Scott Foresman ResearchScience Companion Base TABLE OF CONTENTS

Scott Foresman ResearchScience Companion Base

Research Topics

Aligning Science Companion to NCLB 3

Bibliography of Research Articles 9 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Scott Foresman AligningScience Companion Science Companion to NCLB

A white paper compiled for Chicago Educational Publishing by Educational Systemics—March 2003

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation is broad based and the requirements for compliance are numerous. Reading through the legislation, there are clearly areas that do not apply to Science Companion and other areas that do. Title I of NCLB “Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged” and more specifically Part F, “Comprehensive School Reform” contain the bulk of information and requirements that apply to Science Companion. We have reviewed some of the requirements of NCLB to demonstrate how Science Companion meets or surpasses many of these requirements. Our findings follow.

Key Requirements from NCLB Legislation: Title I: Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged Part F: Comprehensive School Reform http://www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/pg13.html

NCLB Sec. 1606 (a)(1) Employs proven strategies and proven methods for student learning, teaching, and school management that are based on scientifi cally based research and effective practices and have been replicated successfully in schools. Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Research Based A critical component of NCLB is that classroom materials must be research based. Science Companion fi ts in well with this requirement since it was developed by content and pedagogical experts and is based on the best research available today. Science Companion is a complete elementary basal curriculum that is results based, standards based, and research based. The educational research that supports and guides the approaches of Science Companion are well documented. It was also designed with the understanding that math and reading are the foremost instructional priorities for early elementary classrooms. Math and reading also happen to be top priorities under NCLB. Furthermore, all lessons have been extensively reviewed by qualifi ed scientists for accuracy and by teachers for usability.

3 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Adequate Yearly Progress (Sec. 111(b)2(B)) As NCLB stipulates, schools and school districts must make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward statewide profi ciency goals (http://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/ayp/edlite- index.html). Science Companion can be easily correlated to state and local standards. Furthermore, the ongoing mission of Chicago Science Group is studying the short- and long-term impact of Science Companion on student achievement so that adequate yearly progress can be demonstrated.

Field Tested To ensure its effectiveness, Science Companion has been and continues to be tested in dozens of classrooms throughout the United States with revisions based on actual classroom situations that refl ect the experience of teachers who have taught the material. It combines the latest research (a key component of NCLB) with a multiyear formative evaluation process to assure an implementation of the curriculum that works well across a wide range of actual classroom situations and across subject areas.

NCLB Sec. 1606 (a) 2 Integrates a comprehensive design for effective school functioning, including instruction, assessment, classroom management, professional development, parental involvement, and school management, that aligns the school’s curriculum, technology, and professional development into a comprehensive school reform plan for schoolwide change designed to enable all students to meet challenging state content and student academic achievement standards and addresses needs identifi ed through a school needs assessment; Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Instruction Integrating Science Companion with classroom instruction is easy because units are paced to support a core science program with a commitment of as little as 45 minutes per week of dedicated science time at kindergarten, two 45-minute periods weekly at grades one and two, and two to fi ve daily 45-minute periods at grades three through fi ve. This provides for a solid core science experience that is manageable within the time constraints and commitments of most teachers. The units support fl exible implementation of the curriculum, advancing teachers and students from wherever they are, making it easy to connect Science Companion with the school’s overall classroom instructional design.

Classroom Management Science Companion offers a fl exible and scalable implementation approach, taking into account the busy schedule of teachers. Unit modules can be mixed and matched to meet varying needs of states, districts, schools, or classrooms. A typical full-year confi guration consists of one or more units in each strand (life science, physical science, and earth science). Units are largely self-contained so they can also be purchased separately for building a customized science program. Each unit is suitable for teaching across a two- grade-level span, depending on the underlying mathematics and language skills of students in a given classroom situation. With additional design work from Chicago Science Group, unit sequencing can be adjusted to meet state standards while maintaining the integrity of the overall Science Companion sequence.

4 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Professional Development Science Companion offers extensive teacher support designed to promote elementary science literacy for all teachers, including beginning teachers and teachers with non-science backgrounds. Each unit contains background information so teachers understand the main concept of each lesson unit. All lessons include pedagogic and classroom management suggestions, strategies to enrich teaching, and guides to interactive online resources. Each comprehensive unit of study contains a robust teacher manual and teacher reference materials that provide professional development support. They include an overview of the curriculum and underlying pedagogy, along with fi eld-tested strategies for preparing, teaching, and assessing the results of classroom activities.

Standards Based Under NCLB, science standards for each state must be in place for the 2005 – 2006 school year. The content addressed in this curriculum is based on the American Association for the Advancement of Science Benchmarks (AAAS, 1993) and is consistent with the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996). Science Companion has been designed to align to emerging national standards. Since state frameworks and evolving state assessments are often based on national standards, unit modules can be sequenced to adapt to emerging state and district standards easily so schools can assure compliance with these new standards.

NCLB Sec. 1606 (a)3 Provides high-quality and continuous teacher and staff professional development and provides support for teachers, principals, administrators, and other school staff; Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Teachers, Principals, and Administrators ... will benefi t from the design of Science Companion since it has been set up for use by both the experienced and inexperienced science teacher. The materials provide embedded professional development to support teachers at all levels so that new teachers with limited time can provide a rich introduction to science and simultaneously improve their confi dence, understanding, and teaching skills. Teachers with strong science backgrounds can use the extensions in Science Companion to deepen and broaden student understanding. Since the extensive teacher support materials benefi t teachers at all levels, principals and administrators can be confi dent that their teachers are developing their skills and are actually spending more class time devoted to the teaching of science.

NCLB Sec. 1606(a)(11a-11b) Has been found, through scientifi cally based research, to signifi cantly improve the academic achievement of students participating in such program as compared to students in schools who have not participated in such program; or has been found to have strong evidence that such program will signifi cantly improve the academic achievement of participating children. Science Companion is a complete elementary basal curriculum that is results based, standards based, and research based (all requirements of NCLB). The educational research that supports and guides the approaches used in Science Companion are well documented. In turn, implementation of Science Companion will advance research on further improving science education. 5 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Science Companion was designed based on the latest research in mathematics and science education and focuses on critical concepts, methods, and processes, emphasizing depth of widely applicable skills and concepts. The curriculum uses focused science content to generate guided explorations (rather than stressing content) as educational goals in and of themselves. This approach is consistent with both national standards and recent discussions on “best-practice” approaches to elementary school science teaching. It is effective independent of the unresolved research question of the ultimate abstract learning capacity of young children.

Prior to large-scale research on the mathematics capacity of young children performed at the University of Chicago (Bell and Bell, 1988), the same situation existed in elementary mathematics education. That research directly informed the development of Everyday Mathematics, and emerging large-scale impact evaluations clearly demonstrate the effi cacy of enriched learning environments in improving student performance and understanding of mathematics. There is considerable overlap in the skill set required for learning science and mathematics—mathematics is the language of science, and science is one of the deepest applications of mathematics. This demonstrates strong evidence that students engaging in Science Companion will signifi cantly improve academic achievement, in keeping with the success experienced in Everyday Mathematics.

