Maṇḍalas and Yantras

Maṇḍalas and Yantras

Because of the popular interest in the topic, there of a king. In tantric traditions, manḍ ̣ala often has been considerable confusion about the mean- refers to a structured space that is enclosed and ing and significance of manḍ ̣alas. Some authors delimited by a circumferential line, and into which have indiscriminately dealt with Buddhist and a deity or deities are invited by means of → man- Hindu manḍ ̣alas and arrived at excessively tras. This space is often a circle, but may also generalized conclusions. In secondary sources, appear as a square, a triangle, or another shape. manḍ ̣alas have been described too uniformly as The various shapes and structures ofman ḍ ̣alas are aids to meditation. While they certainly function based on the traditions of the different schools as meditational devices in some traditions (as e.g. and depend on ritual applications, the deities wor- the śrīcakra frequently does), this use of manḍ ̣alas shipped, and the practitioner’s qualification and is but one aspect of a larger picture. goal. The termsman ḍ ̣ala and yantra are frequently Authorities on ritual recognize manḍ ̣alas used as synonyms and often translated as “(mys- among the places into which deities can be tical) diagrams.” The fact that their geometric invoked and worshipped, along with statues, rit- designs are similar contributes to confusion ual vessels, and fire. between the terms. Not only Western authors Manḍ ̣alas are required in occasional (as con- confuse the terms, even late Sanskrit texts often trasted with daily) rituals, such as → festivals or use “manḍ ̣ala” and “yantra” rather loosely as syn- religious observances (→ vrata) and, more impor- onyms. A related term is cakra, which can also tantly, tantric initiation (dīksạ̄ ) rites (→ Tantrism). refer to a diagram featuring geometric designs. In Further, manḍ ̣alas, like yantras, are used in rituals this article I will try to establish a distinction leading to the attainment of supernatural powers. among the three terms, mainly by considering the They are prepared from various materials, different functions of manḍ ̣alas, yantras and including colored powders, precious stones, fruits, cakras in Hindu ritual. leaves, and fragrant substances. In tantric initiation, the viewing of the manḍ ̣ala is an essential element. At the time of initiation, Maṇḍalas the manḍ ̣ala structure functions as a place in which the deities become visible to the initiate for In its most general use, the word manḍ ̣ala refers the first time, thereby confirming the initiate’s to something that is round or circular. It can also new identity (Törzsök, 2007, 183–184, 189, 190). mean a region, geographical division, domain, It is thus clear that the manḍ ̣ala is not so much a assembly or a group. The etymology of the word physical structure with a specific design as the is uncertain. Tantric texts often render the word’s place in which the practitioner beholds the dei- meaning as “seizing the essence,” by dividing it ties who have been invoked into it and so have into the components manḍ ̣a (explained as sāra, become an integral part of the structure. “essence”) and la (from the Sanskrit root lā-, “to The manḍ ̣ala structure can function as an take”). This interpretation is attested, for example, important device for representing the pantheon in Jayaratha’s commentary, the Tantrālokaviveka, of deities in a system or school and for expressing on → Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka (TĀ. 37.21; see the hierarchy of deities within a system. While Padoux, 2007, 227). Synonyms of the word manḍ alạ most manḍ ̣alas follow the common pattern of a found in the literature are yāga, bhavana/bhu- concentric arrangement of deities in order to vana, veśman, and, in a metaphoric sense, pīthạ . express a hierarchy, the triśūlamanḍ ̣ala (trident Occasionally metrical considerations and con- manḍ ̣ala) of the Trika of Kashmir (→ Kashmir straints may have played a role in the choice of a Śaivism) also features a vertical ascent. The word, as when a text uses the word pura (city), for manḍ ̣ala’s trident appears to rise three-dimen- example, as a synonym for manḍ ̣ala. sionally from a central lotus, as if emerging from The termman ḍ alạ is used in Kautilya’ṣ Arthaśāstra the manḍ ̣ala’s surface (Törzsök, 2007, 196). We do (→ artha), book 6, in the sense of a spatial configu- not know whether three-dimensional manḍ ̣alas ration of neighbouring states from the viewpoint were actually construc ted. Such manḍ ̣alas are maṇḍalas and yantras 561 known of Buddhist texts and traditions. The known manḍ alạ in this category is the vāstu Visṇ usaṃ ̣ hitā (Rastelli, 2007, 123) instructs the (purusạ ) manḍ alạ , a type of manḍ alạ employed in practitioner to make the lines of a manḍ ̣ala in the construction of buildings. H. Brunner also varying thicknesses, with the center of the manḍ ̣ala includes in this category geometrical figures its most elevated part, which could be taken to divided into squares among which objects are imply three-dimensionality. Three-dimensional distributed. yantras are not uncommon in the Hindu tradi- However, in texts and ritual practice the dis- tions (see below) tinction among the types of manḍ ̣alas is not always that clear.

