Maṇḍalas and Yantras Because of the popular interest in the topic, there of a king. In tantric tra ditions, manḍ ̣ala often has been considerable confusion about the mean- refers to a structured space that is enclosed and ing and significance of manḍ ̣alas. Some authors delimited by a circumferential line, and into which have indiscriminately dealt with Buddhist and a deity or deities are invited by means of → man- Hindu manḍ ̣alas and arrived at excessively tras. This space is often a circle, but may also generalized conclusions. In secondary sources, appear as a square, a triangle, or another shape. manḍ ̣alas have been described too uniformly as The various shapes and structures ofman ḍ ̣alas are aids to meditation. While they certainly function based on the traditions of the different schools as meditational devices in some traditions (as e.g. and depend on ritual applications, the deities wor- the śrīcakra frequently does), this use of manḍ ̣alas shipped, and the practitioner’s qualification and is but one aspect of a larger picture. goal. The termsman ḍ ̣ala and yantra are frequently Authorities on ritual recognize manḍ ̣alas used as synonyms and often translated as “(mys- among the places into which deities can be tical) diagrams.” The fact that their geometric invoked and worshipped, along with statues, rit- designs are similar contributes to confusion ual vessels, and fire. between the terms. Not only Western authors Manḍ ̣alas are required in occasional (as con- confuse the terms, even late Sanskrit texts often trasted with daily) rituals, such as → festivals or use “manḍ ̣ala” and “yantra” rather loosely as syn- religious observances (→ vrata) and, more impor- onyms. A related term is cakra, which can also tantly, tantric initiation (dīksạ̄ ) rites (→ Tantrism). refer to a diagram featuring geometric designs. In Further, manḍ ̣alas, like yantras, are used in rituals this article I will try to establish a distinction leading to the attainment of supernatural powers. among the three terms, mainly by considering the They are prepared from various materials, different functions of manḍ ̣alas, yantras and including colored powders, precious stones, fruits, cakras in Hindu ritual. leaves, and fragrant substances. In tantric initiation, the viewing of the manḍ ̣ala is an essential element. At the time of initiation, Maṇḍalas the manḍ ̣ala structure functions as a place in which the deities become visible to the initiate for In its most general use, the word manḍ ̣ala refers the first time, thereby confirming the initiate’s to something that is round or circular. It can also new identity (Törzsök, 2007, 183–184, 189, 190). mean a region, geographical division, domain, It is thus clear that the manḍ ̣ala is not so much a assembly or a group. The etymology of the word physical structure with a specific design as the is uncertain. Tantric texts often render the word’s place in which the practitioner beholds the dei- meaning as “seizing the essence,” by dividing it ties who have been invoked into it and so have into the components manḍ ̣a (explained as sāra, become an integral part of the structure. “essence”) and la (from the Sanskrit root lā-, “to The manḍ ̣ala structure can function as an take”). This interpretation is attested, for example, important device for representing the pantheon in Jayaratha’s commentary, the Tantrālokaviveka, of deities in a system or school and for expressing on → Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka (TĀ. 37.21; see the hierarchy of deities within a system. While Padoux, 2007, 227). Synonyms of the word manḍ alạ most manḍ ̣alas follow the common pattern of a found in the literature are yāga, bhavana/bhu- concentric arrangement of deities in order to vana, veśman, and, in a metaphoric sense, pīthạ . express a hierarchy, the triśūlamanḍ ̣ala (trident Occasionally metrical considerations and con- manḍ ̣ala) of the Trika of Kashmir (→ Kashmir straints may have played a role in the choice of a Śaivism) also features a vertical ascent. The word, as when a text uses the word pura (city), for manḍ ̣ala’s trident appears to rise three-dimen- example, as a synonym for manḍ ̣ala. sionally from a central lotus, as if emerging from The term manḍ alạ is used in Kautilya’ṣ Arthaśāstra the manḍ ̣ala’s surface (Törzsök, 2007, 196). We do (→ artha), book 6, in the sense of a spatial configu- not know whether three-dimensional manḍ ̣alas ration of neighbouring states from the viewpoint were actually construc ted. Such manḍ ̣alas are maṇḍalas and yantras 561 known of Buddhist texts and traditions. The known manḍ alạ in this category is the vāstu Visṇ usaṃ ̣ hitā (Rastelli, 2007, 123) instructs the (purusạ ) manḍ alạ , a type of manḍ alạ employed in practitioner to make the lines of a manḍ ̣ala in the construction of buildings. H. Brunner also varying thicknesses, with the center of the manḍ ̣ala