NCLB Sec. 1606(a)7 Provides for the meaningful involvement of parents and the local community in planning, implementing, and evaluating school improvement activities consistent with section 1118 (parental involvement). Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Parental Involvement: Lessons in Science Companion include “Family Links” that suggest ways to increase parental involvement. Many lessons also include reviewed “Web Links” for use by students and parents at home or at school. Science Companion has initiated an interactive online community resource, which provides children, teachers, administrators, and parents with extensive support to supplement instruction and promote science literacy. By linking this community directly into the curriculum revision cycle, Chicago Science Group engages teachers as active researchers in the formative phase of the research cycle, supporting ongoing professional development and strengthening links to a core constituency.

NCLB Sec. 111(b)(1)C The State shall have such academic standards for all public elementary school and secondary school children, including children served under this part, in subjects determined by the state, but including at least mathematics, reading, or language arts, and (beginning in the 2005-2006 school year) science, which shall include the same knowledge, skills, and levels of achievement expected of all children.

6 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Science Companion has been designed to exceed national standards and since state standards normally use national standards as a basis for development, Science Companion can be easily shown to align with up-coming state standards in 2005. Again, with additional design work from Chicago Science Group, unit sequencing can be adjusted to meet state content standards while maintaining the integrity of the overall Science Companion sequence.

NCLB Sec. 111(b)(3)(c)(11) Beginning not later than school year 2007–2008, measure the profi ciency of all students in science and be administered not less than one time during • (aa) grades 3 through 5; • (bb) grades 6 through 9; and • (cc) grades 10 through 12. Scott Foresman/Science Companion: Timing couldn’t be better for implementing a new science basal with profi ciency tests mandated by 2007. Covering grades K–5, Science Companion offers a potent solution to future mandated testing. Extensive research and work went into developing Science Companion, and the ongoing research will ensure it meets current and future requirements and will also mean results of student achievement will be credible since they will be taken from a cross section of students throughout the United States, over a period of several years.

What Works Database Main URL: http://w-w-c.org/ Press Release: http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2002/08/08072002a.html

The U.S. Department of Education has awarded a fi ve-year, $18.5 million contract to a special joint venture to develop a national What Works Clearinghouse, which will summarize evidence on the effectiveness of different programs, products, and strategies intended to enhance academic achievement and other important educational outcomes.

The clearinghouse will help provide education decision-makers with the information they need to make choices guided by the best available scientifi c research. The use of research- proven strategies based on sound scientifi c evidence is one of the key principles of No Child Left Behind. “By providing educators with ready access to the best available scientifi c research evidence, the clearinghouse will be an important resource for enhancing the quality of local decision-making and improving program effectiveness,” said U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige. “And it will help transform education into an evidence-based fi eld.”

Through a set of easily accessible Web-based databases, the WWC will provide decision makers with the information they need to make choices based on high-quality scientifi c research. The WWC will develop standards for reviewing and synthesizing educational research and will provide its fi ndings in accessible, user-friendly, searchable online databases.

7 ALIGNING SCIENCE COMPANION TO NCLB

Scott Foresman/Science Companion: In speaking with representatives of the What Works Clearinghouse, there is no cause for alarm, as they will not be seeking to endorse products or prevent any products from being sold into schools. Their goal is to review available research and provide information to educators and publishers as to the results of the latest research and best strategies. The hope is that publishers adopt these practices when developing new products and that educators become aware of the latest research and what works best.

Chicago Science Group will maintain active contact with the WWC so there is an open line of communication. WWC will be seeking feedback from publishers and updating publishers on the latest initiatives. The Web address for signing up for WWC updates is http://w-w-c.org/list.html.

In general, Chicago Science Group is using the WWC as guidelines for the best approaches to helping students learn.

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Scott Foresman BibliographyScience Companion of Research Articles

AAAS. 1993. Science for All Americans Summary. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1995. Reform is needed because the nation has not yet acted decisively enough in preparing young people, especially the minority children on whom the nation’s future is coming to depend, for a world that continues to change radically in response to the rapid growth of science knowledge and technological power. But educational reform cannot simply be legislated. It will take time, determination, collaboration, resources, and leadership. It will take daring and experimentation. And it will take a shared national vision of what Americans want their schools to achieve. Science for All Americans—part of an AAAS initiative called Project 2061—is intended to help in the formulation of that vision.

AAAS. 1993. Project 2061 Science Literacy for a Changing Future: Update 1994. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1995. In 1985, after 3 years of planning, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) launched a long-term, comprehensive project to radically improve science, mathematics, and technology education for the 21st century. The 1985 approach of Halley’s Comet prompted the project’s originators to muse on all the scientifi c and technological changes that a child entering school in 1985 would live to witness before the return of the Comet in 2061, hence the name, Project 2061.

AAAS. 1993. Benchmarks for Science Literacy Summary. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1995. Benchmarks for Science Literacy consists primarily of statements of what all students should know and be able to do in science, mathematics, and technology by the end of grades 2, 5, 8, and 12. The grade demarcations suggest reasonable targets for curriculum design and checkpoints for estimating student progress toward the science literacy goals outlined in Science for All Americans.

Abd-El-Khalick and BouJaoude. 1997. An exploratory study of the knowledge base for science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 34.7:673-699. The purpose of this study was to describe the knowledge base of a group of science teachers in terms of their knowledge of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines, and their understanding of the nature of science. The study also aimed to relate the teachers’ knowledge base to their level of education, years of teaching experience, and the class level(s) that they teach. Twenty inservice science teachers were selected to respond to a modifi ed version of the Views on Science–Technology–Society (VOSTS) questionnaire to assess their understanding of the nature of science. The teachers then constructed concept maps and were interviewed. The concept maps were scored and the interviews analyzed to assess teachers’ knowledge of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines. The teachers’ knowledge base was found to be lacking in all respects. Teachers held several naive views about the nature of science and did not demonstrate adequate knowledge and understanding of the structure, function, and development of their disciplines. Moreover, the teachers’ knowledge base did not relate to their years of teaching experience, the class level(s) that they teach, and their level of education. It was reasoned that teacher preparation programs are not helping teachers develop the knowledge base needed for teaching science.

Adams. 1999. The forgotten science educator. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.4:407-410. The current reform movement in science education highlights a dichotomy that exists between the education community and the science community. Duggan-Haas (1998) suggests that these two cultures exhibit fundamental differences in terms of the nature of the teaching–learning experience and faculty–student relationships. Duggan-Haas indicates the science culture dominates as a referent for teaching, and that exposure to this culture results in prospective teachers who gravitate toward information delivery rather than conceptual understanding, there-by reinforcing the old adage that teachers teach as they were taught. Interestingly, Cromer (1997) argues that the fault with science education lies in the models of teaching advocated by the education community. Thus, the undergraduate faculty most closely associated with educating future teachers of science not only reside within two academic cultures, but they are often at cross purposes with each other’s apparent perspective on the nature of the teaching–learning process and what constitutes effective teaching

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Adams and Krockover. 1999. Stimulating constructivist teaching styles through use of an observation rubric. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.8:955-971. One of the diffi cult transitions for new secondary science teachers is that from novice teacher to master teacher. Often this process involves the novice in adopting survival strategies for teaching rather than those advocated by the National science education standards or the Project 2061 benchmarks. This study reports on an instrument that has been shown to be useful in helping novice teachers refl ect on and change their science teaching praxis. Based on the interpretation of this case study, it appears to have the potential to signifi cantly affect the development of secondary science teachers by providing a readily accessible model of instruction that aligns with student-centered models of instruction advocated by the Standards and Project 2061.