Types of Manḍ ̣alas Some Structural Elements of H. Brunner (2007, 156) defines the termman ḍ ̣ala Manḍ ̣alas as a limited, not necessarily round, surface and suggests a system of classification based on her Manḍ ̣alas display different shapes and patterns, study of early Śaiva texts. Here I will present a and are made up of various constituent parts that modified version of this system based on my reflect the tradition they come from. Different study of later tantric texts: theological interpretations have been applied to them by correlating their structural parts and dei- Type 1: Manḍ ̣alas for Establishing a ties with doctrines of different systems. Interpre- Foundation tations are extremely varied, and even one text These are limited surfaces without a clear struc- may provide more than one interpretation of the ture, and are commonly employed to protect parts of a manḍ ̣ala. divinities, men, or ritual objects placed on them In the following I will describe two basic struc- during ritual. They are made of various materials tural elements of manḍ ̣alas: the lotus design and and include manḍ ̣alas of cow dung smeared on the square grid. Geometric figures like the trian- the ground. If such supports also take the form gle and hexagram, which occasionally also appear of simple geometric patterns, they can be classi- in manḍ ̣alas, will be described in Yantras Employed fied as “yantras for establishing a foundation” in Optional Desire-Oriented Rites below. In this arti- (sthāpanayantra; see below). cle I will look at manḍ alạ patterns of different periods and traditions as if they were contemporaneous, Type 2: Manḍ ̣alas into Which Deities Are without attempting to treat the topic historically. Invited to Receive Worship These are limited surfaces with geometrical designs Lotus Designs prepared from colored powders, and serve as sup- → Lotus designs appear commonly in Indian art, ports for the regular or occasional worship of dei- since the lotus is a common South Asian symbol ties. They are constructed with a well-defined of creation, purity, transcendence, and the sphere of directional orientation. Commonly three, four, or the absolute. It is especially known as a symbol of five different colors are employed. Theseman ḍ ̣alas the female reproductive organ. The lotus has also are often called “powder manḍ ̣alas” (rajomanḍ ̣ala) been connected since ancient times with water sym- but may also be made from other materials, such bolism, as witnessed by a statement in Śatapatha- as grains. They may be large enough to allow for brāhmanạ 7.4.1.8: “The lotus is the waters.” the priest to enter through the “doors” and move The lotus pattern is commonly found in ritual around in “corridors.” Theseman ḍ ̣alas are for tem- practice. An eight-petalled (asṭ adalạ ) lotus, pre- porary use, being destroyed after the ritual. pared from grains or colored powders, frequently functions as a support for ritual vessels. Atop the Type 3: Distributive Diagrams vessel is a “dish filled (with grains)” (pūrn apātrạ ), This term, introduced by H. Brunner (2007, 161), often uncooked rice, that serves as the seat of the designates limited surfaces divided into a certain main deity of the rite. number of squares or units. They are domains into In manḍ ̣alas with a lotus design, the central which divine or demonic powers are invoked to deity is positioned in the pericarp (karnikạ̄ ), and receive food offerings bali( ). Their construction the emanations or subordi nate deities on the usually does not involve the use of colors. The best petals. A lotus design may have one ring or 562 maṇḍalas and yantras several concentric rings of petals. The petals of (of the heart) with space (ākāśa), and its eight pet- an eight-petalled lotus ideally point in the cardi- als with the four cardinal and intermediate direc- nal and intermediate directions, but we find tions. numerous specimens in books and on coins in In addition to eight-petalled lotuses, lotuses which it is the spaces between two petals that with two, four, 10, 12, 16, 24, 32, 100, and 1,000 are oriented to the points of the compass. This or more petals appear in manḍ ̣alas. The number orientation may be due to the ignorance of the of petals is usually even, but odd numbers of pet- craftsmen who prepared the manḍ ̣alas. The eight- als (for example, five) are also found, in which petalled lotus whose petals do the pointing is a case their directional orientation may not be of shape which is well suited for positioning deities any obvious relevance. in their respective directions. This purpose is not A pattern of nine lotuses arranged in groups of served when two petals point in each of the cardi- three appears in several important manḍ alạ s. These nal directions and none in the intermediate direc- include the → Pāñcarātra navapadmamanḍ ̣ala tions. The relationship between direc tions and (see fig. 1) and the Śaiva navanābhamanḍ ̣ala. The lotus petals is borne out by a statement in nine-lotus-design is also seen in several versions Maitrāyanīyopaniṣ aḍ 6.2 which identifies the lotus of the Buddhist vajradhātumanḍ ̣ala.