includes in this category geometrical figures its most elevated part, which could be taken to divided into squares among which objects are imply three-dimensionality. Three-dimensional distributed. yantras are not uncommon in the Hindu tradi- However, in texts and ritual practice the dis- tions (see below) tinction among the types of manḍ ̣alas is not always that clear. Types of Manḍ ̣alas Some Structural Elements of H. Brunner (2007, 156) defines the termman ḍ ̣ala Manḍ ̣alas as a limited, not necessarily round, surface and suggests a system of classification based on her Manḍ ̣alas display different shapes and patterns, study of early Śaiva texts. Here I will present a and are made up of various constituent parts that modified version of this system based on my reflect the tradition they come from. Different study of later tantric texts: theological interpretations have been applied to them by correlating their structural parts and dei- Type 1: Manḍ ̣alas for Establishing a ties with doctrines of different systems. Interpre- Foundation tations are extremely varied, and even one text These are limited surfaces without a clear struc- may provide more than one interpretation of the ture, and are commonly employed to protect parts of a manḍ ̣ala. divinities, men, or ritual objects placed on them In the following I will describe two basic struc- during ritual. They are made of various materials tural elements of manḍ ̣alas: the lotus design and and include manḍ ̣alas of cow dung smeared on the square grid. Geometric figures like the trian- the ground. If such supports also take the form gle and hexa gram, which occasionally also appear of simple geometric patterns, they can be classi- in manḍ ̣alas, will be described in Yantras Employed fied as “yantras for establishing a foundation” in Optional Desire-Oriented Rites below. In this arti- (sthāpanayantra; see below). cle I will look at manḍ alạ patterns of different periods and traditions as if they were contemporaneous, Type 2: Manḍ ̣alas into Which Deities Are without attempting to treat the topic historically. Invited to Receive Worship These are limited surfaces with geometrical designs Lotus Designs prepared from colored powders, and serve as sup- → Lotus designs appear commonly in Indian art, ports for the regular or occasional worship of dei- since the lotus is a common South Asian symbol ties. They are constructed with a well-defined of creation, purity, transcendence, and the sphere of directional orientation. Commonly three, four, or the absolute. It is especially known as a symbol of five different colors are employed. Theseman ḍ ̣alas the female reproductive organ. The lotus has also are often called “powder manḍ ̣alas” (rajomanḍ ̣ala) been connected since ancient times with water sym- but may also be made from other materials, such bolism, as witnessed by a statement in Śatapatha- as grains. They may be large enough to allow for brāhmanạ 7.4.1.8: “The lotus is the waters.” the priest to enter through the “doors” and move The lotus pattern is commonly found in ritual around in “corridors.” Theseman ḍ ̣alas are for tem- practice. An eight-petalled (asṭ adalạ ) lotus, pre- porary use, being destroyed after the ritual. pared from grains or colored powders, frequently functions as a support for ritual vessels. Atop the Type 3: Distributive Diagrams vessel is a “dish filled (with grains)” (pūr napātrạ ), This term, introduced by H. Brunner (2007, 161), often uncooked rice, that serves as the seat of the designates limited surfaces divided into a certain main deity of the rite. number of squares or units. They are domains into In manḍ ̣alas with a lotus design, the central which divine or demonic powers are invoked to deity is positioned in the pericarp (karnikạ̄ ), and receive food offerings (bali). Their construction the emanations or subordi nate deities on the usually does not involve the use of colors. The best petals. A lotus design may have one ring or 562 maṇḍalas and yantras several concentric rings of petals. The petals of (of the heart) with space (ākāśa), and its eight pet- an eight-petalled lotus ideally point in the cardi- als with the four cardinal and intermediate direc- nal and intermediate directions, but we find tions. numerous specimens in books and on coins in In addition to eight-petalled lotuses, lotuses which it is the spaces between two petals that with two, four, 10, 12, 16, 24, 32, 100, and 1,000 are oriented to the points of the compass. This or more petals appear in manḍ ̣alas. The number orientation may be due to the ignorance of the of petals is usually even, but odd numbers of pet- craftsmen who prepared the manḍ ̣alas. The eight- als (for example, five) are also found, in which petalled lotus whose petals do the pointing is a case their directional orientation may not be of shape which is well suited for positioning deities any obvious relevance.