguson, CA. "Diglossia." Ferguson, CA. "Diglossia." possible for the latter to remain important intheabsenceofformer. possible forthelattertoremainimportant Expanding ontheconceptofdifferentfunctionslanguage,Edwardsproposes eaal-tecmuiaiefo h yblc anditis thecommunicativefromsymbolic- However, thetwoaspectsareseparable- once thelanguageofgroceryshoppingandmyth,poetry,literature. community…itisat immediately apparenttonativespeakerswithinamajority-speech linguistic skillsandthemoreintangibleassociationscarriedbylanguageisnotalways complicated interweavingoflanguageandculturethatrestsuponafusionpragmatic tool, andlanguageasemblemofgroupness,asymbol,psychosocialrallying-point...The a differentiationbetweenlanguageinitsordinarilyunderstoodsenseasaninstrumental The essenceofthedistinctionbetweencommunicativeandsymbolicfunctionsliesin 23

This thesiswillexaminehow,intheparticularcontextofVlachs,this Language and Identity: An Introduction Language and

232 235-

Identity: An Introduction An Identity:

236

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. 55- .

56

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He writesthefollowing:

25

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CEU eTD Collection reawakening andrenewal,totherestorationofvigour andactivity,toareturnconsciousness toEdwards, thiscan“referto language declineandpreventdeath.According spoken atall,thelanguagehasdied.Languagerevival,then,referstoanyeffortreverse

29 28 27 26 language revival. range ofphenomena,includinglanguagedecline,death,andreverseshiftor varieties, arenotstaticbutmayshiftovertime.Thetermlanguageencompassabroad different languagevarietieswithintheirownspeechcommunity. This thesiswillanalyzeperceptionsofnonlinguistsaboutthestigmaorprestigeaffordedto communities and…areoftenalliedwithpowerfulprotectivesentimentsforone’sowngroup.” linguistic vacuum,butrathermaybeunderstoodas“attitudestowardsthemembersoflanguage positive ornegativeevaluationsoflanguagevarieties.Thesedonotoccurina Prestige anditscounterpart,stigma,areconceptswithinsociolinguisticsthatdescribethe social natureofsuchvaluejudgments: no longerseeanypointintransmittingit.” orelderlypeoplewho longer passedontochildren;itcomesbethepreserveofmiddle-aged

Edwards, John. Edwards, John. Edwards, John. Edwards, John. related totheprestigeandpowerpossessedbyspeakersofcertain‘standard’varieties. rather, uponsocialconventionsandpreferences.These,inturn,aremostobviously Evaluations ofdifferentlanguagevarietiesarenotbaseduponintrinsicqualitiesbutrest, Edwards alsodiscussesthevalueaccordedtodifferentlanguagevarieties,noting Functions oflanguagewithinaspeechcommunity,alongtheevaluations

Language and Identity: An Introduction Language and Identity: An Introduction

Multilingualism Multilingualism. 28

Edwards describestheconditionscharacterizinglanguagedecline:“itisno

. 106.

89- 90.

29

Eventually, whenitdeclinestoisnolonger 13 . . 68.

26

27

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language revivalmovements: 32 31 30 that whichBrubakerdiscussessincesomemembers ofthenationalminority(theVlachs)may nationalist projectsandstances.Inthisparticular case,itisanevenmorecomplexnexusthan relationship betweenSerbia,Romania,andtheVlach communityasactorswithdifferent different stancesinrelationtooneanother.This framework isusefulforanalyzingthe politics. state National HomelandsintheNewEurope,”proposesatriadicnexusofactorskin- minority rights.RogersBrubaker,in“NationalMinorities,NationalizingStates,andExternal politicization ofsuchrights,andhowpoliticalaimsmayinfluencetheimplementation and politicaltheory.Forthisthesis,themostrelevantliteratureonminorityrightsisrelatedto of minorityrightshasbeenapproachedfromdifferentacademicdisciplinessuchaslegalstudies 2.3 the actualtasksthatschoolsmustcarryout. the occasionaltensionbetweenimaginedroleofschoolsinlanguagerevivalmovementsand programdemonstrate language revival.Theirstatementsabouttheminorityeducation In thepresentresearch,teachersinterviewedfitwellwiththisunderstandingofagents and tothearrestingofdeclineordiscontinuity.”

Edwards, John. Edwards, John. Brubaker,

Minority rights experienced difficultiessincethisdoesnotalwaysmeshwiththeirmoretraditionaltask increasingly, infact,playedtheroleofagentssocialchangeandhavecorrespondingly in maintainingandencouragingidentitiesthoughttobeatrisk.Schoolsteachershave perhapsthecentralpart social heterogeneityexists,schoolsmaybeaskedtoplayapart- communities asthelinchpinofcontinuingculturalandlinguisticidentity.Wherever Just astheschoolexistsanarmofstate,soitisoftensingledoutbylanguage This thesis may also be situated within the broader literature on minority rights.Theissue This thesismayalsobesituatedwithinthebroaderliteratureon of transmittingcoreorbasicskills. 32

National minorities,nationalizingstates,andexternal nationalhomelandsmayalltake

“National “National Minorities, Nationalizing States, and External inNational Europe.” the Homelands New Multilingualism. Multilingualism.

1

11. 19.

31

14 30

The schoolmayplayaparticularrolein

-

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organizations orexternalhomelands. 35 34 33 organizations ininfluencingnationallegislation and languagepolicy. democratic majorityruleandminorityrightsprotection. human rights:possiblesolutionstoethnicconflict”outlinessomeofthetensionsbetween minority linguisticrightsspecifically.“TheprotectionofminoritiesinEuropeand state. bargaining, inwhichminoritiesweightheirrelativepowertostrategicallymakedemandsofthe Jenne proposestheconceptofethnic examining therelationshipbetweenminoritiesandstate. additional nationalizingstate. their homelandbutratherasan not considertheexternalhomeland(Romania)toactuallybe Resolution ofLanguageDisputes”offersagoodanalysistheroleinternational Organizationsonthe Accommodation ofMinorityRights:TheImpactInternational SlovakStateLanguageLawandthe Charter forRegionalorMinorityLanguages.“The education andthe“sliding-scale”approachtolinguisticrightsthatisusedinEuropean ofminoritylanguage financial andprofessionalresourcesofthestate.Itexplainsdifferentforms influence thistension,suchasthesizeorgeographicconcentrationofminoritygroup matrix of political claims while focusing on the language claims of teachers and parents. language claimsofteachersandparents. matrix ofpoliticalclaimswhilefocusingonthe language protectionareessentialforcontextualizing thelegalframeworkinSerbiawithina accession.Thesearticlesonminority differences betweenSlovakpolicybeforeandafter EU

Gy de Varennes, “Protection of Linguistic Minorities in Europe and Rights.”Human Jenne,

ő

ry, " 33

Other textsonminorityrightsalsofocustheexistenceofanexternalkinstatewhen One mayextendbasictextsontherelationshipbetweenpoliticalactorstoanalyze Ethnic Bargaining

A minority’srelativepowermaybeincreasedbyoutsideactors,suchasinternational The Slovak State Language Law and the Accommodation of Minority Rights

.

15

34

It delineatessomeofthefactorsthat

35

Győry discussesthe .”

CEU eTD Collection American American his ownworksonthesubject,PrestonhasexaminedfolklinguisticsprimarilyinaNorth including that of the Vlachs inSerbia. including thatoftheVlachs

39 38 37 36 ideas. underlying overtlanguagecomplaintsmaybeinformedbynationalist Meadows arguesthatthebeliefs towards thoseofnationalismstudiesandminoritylanguages. metalanguage asthelinguist’s.” is thesubjectof nevertheless talkaboutit.Suchovertknowledgeofandcommentlanguagebynonlinguists “in theworldoutsideoflinguistics,peoplewhoarenotprofessionalstudentslanguage field ofinquiry, Niedzielski andPreston,someoftheforemostscholarsinfieldexplainthis 2.4 complaints in multilingual settings." language.” theories)of about language,”from“Metalanguage2,”“theunderlyingfolktheory(or certain language practices, he argues that, “nonlinguists appeartobereactingnegativelya certain languagepractices,hearguesthat, context.Bycomplainingabout that generatefolktheoriesoflanguageinsucha multilingual how nationalistideologiesofnationalizedlanguageboundariesareonetheconceptualizations statements madebythoselivingintheborderlandsofUnitedStatesandMexicototheorize

See, for example: Preston, Dennis R. "Language with an Attitude." Niedzielski, Nancy A., and Dennis Richard Preston. Meadows, Bryan. "Examining the role of nationalism in folk theories of language: The case of Niedzielski, Nancy A., and Dennis Richard Pre Folk Linguistics

The fieldoffolklinguisticsseekstoexaminethebeliefsnonlinguistsaboutlanguage. Other scholarlyworksinthefieldoffolklinguisticsbringconcernsmoredirectly

setting.

37

Folk linguisticsseeks,then,touncoverMetalanguage2through1.In

. It is language about language, and it isjustasmucha folk linguistics.Itislanguageaboutlanguage,and 38

However, thistheoreticalframeworkcanbeappliedtoothercontextsaswell,

36

The authorsdistinguish“Metalanguage1,”“overtcomment

ston. ston.

Folk Linguistics Folk Linguistics 16

"The uses of folklinguistics."uses "The . 302 . 302, 309.