Adamson et al. 1998. Doing a science project: Gender differences during childhood. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:845-857. By adolescence, men’s participation and achievement in science exceeds women’s. This article reports a case study that examined the beginnings of this gender differentiation during a naturally occurring academic activity that was designed to support and guide young children’s interest in doing science. Data were collected during 2 successive years of a science fair for children in Grades 1–6 of a progressive private school. A total of 268 projects were characterized in terms of achievement and area of science. Parents provided information about the way children selected and created projects. In both years and in all grade levels, boys tended to choose to work in the physical sciences, and girls in the biological and social sciences. Peer collaborations were exclusively same sex. Achievement and parental involvement were not gender related. Factors are discussed that might lead to an early divergence of boys’ and girls’ interests in science within a context that promotes its exploration.

Ahlgren. 1993. Creating benchmarks for science education. Educational Leadership 50.5:46-49. Project 2061 has been constructing goals for science, mathematics, and technology education since 1985. During our fi rst three years of work, we recommended what students should remember by the time they leave high school (Science for All Americans1989). Since 1988, we’ve been working on reasonable expectations for students at earlier grade levels (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, in draft). This new volume will include benchmark lists, some of our progression-of-understanding maps, and essays related to the benchmark topics.

Ahlgren and Rutherford. 1993. Where is project 2061 today? Educational Leadership 50.5:19-22. To increase the options available to schools, Project 2061 is not designing a new K-12 curriculum model. Rather it is developing, with the assistance of school-district teams, tools that local curriculum designers can use to assemble their own. After the Benchmarks will come sketches of K-12 curriculum “models” and a pool of curriculum “blocks” from which local designers can construct alternative curriculums. To maintain coherence within these models and blocks, Project 2061 teams typically work in cross-grade, cross-subject groups, instead of in traditional isolation by grade level and subject matter. Beyond the basic tools of benchmarks, blocks, and models will be a dozen commissioned “blueprints,” which recommend how other aspects of the education system may have to change to accommodate the new curriculum models. And work has also begun on a computerized system that combines a resource database with all of the tools already mentioned, enabling designers to draw on them in a coordinated fashion.

Aikenhead and Jegede. 1999. Cross-cultural science education: A cognitive explanation of a cultural phenomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.3:269-287. Recent developments in concept learning and in science-for-all curricula have stimulated our interest in two fi elds of study: how students move between their everyday life-world and the world of school science, and how students deal with cognitive confl icts between those two worlds. In the fi rst fi eld of study, Aikenhead conceptualized the transition between a student’s life-world and school science as a cultural border crossing. In the second fi eld, Jegede explained cognitive confl icts arising from cultural differences between students’ life- world and school science in terms of collateral learning. This article (a) synthesizes cultural border crossing with its cognitive explanation (collateral learning) and (b) demonstrates by its example the effi cacy of reanalyzing interpretive data published in other articles. The synthesis provides new intellectual tools with which to understand science for all in 21st century science classrooms in developing and industrialized countries.

Akaishi and Sual. 1991. Exploring, learning, sharing: Vignettes from the classroom. Arithmetic Teacher 39.3:12-16. In my fi fteen years of teaching in fi rst- and second-grade classrooms, I have frequently taken advantage of opportunities that arise throughout the school day to use mathematics. Others have sometimes considered these few moments as “stolen” from more integral parts of the written curriculum. This point of view, by its very nature, limits the development of interactive discussions and refl ective abstraction. The NCTM’s (1989) Curriculum and Evaluation Standards have brought a welcome change in this attitude. Supported by this document, I now feel free to experiment with those “stolen” moments by extending and weaving them into mathematical experiences involving everyday problems of life-problems that the students work to solve in their own inimitable way. Out of their thinking come mathematical insights of great power. The following scenes are examples of how I have been able to implement in a working classroom the principles described in the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards.

Anderson. 1997. Professional development for science and mathematics teachers in a time of educational reform and new standards. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers, Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Research points to teacher learning as the centerpiece of educational reform. (Anderson, 1995a, 1995b) This teacher learning is essential for signifi cant educational improvement, and this learning, in turn, provides a foundation for the changes in student roles and work that are the “bottom line” of educational improvement. Teacher learning requires attention to educational practices at a

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

fundamental level, a level at which the teacher addresses the very values and beliefs that underlie his or her current practices. Without addressing the matters at this level, major changes in classroom practice are unlikely to occur, and the promise of the new standards will not be realized.

Anderson. 1999. Research on scientific reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.7:751-752. The articles in this issue all focus, in one way on another, on how learners reason about scientifi c problems. The learners vary in age and ability, from elementary school children to college students. There are also many differences among the problems that the learners address in these studies. Despite these differences, the studies in this issue are connected by a number of common themes that illustrate the state of research about scientifi c reasoning today. Four of those common themes are discussed below.

Anderson. 2000. Science education in a global age. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.1:1-2. During the 20th century, science has become a global enterprise, whereas science education has remained primarily national or local in scale. While they were infl uenced by developments in other parts of the world, individual nations (or, in the United States, individual school districts) have decided what their curricula should be. In general, they made those curricular decisions to satisfy local constituents, sometimes at odds with state or national reform efforts. The 21st century is likely to see the globalization of science education. Elmore (1997) suggested that local decisions about curriculum and instruction are increasingly infl uenced by outside forces. He noted the growth of systems for measuring student achievement (such as Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), and other national and state tests) that make it much easier to compare schools, districts, and states against each other and against other countries. Schools, teachers, and students are increasingly held accountable for performance on these tests rather than for satisfying local expectations.

Anderson. 2000. Studying student thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.2:105-106. The “cognitive revolution” in psychology and science education has been with us for a quarter of a century; its infl uence on science education has been profound. Lists of research reports about student conceptions, cognitive structures, and reasoning strategies fi ll book-length bibliographies. Conceptual change and cognitive science research have played important roles in the development and implementation of national standards in the United States, Britain, and other countries (e.g., AAAS, 1993, Chapter 15; Driver, Squires, Rushworth, and Wood-Robinson, 1994). Teacher education programs train their students to conduct clinical interviews, and textbook publishers claim to provide teachers with information about common student misconceptions. We take it for granted today that through research we can develop important insights into how students understand and reason about science, and that we should use those insights to improve science teaching practice.

Anderson and Hogan. 1999. Design in science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.9:975-976. An important obstacle to publishing about design work in journals such as the Journal of Research in Science Teaching (JRST) is that typically such work is reported in evaluation studies that make neither strong links to relevant empirical literature nor contributions to theory. Other obstacles are technical. Evaluation reports or methods studies in which one method (e.g., inquiry laboratories, student journals, cooperative group work) is shown to be superior to another (e.g., “traditional teaching”) are often inadequate because readers are not provided with details about what exactly was being evaluated or compared. Activities and accounts of participants’ experiences are buried in a technical report—or not available at all. The result has been that the research community has not paid adequate attention to innovations and issues in science education design, and designers of programs and materials have paid little attention to research. Much research has conformed to academic traditions that have little of clear relevance to say about design work in science education.

