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The Role of the Hyporheic Zone Across Stream Networks†

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The Role of the Hyporheic Zone Across Stream Networks† HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES Hydrol. Process. 25, 3525–3532 (2011) Published online 5 May 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/hyp.8119 The role of the hyporheic zone across stream networks† Steven M. Wondzell* Abstract USDA Forest Service, Pacific Many hyporheic papers state that the hyporheic zone is a critical component of Northwest Research Station, Olympia stream ecosystems, and many of these papers focus on the biogeochemical effects Forestry Sciences Laboratory, of the hyporheic zone on stream solute loads. However, efforts to show such Olympia, WA 98512, USA relationships have proven elusive, prompting several questions: Are the effects of the hyporheic zone on stream ecosystems so highly variable in place and time *Correspondence to: (or among streams) that a consistent relationship should not be expected? Or, is the Steven M. Wondzell, USDA Forest hyporheic zone less important in stream ecosystems than is commonly expected? Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Olympia Forestry Sciences These questions were examined using data from existing groundwater modelling Laboratory, Olympia, WA studies of hyporheic exchange flow at five sites in a fifth-order, mountainous stream 98512, USA. network. The size of exchange flows, relative to stream discharge (QHEF :Q),was E-mail: [email protected] large only in very small streams at low discharge (area ³100 ha; Q <10 l/s). At higher flows (flow exceedance probability >0·7) and in all larger streams, †This article is a US Government work QHEF : Q was small. These data show that biogeochemical processes in the and is in the public domain in the USA. hyporheic zone of small streams can substantially influence the stream’s solute load, but these processes become hydrologically constrained at high discharge or in larger streams and rivers. The hyporheic zone may influence stream ecosystems in many ways, however, not just through biogeochemical processes that alter stream solute loads. For example, the hyporheic zone represents a unique habitat for some organisms, with patterns and amounts of upwelling and downwelling water determining the underlying physiochemical environment of the hyporheic zone. Similarly, hyporheic exchange creates distinct patches of downwelling and upwelling. Upwelling environments are of special interest, because upwelling water has the potential to be thermally or chemically distinct from stream water. Consequently, micro-environmental patches created by hyporheic exchange flows are likely to be important to biological and ecosystem processes, even if their impact on stream solute loads is small. Published in 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key Words hyporheic exchange flows; stream discharge; stream networks; flow exceedance probability; watershed area; hyporheic potential Introduction There is growing recognition that the part of streams extending below, and adjacent to, the streambed can be an important component of aquatic ecosys- tems. This area, commonly known as the hyporheic zone, can provide unique habitats for aquatic organisms (Stanford and Ward, 1988; Baxter and Hauer, 2000), and exchange of stream water through the hyporheic zone exposes transported solutes to unique biogeochemical environments with subsequent impacts on whole stream metabolism (Grimm and Fisher, 1984) and nutri- ent cycling (Triska et al., 1989; Mulholland et al., 1997; Mulholland and DeAngelis, 2000). Despite its broadly recognized importance, quantifying the role of the hyporheic zone in streams has proven difficult. For example, attempts to examine this question in studies comparing a wide range of stream types often do not show strong correlations between measures of hyporheic exchange and nutrient cycling at the stream-reach scale (Hall et al., 2002; Webster et al., 2003). These results pose two questions: (i) Are the effects of the hyporheic zone on stream ecosystems so highly variable in place and time Received 15 August 2010 (or among streams) that a consistent relationship should not be expected? Or Accepted 30 March 2011 (ii), is the hyporheic zone less important in stream ecosystems than is com- monly expected? To answer these questions, I take a physical/hydrological Publishedin2011byJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd. 3525 S. M. WONDZELL Table I. Data summary for points shown in Figure 1. Abbreviations shown in the first column were used in Figure 1 to denote specific stream reaches from the 64 km2 Lookout Creek watershed in central Oregon, USA. Slope denotes the longitudinal gradient of the valley floor; QHEF denotes the amount of hyporheic exchange flow predicted from groundwater flow models, normalized to a 100-m reach length; Ex (p) denotes the annual flow exceedance probability for a given stream under the flow conditions used to simulate hyporheic exchange flows in the groundwater flow