39 He analyzes

language language

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language revivalisbeingattemptedthroughtheimplementationofminorityeducation. inwhich of folklinguisticsbyexaminingtheoriesandbeliefsaboutlanguageinacontext This thesiswillcontributetothefield the minorityitself,whichthisthesiswillexamineaswell. upon themesofdiglossia.Additionally,Kontra’sworkexaminesstatementsreportedlymadeby this projectbecauseittouches have toldthemnottospeakHungarian.Thisisofrelevancefor Hungarians livingoutsideofHungaryregardingwhen,bywhom,andforwhichreasonspeople 41 40 that ordinarypeoplehaveregardinglanguageusage. disruption intheexpectedcoherenceofnation,physicalspace,andlinguisticpractice. boundaries and linguistic purity in the Vlach context. boundaries andlinguisticpurityintheVlach thesis drawsheavilyonhisresearchwhendiscussingpotentialunderlyingbeliefsoflanguage complaints in multilingual settings."

Kontra, “Don’t Speak Hungarian in public!’ Meadows, Bryan. "Examining the role of nationalism in folk theories of language: The case of

In “Don’tSpeakHungarianinPublic,”MiklosKontralooksatsociolinguisticattitudes

5.

– A Documentation and Analysis of Folk Linguistic Rights.” 17

41

It includesempiricalresearchon

language language ” 40

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CEU eTD Collection duties to “promote the continued existence and development of national minorities.” duties to“promotethecontinuedexistenceanddevelopmentofnational interfering withtherightsofnationalminorities,statesthatratifiedFCPNMhavepositive freedoms tobegrantednationalminoritiesbythestate.Inadditionnegativedutieslikenot considered asuccessormemberoftheCouncilEuropeandtookonpreviousobligations Yugoslavia in1998.WhentheRepublicofSerbiasucceededFRYugoslavia,itwas

with establishingmeasurestopromoteeconomicandsocialequalityinadditionlegal duties includeprovidingsupportforthedevelopmentandpreservationofminorityculturealong 45 44 43 42 the protectionoflinguisticrightsfor ECRML isatreatycreatedin1992thatestablished international documentofrelevancetothesituation ofthenationalminoritiesinSerbia.The the FRYugoslavia’sratificationofFCPNM. of membersthemajorityandminority. minorities.” legal principleswhichStatesundertaketorespectinorderensuretheprotectionofnational ofnationalminoritiesingeneral.Itsaimistospecifythe instrument devotedtotheprotection important internationalagreementfrom1995.Thistreaty“isthefirstlegallybindingmultilateral Framework ConventionfortheProtectionofNationalMinorities(FCPNM).TheFCPNMisan 3.

“Second Opinion on Serbia”“Second Musgrave, Background Musgrave, for Convention the “Framework P One relevant international document for the protection of minority rightsinSerbiaisthe One relevantinternationaldocumentfortheprotectionof 3.1 The EuropeanCharterforRegionalandMinority Languages(ECRML)isanadditional

MinorityrightsinSerbia

Self Self 42

The FCPNMdoesnotdefineanationalminority,butitlaysouttherightsand - - Determination and National Minorities i. Determination and National Minorities

International framework Internationalframework

. 4

rotection of National Minorities.”

44

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145. 145.

43

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charter delineatesmorespecificobligationsofthestate,delineatingmeasuresrelatedto

“expression ofculturalwealth”andthepromotion“mutualunderstanding.” asan provisions forlanguagerightsprotection,includingtherecognitionofminoritylanguages Croatian, Hungarian,Romani,Romanian,Ruthenian,Slovakian,andUkrainianaslanguages within Serbia.In2006SerbiaratifiedtheECRMLandlistedAlbanian,Bosnian,Bulgarian, Europe’s culturalheritage.Serbia’sratificationofECRMLspecifiestheminoritylanguages charter. VlachlanguageisnotprotectedunderPart3oftheCharter. who speaklanguagesspecifiedintheECRMLasprotectedunderbothPart2and3of constitute positiveduties,butthatthesedutiesareonlyappliedtotheminoritygroups worth notingforthepresentdiscussionofminorityrightsthatobligationsonSerbiacertainly 49 48 47 46 rights, aswellthepracticeofinternationalinstitutions whichsupervisetheir standardsofhumanandminority of ademocraticsociety,pursuanttoapplicableinternational provisions onhumanandminorityrightsaretobe interpretedtothebenefitofpromotingvalues constitution, thestateisbasedpartiallyon“human andminorityrightsfreedoms”“the activities,andotherfields. education, judicialauthorities,publicservices,media,cultural protected underPart2and3ofthecharter. minority languagesinpublic. languages intheirterritoryandconcretemeasuresforstatestoundertakepromotetheuseof minorities. TheECRMLidentifiesbothmainobjectivesforstatestoapplyallminority

“ “ Charter “European for Regional or Minority Languages” “ E E E uropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages” uropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages” uropean Charter for Regional o Minority rights are also institutionalized in Serbian laws. According to the Serbian Minority rightsarealsoinstitutionalizedinSerbianlaws.Accordingtothe

ii. Domesticlegislation

46

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47 19

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49

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directly implementableassuch.” guaranteed by,interalia,ratifiedinternationaltreatiesarebytheConstitutionand thathumanandminorityrights the Constitutionsetsforth specified: “Article18,paragraph2,of 53 52 51 50 national minorityas: ofindividualswithagivenminority.InArticle2itdefines protecting thefreeaffiliation including nationalcouncilsandequalemploymentopportunitiesinthepublicsector. onissuesrelatedtonationalminorities, tongue; andeffectiveparticipationindecision-making discrimination; therightofpreservationidentity,includingusepersonalnamesandmother The lawisdividedintobasicprinciples,includingfreedomofexpressionandprohibition to: Law ontheProtectionofRightsandFreedomsNationalMinorities(LPRFNM).Thelawseeks implementation.” the samelevelasconstitutionitself. duties ofthestatetowardminority. each subsectiontherearenumerousspecificarticlesthatdelineatethepositiveandnegative

The Law on Protection of Rights and Freedoms of National Minorities. The Law on Protection of Rights and Freedoms of National Minorities. “Second Periodic Report Submitted to the Secretary “Second Periodic Report Submitt

representing aminorityintheterritory…belonging toagroupofresidentshavinglong Any groupofcitizens…numericallysufficiently representative and,although The 2002LPRFNMprovidesadefinitionofnational minoritybutalsoincludesaclause minorities ingovernmentandpublicadministration. information andculture,institutionsshallbeestablishedtofacilitateparticipationof language, particular rightsofnationalminoritiesinrespectself-government, their rightsandfreedoms,instrumentsshallbeestablishedtoensureprotect [R]egulate protectionofnationalminoritiesfromanyformdiscriminationinexercising One ofthemostimportantdomesticlawsrelatedtominorityrightsinSerbiais2002

50

Moreover, thestatusofinternationaltreatiesregardingminorityrightsis

ed to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe 51

This statement places international minority rights treaties on This statementplacesinternationalminorityrightstreaties

General of the Council of Europe 20

52

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59 58 57 56 55 54 such list).Ifthenumberofpeoplewhoregisteron thespecialelectorallistreachesasetthreshold up toaspecialelectorallistfortheminoritycouncil elections(buttheymayonlysignupforone Republic ofSerbiamaysign terms isspecifiedbythelaw:anyonewhoaeligible voterinthe (since thepopulationfallsinrangeof20,000-50,000). National CouncilsofMinorities. rights istheLawonNationalCouncilsofMinorities. minority maybeforcedagainsttheirwilltodeclarenationalaffiliation. such asimmigrants.Laterinthetextoflaw,itisstatedthatnomembersanational considered anationalminority)anddistinguishesminoritiesfromotherminoritygroups agroupmustpossesstobe (without specifyinghowmanyorwhichofthesecharacteristics This definitionprovidesseveralcriteriaforwhichcharacteristicsdefineanationalminority the number of council members, and in the case of the Vlachsthereare23councilmembers the numberofcouncilmembers,andincase Council oftheVlachNationalMinority(NCVNM)wasformedin2006accordingtoLawon funding, aswellotherissuesconcerningthenationalcouncils.” official useoflanguageandscript,electoralproceduresforthenationalcouncilstheir councils…withregard toculture,education,information, competences ofthenationalminority

The Law on National The Law on National Councils of National Minorities The Law on National Councils of National Minorities The Law on National Councils of National Minorities The Law on Protection of Rights and Freedoms of National Minorities. The Law on Protection of Rights

nurture theircommonidentity,includingculture,tradition,languageorreligion. collectively majority ofthepopulationandwhosemembersaredistinguishedbycareto culture, nationalorethnicaffiliation,originconfession,differentiatingthemfromthe term andfirmbondwiththeterritory…andpossessingcharacteristicssuchaslanguage, The election procedure through which members of the NCVNM are elected to four-year The electionprocedurethroughwhichmembers of theNCVNMareelectedtofour-year Another oneoftheprimaryrelevantpiecesdomesticlegislationrelatedtominority

Councils of National Minorities

and Freedoms of National Minorities. 58

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21

59

56

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The NationalMinority 55

54

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participate intheelectionprocess. minority, thereisamplespaceforadiversegroupoforganizationsandpoliticalpartiesto orstatute tobeaffiliatedwiththeVlach organizations thatdeclarethemselvesthroughname Vlachs inordertovote.Becausethelistsofcandidatesarebasedonnominationsby votersthemselvesneedonlytodeclareas special electorallistisbasedonfreeself-identification, registration onthe opportunities foractorswithdiversestancestobeelected.First,becausevoter the elections,voterscasttheirvoteforanelectorallist.Thisprocedureinitselfprovides 1% ofvotersandatleast50registeredonthespecialelectorallistminority.During