Anderson and Richmond. 1999. Science, science education, and life histories. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.6:617-618. Although the articles in this issue were submitted and reviewed separately, we have grouped them together because they address important common themes. The articles contribute to our understanding of relationships among the cultures of science and engineering communities, practices in science classrooms, and the diverse life histories of science learners. The informants in these studies range from elementary school children to minority women who have successfully completed college and have begun engineering careers. These learners are constantly reshaping their perceptions of scientifi c work and their feelings about the “fi t” of science with their own lives and values.

Andre et al. 1999. Competency beliefs, positive affect, and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.6:719-747. Iowa students and parents completed related attitude and belief questionnaires about school subjects. Grade K–3 students received simpler questionnaires than did Grade 4–6 students or parents. Among Grade 4–6 children, girls perceived higher competence in reading than did boys, but boys perceived higher competence in physical science. All children perceived physical science competence lower than reading or math competence. Parents perceived boys as more competent in science. Girls like reading more than boys did; boys and girls did not differ in liking of science. Grade 4–6 children also expected lower grades in and attached lower importance to physical science than to reading. Parents perceived science as more important for boys and expected higher performance of boys. Jobs related to math or science were seen as more male dominated. These results provided a more comprehensive picture of attitudes and beliefs about science in the elementary school than had existed and suggested that attitudinal gender differences related to physical science begin to develop by the earliest elementary school years. Policy implications are that intervention programs designed to promote gender equity should be extended to the early elementary school years and also should address parental attitudes. Additional implications for policy and research are discussed

11 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Anonymous. 1993. Uniform standards for eagles and eels: A fable related to curriculum and evaluation. McGill Journal of Education 28.3:477-478. One often hears of the need for redirecting the educational program to meet the manifold needs, interests and aptitudes of the children and youth whom we wish to serve and satisfy the desires of the public that pays so well for the service. It has been said that we need “ broad cultural defi nitive, esthetic fi nite general” education for all—equally good for all. In some school circles a little fable is circulated that’s supposed to have a moral relating to all this. Here is the fable. You fi gure out the moral.

Apple. 1993. The politics of official knowledge: Does a national curriculum make sense? Teachers College Record 95.2:222-241. I want to argue that behind the educational justifi cations for a national curriculum and national testing is an ideological attack that is very dangerous. Its effects will be truly damaging to those who already have the most to lose in this society. I shall fi rst present a few interpretive cautions. Then I shall analyze the general project of the rightist agenda. Third, I shall show the connections between national curricula and national testing and the increasing focus on privatization and “choice” plans. Finally, I want to discuss the patterns of differential benefi ts that will probably result from all this.

Ault. 1998. Criteria of excellence for geological inquiry: The necessity of ambiguity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.2:189-212. According to Gowin, a curriculum properly derives its authority by representing the “criteria of excellence” for evaluating the claims produced within a fi eld of inquiry. Gowin’s epistemology applied to examples from geological inquiry yields criteria of excellence responsive to the demands characteristic of geological problems. Student efforts to learn these criteria hold the promise of making progress toward independence in accessing, using, and evaluating knowledge. This understanding contributes to the reformation of the concept of inquiry as a “step beyond science as process” called for in the National Science Education Standards and reinforces the need to consider the diversity as well as unity of styles of scientifi c reasoning. Geological inquiries differ from those of other sciences because they refer to objects with histories. These histories create a demand for concepts that necessarily contain an irreducible element of ambiguity, thus permitting comparison and contrast of geological objects. A case study of how geologists apply analogies, impose boundaries on categories of thought, and constrain the ambiguity of key concepts in reasoning about the accumulation of sediments at a continental margin is used to support this argument. Such examples of geological reasoning support a skeptical attitude toward interdisciplinary curricula that omit or oversimplify criteria of excellence.

Badger. 1992. More than testing. Arithmetic Teacher 39.9:7-11. The purpose of this article is to explain a set of processes that teachers might use to structure their evaluations of students’ learning so that they more closely refl ect the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards (NCTM 1989). To illustrate the processes involved, we have chosen one area of mathematics, measurement, and a single task that could be used as a tool for assessing students ‘ understanding. Although this particular task is neither special nor magical, the processes described are basic to all evaluations.

Bagley and Gallenberger. 1992. Assessing students’ dispositions: Using journals to improve students’ performance. Mathematics Teacher 85.8:660-663. Since the NCTM developed the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics in 1989, dramatic changes have been taking place in high school classrooms. The role of the teacher is changing. What was once a teacher-centered lecture environment is now a student-centered cooperative-learning environment. Evidence of this change can be seen in many classrooms as students work in teams to teach and help each other understand and develop concepts. Students are now communicating their ideas verbally as well as in writing. The teacher’s role as a facilitator is emerging.

Ball. 1991. What’s All This Talk about Discourse? Arithmetic Teacher 38.3: 7-11. Despite its title, the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM 1991) should not be read as a set of prescriptions about how to teach. The document will not deliver on such expectations, not because it fails but because no document can prescribe good teaching. No set of standards can be expected to stipulate what teachers should do. The potential of the Professional Teaching Standards rests instead in its use as a set of tools with which to construct productive conversations about teaching. It should be viewed as a resource with which to build teaching rather than as a measuring stick by which to judge teaching. With new ideas about things to pay attention to in our classrooms, to ask ourselves, to wonder about, we would have increased power to analyze and improve our teaching—alone and as members of a wider community of educators. In this article I explore possible outcomes of using the Professional Teaching Standards in such ways.

Banks. 1994. Integrated curriculum for restructuring public education. Computing Teacher 21:17-20. Schools must be a new approach to knowledge, learning, and interpersonal relationship between teachers and students. Caring and personal concern must be evidenced by all teachers who must demonstrate higher expectations of all students. As we build increased quality into our educational program, student interest, motivation and determination will rise. As we become successful in our collective efforts, test scores and individual performance will rise. We hold the future of this nation in the palm of our hands.

Battista. 1993. Mathematics in Baseball. Mathematics Teacher 86.4:336-342. The NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards (1989) attempt to address these problems by describing a different type of curriculum in which problem solving, reasoning, applications, making connections among ideas, and communicating about mathematics play a central role. One way to promote the goals of the curriculum standards and also mathematics as sense-making is to have students work

12 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

on signifi cant projects or themes in which mathematics aids them in understanding a familiar phenomenon. This article explores the mathematics of baseball. It describes a number of mathematical topics in baseball and ways in which they can be used as problems for junior and senior high school students.

Baumert et al. 1998. Technical problem solving among 10-year-old students as related to science achievement, out-of-school experience, domain-specific control beliefs, and attribution patterns. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.9:987-1013. Using a sample of 531 10-year-olds from Germany and the United States, the study investigated the relationships among the structure of everyday experience, domain-specifi c control beliefs, acquisition of science knowledge, and solving of everyday technical problems. It assumed that children acquire operative schemata through daily experiences with technical objects and toys that not only transfer to solving technical everyday problems but also have a positive infl uence on school science learning. It was also thought that the covariation between technical everyday experiences and science achievement/technical problem solving would be mediated by control beliefs. A causal model, developed and tested by means of structural equation modeling, showed that domain-specifi c out-of-school experience only indirectly infl uences problem-solving performance, mediated by control beliefs.