models. Data sources are as follows: WS1 and WS3 (Kasahara and Wondzell, 2003) with additional comparison for low- and high-baseflow conditions (Wondzell, 2006); McRae Creek (Wondzell and Swanson, 1996); upper and lower Lookout Creek (Kasahara and Wondzell, 2003) Site Watershed Area Mean Slope K HYPPOT QHEF Q QHEF/Q Ex (km2) annual (m m1) (m s1) (Slope ð K; (m3 s1 per (m3 s1) (m1) (p) discharge ms1) 100 m) (l/s) 1-L WS1—low baseflow 0Ð96 40 0Ð14 7 ð 105 1 ð 105 2Ð28 1Ð22 0Ð01869 0Ð90 1-H WS1—high baseflow 0Ð96 40 0Ð14 7 ð 105 1 ð 105 2Ð28 4Ð67 0Ð00488 0Ð69 3-L WS3—low baseflow 1Ð01 39 0Ð13 7 ð 105 9 ð 106 4Ð26 3Ð23 0Ð01316 0Ð92 3-H WS3—high baseflow 1Ð01 39 0Ð13 7 ð 105 9 ð 106 4Ð26 11Ð46 0Ð00372 0Ð61 McR-L McRae—low baseflow 14Ð00 530 0Ð04 5 ð 103 2 ð 104 1Ð27 117 0Ð00011 0Ð71 McR-H McRae—high baseflow 14Ð00 530 0Ð04 5 ð 103 2 ð 104 1Ð75 590 0Ð00003 0Ð30 McR-S McRae—storm flow 14Ð00 530 0Ð04 5 ð 103 2 ð 104 1Ð49 2400 0Ð00001 0Ð03 UpLO upper Lookout—baseflow 50Ð00 2630 0Ð02 2 ð 103 3 ð 105 50Ð0 308 0Ð00069 0Ð86 LowLO lower Lookout—baseflow 60Ð62 3190 0Ð01 7 ð 104 7 ð 106 1Ð14 873 0Ð00002 0Ð67 perspective and attempt to quantify the importance of each study site were estimated from simulations using the the hyporheic zone in a mountainous stream network. numerical groundwater flow model, MODFLOW. Models From these results, I build a general conceptual model were parameterized to measured stream boundary condi- to describe the expected role of the hyporheic zone in tions and hydraulic conductivities measured from slug stream networks. tests from relatively dense well networks covering the full model domains. Models were calibrated to simulate An example from the Lookout Creek watershed the head distributions measured across the well networks. In-depth study at one study site suggested groundwater Lookout Creek drains a 64 km2 mountainous water- flow models provide reasonable quantitative estimates of shed located in the western Cascade Mountains of Ore- hyporheic exchange fluxes (Wondzell et al., 2009a). 0 0 gon, USA (44°20 N, 122°20 W). Hyporheic studies and Results from the Lookout Creek watershed showed groundwater flow simulations were conducted at five that QHEF : Q ratios decreased as stream size increased. locations within the watershed. Two sites were located Because the QHEF : Q ratio is sensitive to change in dis- on the fifth-order mainstem of Lookout Creek. The lower charge, comparisons among streams of different sizes Lookout site was located in a narrow, bedrock-confined within a stream network may be confounded by changes reach whereas the upper Lookout site was located in in Q if the observations are made at different times and a wide, or unconstrained alluvial reach. One site was under different flow conditions. One way to control for located on McRae Creek, a fourth-order tributary to changes in discharge is to make among-site comparisons Lookout Creek. Two sites were located on first-order at discharges with similar flow exceedance probabilities. headwater streams, both of which drained directly to Within a small watershed, or even within a hydro-climatic lower Lookout Creek (Table I). These study sites are region, the flow exceedance probability provides some all located in forested watersheds where road build- insurance that comparisons are made under similar hydro- ing and forest harvest have occurred in the past. Large logic conditions. In this case, calibration data for model wood was also removed from portions of the stream simulations at a number of sites in the Lookout Creek network, including much of the fifth-order stream chan- basin were collected around 0Ð70 flow exceedance prob- nel. Much of the road network remains in place and abilities, providing reasonably comparable data across a in use. More detailed study site descriptions and the wide range of stream sizes (Table I). These data showed specifics of the model simulations are given in Wondzell relatively high QHEF : Q ratios in the headwater WS1 and (1994), Wondzell and Swanson (1996), and Kasahara and WS3 streams and much smaller ratios in the larger McRae Wondzell (2003). Creek and Lookout Creek sites. The relationship between hyporheic exchange flow and Results from the Lookout Creek watershed also stream discharge at the five study sites in the Lookout showed that QHEF : Q ratios decreased with seasonal Creek watershed was examined for systematic patterns increases in discharge. For example, at McRae Creek, related either to temporal changes in discharge at a single only small changes in hyporheic exchange flows (QHEF) site or changes across a stream network under relatively were observed over a 20-fold change in stream dis- uniform flow conditions. Hyporheic exchange flows at charge from summer low baseflow through winter high Published in 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 3526 Hydrol. Process. 25, 3525–3532 (2011) SCIENTIFIC BRIEFING baseflow-to-peak flows during a small storm (Table I). reach as described by Darcy’s Law (Wondzell and Consequently, the QHEF : Q ratio decreased approximately Gooseff, in press).
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