61 60 situation. TheCouncilofEurope(COE)summarizes theperspectives: 3.2 associations ofcitizens,andpoliticalorganizations“ofanationalminorityconcerned.” corresponds tothetotalseatsavailable).Electorallistsmaybenominatedbyorganizations, nominated onanelectorallist(thatmusthaveaminimumoffivecandidatesandmaximumthat based onthepopulationofminority,thenelectionmayproceed.Candidatesmustbe national minorityconcernedbyitsstatute.” association orpoliticalgatheringactingintheinterestofpersonsbelongingtoa establishedasanorganization, national minorityconcernedinitsnameorifithadbeen clarifies thatanorganizationmaybeconsideredas“ofanationalminority”ifithas“prefixof

The Law on National Councils of National Minorities The Law on National Councils of

The Vlachs inSerbia The Vlachs

Vlachs are a separate nation; and that the Vlachs are Romanized Serbs. The predominant Vlachs areaseparatenation; andthattheVlachsareRomanizedSerbs.The predominant language; thatonlyRomaniansliveineasternSerbia, andVlachsdonotexist;thatthe are linguisticsynonyms;thatthetworeallyonly onenation,withrootand Four viewpointshaveemergedconcerningVlach identity:thattheVlachandRomanian characterize the Ongoing politicaldebatesaboutthestatusandidentity oftheVlachs i. Contestedidentity:thestancesofSerbiaand Romania

National Minorities

61

The electorallistmusthavesupportinsignaturesof

22

60

The law

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to theCOEstates: 65 64 63 62 to tuneintoRomaniantelevisionorhaveabroadcast inRomanian.” Romanian, tohaveanOrthodoxchurch, a newspaperintheirlanguage,tohavetheright Basescu publiclystated,“weask(Serbianauthorities) tograntthemtherighttuitionin for failingtoprovideadequateprotectionoftheir rights.In2011RomanianpresidentTraian Serbian governmentrecognizesthegroupstobeunmistakablydistinct. Because theVlachsdeclaredthemselvestobeandnotRomaniansoncensus, Vlachs undertheFCPNMtofreelyidentifyasmembersofanationalminority. therightof Romanians. ItarguesthattoreferVlachsandRomanianstogetherviolates its responsetoCOEreports,theSerbiangovernmentresistedconflationofVlachsand Vlachs arecloselytiedtopoliticalclaimsbydifferentgroups. a varietyofdifferentactorswithstakesinthesituation.Discussionsaboutidentity The identityoftheVlachsisclearlycontested.Thesecontradictoryperspectivesareendorsedby threatened in 2012 to block Serbia’s accession to the European Union on the basisofthe denial threatened in2012toblockSerbia’saccession theEuropeanUnionon

“Romania threatens“Romania Serb hopes for status.” EU “ Ethnic Minorities in Serbia “ Comments of the Government of Serbia on the Second Opinion of the Advisory Committee. Comments of the Government of Serbia on the Second Opinion of the Advisory Committee.

19th centuries. from groupsoriginatingBanat,partsofTransylvaniaandOlteniainthe18th view isthatthemajorityofpopulationwhichidentifiesitselfasVlachdescended The RomaniangovernmentclaimsthattheVlachsareRomaniansandadmonishesSerbia their are noconcordanceandsamenessbetweentheRomanianVlachlanguages identity toanypersonconcernedandstressthat,accordingthepopulationcensus,there the FrameworkConvention,wishtoreiteratetheywouldnotallowanyimposingof identification ofeachindividualpursuanttoArticle3 affiliation andfreedomofself- The authoritiesoftheRepublicSerbia,proceedingfromfreedomnational The SerbiangovernmenttakesthestancethatVlachsareadistinctminoritygroup.In

speakers.

64 62

.

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CEU eTD Collection ”Romanians” andtheothercalled“Vlachs”,althoughtheybothspeakRomanian.” thegrouprecognisedas main problemremainstheartificialdistinctionmadebetween cosigned byseveralRomanians(alongwithmembersfromothercountries)arguedthat“the

70 69 68 67 66 Romanian 23 members,accordingtoDragojević,thereareonlyfourrepresentativeswhotakeapro- The NCVMNfrom2010-2014maybeclassifiedaspredominantlyanti-Romanian.Ofthecurrent Minority (NCVNM)RadišaDragojevićstated: accession inFebruary2012,thePresidentofNationalCouncilVlach from othermembersofthecommunity.InresponsetoBasescu’sthreatblockSerbia’sEU oranti-Romanian slantitpromptsswiftbacklash leaders makestatementswithastrongpro- Vlach minority,therearealsodebatesamongtheminorityitself.When of rightstothegroup. of Romanianofficialsisclear;theVlachsareRomanianslivinginSerbia.

“ “ “National Council head: Vlachs are not Romanians” The situation of the Romanian minority in Serbia. threatens“Romania Serb hopes fo Comments of the Government of Serbia on the Second Opinion of the Advisory Committee.” Dragojevi

Vlach, whichitexpectstotakeseveralyears. Vlach tobeavarietyofRomanian,thenewnational councilaimsatastandardisationof the compositionofnationalcouncil.While previousnationalcouncilconsidered change in where allpersonsbelongingtotheVlachminority couldparticipate)ledtoa [T]he electionoftheNationalCouncilVlach Minorityin2010(adirectelection any demandsonourbehalf. objections, noranybasistoturnRomania,doesRomaniahavemake Romania theirmotherland.VlachsconsiderSerbiaWehaveno all similarities,thosearetwoautochthonousnationalminorities.Romaniansconsider Nobody hastherighttoaskVlachsdeclarethemselvesasRomanians…Regardlessof ongoing disputesbetweentheRomanianandSerbianstatesregarding In themidstof ii. Competingstancesofminorityelites

stance. ć

: Vlasi nisu Rumuni

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Romanian stance.

73 72 71 states “theVlachsofnortheasternSerbiaareina geographicsenseattachedtotheirmotherland the“Aboutus”section of itswebsite,theorganization Romanian stanceinitsonlinematerials.In of Romania. thisattitude of VlachsintheBalkansandclaimsthatSerbiawillneveragreewith them toRomanians.HestatesthatthelawonRomaniansfromeverywherenegatesexistence their lackofculturalrights)toinfiltratewiththeintentassimilatingVlachsandlinking He laterdescribesRomaniaashavingusedthesituationofVlachsinSerbia(specifically, Romanian nationalminority.” statement, heasserts,“TheVlachsofSerbiaarenot,andwillneverbe,membersthe 2012commentsontheparty’swebsite.Inveryfirstsentenceofthis response toBasescu's (VDS). ThepresidentoftheVDSandamemberNCVNM,SinišCelojević,published overall tendencyvariesasnewpoliticianscycleinandoutofpower. The NCVNMisthusnotonlyundividedonitsstancetowardtheidentityofVlachs,butit’s continuity andstrengtheningtheirnationalidentity.Hecontinues: outside Romania’sborderstobeRomaniansaswayofestablishingtheirownhistorical

Vla Vla Vla š š š ka Demokratska Stranka. ka Demokratska Stranka ka Demokratska Stranka. One politicalpartythattakesananti-RomanianstanceistheVlachDemocraticParty The organization“AssociationoftheVlachsSerbia” (ZVS)takesadeliberatepro- on whoseterritoryweoriginatedandsurviveduntiltoday. good andthebadwithSerbs.WeconsiderSerbiaourmothercountry,homeland, today wasandisanessentialconstituentpeople.Throughoutitshistory,wesharedthe with theSerbs,thatsincebeginningofformationfirstSerbianstateuntil centuries livedingoodrelations The VlachsofSerbiaareanethniccommunitythatfor

73

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. O N . O O Nama O Nama 71 ama. ama.

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and eliminatetheirtiestoRomania. language asadialectofRomanian,andbyreferringtoSerbianattemptsassimilatetheVlachs the homelandofVlachs,Vlach as apro-RomanianorganizationbyemphasizingRomania

78 77 76 75 74 Danube.” both sidesofthe The party’sprogram“insistsonequalrightsforthisnationofdualnames equalcitizensofSerbia: party’s pro-Romanianposition.HestatesthatVlachsarenotconsidered published an“Aboutus”sectionontheparty’swebsiteinwhichitispossibletodiscern formerly theVlachDemocraticPartyofSerbia.ThepresidentthispartyisPredragBala romanian dialectofRomanianlanguage.” the RepublicofRomania.” hope thattheywillhavenolinktotheoverallRomanianrace. Romanians andclaimsthatSerbswishtoassimilateVlachsbyreferringthemassuchinthe manipulation. Clear similarities in narratives have emerged inthepro-Romanianstance. manipulation. Clearsimilaritiesinnarrativeshave Romania andargues,similartotheZVS,thatSerbia hasdeniedthisidentitythroughpolitical Daco its characteristicsandstructureitisRomanianlanguage,belongingtotheso-called addressing prejudicesagainstVlachs,itisstated“Vlachlanguagenotadistinctlanguage.By

Vla Vla Zajednica Vlaha Srbija. Zajednica Vlaha Srbija. Zajednica Vlaha Srbija. š š ka Narodna Stranka. ka Narodna Stranka. of theirlanguage,culture,customsandhistory. political controloftheVlachelectorate…Theyalsoperformscandalousmanipulation construct… thatalthoughsomeVlachswouldagreewith,isusuallywiththeaimof with othercommunities,whilethey,onthehand,imposeahistoricalcultural They [Serbia]ontheonehanddispute[Vlach]identity,denyingtheirhistoricallinks One Vlachpoliticalpartywithapro-RomanianstanceistheNationalParty(VNS),