Fig. 1: Thenavapadmaman ḍ ̣ala. maṇḍalas and yantras 563 The central lotuses in manḍ ̣alas often have tri- The Square Grid angles and hexagrams inscribed in their pericarps. A common structural device of certain manḍ ̣alas In a two-dimensional structure, the lotuses are is the square grid, which may incorporate a lotus usually surrounded by a square enclosure, often design (made of squares) in its center. Examples termed a seat or throne (pīthạ ), adjacent to which of this structure are the bhadramanḍ ̣alas, square- may be a corridor or passage (vīthī) for circum- shaped manḍ ̣alas employed mainly in concluding ambulation (pradaksiṇ ạ̄ ). In a three-dimensional ceremonies of religious observances (→ vrata) in structure, the pīthạ can be viewed as the support → Smārta ritual. Theman ḍ ̣alas are used mainly as of the lotus and project beyond it. Between one supports for ritual vessels. The square grid of and three concentric circles and a square (often these manḍ ̣alas is obtained by drawing a certain consisting of three nested squares) frequently number of vertical and horizontal base lines to surround the central lotus on the outside. These form squares on a surface. The squares, called geometrical structures will be discussed separately pada or kosṭ hạ , are assembled into different shapes in Yantras Employed in Optional Desire-Oriented and parts by filling them with colored powders or Rites below. A central lotus in a manḍ ̣ala may be grains. The most common of thebhadraman ḍ ̣alas replaced by a wheel (cakra). The deities are then is the sarvatobhadra (see fig. 2), believed to be assigned to the hub and the spokes of the wheel. particularly well suited for Vaisṇ avạ rites. The In descriptions of manḍ ̣ala-like structures, words word sarvatobhadra means “auspicious from all denoting parts of a lotus are sometimes treated as sides” and very likely refers to the symmetry interchangeable with words denoting parts of a of the manḍ ̣ala design. The constituent parts of wheel (Törzsök, 2007, 181). A wheel may in fact this manḍ ̣ala include (see table): a “step well” appear in combination with a lotus design. (vāpī), an “offset” de sign (bhadra), a “creeper”

Fig. 2: A sarvatobhadra. 564 maṇḍalas and yantras

Diagram 1: Basic square unit (pada, kosṭhạ )

Diagram 2: “Enclosure” (paridhi)

Diagram 3: “Step well” (vāpī)

Diagram 4: “Offset” (bhadra)

Diagram 5: “Creeper” (vallī)

Diagram 6: “Chain” (śrṇ˙ khalā)

Diagram 7: “Crescent moon” (khanḍendụ )

Diagram 8: Phallic symbol (lin˙ ga) of Śiva

Diagram 9: Rāmamudrā rājā rāma

Table: Constituent parts of the bhadramanḍ ̣alas. maṇḍalas and yantras 565 (vallī), a “chain” (śṛnkhalā̇ ), and a “crescent moon” Bhavan) in Bhopal. A navagrahamanḍ ̣ala pattern (khanḍ ̣endu). In the center is usually a lotus dis- inspired him to design the Jawahar Kala Kendra, playing a peri carp (karnikạ̄ ), and on the outside a cultural center in Jaipur, while his Surya Kund of the manḍ ̣ala a square with three nested squares in Delhi is said to be based on a manḍ ̣ala plan inside it. The three lines are interpreted as repre- featuring the śrīcakra in its center. sentative of the three constituents (→ gunạ ) of primary matter (→ prakṛti) in the → Sāṃ khya system, namely sattva, rajas, and tamas, and colored The Question of the Origin and white, red, and black respectively from the inside Date of Manḍ ̣alas to the outside. In addition to these parts, the lingatobhadrȧ s, a subcategory of bhadramanḍ ̣alas Several scholars have suggested that tantric employed in vratas connected with deities of the manḍ ̣alas are rooted in Vedic traditions (→ Vedas). Śaiva tradition, contain one or more phallic sym- The layout of Vedic altars is taken as indicative of → → bols of Śiva ( lingȧ ), which are themselves called an early interest in geometric designs endowed Rudra or Śiva (see table). Some lingatȯ bhadras with cosmological symbolism (Gaeffke, 1987, contain additional parts, such as a corridor or 153). The method of determining compass direc- passage (vīthī) for circumambulation around a tions for the construction of sacrificial altars, the throne (pīthạ ) and miniature creepers (laghuvallī) consecration of bricks on the surface of a cayana and miniature chains (laghuśṛnkhalā̇ ). The char- altar by means of mantras, and the locating of dei- acteristic element of the rāmatobhadras, another ties on those bricks are essential features of Vedic subcategory of bhadramanḍ ̣alas employed in ritu- rituals (Apte, 1926, 2–3). Aspects of these rituals → → als for Rāma and Visṇ u,̣ is the “seal” of Rāma. recur in the practice of constructing manḍ ̣alas The “seal” is defined as the wordsrājā rāma (King and invoking deities into their parts. The sacred Rāma; see table), or, in reverse order, rāma rājā. space of manḍ ̣alas and yantras as such can be seen The ganeśabhadrạ and sūryabhadra, prescribed as a continuation of the Vedic sacrificial site (Sch- for use in vratas connected with these deities, fea- neider, 1988, 100), and the square enclosure of → ture images of Ganeśạ ( Ganapati/Gaṇ eśa)̣ and tantric manḍ ̣alas in parti cular as an analogue of → the sun (Sūrya; navagrahas), respectively. the sacred fire altar (Gupta, 1988, 39–41). But the similarities between the two traditions appear to end there. Authors like H. Mitra (1958, 112) are The Relevance ofMan ḍ ̣alas going too far when they assume that patterns displayed by yantras and manḍ ̣alas can be traced Patterns exhibited by manḍ ̣alas have had wide- back to the Śulbasūtras of the Vedāngaṡ (which spread influence. On the level of folk art, the prescribe the way to construct sacrificial altar kohbar manḍ ̣alas, which decorate the walls of diagrams; see → mathematics and geometry), nuptial chambers in the Mithila region of north- since the patterns displayed by tantric manḍ ̣alas ern → Bihar (India) and → Nepal, are a good exam- are distinctly different. So are themantra s and the ple of this. So are the auspicious floor designs deities invoked into manḍ ̣alas, and the details of prepared with rice flour or colored powders. the rites. The problem of the similarities and dif- Regionally known as rāngolī,̇ ālpanā, muggulu, or ferences between Vedic and tantric traditions is kōlam, they have been influenced by manḍ ̣ala and complex and needs to be explored in greater yantra patterns (see → rangolī̇ and kōlam). detail in a separate study. Such an investigation Manḍ ̣ala patterns of cities have frequently been would have to trace the influences of other tradi- described. How ever, it often remains unclear tions on manḍ ̣alas as well. what the connection between a manḍ ̣ala and a Among the oldest manḍ ̣alas that can be dated city or temple really is. Problems arise when one are two types of vāstupurusamaṇ ḍ ̣alas described attempts to correlate manḍ ̣ala structures and in Varāhamihira’s Brhatsaṃ ̣ hitā from mid-6th actual building plans. Patterns typical of manḍ ̣alas century CE. We can assume that the two manḍ ̣alas and yantras have inspired modern Indian archi- described in chapter 53 were not created by tecture, art, and dance. The Mumbai-based con- Varāhamihira but rather adopted from older temporary architect Charles Correa has been unidentified sources. Thus the oldest Hindu guided by manḍ ̣ala designs in his layout of build- manḍ ̣alas may well predate the 6th century. ings, such as the new State Assembly (Vidhan 566 maṇḍalas and yantras Yantras Types of Yantras

