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Civics and Citizenship Education in Malaysia : the Voice of Micro Policy Enactors

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Civics and Citizenship Education in Malaysia : the Voice of Micro Policy Enactors Civics and Citizenship Education in Malaysia : The Voice of Micro Policy Enactors HANIZA MAHMOOD A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Cardiff University School of Social Sciences 2014 ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to provide an understanding of the way Civic and Citizenship Education, as intended at the macro level is translated, implemented and enacted at the micro level. Moreover, it also seeks to understand the contestation and challenges of secondary school teachers as policy implementers at the micro level in transferring the new curriculum policy into teaching and learning practice. Adopting a qualitative research approach, empirical evidence and in-depth information were gathered through document analysis, interviews, questionnaire, lesson observation and field notes. The document analysis showed that there were similarities between Western and Malaysian concepts of citizenship education in that Malaysia’s Civic and Citizenship Education was concerned with developing good personal and patriotic citizens. This differed from England’s citizenship education that promoted political literacy and active participation in democratic society. Despite in the official document, Civic and Citizenship Education seems to be strongly classified and strongly framed (Bernstein, 1975; 1971), at the school level, this subject is weakly classified and weakly framed. Indeed, a closer examination in each school visited showed that the ‘battle’ (Goodson, 1998 : 45) between this subject and other academic subjects continue. The analysis also illustrated that the enactment of Civic and Citizenship Education was mediated, not only by school students’ ethnic population, but also by school contexts that existed in each school. This also led to the gap between teachers’ perception of citizenship and citizenship education with their teaching practices. Thus, this study demonstrated that the process of translating, implementing and enacting policy at the school level is not a direct process (Ball, 2006) as there are various factors that could mediate the way a policy is implemented and enacted at the micro level (Ball et al., 2012; Braun et al. 2011a). ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to offer my sincere gratitude to various individuals who have directly and indirectly helped me in carrying out and completing this study. Particularly, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Martin Jephcote and Professor Chris Taylor for their constructive criticisms and encouragement along my journey in completing the thesis. This thesis has become a reality due to their patience, continuous and strong support and enthusiasm. I would also like to thank the administrative staff and teachers of the four schools involved in this study for their hospitality and cooperation in providing information and views on Civics and Citizenship Education. Their opinions and suggestions were highly appreciated and valued. Many thanks also to all my friends and colleagues for their continuous support and motivation. Opportunities to discuss my ideas with them have been a great source of inspiration. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, siblings and relatives for their understanding, patience and prayers for my success. iii TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER ONE : BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE OF STUDY 1 1.1 Problem Statement and Aims 1 1.2 Background 2 1.3 Objectives of the Study 5 1.4 Theoretical and conceptual framework 7 1.5 Outline of the Study 12 CHAPTER TWO : EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA 14 2.1 Background 14 2.2 Ethnic Diversity In Malaysia 16 2.3 The Development Of Education Policies In Malaysia 19 Pre Independence Post Independence 1957 – 1970 Socioeconomic Reorganisation 1970 – 1990 Democratisation of Education 1990 till present 2.4 Educational Administration and Schooling System 38 Educational Administration Levels of Education 2.5 Conclusions 44 CHAPTER THREE : LITERATURE REVIEWS 46 3.1 Introduction 46 3.2 The Purpose of School : The Contest For Space In The Curriculum 46 3.3 School Contexts in the Enactment of Educational Policy 55 3.4 Citizenship and Citizenship Education 62 Defining Citizenship Citizenship Education Citizenship Education in the School Curriculum 3.5 Conclusions 83 iv CHAPTER FOUR : METHODS 85 4.1 Introduction 85 Research Design Analysis Framework 4.2 CCE at The Macro Level 91 Documents Analysis 4.3 CCE At The Micro Level 97 The case studies location Selection of case studies Teachers’ Interview Classroom observation 4.4 Ethics 111 4.5 Conclusion 113 CHAPTER FIVE : DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Malaysia’s Civics and Citizenship Education 116 5.3 Citizenship Education in England 124 5.4 Comparing CCE in Malaysia and CE in England 130 Concept and Goals Teaching and Learning Content Teaching and Learning Approaches Assessment 5.5 Conclusion 139 CHAPTER SIX : UNDERSTANDING SCHOOL CONTEXTS 142 6.1 Introduction 142 6.2 Situated Contexts 