Beeth. 1998. Teaching science in fifth grade: Instructional goals that support conceptual change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.1:1091-1101. How one teacher in a fi fth-grade classroom (student ages 10–11) facilitated learning as conceptual change is the subject of this research. The teacher presented her students with seven learning goals that she believed would allow students to engage in conceptual change learning. Student outcomes as a result of this teacher’s instruction included signifi cant changes in the ability of students to engage in conversations that are characterized as metaconceptual and metacognitive. These changes are attributed to instructional activities of the teacher that established her learning goals. Characteristics of the learning environment created by this teacher are presented and an analysis of the instructional activities she presented to students are used to answer the following question: How did the learning goals presented by this teacher support students as they engaged in learning as conceptual change? The implications of this study for teachers in different contexts are discussed.

Beeth and Hewson. 1999. Learning goals in an exemplary teacher’s practice: Cognitive and social factors in teaching for conceptual change. Science Education 83:738-760. The conversations of elementary school students in the classroom of Sister M. Gertrude Hennessey have captured the attention of science educators, scientists, and cognitive psychologists. Research studies documenting student outcomes have been presented in professional journals and at professional meetings. While there are many unique aspects of learning that the students in this classroom exhibit during conversations with one another and their teacher, the extraordinary performance of these students inevitably raises the question: How does Sister Gertrude do it? What are signifi cant components of her instruction that support the student outcomes reported in studies of her students? In this article, we provide a detailed account of her instruction, an account that can help us understand how she facilitates conceptual change learning through a carefully chosen set of learning goals. Through instruction that established these learning goals, Sister facilitated a learning environment in which students spoke about their ideas, offered justifi cations for ideas, recognized the limitations of an idea, and negotiated knowledge claims in ways similar to some of those in the scientifi c community. In presenting this case study, we are conscious of the implications that answers to our questions about Sister Gertrude’s instruction could have for other teachers as well. In other words, we are interested in whether the learning that takes place in Sister’s classroom is the product of a unique and singular environment, or whether the instructional principles she uses, once incorporated into the practices of other teachers, might result in similar student outcomes.

Bencze and Hodson. 1999. Changing practice by changing practice: Toward more authentic science and science curriculum development. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.1:521-539. Recent policy documents from the Ontario Ministry of Education called for teachers to present a more authentic view of the nature of scientifi c practice at all levels of education. Sadly, this call for substantial curriculum change coincided with severe cuts in the education budget. The authors describe how two teachers collaborated with a university-based researcher/teacher educator to design and implement more authentic science in a Grade 7 classroom. The ways in which the teachers changed their views about science and science teaching, the anxieties they experienced, and the institutional constraints that impacted on their practice are discussed, and some more general features of the action research experience are described.

Berlin and White. Connecting school science and mathematics. NCTM Yearbook. 1995. The integration of school science and mathematics has received much attention in current education reform documents as a means for improving student performance and understanding and for developing realistic and positive attitudes and perceptions related to science and mathematics. A plethora of terms can be found in the literature to refer to “integration,” including connections, cooperation, coordination, correlated, cross-disciplinary, fused, interactions, interdependent, interdisciplinary, interrelated, linked, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and unifi ed (Berlin 1991). Throughout the literature, there is a general sense that integration is a “good” thing. However, very little has been reported that explicitly describes what it means to integrate science and mathematics, and even less research has been done to explore its benefi ts or detriments (Berlin 1991). Although many might agree with the proposition “integrate how you teach before worrying so much about integrating what you teach” (Steen 1994), others advocate the infusion of “mathematical methods into science and scientifi c methods into mathematics such that it becomes indistinguishable as to whether it is mathematics or science” (Berlin and White 1992, p. 341). All this points to the critical need to develop a common language through the elaboration of a model for the integration of school science and mathematics.

13 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Bianichi and Colburn. 2000. Teaching the nature of science through inquiry to prospective elementary teachers: A tale of two researchers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.2:177-209. The teacher as researcher, Colburn, and the researcher, Bianchini, investigated Colburn’s use of inquiry to teach the nature of science to prospective elementary teachers; we attempted to identify those aspects of the nature of science addressed through inquiry instruction and the varied contexts in which such insights arose. We began by videotaping small group inquiries and whole class deliberations during three units of Colburn’s inquiry-oriented general science course. We then conducted separate qualitative analyses of the resulting 20 hours of videotaped data. Colburn, the teacher and informant, adopted an emic perspective and employed examples of explicit and implicit deliberations and demonstrations of the nature of science to construct his case. Bianchini also used an emic perspective, but examined only what teacher and students explicitly identifi ed as examples of and insights into the nature of science. Taken together, our analyses highlight the diffi culties in presenting a cogent and comprehensive picture of the nature of science to students, the teacher’s pivotal role in initiating discussions of what science is and how scientists work, and the strengths and limitations of using classroom- based research to investigate nature of science instruction.

Blank. 2000. A metacognitive learning cycle: A better warranty for student understanding. Science Education 84:486-506. The Science Curriculum Improvement Study Learning Cycle provides opportunities for students to reveal their science ideas, but no formal structured opportunities exist for students to refl ect on their science ideas. This study proposes a revised learning cycle model, termed the Metacognitive Learning Cycle, which emphasizes formal opportunities for teachers and students to talk about their science ideas. Working collaboratively, the researcher and a seventh-grade science teacher developed a 3-month ecology unit based on the revised model. Two science classrooms studied identical ecology content using different pedagogical orientations. One class was taught using the SCIS approach and one was taught using the metacognitive approach. Only in the metacognitive classroom were students asked to reveal their science ideas and to discuss the status of their conceptions throughout the instruction. Results showed that students in the metacognitive classroom did not gain a greater content knowledge of ecology, but they did experience more permanent restructuring of their ecology understandings.

Blank and Gruebel. State Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1993 State and National Trends: New Indicators from the 1991-92 School Year. Council of Chief State School Officers, State Education Assessment Center. 1993. The Council of Chief State School Offi cers is providing leadership in developing a system of state-by-state and national indicators of the condition of science and mathematics education. Since 1985, the Council has been a strong advocate for improving the quality and comparability of assessments and data systems that can produce indicators of the health of our elementary and secondary schools. Through the support of the National Science Foundation, the Council and the states have established a network for developing and reporting science and mathematics indicators. The fi rst product of this cooperative effort was State Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education-1990 (Blank and Dalkilic, 1991), a report that established baseline data for a system of state and national indicators. The new report presented here includes the fi rst trends analysis ever of state-by-state science-mathematics indicators and presents current data on indicators of student outcomes, curriculum, course enrollments, teacher supply and quality, and school conditions.

Blank and Pechman. State Curriculum Frameworks in Mathematics and Science: How Are They Changing Across the States? Council of Chief State School Officers. 1995. The CCSSO study found that the concept of a state curriculum framework is changing and that state frameworks vary widely among states. A majority of states are developing or have recently completed new frameworks in mathematics and science. Ongoing national, state, and local efforts to improve and reform mathematics and science education are linked to state frameworks. The report gives a snapshot of the contents, purposes, and organization of frameworks as of 1994; and excerpts from recent documents show how frameworks are developing and changing.