78 The VNSthusconflatestheVlachminorityinSerbia andtheRomaniannationin

Vlasi Srbije i Srbi iz Rumunije. Bolno pore Predrasude o Vlasima. O Nama. Program O Nama

74

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77

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assimilation bytheSerbianstate. referring toRomaniaasthemothercountryof Vlachs,andbyreferringtoattempted stance byusingthetermsRomanianorVlach-Romanian torefertheminoritygroup,by preservation andhumanrightsorganizations.TimocPress,initsreporting,takesapro-Romanian problems intheimplementationofminorityrights.Itiscosignedbyanumbercultural Romanian Communities in Serbia and Ukraine 82 81 80 79 live andpublishesarticlesinRomanian,Serbian,English. fromtheregionswhereRomanians Abroad anddescribesitselfasanewsagencythatoperates Timoc Press.PressisfinancedbytheRomanianstate’sDepartmentforRomanians country andnothingmore.” say thatwearenotRomanian,RomaniansandRomaniaourneighboringpeople from AriadnaeFilumstatesthatthegroupisunder“aggressiveassimilation,throughwhichthey language.” “Vlach andRomanianarelinguisticsynonyms,theyonenation,withroot Romanian nationalminorityinnortheasternSerbia”whichtheystatethefirstsentencethat believing that,atagivenmomenttheirmothercountrywilllooktothem.” national historytaughtinschools,the“localRomaniansclenchedtheirfistsandneverstopped refer tothegroup.ThearticlestatesthatdespitenothavingRomanianlanguageandtheir andRomanianareusedto Filum” isinterviewed.Inthearticle,bothtermsVlach-Romanian nothing otherthanRomanians,”arepresentativefromVlachculturalorganization“Ariadnae

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ta One morepro-Romanianorganizationthatmeritsdiscussionisthewebmediaoutlet

j o polo j o

82

The article continues, referring to the group as Vlach-Romanians,anddiscussing The articlecontinues,referringtothegroup š š ta drugo do Rumuni.” ta drugo do Rumuni.” ž aju vla aju

Imagining t Imagining š ke odnosno rumunske nacionalne manjine u severoisto u manjine nacionalne rumunske odnosno ke 81

The website also published a report on “the Vlach respective The websitealsopublishedareporton“theVlach he Nation: Mythical Structures in Representations of National Identity of the of Identity National of Representations in Structures Mythical Nation: he

. 44

27

79

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80

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refers toRomaniaasthehomelandofVlachs. asthesame)andoften by VlachsandRomanianlanguage(eventothepointofreferringthem often articulatedthroughlinguisticargumentsoverthesimilaritiesbetweenlanguagespoken stanceis and claimsthatVlachshavenoconnectiontotheRomanianstate.Thepro-Romanian position. Theanti-RomanianpositionfrequentlyreferstoSerbiaasthehomelandofVlachs with respecttoRomanian.Thefirstofthesestancesthatmaybeobservedistheanti-Romanian diametrically opposedstancestowardtherelationshipofVlachidentityandlanguage However,therearetwo frequently disputethecensusfiguresregardingVlachcommunity. rights protection,particularlyinthefieldofminoritylanguageeducation.Bothfactionsalso for moreimplementationofminority some similaritiesintheirstancetowardSerbia;theycall relationship betweentheVlachminorityandSerbianstatedifferently,bothgroupsshare into twogroups:pro-Romanianandanti-Romanianfactions.Althoughtheyframethe The major competing stances among the Vlach minority may thus bebroadlyclassified The majorcompetingstancesamongtheVlachminoritymay 28

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85 84 83 during thefieldresearchdesignanddataanalysis phasestoverifythatmytranslationswere Serbia. Allofthefieldworkwasconductedin Serbianlanguage.Iconsultednativespeakers drawing conclusionsfromthecodeddata. audio recordingstotextthroughtranscription),developingacodingscheme,thetext,and the data(transformationfrom of dataanalysis.QCAmaybedividedintophasespreparing subjective meaningsVlachsattributetophenomenasurroundinglanguage. activities andenvironment.” research, “theempiricalstartingpointisthesubjectivemeaningindividualsattributetotheir methods wereusedforthisthesis.Withinthe“symbolicinteractionism”approachtoqualitative 4. interactionism, which seeks to “reconstruct the subject’s viewpoint,” isusedtouncoverthe interactionism, whichseeksto“reconstructthesubject’sviewpoint,” of minoritylanguageeducation.Thusinthiscase,aqualitativemethodologybasedonsymbolic communicative andsymbolicvalue,and,fundamentally,theimplicationsofimplementation its language specificallyreferstobeliefsaboutminoritylanguage;itsusefulness,ecology, thesis: Whatarethebeliefsaboutlanguageheldbynonlinguists? Inthisthesis,thebeliefsabout sociolinguistics. Mycodingschemewillbediscussed furtherattheendofthischapter. codesfromthetext itselfandfromexistingtheoriesof coding inmydataanalysis,generating

Zhang, Yan, and Barbara M. Wildemuth. "Qualitative Methodology Flick, Uwe. Flick, Uwe.

Drawing uponthetheoriesoffolklinguisticsdiscussedinChapterOne,qualitative 4.1 I used several different methods of data collection over the course of fieldwork ineastern I usedseveraldifferentmethodsofdatacollection overthecourseof 4.2 Qualitative contentanalysis(QCA)wasusedastheframeworkforstructuringprocess

Theoreticalbackgroundandjustificationofmethods Datacollectionandanalysis

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83

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group interview,Iasked theparticipantsfollowingquestions: project. Oneoftheparticipantswasgrandmother ofachildintheclass.Duringfocus participants hadatleastonechildwhowastaking theVlachlanguageclassesthroughpilot themselvesasVlachbyethnicity,andtwoSerb.Allbutoneofthe women. Eightidentified Negotin, inwhichtenpeopleparticipated.Ofthe participants,twoweremenandeight a focusgroupinterviewinKobišnica,villagenear to performtraditionalmusic.Iarranged National MinoritygaveaspeechandmanymusicianstraveledfromotherpartsofeasternSerb annual VlachfolkmusicfestivalinwhichamemberoftheNationalCouncil an Kobišnica) ineasternSerbiatoconductadditionalfieldresearch.Iattendedaculturalevent- helped metoformulatemyplansforalongerresearchtripinthespringof2014. This researchtripwasusefulforpreliminaryobservationsthat many oftheparticipatingteachers. simulation onlessonplanning.InthebreaksbetweensessionsandduringmealsIspokewith the sessions,tooknotes,andoccasionallyparticipatedinsomeofactivities,suchasa in onthepresentations,recorded utilized participantobservationduringtheseminaritself.Isat the weekend,IspokeinformallywiththreeemployeesofNGOGerginaaboutproject. such asadictionary,phrasebook,textbook,andchildren’scoloringbookinVlach.Throughout with severalrelevanttextualmaterials;thesewereeducationalmaterialstobeusedinclas in SerbiathroughinclusiveeducationoftheVlachnationalminority.”Theyalsoprovidedme multiculturalism of theproject“Affirmation language withelementsofnationalcultureaspart culminated intheparticipatingelementaryschoolteachersreceivingacertificatetoteachVlach language. Thiswasatwo-dayworkshoporganizedbytheNGOGerginainNegotinwhich accurate. InNovember2013,IattendedthesecondseminarforeducationalworkersofVlach In April 2014, I visited two towns (Zajecar and Negotin) and twovillages(Grljanand In April2014,Ivisitedtwotowns(ZajecarandNegotin)

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in a mixed marriage with an ethnic Serb. These interviews were slightly more open-ended than in amixedmarriagewith anethnicSerb.Theseinterviewswereslightly more open-ended asbeingofVlachethnicity,andtheteacherin Kobiš Both teachersidentified themselves Negotin, Iconductedaproblem-focusedinterview withtheVlachlanguageteacherinherhome. ofVlachlanguage.InKobišnica,avillagenear with theteachertherethattaughtpilotclasses a problem-focusedinterview village nearZajecar,Ivisitedoneelementaryschool andconducted In Grljan,a arrange thanadditionalfocusgroupsandcouldstill providefruitfuldataforanalysis. chose toaddindividualinterviewswiththeVlach languageteachersbecausetheywereeasierto supplement totherestofanalysis. course, isthatthisdatanotgeneralizableinanywayanditsanalysiswillratherbeusedasa caveat,of insights weregatheredthatIfeltitworthyofinclusioninthethesis.Oneimportant Regardless ofthislimitation,duringtheonefocusgroupinterviewIwasabletoconduct,enough it wouldbeimpossibletogatherenoughparticipantsduringtheverylimitedtimeavailable. primary sourceofdataforanalysis.However,uponmyarrivaltotheregionitbecameclearthat Vlachs intothediscussion. identityofthe This wasintendedtoactasastimulusintroducetheissueofcontested relationship betweenVlachsandRomaniamadebyRadišaDragojević(seepreviouschapter). In betweenthefinaltwoquestions,Iprojectedcontroversialquoteaboutnatureof

• • • • •

Why didyouchoosetoenrollyourchildinVlachlanguageclasses? If theseclassesdidnotexist,whatwouldbetheeffect(onyourchildandon Complete thefollowingsentences: What didyouthinktheconsequencesoftheseclasseswouldbeforyourchild? How didyoufindoutaboutthisprojectofVlachlanguageclasses? In addition to this focus group, I also conducted interviews in person with teachers. I In additiontothisfocusgroup,Ialsoconductedinterviewsinpersonwithteachers. My initialresearchplanwastoconductmultiplefocusgroupinterviewsserveasthe One drawbackofVlachlanguageclassesis… One advantageofVlachlanguageclassesis… language)?