143 6.3 Material Contexts 151 6.4 External Contexts 157 6.5 School Ethos and Culture 159 6.6 Conclusion 163 v CHAPTER SEVEN : TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING OF CITIZENSHIP AND CIVICS 167 AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 Citizenship 168 Citizenship as a Sense of Patriotism Citizenship as Rights and Responsibilities 7.3 Citizenship Education 178 a. Citizenship Education – Why? What? b. Key Features of CCE Development of Personal Quality Development of a Spirit of Patriotism 7.4 Conclusion 186 CHAPTER EIGHT : CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS 190 8.1 Introduction 190 8.2 Administrative Practices 191 CCE Timetable ‘Every teacher can teach CCE’ a. CCE Administrators b. CCE Teachers CCE Support a. External Courses b. District Level Meetings c. Teaching Aids 8.3 Teaching and Learning Practices 211 Subject Content a) Primary Themes b) Secondary Themes Teaching and Learning Approaches Assessment 8.4 Conclusion 234 vi CHAPTER NINE : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 240 9.1 Introduction 240 9.2 Key Conclusions 241 9.3 Citizenship Education in Malaysian – The Way Forward 249 9.4 Concluding Remark 253 REFERENCES 255 APPENDICES 283 vii List of Tables and Figures Table 2.1 : Malaysia Population Size Table 2.2 : Sabah and Sarawak Population, 2000 Table 2.3 : Mean Monthly Gross Household Income by Ethnic Group and Strata Table 2.4 : Registered Professionals by Ethnic Group Table 4.1 : Percentage of Ethnic Groups in Selangor and Malaysia, 2010 Table 4.2 : Percentage of Religions Practiced in Selangor and Malaysia, 2010 Table 4.3 : Malaysia and Selangor GDP and Economic Activity, 2008 Table 4.4 : Total Number of Schools, Teachers and Students in Selangor as in 31 January 2011 Table 4.5 : Total Number of Interviews Table 4.6 : Main Questions in The Interview Schedules Table 5.1 Rates for Secondary School Per Capita Aids Table 6.1 : Summary of Schools Key Features Table 8.1 : Amount of Period and Minutes Allocated Per Week in Lower Secondary School Timetable Table 8.2 : Amount of Period and Minutes Allocated Per Week in Upper Secondary School Timetable Table 8.3 : Characteristics of Heads of CCE and Assistants of Head of CCE Figure 2.1 : Map of Malaysia Figure 2.2 : Education Structure Approximate Starting Age and Duration (UNESCO, 2011 : 1) Figure 4.1 : Research Design Figure 4.2 : Research Methodology Figure 4.3 : Research Methods at The Macro and Micro Levels Figure 4.4 : Curriculum Analysis Model Figure 4.5 : Students Aged Difference in Malaysia and England Education System Figure 4.6 : Documents Analysed Figure 4.7 : Map of Selangor viii List of Appendix Appendix A : Participant Information Sheet Appendix B : Consent Form Appendix C : Interview Schedule Appendix D : Co-curricular Activities Provided in Schools Appendix E : Examples of Activities Organised by The Four Schools ix CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE OF STUDY 1.1 Problem Statement and Aims The substantive focus of this study is on the introduction of Civics and Citizenship Education (CCE) in Malaysia’s school curriculum, which is to support the state’s major objective of achieving national integration and public harmony among the multiethnic and multicultural society. More broadly, it is about the ways in which the Malaysian government has sought to develop and implement educational policy supporting the dual aims of social cohesion and economic growth. Such aims are specified in the National Philosophy of Education, Education Act 1996, Education Development Master Plan (2006 – 2010) and Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 to 2025 (Preschool to Post-secondary Education) which are also in part, a response to globalisation. Thus, the school curriculum and the processes of schooling are seen as a means to contribute to the development of society and the economy. This study, therefore, involves an investigation of the ways in which the school curriculum in Malaysia has been contested, negotiated and re-negotiated (Goodson, 1993; Ball and Goodson, 1984) over time. However, what constitutes the curriculum of today, and the definition and place of CCE within it, is to be regarded as only a stage in its evolutionary development (Kerr, 2003a; Goodson, 1998). Thus, at the macro level, this study explores how teachers define and understand CCE, the ways in which it has been enacted (Ball et al. 2012) and the opportunities for its future. It sets this against an exploration of the government’s ‘official’ definitions of CCE and the ways in which it has sought to introduce it into the school curriculum. In this way, the school curriculum, and CCE within it, are conceptualised as being socially and politically constructed (Ball and Goodson, 1984). This gives rise to the main aims of the study: 1. What is CCE and why has it been introduced into the school curriculum in Malaysia? 2. How is CCE defined and enacted particularly in secondary schools in Selangor, Malaysia? 1 3. What progress has been made in the enactment of CCE and what challenges are likely to hinder its future development? 1.2 Background Malaysia is a multiethnic country in which each ethnic group not only practices its own language and culture but also practices its own religion.
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