The word yantra designates an instrument or Building on the work of earlier authors such as H. other type of mechanical device (esp. one used in Brunner (2007) and S.K.R. Rao (1988) as well as → warfare), or a magic diagram. It is derived from on the results of my study of tantric texts ( Tan- the Sanskrit root yam-, “to control.” tras) of the later period, I would like to suggest One general characteristic of yantras is that the following tentative classification ofyantra s as they are small in size. In contrast, manḍ ̣alas vary a guideline. This classification, according to the in size and can be large enough to allow for priests distinctive features and ritual use of yantras, is or initiands to enter them through doors and to not intended to be exhaustive and may not be walk around in them during, for example, an ini- applicable to all traditions. tiation (dīksạ̄ ). With the exception of yantras placed below temple statues at the time of their Type 1: Yantras for Establishing a consecration and yantras installed permanently Foundation for worship in mathạ s (→ monasteries) or → tem- These are yantras which function as supports for ples, and a few other cases, yantras are generally ritual implements (sthāpanayantra) during a wor- mobile, whereas manḍ ̣alas are not. While ship ritual and display simple geometric shapes, manḍ ̣alas can employ different color schemes, such as a triangle or a circle. They function as the use of color is less common if not indeed supports for ritual implements, such as lamps or irrelevant in the case of most yantras. Texts may vessels and in special desire-oriented (kāmya) or prescribe that the lines of a yantra be traced with magical rites. Such supports also figure in the a specific color, for example, with turmeric or regular tantric → pūjā, in which they appear to be blood, but the interior space is never filled with referred to as manḍ ̣alas (see fig. 3). Their function colors, as it is in the case of manḍ ̣alas. And while can be compared to that of the “manḍ ̣alas for pictorial representations of deities can appear in establishing a foundation” (see above). But unlike manḍ ̣alas, such images are generally not found the cow dung manḍ ̣alas in this category, which in yantras. are without any clearly recognizable structure, the On the basis of an analysis of texts of the Trika yantras manifest a specific structure. School of Kashmir, H. Brunner (2007, 162) briefly defines ayantra as a linear representation on a specific surface, such as birchbark. She adds that yantras almost invariably have letters, seed (bīja) syllables or mantras inscribed in them. Since mantras frequently employ verbs in the imperative to express an order, H. Brunner suggests the translation “ coercive dia grams” for yantras. Sim- ilarly, M. Rastelli (2007, 142) concludes from her study of the Pāñcarātra texts that yantras of that school have inscribed mantras. Authors such as Ksemarājạ (quoted by Sanderson in Padoux, 1986, 33) consider it characteristic of certain yantras that mantras are inscribed in them. But at least in later texts and in modern practice inscribed mantras are not necessarily parts of yantras (see below). Yantras can be two- or three-dimensional. Two-dimensional yantras are outlined on paper, textiles, and other materials. Three-dimen sional yantras are raised structures usually made of metal. The well-knownśrīyantra or śrīcakra (see fig. 7) can be represented either two- or Fig. 3: A supporting manḍ ̣ala for the vardhanī vessel in three-dimensionally. tantric pūjā. maṇḍalas and yantras 567 Type 2: Yantras into Which Deities Are Invited to Receive Worship These yantras are employed in a practitioner’s regular tantric worship of a deity and are often referred to as “yantras (which are supports) for worship” (pūjāyantra, pūjādhārayantra). They are frequently named for their presiding deity, for example, “yantra for the worship of Ganapati”̣ (ganapatipūjāyantrạ ). Yantras of this type usually display common geometric shapes, but generally do not have inscribed mantras, at least according to the later tantric sources that I have studied. The deity and her/his emanations are, however, invoked into the yantra by means of mantras. Regardless of whether the mantras are only used to invoke the deity or whether they are also inscribed in the yantra, they are of utmost importance. It is for Fig. 4: A yantra for (generating) attraction. this reason that the Kulārnavatantrạ (6.85, 87) states that a yantra consists of the deity’s mantra. In this category of yantras I would also include The first and second types have similar geomet- the śrīcakra, alternatively called śrīyantra (see fig. 7), ric designs but usually no mantras inscribed in which represents the goddess Tripurasundarī and them. Yantras of type 2 usually consist of more is of great significance in the→ Śrīvidyā system complex geometric designs than type 1 yantras. (Padoux, 2007a). In addition to being worshipped Both types differ in ritual function. The first type in ritual, this cakra is also visualized and experi- is used as a support for objects in rituals, while enced in the practitioner’s body as a manifesta- the second type is the main object of worship. tion of the cosmic process of creation and Yantras of type 1 are similar in function to the resorption, including the various spatial and aforementioned “manḍ ̣alas for establishing a mantric aspects of both. Yantras employed in reg- foundation.” Yantras of type 3 are used in desire- ular worship are often made of durable materials oriented magical rites, usually have inscribed such as copper. mantras and may have unusual designs. The third category ofyantra s is required for the Type 3: Yantras Employed in Optional performance of optional rites, specific magical Desire-Oriented Rites rites, and the like. Theseyantra s are often made of This category includesyantra s used in special ritu- perishable materials such as birchbark or paper. als for certain deities and yantras prepared for spe- They are drawn, according to the instructions, cific magical rites. The latter are often named for with special writing materials and substances these rites, for example, “yantra for (generating) such as animal or human blood or ashes from a attraction” (ākarsaṇ ayantrạ ; see fig. 4). After the cremation ground. They may also be incised on ritual is complete, the instructions may recom- more permanent materials such as metal plates. mend that yantras consecrated for magical pur- Discussions of the various styluses used and the poses be made into amulets and worn on the body materials on which protective yantras can be writ- (dhāranayantrạ ) in order to obtain the desired ten are commonly found in texts. The materials results, such as protection or the acquisition of are considered extremely important for the power and wealth. Among these yantras, the yan- success of the ritual, and are in keeping with the tras for protection (raksāyantrạ ) figure promi- nature of the rite performed. Thus cruel rites nently in texts. In the category of yantras for require repulsive materials, and the yantra desire-oriented rites I also include magic (number) used in the rite of killing (māranạ ) as described squares. These are diagrams with inscribed num- in Mahīdhara’s 16th-century Mantramahodadhi bers, the sum of which remains the same regard- (25.56; 25.59) should be written on human bone less of the direction in which one adds them up. with certain poisonous substances. 