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generated some of the codes. Other codes I assigned based on the sociolinguistics theoretical generated someofthecodes. OthercodesIassignedbasedonthesociolinguistics analysis. Someofthecodeswereselectedbased on themesthatappearedacrossinterviews effort. based ontheirproximitytothisepicenterof particular languagerevival Negotin, itwasimportanttoexaminewhetherthere weredifferencesintheteachers’responses region. Becausetheorganizationthatiscoordinating theclassesandteachertrainingislocatedin it wasimportanttotheprojectincorporateinterviewswithteacherswhoarespreadaround phone, werewomen.Althoughitwasnotidealtoconductsomeoftheinterviewsover the teachersgavebrieferanswers.Allofinterviewed,bothinpersonandon to-face teacherinterviews,butthephoneinterviewsweregenerallyofashorterdurationbecause Boljevac nearPodgorac.Iaskedthesamequestionsduringtelephoneinterviewsasface thevillage interviewed oneteacherfromthevillageZlotnearBorandanother had toconducttwoadditionalinterviewswithteachersoverthephonefromBudapest.I to travelallofthevillagesandconductinterviewsinpersonwithteachers.Forthisreason,I schools primarilylocatedinvillagesspreadovertheentiretyofeasternSerbia,itwasimpossible that theteachersgaveduringinterviewsandvariedfrominterviewtointerview. children andparents’attitudestowardtheclasses.Otherquestionsarosedirectlyfromstatements language iscurrentlyanelectivesubject).Iaskedthemalsotodescribetheirappraisalofthe tothechildren(sinceVlach child.” Ialsoaskedtheteachersaboutotherchoicesavailable those askedoftheparentsinfocusgroup,modifiedtosay“thechildren”ratherthan“your that theindividualteacher’scommentarytook.Manyofquestionsweresameorsimilarto the focusgroupinterview,andasaresultIaskedvarietyofquestionsbasedupondirection

After gatheringthedata,Itranslatedandtranscribed theinterviewsbeforebeginning elementary has onlybeenimplementedinten Because thepilotprojectforVlachclasses

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results ofmydataanalysiswillformtherestthisthesis. The more thanoneofthecodes,formajoritydatacodesweremutuallyexclusive. linguistic purification.Althoughoccasionallysomeofthedatacouldhavebeenclassifiedas and revival, childreninthespeechcommunity,languageandpolitics,boundaries, data: diglossia,communicativevalue,symbolicstigma,languagedecline, I ultimatelyusedtencodestocategorizethe interviewed providedausefulanalyticalscheme. aboutlanguagewiththatoftheparticipants contrasting theframeworkusedbylinguiststospeak theory. Becausefolklinguisticsseekstoexaminenonlinguists’beliefsaboutlanguage, framework discussedpreviously.Thesecodesweredrawnonconceptselaboratedinlinguistic

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86 “needed forthecity.”Theystatedthattheyhadspoken Vlachathomewiththeirfamilies,but between speakinginthefamilyathomeandelsewhere. OnestatedthatVlachlanguagewasn’t contexts ofhomeandotherlocations.Theparents inthefocusgroupechoedthisdistinction settings. one ascasualthemarketplace,isinappropriateforusingVlach.Itonlyusedinprivate that thedifferentiationwouldbebetterdescribedaspublicvs.private.Anydomain,even not simplyoneofformalvs.informal(e.g.withapublicofficialasopposedtofamily),but thatthedistinctionis location inwhichonedoesnotspeakVlachisalsotelling.Thisindicates uses ofthelanguagearelimitedtoaspecificdomain.Theinclusionmarketplaceas The statementthatthelanguageis“mainlyservedforhomeneeds”indicatesabelief Vlach isused: before Ievenhadachancetobeginaskingquestions,starteddescribingthefunctionsforwhich spoke tocommentedonthedifferentsettingsthatcallforeitherVlachorSerbian.Oneteacher, in adifferentenvironmentareusedforpurposesthatdonotoverlap.ManyofthoseI 5.

by the researcher in April and 2014. May

Languagefunctionsandattitudes All quotations in Chapters Five th

Diglossia, asdiscussedpreviously,referstowhenmultiplelanguagevarietiesthatcoexist 5.1 The differentiationbetweenappropriateplacesto useSerbianfrequentlyreturnedtothe speak thislanguage…butIspokeitathome. schools, Iam44yearsold,whenwenttoschoolwas6didn’tdare such tospeakthislanguage.Itisspokenexclusivelyinthefamily.Andwe, can’tgotothemarketplaceor can’t gotothecityhallandhavesomeoneunderstand,you parents andchildren,butitwasneverusedinthestreetorschool.Thismeans,you This languageismainlyservedforhomeneedsandpeoplespeakitinthefamily,between

Diglossia

rough Seven, unless otherwise attributed, are taken from interviews conducted

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focused on Vlach as an instrument to learn other languages. One possible implication underlying focused onVlachasaninstrument tolearnotherlanguages.Onepossible When speaking,then,of thecommunicativevalueofstudyingVlachinschools, theparents studying VlachforthepurposesofusingotherRomance languages: referenced otherlanguages.Theparentsinthefocusgroupspokeofcommunicativevalue interview subjects’statementsontheinstrumentalvalueassignedtoVlachlanguagefrequently of thecommunicativefunctionlanguage,itreferstorolelanguageasaninstrument.The language. As seeninChapterOne,whenspeaking communicative valuetheyassociatewiththe usage waspreviouslylimitedtothehome,thenitisworthinvestigatingwhat,ifany, age. until thisyear.Asaresultofsituationdiglossia,VlachsacquiredSerbianatveryyoung until recently,sociallyproscribed.ThisistosaythatVlachlanguagewasneverusedinschools language forVlachsandhowthisprocessoriginatesinaforumwhichtheusageofVlachwas, Besides reiteratingthethemeofshame,thispassagehighlightsprocessacquiringasecond process uponenteringschool,stating: furtherdescribedthis that theyhadlearnedSerbianwhenwenttoschool.Oneteacher • • •

it wasashametospeakthislanguage. school, wespokeamongourselvesandwithfriends,againparents,butinthestreets more, sothatwewouldlearnSerbianlanguage.AtthetimeIwasinsecondary So webegantolearnspeakSerbianlanguage…wethenhadwork,readand the language. It wouldbebettertheniftheycouldgotostudyin Romania;itwillbeeasiertorecognize Romanian, andwhat’stosay,Spanish. An advantageisthatthroughVlachtheycanbetter getalongwithalittlemoreItalian, [Vlach] isaRomancelanguage,unlikeSerbian. world, inSpanish,Italian,alittleFrench,tobetter understandsomethingsbecausethat I forexample,withVlachlanguage,canunderstand morewhereIwassomewhereinthe If thesituationofdiglossia,asdescribedbyinterviewparticipants,issuchthatVlach 5.2 Communicative value

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classes provoked.Oneteachersaid: Many oftheinterviewsubjectsdiscussedpositive emotionalresponsethatthelanguage

88 87 “emblem ofgroupness,asymbol,psychosocial rallying-point,”accordingtoEdwards. and understandingotherRomancelanguagesmoreeasily. specifically wouldhavecommunicativevalueonitsownbesidesprovidingagatewaytolearning “the morelanguagesoneknows,thebetter”),buttheydidnotstatethatlearningVlach statements suchas“witheachadditionallanguageonespeaks,anotherdooropensinlife”and studying languagesinavaguesense(through studying Vlach,andespousedthebenefitsof the communicativevalueofVlachitself.Theydescribedanarraypositiveoutcomesfrom did theteachersorparentsindicatethatinstitutingVlachlanguageinschoolswouldincrease forum.Atnopoint for communicativepurposesinfuturejobs,officialinteractions,oranypublic of diglossiainthecommunity.Thatis,theydonotmakeclaimsabouttheirchildrenusingVlach learning Vlachisthatitoffersnoindicationtheybelievewillsomehowaltertheform it isausefultoolforacquiringmorevaluablelanguages. communicate withothers,butrather easier accesstootherlanguagesasinstruments;itsinstrumentalvalueliesnotinusingit Romanian, aspossessingmorecommunicativevaluethanVlachitself.Learningprovides these claimsisthattheparentsviewotherRomancelanguages,suchasSpanish,Italian,or a symbolof“intangibleassociations.” language maynotonlybeaninstrumentthrough whichmessagesaresentandreceived,butalso

Edwards, John. Edwards, John. One interesting interpretation of the parents’ comments on the instrumentalvalueof One interestinginterpretationoftheparents’commentson Aside from the communicative functions, language also provides symbolic value as an Aside fromthecommunicativefunctions,languagealsoprovidessymbolicvalueasan 5.3

Symbolic value Language and Identity: An Introduction Language and Id

entity: An Introduction

88

What isthesymbolicvalueattachedtoVlachlanguage?

36 . .

55. 55.