Blocher. 1997. Internet/cyberspace and learning. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Technology does provide a new medium for delivery and exploration, but how we choose to use it will determine its ability to be an agent of learning. Through e-mail, the Internet provides us with a great communication tool. Through the World Wide Web, the Internet provides us with global resources at the click of a mouse. Through some of the advanced technologies, such as CU-SeeMe and virtual reality via MOOs, the Internet provides us with the possibility of radically changing our students’ learning environment. We must be proactive observers and implementers as technology is integrated into our educational system. We need to use the knowledge afforded us to this point. We have the opportunity to apply technology to provide learning environments that encompass the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards or the opportunity to utilize discovery learning methods via the vast resources on the Internet. We must persevere in critically analyzing how technology is being used to develop a better learning environment for our children.

Bohan and Shawaker. 1994. Using manipulatives effectively: A drive down rounding road. Arithmetic Teacher 41.5:246-248. A critical component of the use of manipulatives is making sure that students make the connection between the conceptual work done with manipulatives and the procedural knowledge that such work is supposed to support (NCTM 1989). To make sure that such connections are made, it is helpful to think of using manipulatives in the context of transfer of learning. Transfer of learning is a situation in which studying topic A will help in understanding topic B. The modern view of transfer suggests that transfer from topic A to topic B will happen only to the extent that certain conditions are met.

14 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Borlaug. 1993. From algebra to calculus: A Tonka toy truck does the trick. Mathematics Teacher 86.4:282-287. This classroom presentation is designed to introduce and interpret the graphical representation of a Tonka® toy truck’s forward and backward motion. It can be used to illustrate an application of slope in an algebra class or to introduce the derivative in a calculus class. In the presentation, the teacher moves the Tonka® truck up and down on the chalkboard using chalk to record the motion, asks students questions about the motion, and encourages discussion. The class is asked to pretend that the toy truck has a speedometer. Unlike speedometers in real trucks, this toy speedometer has negative values to represent backward motion, in addition to its usual positive and zero values. (Speed is the absolute value of velocity. In this situation, the speedometer might better be renamed “velocity- ometer”, but that term would introduce vocabulary unfamiliar to the student.) The presentation leads students to develop a graphical representation of the truck’s one-dimensional motion, creates graphs representing constant velocity, leads students to a defi nition of average velocity, and introduces the concept of instantaneous velocity.

Boyes. 1994. Trigonometry for non-trigonometry students. Mathematics Teacher 87.5:372-375. A major focus of the current mathematics and science education reforms is on developing “literacy;” that is, helping students to understand and use the languages and ideas of mathematics and science in reasoning, communicating, and solving problems. In the document Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) purports that by developing mathematical literacy students will gain in their mathematical power—their abilities to explore, conjecture, and reason logically, as well as the ability to use a variety of mathematical methods effectively to solve nonroutine problems. (NCTM, 1989) Authors of Science for All Americans (American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS, 1990) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993) also stress the development of habits of mind to facilitate individual and group problem solving in their description of science literacy. Furthermore, all three documents call for a defi nite shift away from traditional classroom teaching practices.

Brandt. 1994. Aiming for new outcomes: The promise and the reality. Educational Leadership 5.3:6-10. The different interpretations of outcome-based education help explain why, even among those who support an outcomes-driven education system, sharp divisions persist over what it would look like. For example, business leaders and policymakers appear to strongly support the idea of outcome-based accountability systems. But their conception of desirable learning outcomes appears to be very different from that offered by educators.

Braswell. 1992.Changes in the SAT in 1994. Mathematics Teacher 85.1:16-21. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was fi rst administered in 1926 to 8,040 students. The test was introduced primarily to reduce the need for students who were applying to several different selective colleges to take entrance examinations specifi c to each institution. Thus, the goal of the fi rst SAT was to serve as a standard measure of ability to assist colleges in making admissions decisions. This goal continues to be the primary objective of the SAT. Since 1926 the test has been known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test. The word “aptitude” suggests innate ability in an area rather than knowledge and skills that can be acquired by in-school and out-of-school experiences. Because both verbal and mathematical skills and concepts can be learned and because reasoning and problem-solving skills can be developed, the name of the test will become simply SAT-I. All the tests currently in the College Board’s achievement series (e.g., Mathematics Level I), as well as some new tests, will come under the heading SAT-II.

Braswell. 1992. Changes in the SAT in 1994. Mathematics Teacher 85.1:16-21. As a result of the investigations carried out from 1988 through 1990, two major changes for the mathematics portion of the new SAT-I were approved by the College Board’s trustees: (1) the inclusion of some questions that require students to produce their own solutions rather than select multiple-choice alternatives, and (2) the establishment of a policy that permits the use of calculators.

Brickhouse et al. 2000. What kind of girl does science? The construction of school science identities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.5:441-458. A view of science as a culturally mediated way of thinking and knowing suggests that learning can be defi ned as engagement with scientifi c practices. How students engage in school science is infl uenced how students view themselves and whether they are the kind of person who engages in science. It is therefore crucial to understand students’ identities and how they do or do not overlap with school science identities. In this paper, we describe four middle school African American girls’ engagement with science. They were selected in the 7th grade because they expressed a fondness for science in school or because they had science-related hobbies outside of school. The data were collected from the following sources: interviews of students, their parents and their teachers; observations in science classes; journal writing; and focus groups. These girls’ stories provide us with a better understanding of the variety of ways girls choose to engage in science and how this engagement is shaped by their views of what kind of girl they are.

Brown, R. and Davis. 1990. Ages of Oscar-winning best actors and actresses. Mathematics Teacher 83.2:96-102. The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for School Mathematics 1989) has urged a greater emphasis on statistics in the curriculum. It recommends that students generate information related to their interests and then use the information to formulate and support conjectures. This article illustrates an example of implementing these recommendations by considering the work of one student who wondered if a gender difference exists in the ages at which actors and actresses win Oscars.

15 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Brown, S. and Jones. 1992. Group management in the mathematics classroom: Exploring pentominoes. Arithmetic Teacher 39.5:38-40. In 1989 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics published the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. A basic assumption shaping the K-4 standards is that “K-4 classrooms need to be equipped with a wide variety of physical materials and supplies” (p. 17). The 5-8 standards also make the assumption that “every classroom will be equipped with ample sets of manipulative materials and supplies . . . “ (p. 67). In using materials in an elementary mathematics classroom, each student can be placed in a cooperative-task group, with each member of the group performing a specifi c function. This structure establishes a positive interdependence in which each student contributes signifi cantly to the achievement of a learning goal. The following activity describes how this management system can be implemented in a mathematics classroom.

Brutlag and Maples. 1992. Making connections: Beyond the surface. Mathematics Teacher 85.3:230-235. Several curriculum-development projects are currently piloting student materials that refl ect the recommendations of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards. One of these projects, aimed at the eighth-grade level, is the Investigations Project. The examples in this article come from an Investigations unit titled a “Beyond the Surface.” This four-week unit consists of introductory learning tasks, group investigations, and individual student projects. The format and content of “Beyond the Surface” are presented in this article to illustrate one of the many possible ways that a unit could be designed to enable students to make mathematical connections.