568 maṇḍalas and yantras General instructions for drawing yantras for with the name of the person to be influenced, different purposes, including reducing fever, termed the recipient or intended person (sādhya). keeping snakes away, and countering the effects The place where the person’s name is to be writ- of poison, can be found in various texts; mention ten is often indicated by the common name Deva- may be made of chapter 24 of Laksmaṇ adeśika’ṣ datta. Either the recipient’s name is surrounded Śāradātilaka, which is based on chapter 34 of by, or its syllables are intertwined with, the sylla- the Prapañcasāra, and chapter 20 of the Mantra- bles of the mantra. mahodadhi. Yantras for magical purposes are Yantras may also contain longer mantras or described in detail in Dāmodara’s 17th-century even well-known hymns (stotra, stuti). The com- Yantracintāmanị , also known as the Kalpa- position and ritual use of hymns or devotional cintāmanị . The applications include the six rites poems in praise of deities has a long history in of magic (abhicāra), namely, appeasement (śānti), South Asia. Such hymns (→ Stotras) are found subjection (vaśīkaranạ ), immobilization (stamb- in the → Purānạ literature and tantric texts, and in hana), creating enmity (vidvesaṇ ạ ), eradication independent collections (attributed to sages or (uccātanạ ), and killing (māranạ ). Depending seers; → rṣ ị s) as well. To reinforce the efficacy of on their purpose, these yantras are named hymn recitation in bringing about the promised “yantras for (bringing under) subjection” material benefits, the practice arose of reciting (vaśyakarayantra), “yantras for (generating) attrac- hymns a given number of times. This practice is tion (ākarsaṇ ayantrạ )” (see fig. 4), and so on. The modelled on that of repeating powerful mantras. use of yantras in rites of magic continues up to In time, hymns came to be regarded as powerful the present day. Yantras featuring → Hanumān are magical formulas. Whereas the shorter mantras sold in India for the safety of one’s vehicle may be repeated millions of times to achieve a (vāhanasuraksāyantrạ ). Other yantras are used particular result, hymns are recited at most hun- upon the recommendation of → astrologers for dreds or thousands of times. Hymns employed curing diseases. for such purposes include hymns for protection. Yantras employed in magical rites may be ritu- These hymns often include in their titles such ally destroyed after their use, inserted into a statue terms as “armour” (kavaca), “protection” (raksạ̄ ), of a deity (which then undergoes burial), or oth- or “cage” (pañjara). In these hymns, the deity is erwise disposed of (crushed and eaten, tied to a asked to protect each part of the practitioner’s tree, or concealed in the intended person’s home), body. The different parts, from head to foot, are depending on the instructions. They may be systematically enumerated. For each part of the enclosed in an amulet container, such as a tube or body, the practitioner addresses the deity using a a locket, sealed and then worn around the neck, different descriptive epithet, which is often con- on the head, in one’s headgear, in a tuft of hair, on nected with the respective body part. The deity’s the arm, under the armpit, on the wrist or a fin- names are assigned to and “deposited” on the ger, and so forth. A yantra meant to be inserted body parts of the practitioner, and are believed to into a locket is first drawn on a piece of paper or protect him like divine armour. As well as being similar material and consecrated in a worship rit- recited, these hymns can be arranged in the form ual by a specialist. These lockets can be attached of yantras. For those who cannot themselves to the necks of animals, such as cows, for their recite the hymn, a yantra with the hymn inscribed protection. Yantras may also be attached to pro- in it is thought to bring about the same beneficial tective dolls hung near the entrance to a home or effects as recitation. be placed above a door. In addition to yantras containing the text of Yantras employed in desire-oriented rites may entire hymns, there are also yantras which are be similar in design to the yantras for establishing associated with individual stanzas of hymns of a foundation (see above), but they often have praise. Well-known examples are the yantras mantras inscribed in them. Themantra s can be associated with the Saundaryalaharī, a hymn to seed syllables (bīja) combined with verbs in the the tantric goddess Tripurasundarī in 100 (some- second person singular imperative, such as “sub- times 103) stanzas. It is traditionally ascribed jugate,” which call upon the deity to carry out the to the Advaitin → Śaṅkara (Advaita → Vedānta). magical effects of a rite on its intended recipient. Each verse of the Saundaryalaharī became associ- The center of theyantra is frequently inscribed ated with a specific seed (bīja) syllable, which is maṇḍalas and yantras 569 inscribed in a yantra shape, such as a square, a Some Constituent Parts of Yantras hexagram, a triangle, a lotus, and so forth. These yantras are worshipped, and the seed syllables Yantra and manḍ ̣ala designs commonly feature a inscribed in them are recited a large number of triangle and/or a hexagram, inscribed in one or times, for the attainment of desired (usually mun- several lotuses (padma) of four, eight, 10, 12, 16, dane) benefits. Theyantra s associated with the 100, 1,000, or more petals (dala). The lotus petals stanzas of this hymn were obviously created later, are often surrounded by one circle vr( ̣tta) or three their connection with the stanzas not being evi- concentric circles and a square (caturasra), again dent from the text itself. sometimes with three nested squares. In yantras The general instructions require thatyantra s of the Śaiva and Śākta traditions, the lines of a tri- be infused with life in the rite of prānapratiṣ ṭ hạ̄ , angle or square may be formed by tridents whose of the same basic type as the one performed on prongs project beyond the lines of these shapes statues of deities. Texts such as Brahmānandagiri’s (see fig. 6). The main deity is worshipped in the 16th-century Śāktānandatarangiṅ ị̄ (264, 6ff.) also center of the yantra, at a “point” (bindu), which enjoin that certain purificatory rites →( saṃ skāra) may be visible or remain invisible/unmanifest, be performed on yantras, just as they are per- while his/her retinue is worshipped in various formed to purify mantras. parts of the structure (see fig. 5). These parts