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lengthy, itmeritsreadinginitsentirety: one teacherspokeaboutthelinkbetweenVlach identity andlanguage.Thoughhercommentis communicative value,isveryhigh. case oftheseparticipants.OnecouldstatethatthesymbolicvalueVlach,incontrasttoits asholidaytraditionsorfolkmusic, andlanguageisclearlyexplicitinthe cultural practices,such same breathaslanguage,saying“ourourculture”aphrase.Theconnectionbetween traditional costumes,dolls,andfolksongs.Theinterviewsubjectsoftenmentionedcultureinthe One oftheteachersspokeaboutdiscussingfolktraditionsinclass,suchasEastercelebrations, Vlach languageclasses,youngpeoplewouldnotunderstandtheirauthenticsongsandfolklore. Vlach languagedespitenotbeingdirectlyaskedaboutit.Oneparentsaidthatiftherewereno the parents andteachersbroughtupmusic,folklore,history,traditionswhendiscussing classes. on thepartofspeakerstowardsVlachlanguagethatemergesasaresult feeling.” Thesepositiveemotionalresponsessignifythatthereisaattachment one wordthatIhadn’theardevenfrommygreatgrandmotherbutitsoundssonice.Veryhome- say goodbye,saying,“doyouknowhowmuchthatmeanstome? Itmeanssomuchtome.It’s Later thesameteacherspokeaboutwhenchildreninherclassuseaparticularVlachwordto

really beautifulforme.Itmakesmehappythattheyremembersomewords. needed forwhoknowshowmanyyears…whentheyshowmethatknowit.Itis I amenthusiasticsometimeswhenhearawordthathavereallyforgottenandhaven’t say, ifGodwanteditthat way,ifGodwantedmetoknowSerbian,Iwould havebeen differentiates mefromothers…I amdifferentiatedfromothers.Justdueto language.I because thisisthecountry thatIknow.However,justbecauseofthislanguage, woman I ammarriedtoaSerb.AndliveinSerbiaand considermyselfaSerbian Aside fromthelinkbetweencultureandlanguage articulatedbytheinterviewsubjects, between language andculture.Both Interview participantsalsoemphasizedthelinks

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89 value despiteitslimitedusageoutsidethehome. case, ethnicaffiliation)areinextricablylinked.This imbuestheVlachlanguagewithsymbolic defined bymothertongue.Thisindicatesthestrong beliefthatlanguageandidentity(inthis identity. Onecanlearnotherlanguages,asshehas, ormovetoaforeigncountry,butoneis Lastly, itisworthnotingthatsheemphasizestheimmutabilityoflanguageasamarker music melodiesandinstruments,etc.). (both areOrthodoxChristians,theresimilarfolk seen asanindicationofthehighoverlapbetweenculturalheritagebothVlachsandSerbs it islanguagethattheonlythingdifferentiatesherfromothers(ethnicSerbs).Thismaybe phrase “Vlachvillage.”Anotherimportantobservationaboutthisquotationisthatshestatesth community withwhichthelanguageisassociated.Thismayalsobewitnessedinheruseof language isonlyspokeninthehome,theremustbesomeaspectofbroaderspeech who wouldraisehertospeakVlachinanon-Vlacharea.Thisindicatesthatalthoughthe be Vlach,sheisprecludingthepossibilityofbeingborntoVlachparents(perhapswhomigrated) a specificterritory.WhenshesaysthatifhadbeenbornelsewhereinSerbia,wouldnot In ashortpassage,sheexplainsseveralkeybeliefsaboutlanguage.Oneisthatlanguagetiedto

F rom personal interviews and participant observation. observation. participant and interviews personal rom

different. woman. Ihavetoreturnmyroots.Asfarasthat’sconcerned,don’tknowanything You cannotchangeyourself.IcangotoSwitzerland,butknowthatI’mnota ismylanguage,soamI. was determinedformeinthatwayasskinandheight…Such that wasimposedonmeandIlearnedinschool.Andsojustlanguage[Vlach] because itisthelanguageIlearnedfrommymother.Serbian And thatlanguage,Irealize,asmymothertongue,considertongue here andthatisbymybirthIwasborntoaVlachvillagespeaklanguage. was borninNegotin,thecity,but…afterthosedays,Icametomychildhoodhome born insomeSerbianvillageorIwouldhavebeensomewhereelseSerbia…I

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90 rather thananindividual psychologicalone. indication thatshameorstigmaassociatedwithspeaking theVlachlanguageisasocialcondition phenomena butonethatisexperiencedbyother Vlachs aswell.Thiscouldbeseenan referring tothatofherfriendsiswayshowing thatitisnotanisolated,personal language isrelativelycommon.Thattheteacher bolsters herownpersonalexperienceby This commentindicatesthattheexperienceoffeeling shameforbeingVlachandspeaking Vlach: teacher statedthatoneofhergoalsfortheclasswasstudentstonotfeelashamedspeak several timesduringtheinterviewsdespitenotbeingrelateddirectlytoanyofquestions.One surrounding Vlachlanguagewithoutreferringtoitassuch.Theconceptofshamecameup used bythoseinpower.” superiority ofthevariety arguments willbemadeforthegrammatical,lexical,orphonological certain ‘standard’varieties…whensocialstratificationisassociatedwithlinguisticvariation, “evaluations…are mostobviouslyrelatedtotheprestigeandpowerpossessedbyspeakersof dismiss theargumentthatsomelanguagevarietiesarebetterorworsethanothers, in whichspeakersevaluatecertainlanguagesmorepositivelyornegatively.Althoughlinguists

Edwards, John.

Prestige andstigma,sociolinguistictermsdiscussedinChapter1,refertothephenomena 5.4 To beproudthattheyareVlach. study, tospeak,becausewedon’thaveareasonbeashamed.Andthat’sanadvantage. be ashamed,to show thattheyknewVlachlanguage.Iwanttoinspirethesechildrennot my friendswereveryashamed,theyhadshamethatVlach,anddidn’t back, Iwentthroughit.grewtonotbeashamedthatI’mVlach.Butknowsomeof I look And IwantthemtoachievenotbeashamedthattheyareVlachs.Becausewhen During thecourseofmyfieldwork,respondentsfrequentlyalludedtostigma

Prestige andstigma Multilingualism. 90

96-

97.

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answer, butifitisthecase thatthestigmaandshamearerelatedspecifically toVlachlanguage, minority, orfromspeaking Vlachlanguage? Thisisaquestionthat thisresearchisunableto itself orwithVlachethnicity.Doesshamearisefrom beingidentifiedasamemberoftheVlach research iswhetherforspeakersofVlachthisshame isspecificallyassociatedwiththelanguage (shame) ofidentifyingasspeakersastigmatized languagevariety.Whatisunclearfromthis hiding theirknowledgeofVlach,theyareableto avoidtheperceivednegativeconsequences prestige associatedwithspeakingSerbianandmore stigmaassociatedwithspeakingVlach.By believe VlachtobeaninferiorlanguageSerbian,theycertainlyperceivethatthereismore Whetherornottheteachersactually underlying beliefsaboutlanguagethatmayinformthem. language revivalefforts,theteachers’commentsonshamemaybeanalyzedaccordingto hiding theirknowledgeof,theVlachlanguage. associated withVlachlanguageanewprojectthatrequirespubliclyspeaking,andnot the project.Theteachersthereforehadtoreconciletheirownpreviousexperienceofstigma volunteered toteachVlachbuthadbeenapproachedbytheirschool’sprincipalattheonsetof both informallyduringtheteachertrainingseminarandininterviews,indicatedthattheyhadnot to publiclyteachit.AlloftheteachersIspoketo, and speakingVlachlanguagewiththenhaving These statementsrevealacommonthemeofhavingtoreconcilepreviousshameforknowing stating: of nomadsorherders,asitwascalled,andreallyadisgracetospeakit.”Shecontinued,

language anditwasalittlesenseless. because foryearsIhadsaidthatdidn’tknowVlachandnowatonce,amtoteachthis agreeable tome,sodeclarethatIknowVlach…simplymeitwasadisgrace In thebeginning,it[theprojectforVlachlanguageclassesinschool]wasn’tthat Another teacheralsoechoedthisnarrativeofshame,sayingthatVlachwas“alanguage In additiontoindicatingthetensionbetweenpersonalexperiencesofstigmaandnew

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than others. orworse language thatinformtheseovertstatementsissomelanguagesareinherentlybetter inferior toSerbian.Ifthisweretrue,itwouldindicatethatoneoftheunderlyingbeliefsabout it couldmeanthatspeakerswhoreportthisunderstandVlachlanguageitselftobesomehow

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children whospeakVlachwaslatertiedtothepossibilityofdeathlanguage. to sayanythinganddidn’tunderstandatallwhentheclassesbegan.Thedecreasingnumberof the childreninherclassdidn’tknowhow language wasVlach.Anotherteacherstatedthattwoof focus groupalsoindicatedthattheyspokeSerbianwiththeirchild,eventhoughownnative to speakit.Oneoftheparentsin members speakit,butthattheythemselvesdon’tknowhow that manychildrenhearsometimesandunderstandsomeofthelanguagewhenolderfamily prospects ofVlachlanguage.Speakinghypothetically, oneteacherobserved: repeated manytimesbyparticipantswhentheywere askedtospeculateaboutthefuture children whocome,2 Thesesmall learn itfromgrandmaandgrandpainthefamily,”“Athometheydidn’tit. others don’tknow.”Later,thesameteacherstated,“likeIsaid,fewchildrenknowit.Theydidn’t language…Maybe outof22fromthesecondtofourthgradewhocome,twoorfourknowit.The One teacherdescribedherownclass,saying,“Asmallnumberofchildrenknowthe individuals andyoungpeopleorchildrenillustratedthedeclineinhealthoflanguage. generations asmarkersofchange.Contrastivecommentsaboutthelanguageknowledgeolder 6.