Bryan and Abell. 1999. Development of professional knowledge in learning to teach elementary science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36.2:121-139. The purpose of this research was to understand how preservice elementary teacher experiences within the context of refl ective science teacher education infl uence the development of profession-al knowledge. We conducted a case analysis to investigate one preservice teacher’s beliefs about science teaching and learning, identify the tensions with which she grappled in learning to teach elementary science, understand the frames from which she identifi ed problems of practice, and discern how her experiences played a role in framing and reframing problems of practice. The teacher, Barbara, encountered tensions in thinking about science teaching and learning as a result of inconsistencies between her vision of science teaching and her practice. Confronting these tensions between ideals and realities prompted Barbara to rethink the connections between her classroom actions and students’ learning and create new perspectives for viewing her practice. Through reframing, she was able to consider and begin implementing alternative practices more resonant with her beliefs. Barbara’s case illustrates the value of understanding prospective teachers’ beliefs, their experiences, and the relationship between beliefs and classroom actions. Furthermore, the fi ndings underscore the signifi cance of offering refl ective experience as professionals early in the careers of prospective teachers.

Burrill. 1990. Statistics and probability. Mathematics Teacher 83.2:113-118. Statistics—the collection, organization, and interpretation of data; the art and science of analyzing information—was until the late 1960s the domain of those gifted in mathematics or those few who needed limited knowledge to make inferences within their chosen fi eld. The school curriculum furnished little background for the “science of numbers.” Statistics was a vast array of symbols, formulas, and rules that seemed to have little relationship to reality. During the 1960s, a combination of circumstances indicated a need to change the role of statistics in society: the development of computers with the capacity to create, store, and analyze large quantities of data; the formation of new, simple, and effective data-analysis techniques; and the occurrence of rapid changes in personal and working environments of society.

Butler, M. 1999. Factors associated with students’ intentions to engage in science learning activities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.4:455-473. The determinants of fourth, fi fth, sixth, seventh, and eighth graders’ intentions to perform science learning activities were investigated. Ajzen and Fishbein’s theory of reasoned action was used to assess students (n = 254) on their laboratory and nonlaboratory behavioral intentions, which required using the two determinants included in the theory (attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm) as well as fi ve external variables identifi ed by the researcher. The fi ve external variables were gender, grade, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status as determined by the range of the family’s annual income, and attitude toward science. Two models were tested. The fi rst model included the two determinants as predictor variables and behavioral intention as the criterion. The second model involved the analysis of the two determinants as they were considered in subgroups according to the fi ve external variables. This model also included interaction terms. For laboratory learning activities, the two determinants (attitude toward behavior and subjective norm) were found to contribute collectively to the prediction of behavioral intention, accounting for almost a fourth of the variance. For nonlaboratory learning activities, the two determinants accounted for over a fourth of the variance in behavioral intention. Testing of the second model revealed that for both laboratory and nonlaboratory behavioral intentions, no interaction terms were signifi cant. The results of post hoc tests on signifi cant predictors of behavioral intentions for laboratory and nonlaboratory activities are reported. Implications of this study on future research are also discussed.

Bybee and Landes. 1990. Science for life and living: An elementary school science program from biological sciences curriculum study. American Biology Teacher 52.2:92-98. Why a new science curriculum for elementary school? More specifi cally, why this curriculum? The short answer is that the 1990s are not the 1960s. The longer answer is that innovations in science and technology, advances in philosophy and psychology, and new aspirations of society have placed different demands on science education. Those demands are such that they cannot be met through the revision of curricula developed in the 1950s or through the current textbook programs. A major reform of science education programs is needed. BSCS’s new program is an answer to the need for reform and presents a specifi c example of how elementary school science in the 1990s is different from earlier programs.

16 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Cain and Kenney. 1992. A joint vision for classroom assessment. Mathematics Teacher 58.8:612-615. The purpose of this article is to discuss teachers’ roles and responsibilities in classroom mathematics assessment in the context of the more generic “Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students” and NCTM’s more specifi c Curriculum and Evaluation Standards. Although many points of convergence are noted in the two sets of standards, one is particularly important: the individual teacher is the key to realizing the vision for classroom assessment.

Carl. 1993. Equal opportunity: Technology can be a bridge to mathematics equity. Electronic Learning 12:60. If we are determined to improve school mathematics and enable all students to become mathematically literate citizens of the 21st century, we cannot allow our 19th century models of practice to persist. The “back-to-basics” ideology being championed in many communities across the nation compromises the mathematics education of gifted students and perpetuates disproportionate numbers of minorities, females, and disabled students in low-level courses.

Carter. 1992. Using Technology in Graphing. Mathematics Teacher 85.2:118-121. Perhaps we know what happens when the x-values of a linear relationship are squared, but what happens when the coordinates of points that create a picture are squared? The answer to this question and others were the impetus for an algebra project for one of my classes.

Champagne et al. 1997. Assessment and the reform of mathematics and science education. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Assessment will play an important role in the reform of science and mathematics education. This paper examines the implications of assessment standards developed by national scientifi c and mathematical societies for the practice of science and mathematics education, as well as the policy issues that are raised by the implementation of the standards. It is addressed primarily to teachers and other district level practitioners and administrators who focus on classroom teachers, but it also addresses the implications of the assessment standards for science and mathematics curriculum specialists, supervisors, curriculum developers, test developers, program evaluators, professional development providers, and policy makers at the district, state, and national levels. We acknowledge that the roles and responsibilities for assessment are systemwide and that responsibilities of practitioners in different roles are not distinct. However, reform ultimately will be accomplished in the science and mathematics classrooms. Consequently, we cast teachers as the main actors in the reform movement and show how the other actors must support the teacher’s role.

Chang. 1999. Teachers college students’ conceptions about evaporation, condensation, and boiling. Science Education 83:511-526. This study administered an open-ended, written test to 364 students in a teachers college who were divided into four groups, according to their scientifi c learning background. After evaluation, some representative students were interviewed in a semi-structured manner to obtain their conceptions. The test results showed that, although the science major students performed better than the non-science majors, their understanding of the condensation and boiling concepts still needed to be enhanced. Most of the students did not hold the concept of saturated vapor, even in the science major (group A) students; that is, only 28.8% held this idea, and the percentages in the remaining groups (groups B–D) were less than 10%. The performances in each group on the tasks regarding the concept of boiling were not impressive; the answers from group A students about the bubbles within boiling water centered on air and water vapor, and the corresponding percentage was close; however, for the other groups, the percentage differences became larger and most believed what was inside the bubbles was air. Quite a few students knew the white “smoke” rising from the water kettle was tiny water droplets, and the highest percentage was only around 20%. It was also found that most students had only an ambiguous comprehension of the existence of water vapor in air, especially groups B and C, who were non-science major students. In the interviews, some students still thought water evaporated once combined or contacted with air, and the idea of “condensation when cooled” was deeply rooted in the students’ minds; although students knew that “water vapor is invisible,” most still believed the white smoke was water vapor. Examining the students’ ideas carefully, the researchers found out that learning diffi culties regarding the aforementioned concepts could be a result of poor understanding of what water vapor is.