Fig. 5: A pūjāyantra of Mahāganapati.̣ 570 maṇḍalas and yantras include the angles (asra) or corners (konạ ) of a water (see the Vāstusūtropanisaḍ , cited in Bäumer, triangle or hexagram, the points of intersection 1986, 56). This symbolic significance is known (saṃ dhi) of two triangles, the lotus petals (dala), from other cultures as well, for which the down- and the tips of lotus petals (dalāgra). Special ter- ward-pointing apex suggests the direction of fall- minology is used in connection with the śrīcakra ing rain. (see fig. 7), which is employed in the ritual wor- Tantric texts commonly describe the reverse ship of Tripurasundarī. It is a complex configura- triangle, that is, a triangle resting on its base with tion of a central point and sets of triangles its apex upwards, as the symbolic shape of the surrounded by lotus petals, circles and a square. element fire. The apex of the upward-pointing The three circles outside of the overlapping trian- triangle indicates the direction of the flame. gles are referred to as three “girdles” or “belts” In connection with the śrīcakra (see fig. 7) (valaya); a point of intersection between two lines authors such as Bhāskararāya refer to the down- is called a “junction” (saṃ dhi), a point of intersec- ward-pointing (adhomukha) triangles as Śakti tion between three lines is known as a “vital (→ Mahādevī) triangles and the upward-pointing point” (marman), and a point of intersection (ūrdhvamukha) triangles as fire vahni( ) or Śiva between a “junction” and a “vital point” is termed triangles. Both types of triangles are intertwined a “knot” (granthi; see Bhāskararāya’s commentary to form a hexagram (see below). Setubandha 31, 9 on the Nityāsọ ḍaśikārnavạ and The triangle is naturally connected with the Umānandanātha’s Nityotsava 64, 4–5). The most symbolism of the number three. Its three lines are important surrounding deities or emanations are usually interpreted as tripartite units, most com- invoked into the parts of the yantra closest to the monly, metaphysical concepts. In other tradi- center. One obvious advantage of a yantra com- tions, triangles are represented with a protruding pared to an icon is that a yantra allows for the dei- “gate” on each side. These gates are identical in ties who surround the main deity in enclosures shape with the T-shaped gates of the outer square (āvarana,̣ āvṛti, lit. covering or veil) to be wor- of yantras (see below). shipped in it as well. The structural elements ofyantra s vary, as do The Hexagram S( aṭ koṇ a,̣ Saḍ ̣ara, Tāra) the interpretations given for these elements. Some The hexagram consists of two equilateral triangles important constituent parts are described in the with the same center but pointing in opposite following, together with examples of interpreta- directions, usually upwards and downwards. The tions from texts. Most descriptions and interpre- apexes of the two triangles of the hexagram can tations of the constituent parts of yantras found also be oriented to the right and left sides. The in the literature concern the śrīyantra or śrīcakra, triangles are shown either lying one on the other the most important and influential of yantras. or intertwined with one another. The downward- pointing and upward-pointing triangles symbol- The Point (Bindu) ize the sexual union of the female and male The point bindu( ) is located in the center of the principles, of Śakti and Śiva, of water and fire (see yantra and may be visible or remain invisible. It is above). often interpreted as the principle from which all In the hexagram the deities are often wor- form and creation radiates. The Ganeśapūrva-̣ shipped at the points of intersection of the two tāpa nīyopanisaḍ (c. 7th cent.), section 3, equates triangles, while in the eight-petalled lotus they the central point with the void of space. are worshipped in the petals, which ideally face in the cardinal and intermediate directions. Like The Triangle (Trikona,̣ Tryasra) these objects, the hexa gram is equated with sex- The triangle is a common constituent ofyantra s. tuple concepts and groups. It can be either downward-pointing or upward- pointing, and less frequently pointing toward the The Pentagram Pañcakon( ạ ) right or left. The downward-pointing or inverted The five-pointed star, the pentagram, pentacle, or triangle is known as a symbol of the female pubic Star of Solomon, is less commonly found in yan- triangle and the female sex organ or womb (yoni, tras. It is a constituent part of some yantras of bhaga). The lettere is identified with it because of Guhyakālī (see fig. 6), since the number five has its triangular shape (in certain Indian scripts). special significance for the goddess → Kālī. The downward-pointing triangle also symbolizes maṇḍalas and yantras 571