Language Shift The interviewparticipantsfrequentlyspokeofthedeclineVlachlanguageusing 6.1 this languagewouldbeforgotten, lost. problemthat Vlachs thentheydon’tspeak itanymoreinthathouse…Therewouldbe that who areherewouldlose it,duetothesemixedmarriages;ifthefatherand motheraren’t families. Itmeansthatin10,20,30yearsthislanguage wouldbecompletelylost.We the we couldsaythatmyfamilywouldbeclosedoff upuntilmyexistence…suchinall my childrendon’tknowhowtospeakVlachbecause myhusbandisnotaVlachandthus language wouldbelostin20years…because,as wewereheaded,Icanhonestlytellyou: Okay, it’slikethis:iftheydidn’tstudythislanguage inschools,Iamcertainthatthis The phenomenaoflanguagedeathandthepossibilityVlachdyingoutwas Language Decline

nd

and 3 rd

grade, saythatfewofthemknowit.”Theteacherthenclarified

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diglossia discussedabove). Thiswillbeexploredfurtherinthesubsequent subchapter. knowledge ofVlachratherthanthelackopportunities touseVlachinmostsettings(duethe speakers ofVlachwithlanguagedeath.However, theytendedtofocusonchildren’slackof as ethnicallyVlach.Theinterviewparticipantsrepeatedly andexplicitlyconnectedfeweryoung inthehomeofthosewhoidentify Serbia andabroad,Vlachlanguageisdecliningin usageeven That istosay,bothin switch homelanguageseithertoSerbianorthe languageofthestate. speaking Vlachathomeanymore,theteacherclaimsthatfamilieswhomigratetootherstates not In additiontosomefamiliesintheregion live abroad,itisstillanoteworthystatement. Even ifonedisregardsthestatisticalestimategivenbyteacherregardinghowmanyfamilies of migrationandlanguage: the linkbetweenmigrationfromregionandlossofspeakers.Oneteacherdescribedeffect be discussedfurtherinthesubchapteronlanguagerevival. of thesepointswill language inschoolscouldpreventthisoutcomefromhappening.Thesecond subjects: thatadeclineinyoungspeakersleadstolanguageextinctionandstudyingVlach demonstratestwoimportantpiecesofinformationaboutthebeliefsinterview in thefuture simple: mylanguagewoulddie.”Speakingaboutthehypotheticalpossibilityofdeath Later, sherepeated:“Oneofmymotivesisjustsothatwedon’tforgetthislanguage.Soit to speakVlach. their ancestors,withgrandpaandgrandmawhoarehere,theydon’tknowhow where theylive.Andwhencomehome,thebiggestproblemisthatarewith speak Vlachthere.MaybesomeSerbian.Inanyway,theythelanguageofstate of familiesareinGermany,Switzerland,Austria,someAmerica,andsotheydon’t problems isthatwhentheycomehome,fortwoorthreeweeksbecause80% In otherplaces,theproblemisthatchildrengenerallyareabroad.Andthen Related tothespeculationsaboutlanguagedeath,participantsspokeseveraltimes

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children come to school and in that class are well behaved, speak nicely, and thelike.”Another children cometoschoolandinthatclassarewell behaved,speaknicely,and them athome.”Shesaidalterthatnowtheparents, “theysaynothing.Theyarehappy,thattheir “What’ll wedowithVlach? Onemoreclass,okay,alittleinschool,butthat,Ican teach of thelanguageclasses.Oneteacherdescribed reactionofsomeparentstotheclasses, and theparentsconsideredlanguagerevivaleffort andtheirlateracceptanceembracing teachers wereenthusiastic,althoughuncertainaboutthefutureprospectsofprogram. The conceived, itisnicethattheylaunchedthis,andIjusthopewillcontinuefurther.” study.Theprojectiswell think thattherewillbemoreandchildrenwhosignup becauseofthat.”Shelateradded,“I the firstthatthishasbeendone.Andchildrenarehappy Vlach languagearethosethatweuseno.Notextswrittenintheexisted…thisis Another teacherdescribedtheinitialproject,“thesearefirsttextbooks,printedin even introducedthelanguageinschools.”Shelatercontinued: own alphabet,theirlanguage,and the Vlachsdeclaredthemselves,thattheynowhavetheir continue. OneteacherdescribedtheVlachlanguagerevivalmovement,“inlast5or6years, language classessincetheprogramhadjustbegun,buttheyalsoexpressedadesiretoseeit

The teachers of Vlach indicated uncertainty about the future of the project of Vlach The teachersofVlachindicateduncertaintyaboutthefutureproject 6.2 Some oftheteachersdidofferacontrastbetweeninitialskepticismwithwhichthey regulated bylawnextyear. language tobeputinasasubjectthatallcanchoose.Idon’tknowhowitwill still. Idon’tknowhowitwillbefornextyear,whetherpossibleVlach school. Sochildrenlovetocomethisclassandstudy,butwedon’thavegrades of Vlachsthatthissubjectenterintoourschool.Iwaschosenastheoneteacherformy NationalCouncil January, andwehavetheapprovalofMinistryEducation However, Vlachlanguageisstilllikeapilotprojectintroducedinourschoolsince Language revival

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This mayshowthattheunderlyingbeliefaboutlanguage revivalisthattheprimaryneedto will affectthediglossiainspeechcommunity. do notcontemplatewhetherortheclasses value, arenotconsideredbytheparentsasimportant forlanguagerevival.Theinterviewsubjects opportunity touseit.Putanotherway,thefunctionalusesof the language,itscommunicative concerned withtheknowledgeoflanguageitself andthe vocabulary knowledge,whiletheparentshighlightabetterabilitytospeak.Bothoftheseare language competenceratherthanusage.Theoutcomesuggestedbytheteacherisimproved the focusison presented asimportanttoensuringthefuturehealthoflanguage.However, language deaththatchildrenare This relatestothediscussioninprevioussectionon the classes(iftheyindeedcontinue). the preventionoflanguagedeathwerelikelyoutcomes So boththeparentsandteachersinterviewedstatedthatpreservationoflanguage so thelanguagedoesn’tdie.Sothatitcontinuesfurther.Passedfromgenerationtogeneration.” motivation forenrollingtheirchildintheclassesstated,“SothattheywouldspeakVlachbetter, The firstparentinthefocusgroupinterviewtoresponddirectquestionabout reverse someofthelanguagedeclinediscussedpreviously.Oneteacherclaimed: Vlach, teachersandparentshadpositiveoutlooksregardingtheabilityofclassestohaltor of teachingtheclassesatfirst,butlaterexpressedsatisfactionwiththem. teacher mentionedherownreluctance(discussedinthesubchapteronstigma)toacceptrole

While speculating about the future given the existence of the minoritylanguageclassesin While speculatingaboutthefuturegivenexistenceof preserved. words. Thatmeansthatwe’renotgoingtoloseit.AndIthinkthelanguagewillbe each weekthat’stenwords,36classesayear,thisishowmuch? Around2000or3000 come?” AndIsay,ineachclass,thatifchildlearnsjustfivewords,withtwoclasses Next yearmystudentswillsaytotheirfriends,“hey,it’sniceinthatclass.Whynot

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conditions inordertopromoteitsusage. increase thenumberofcompetentyoungspeakers,ratherthantosomehowaltersocial

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ideology inwhichlanguage isanobjectthatcanexistoutsideofpolitics, andthatpoliticsin that theybelievelanguageandpolitics This couldbeinterpreted to mean related totheVlachlanguage(discussedinChapter Three). Thus bothteachersandparentsactivelysoughtto separatethemselvesfromthepoliticalclaims fromRomania.” tension towardRomania…therearenotensionshere, thatweseeksomething Vlachs andRomania.Onestated,“inerrorsome oftherepresentativesthinkthathehavesome us.” Inthefocusgroupinterview,parentsdistancedthemselvesfrompoliticaldiscourseabout determines yourjobandlanguagecultureeverything,Ithink.Thatisveryuglyherewith about thosepolitics,butherewithuspoliticsentersineverything,alloflife: upcominggraduation, shestated“It’suglytotalk Serbians.” Inalatertangentaboutherson’s some thoughtthatitissomethingaboutdivision,theVlachswanttoseparatefrom The sameteacherstated“peoplenowturnedittopolitics;theythinkispolitics.Foralongtime them: and thatshespoketotheparents,telling that initiallyonly2childrensignedupfortheproject One teachersaid the issueofpoliticsarose.Theysoughttodistancethemselvesfrompolitics. 7.