Fig. 6: A yantra of Guhyakālī.

The Octagon As( ṭ akoṇ a,̣ Asṭ ārạ ) The Circle The octagon appears less frequently as a constitu- One circle or three concentric circles frequently ent part of yantras and can be formed in several surround the inner structure of yantras. ways. A common method to obtain an octagon is to draw two crossed or intersecting squares. The The Outer Square symbolism of the octagon, like that of the eight- The circle or circles in ayantra are usually sur- petalled lotus, is connected with the eight direc- rounded by an outer square, which often consists tions. of three nested squares. The square, which also appears close to the outer edge of manḍ alạ s, is called The Lotus “earth house” (bhūgrhạ ), “earth city,” or “earth Like manḍ ̣alas, yantras frequently feature a lotus citadel” (bhūpura), since the square is a symbol of design. Depending on the context, different inter- the earth. Among the symbolic shapes of the ele- pretations of the lotus design and the lotus petals ments, a (yellow) square represents the earth. The have been offered. The symbolism of the lotus is symbolism of the square is connected with that of discussed above in connection with manḍ ̣alas. the number four and the four cardinal directions. 572 maṇḍalas and yantras The square has a T-shaped gate dvāra( ) in each example, in the Citrabandhas (literary composi- cardinal direction. Like the sides of a square, the tions in Sanskrit in which text is arranged in gates are equated with groups of four. Pāñcarātra yantra-like shapes). Like manḍ ̣alas, yantras con- Saṃ hitās interpret the three nested squares of the tinue to be worshipped in South Asia. The outermost square as sattva, rajas, and tamas. This śrīcakra or śrīyantra (see fig. 7) is widely wor- interpretation is also attested for the three nested shipped in contemporary India and Nepal. It is squares of the outer square formation of the installed and worshipped, among other places, in bhadramanḍ ̣alas of the Smārta tradition, which the Sringeri Mutt (→ Karnataka), which claims to are white, red, and dark, symbolizing the three uphold Śaṅkara’s tradition. In Nepal, it decorates constituents (gunạ ) of primary matter (prakṛti) in roofs of shrines. Theśrīcakra is now also sold as a the Sāṃ khya system. pendant to be worn around the neck, and is printed on wall calendars. A numerical yantra, the visoyantra, is currently worshipped in Ambaji, The Relevance ofYantra s Gujarat. Popular books promote yantras for mis- cellaneous mundane purposes, including safe The patterns displayed byyantra s, like those of driving. manḍ ̣alas, have had widespread influence, for

Fig. 7: TheŚrīcakra . maṇḍalas and yantras 573 Cakras TheCakra as a “Wheel” or “Lotus” in the Body The termcakra (circle or wheel) has several pri- The word cakra is used with reference to the cur- mary and secondary meanings. rently rather popular tantric concept of the “energy centers” or “power centers,” which are believed to • Cakra can refer to a wheel as the central part be located in the body. They are referred to either of a manḍ ̣ala structure, to whose hub and spokes as “wheels” (cakra) or as “lotuses” (padma). In deities are assigned. In this function, the wheel some systems these cakras have lotus shapes and can either substitute for a lotus or appear in com- are occupied by deities. The lotuses may also have bination with it (see also above). an inscribed geometric figure (such as a triangle • The termcakra can refer to a group or circle or hexagram). The number ofcakra s and their of deities invoked into a manḍ ̣ala or yantra struc- location in the body varies depending on the tra- ture. ditions. Some systems assume sets of four, five, six, • Some later authors appear to use cakra syn- nine, 12, 16, 24, 27, 32, or more cakras. onymously with yantra and manḍ ̣ala. • The wordcakra also refers to a diagram or tabular device employed in ritual. Bibliography • A well-known use of the word cakra is with reference to the “wheels” or “lotuses” believed to Apte, R.N., “Some Points Connected with the Construc- be located in the human body. tive Geometry of Vedic Altars,” ABORI 7, 1926, 1–16. Bäumer, B., “Pañjara et yantra: Le diagramme de l’image In the following, only the second, fourth, and fifth sacrée,” in: A. Padoux, ed., Mantras et diagrammes rituels dans l’hindouisme, Paris, 1986, 49–61. meanings are discussed. Brunner, H., “Manḍ ̣alas in Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka,” in: G. Bühnemann et al., Manḍ ̣alas and Yantras in the TheCakra as a Circle of Deities Hindu Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. ed. 2007, 225–238. The termcakra refers to a group of deities invoked Bühnemann, G. et al., Manḍ ̣alas and Yantras in the Hindu into a manḍ ̣ala or yantra. At the same time, the Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. ed. 2007. term also denotes the support for these deities in Gaeffke, P., “Hindu Manḍ ̣alas,” in: M. Eliade, ed., The Ency- the form of a specific surface. This is very likely clopedia of Religion, vol. IX, New York, 1987, 153–155. Gupta, S., “The Manḍ ̣ala as an Image of Man,” in: R.F. the reason why the word cakra appears synony- Gombrich, ed., Indian Ritual and Its Exegesis, Delhi, mously with yantra and manḍ ̣ala in later texts – a 1988, 32–41. use of the term that requires further investigation. Mitra, H., “Ganapati,”̣ VBA 8, 1958, 1–120. It also explains why the parts of the śrīcakra, which Padoux, A., “Introduction, ” in: A. Padoux, ed., Mantras display a variety of shapes (such as triangles and et diagrammes rituels dans l’hindouisme, Paris, 1986, lotus petals), are referred to as the nine cakras. 1–35. Padoux, A., “Manḍ ̣alas in Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka,” in: G. Bühnemann et al., Manḍ ̣alas and Yantras in the TheCakra as a Ritual Diagram/Tabular Hindu Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. ed. 2007, 225–238. Device Padoux, A., “The Śrīcakra according to the First Chapter The word cakra also refers to diagrams containing of the Yoginīhrdaya,”̣ in: G. Bühnemann et al., Manḍ ̣alas specific arrange ments of letters of the alphabet or and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. of numbers. Diagrams such as the akathahacakra, ed. 2007a, 239–250. the akaḍamacakra, the naksatracakrạ , and the Rastelli, M. “Manḍ ̣alas and Yantras in the Pāñcarātra Tradition,” in: G. Bühnemann et al., Mandalas and rāśicakra, which are used to determine whether ̣ ̣ Yantras in the Hindu Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. ed. a mantra suits a candidate, fall under this cate- 2007, 119–152. gory. Unlike the “distributive diagrams,” namely, Rao, S.K.R., The Yantras, Delhi, 1988. manḍ ̣alas of type 3 in the earlier classification Schneider, U., “Tantra – Endpunkt eines strukturierten (see above), which are ritual diagrams divided Ablaufs?” Saeculum 39, 1988, 96–104. into squares into which divine or demonic beings Törzsök, J., “Icons of Inclusivism: Manḍ ̣alas in Some Early are invoked to receive food offerings, these dia- Śaiva Tantras,” in: G. Bühnemann et al., Manḍ ̣alas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions, Leiden, 2003, rev. ed. grams are simply tabular devices, which do not 2007, 179–224. serve the purpose of invocation. Gudrun Bühnemann