Defining languages

The participantswhomIinterviewedspokeinfrequentlyandinadetachedwaywhenever 7.1 ourselves? separate accept, todoit,becauseIwasafraidofthesetalks.Whywouldwenow anything aboutthat;Iknowonlythislanguage.wasn’tinthebeginninggoingto thinking ofpeople.Whywouldwedivideourselves? Isaid,“really,don’tknow that isthe culture. Andthenwe’regoingtodivideandit’sbewar. afraid thatitwouldcometodivision.Becauseit’sanewlanguage,minority, this, that,andthat.Thatistosay,itdoesn’thaveanypoliticalbackground.Theywereall When theycameIsaid,hey,youknow,andthenexplainedtothemthatwewillstudy Language andpolitics

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defend itasstringentlysomeofthepoliticians discussedinChapterThree. between VlachandRomanianseemstobesocertain tothemthattheydon’tfeelobliged in Romaniabecauseitwouldmakeeasierforthem tolearnthelanguage.Theboundary Also, manyoftheparentsdeclaredthatVlachwould beusefulforanyonewhowantedtostudy problems. Sheeffectivelyillustratedthepotential mutualintelligibilityofVlachandRomanian. friend whospokeRomanianfortheentiretyofconversationwithnocommunication teacher whoassertedthedifferencebetweenVlachandRomanianlatertookaphonecallfrom occasionally linkedRomanianandVlachinspecificwaysintentionallyorunintentionally.The in thedifferencebetweenRomanianandVlach. Certainly someoftheovertstatementsmadebyinterviewsubjectsindicatedtheirbeliefthat notthesameandcouldbeequated. asserted thatRomanianandVlachlanguagewere interests andwehaveourinterests.”Oneteacher,quotedintheintroductiontothisthesis, Another parentcommented,“WewerenotRomanianandwewillbe.Theyhavetheir notRomanian.OursisVlach.” That is,ourlanguageisapartoftheRomancelanguages.It’s people makeamistaketosaythatwespeakRomanianbecauseit’snotbutRomance. and Romanianwasanerrorofignorance,notawillfulpoliticalmaneuver,stating,“itmeansthat Vlach frequently indiscussionsofVlachandRomanian.Parentsclaimedthattheconflation the denialthatlanguageandpoliticsarefundamentallyintertwined. some cases,throughactiveagents,becomeinsertedintomattersoflanguage.Thisinturnimplies The questionoftheboundariesthatseparateonelanguagefromanothercameup 7.2 However, in moments that seemed like apparent contradictions, the interview participants However, inmomentsthatseemedlikeapparentcontradictions,theinterview

Language boundaries

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languages. language’s relationshiptoVlach,donotovercome theperceivedboundarybetweentwo boundary; theyareallVlachs.Andyet,thesame criteria,whenappliedtotheRomanian in thisinstance,thecriteriaofsimilarityandmutual comprehensionindicatealackofdefinitive somewhat different?” Sheanswered,“Yes,butit’ssimilar.Wecanunderstandeachother.”So, stated “ThereareVlachsinCroatia,Macedonia,andGreece.”Ireplied,“Butisn’tthelanguage [Serbian wordforVlachswhospeakAromanian]inGreeceAlbania.”Oneoftheteachersalso Tsintsari goes. It’sinterestingthatwethinkareuniqueVlachsinthisplacebutthereexist person whowasVlach(inGreecethereexistVlachs)andIheardalittleoftheaccent,howit

91 their ownarguments,itis worthwhiletoconsidertheunderlyingimplications aboutlanguage family. and Greece,actuallyspeakAromanian,adifferentbranchoftheEastRomancelanguage The groupsreferredtoasVlachsinotherpartsoftheBalkans,primarilyMacedonia,Albania, encountering Vlachsfromothercountries. speakers ineasternSerbia,participantsalsodiscussed language situation,andwerenotatanypointengagedwithaspossibleboundarymarkers. were presentedbytheteachersandparentsassimplygivingadditionalinformationabout betweentwoofthedialects.Thesedifferences a mini-lessononthephonologicaldifferences in whichcitiesdifferentdialectswereused.Theteacherevenwentasfartogivetheinterviewer interviews, theparticipantsdiscusseddialectsofVlachlanguageineasternSerbia,describing not consideredtobepotentialboundaries.Inboththefocusgroupandinoneofteacher

Ruzica, Miroslav. "The Balkan Vl 91 While similaritiesareoverlookedbetweenVlachandRomanian,internaldifferences Rather thandismissthisashypocrisyorlackofcritical thinkingontheinconsistenciesof Even moreinterestingthanthediscussionofdialectdifferenceswithingroupVlach

However, thislinguisticdistinctionwasoverlooked;oneparentsaid,“ImetaGreek

achs/Aromanians Awakening, National Policies, Assimilation."

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93 92 purity, orthelackofforeignloanwordsinalanguage,willbeanimportantideal. internally stable. fromoneanotherbut are discreteobjectsthatexistintheworldandclearlybounded and Aromanianmaybethatitreflectsanunderlying,perhapsunarticulated,belieflanguages So, onepossibleinterpretationofthecommentsbyteachersandparentsonVlach,Romanian, nationalism: maintenance. ThisechoesMeadows’observationsinhisworkonfolklinguisticsand ones maybeunderstoodasoneoftheprocessessocialidentityformationandboundary ofexternal beliefs intheseexamples.Theblurringofinternaldifferencesandtheheightening worse orlessworthyofpreservationthanapure one. Anotherparentexplained,“thereare impurelanguageis somehow thataso-called The useoftheword“still”hereindicatesbelief process ofstandardization.Anotherparentsaid,“it isn’tpure,butwestillwanttomaintainthis.” mixed withSerbian,”andlateradvocated“throwing outtheSerbianphrases”aspartof isn’tnowpurified.Itisalanguage grammar. Itisn’twritten.ThereareSerbianwords.Vlach is nota“pure”language.Oneparticipantstated,“Vlachlanguagestillisn’tdefined.There corollary isreflectedinthedatafrominterviews.TheparentsstatedseveraltimesthatVlach Edwards.

complaints in multilingual settings."

For a discussion of historical and contemporary linguistic purism, see Chapter 6 of Meadows, Bryan.

identification ofonelanguagefromanotheristhatonlypossibleifideologies level,the Thatis,atafundamental between languageanddialectprovidedinnationalism. language fromanotherisitselfaprocessthatdependsonthecategoricaldistinction Underneath this…areideologiesofnationalismbecausethediscernmentonelegitimate If thesharpboundariesbetweenlanguagesarebelievedtoexist,itfollowsthatlinguistic 7.3 nationalism arepresupposed.

Language purification

"Examining the "Examining

role of nationalismin folk theories of language: case The of 5.

92

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This

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multilingualism where code switching and language mixing may be readily observed. multilingualism wherecodeswitchingandlanguage mixingmaybereadilyobserved. high the boundaryoughttobemixedin.Thisattitude may beproblematicinareasof language hasveryimpermeableboundaries;nothingfromotherlanguagesonthesideof language. Thesenegativeevaluationsdemonstratethattheparticipantsbelieveanid The presenceofSerbianloanwordsinVlachisagainviewedasanegativefeaturethe stigma discussedearlier: her initialmisgivingsabouttheprojectwererelatedtolanguageitself,ratherthansocial achieved byriddingthelanguageofforeignloanwords. classes isrelatedtothelanguageitself.Linguisticpurityviewedasagoalthatoughtbe of theparentswithlanguage words inVlachandpurityindicatethatoneoftheconcerns given figureisaccurate,theimportantimplicationofthisandotherstatementsaboutforeign inserted intotheVlachlanguage.AndTurkish.Thatmeans,it’snotpure.”Whetheror enough, Ithink,groupsofwords26%,inVlachthatareSerbian,maybeBulgarian, essence…if I wantedtotranslatewordbyword,thenevery otherwordwouldbeSerbian. essence…if and Icouldreduceittomaybeacoupleofsentences.Toresembleit,keepthe of words.Thatis,whenIdidsometranslations…thereishalfthepagethatinSerbian borrow it.TheyhaveitinSerbian,butwetotakethem.Wedon’talargefund Vlach stayedsomewhere100yearsago.Thatis,wedon’thaveaword,to a languageofthefuture;thatit’snotgoingtobeneededbecausefundwordsin to me.Comeon,nowwearegoingspeakVlach? Whoneedsthat? Iknowthatit’snot When thissubjectappeared,twoorthreeyearsago,inthebeginningitwasalittlefunny began bysayingthat One oftheteachersalsospokeextensivelylanguagepurity.She

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implemented, it could also be fruitful to investigate folk beliefs about language. Furtherresearch implemented, itcouldalso befruitfultoinvestigatefolkbeliefsaboutlanguage. and parentsinvolved.Inothersettingsinwhichminority languagerightshavebeenpoorly time, butalsotoinvestigatewhetheranychanges occurinthelanguagebeliefsofteachers conduct alongitudinalstudytoseenotonlytheoutcomes oftheminoritylanguageprogramover expand thesamplesizeandseeifsimilarthemes stillemerge.Itwouldalsobeworthwhileto effort inreversinglanguagedecline. language education,itisprematuretoevaluatethesuccessorfailureofrevival minority languageeducationprograms.Inthiscase,sinceitisattheveryoutsetof Research onnonlinguists’beliefsaboutlanguagecouldresultinthecreationofmoresuccessful context ifitfailstoconsiderthefolklinguisticsdynamicsofparticularmultilingualsetting. Thus,suchpolicy maybepoorlysuitedforagiven role ininformingandformulatingpolicy. designed andimplemented,itisoftenthebeliefsoflinguistspoliticiansthatplayacentral beliefs oflinguistsorpoliticians.Inacontextinwhichminoritylanguageprogramsarebeing contradictthe beliefs ofnonlinguistsaboutlanguagecanelucidateinstanceswherethese relevant, therearestillinterestingimplicationsforthebroaderscholarship.Examinationof generalize thefindingsofthisresearchbeyondverylimitedscopeforwhichtheyare language. children’s knowledgeratherthanusageoftheVlach about languagefunction,decline,andrevivalshowthattheirprimaryconcerniswithaugmenting desired purityandinternalhomogeneityoflanguagesassharplyboundedunits.Theirbeliefs because theyreflectnationalistundertonesaboutthe beliefs areincongruentwiththatoflinguists 8.

Conclusions The interviewsconductedwithteachersandparentsindicatethatinsomewaystheir Further researchonthisparticularcasewouldbe wellserved,firstandforemost,to

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everyday ethnicityandthefieldofnationalismstudies. interesting newfieldsofinquirythatwouldbringfolklinguisticsclosertotheapproach thesis, severelylimitedinitsscopeandconclusions,neverthelesspointsthewaytopotentially and howthetwomayinfluenceoneanother.This minority languageeducationtoseewhether in thisfieldcouldattempttofurtherdeveloptherelationshipbetweenfolklanguagebeliefsand

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