Chin and Brown. 2000. Learning in science: A comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.2:109-138. The purpose of this study was to explore in greater depth what has been called by previous researchers, a deep versus surface approach to learning science. Six Grade 8 students judged as typically using learning approaches ranging from deep to surface were observed and taped during class group laboratory activities in a chemistry unit. They were also interviewed individually before and after instruction about related science concepts. On analysis of the students’ discourse and actions during the activities and their interview responses, several differences in learning approaches seemed apparent. These differences fell into fi ve emergent categories: generative thinking, nature of explanations, asking questions, metacognitive activity, and approach to tasks. When students used a deep approach, they ventured their ideas more spontaneously; gave more elaborate explanations which described mechanisms and cause–effect relation-ships or referred to personal experiences; asked questions which focused on explanations and causes, predictions, or resolving discrepancies in knowledge; and engaged in “online theorizing.” Students using a surface approach gave explanations that were reformulations of the questions, a “black box” variety that did not refer to a mechanism, or macroscopic descriptions that referred only to what was visible. Their questions also referred to more basic factual or procedural information. The fi ndings also suggest that to encourage a deep learning approach, teachers could provide prompts and contextualized scaffolding and encourage students to ask questions, predict, and explain during activities.

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Chinn and Hilgers. 2000. From corrector to collaborator: The range of instructional roles in writing- based natural and applied science courses. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37.1:3-25. This study of writing-intensive (WI) undergraduate natural and applied science courses examined the relationships among instructors’ course goals, instructional activities, and students’ assessment of their learning of content and writing. Using multiple sources of data, investigators found that instructors held common goals but varied greatly in their instructional activities. Findings suggest that science instructors can be described along a continuum anchored by instructor as corrector on one end and instructor as collaborator on the other. Instructors who were the sole audience for a single writing assignment were correctors. Collaborators varied writing tasks, encouraged collaboration, and emphasized professional contexts for writing; they generally received highest student satisfaction ratings. Peer editing assignments that simulated critical, anonymous journal reviews affected female and male students differently. The fi ndings support the National Academy of Science’s teaching standards and assumptions concerning the crucial roles of instructors in socializing students into science communities. We discuss instructional strategies that may be more inclusive to traditionally underrepresented groups such as females and minorities.

Clark. 1992. The Toronto Board of Education’s benchmarks in mathematics. Arithmetic Teacher 39.6:51-55. Today, most school districts are increasingly being held accountable for the quality of their programs, The Toronto Board of Education, which has 114 elementary schools with approximately 41,000 students and 39 secondary schools with approximately 30,000 students, is no exception. In May 1987, the board mandated the development of standards for students’ achievement in mathematics and language at the end of grades 3, 6, 8, and 10. Until this time, no systemwide testing or standards had existed. Guidelines had been established for evaluating students and reporting to parents, but schools and teachers were left to work out their own procedures. The board’s mandate grew out of parents’ need to have better information about the progress of their children. Parents were no longer satisfi ed with reports from teachers that stated generally that their children were doing just fi ne. Parents were asking, “compared with what?” Over the next three years, standards, now known as benchmarks, were developed for grades 3, 6, and 8. At the time of writing this article, benchmarks for secondary schools are being planned for implementation at a future date.

Cobern et al. 1999. Conceptualizations of nature: An interpretive study of 16 ninth graders’ everyday thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.5: 541-564. The research reported in this article sought to provide a broader understanding of high school science students as persons by describing the personal thoughts, or everyday thinking, about a question relevant to science: What is Nature? The purpose was to gain an understanding of students’ fundamental beliefs about the world on the basis that developing scientifi c literacy can be successful only to the extent that science fi nds a niche in the cognitive and cultural milieu of students. The theoretical background for this research came from cultural anthropology and the methodology was interpretive, involving student interviews. The assertions of the study in summary form were: (a) The ninth-grade students in the study tended to discuss Nature using several different perspectives (e.g., religious, aesthetic, scientifi c, conservationist). A rich breadth of perspectives typically characterized any one student’s discussion of Nature. (b) After 9 years of schooling, however, the level of science integration within everyday thinking remained low for many of these ninth graders. In their discussions of Nature, most volunteered little school knowledge of science. They were aware of school science topics such as the ozone layer, rain forests, and the Big Bang theory. Such topics were voluntarily mentioned but usually without elaboration even when asked. (c) Science grade success was not correlated with the concepts these ninth graders typically chose to use in a discussion about the natural world. The students with the most grade success in science had not necessarily grasped fundamental concepts about Nature and science. (d) Regardless of school grade success, including school science grade success, most of the ninth graders attached considerable importance to personal experiences with Nature. Their environmental inclinations were strong. The article ends with a discussion of the implications.

Coffield. 1992. Taking fun in earnest. Mathematics Teacher 85.2:100-102. Writing and drawing activities for mathematics classes are powerful instructional tools. Students enjoy taking fun in earnest, but they reap an added bonus. “As students communicate their ideas, they learn to clarify, refi ne, and consolidate their thinking,” says the Commission on Standards for School Mathematics of the NCTM in Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989).

Collins. 1998. National Science Education Standards: A political document. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.7:711-727. The National Science Education Standards provides a vision teaching and learning science for the science education system and criteria to measure progress toward that vision. The document contains standards for content, teaching, and assessment—three major levers of change identifi ed by policy analysts. The Standards also include program standards for schools and districts and system standards. This article describes how the Standards were developed within a political context, through a process with political aspects and includes political intents. It closes with recommendations about why and how science education researchers might engage in the political process.

Cook and Martinello. 1994. Topics and themes in interdisciplinary curriculum. Middle School Journal 25.3:40-44. Theme studies are meaningful and worth doing if they support the study of big ideas that are true over space and time, broaden students’ understanding of their world and human experience, are interdisciplinary, relate to students’ genuine interests, and lead to student inquiry. In this article, we have suggested that themes can be developed from students’ common interests, adolescent literature and trade books, textbook topics, current events, local sites and community resources, cultural heritage, teachers’ interests or expertise, objects and artifacts, and abstract concepts. We have attempted to illustrate the many and varied ways in which theme studies can be developed. In each example, the emphasis has been on opportunities that can be afforded students for real inquiry through their consultation of varied resources to explore their own questions. We believe that interdisciplinary inquiry encourages sustained and thorough study of major concepts and big ideas that can lead students to exceed grade level expectations for achievement.

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Cooney. 1988. The issue of reform: What have we learned from yesteryear? Mathematics Teacher 81.5:352-363. One of the central issues facing our profession is how the NCTM Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1987) can infl uence mathematics teacher education programs. This question and the issues in which the question is embedded not only are highly relevant to our professional interests but also are, ultimately, primary to our professional activity. My experiences both as a teacher and as a teacher educator suggest that the task that lies ahead is both signifi cant and awesome.

Cornett. 1995. Lessons from 10 years of teacher improvement reforms. Educational Leadership 54.5:26-30. In the early 1980s, merit pay and career ladder programs were widely touted; they were among the most visible and widespread educational experiments under way in the states. In addition, the practice of observing beginning teachers in the classroom grew out of the large federal “process product” research projects of the 1970s, which linked particular teaching skills to student success. Have these reforms worked? How have they been incorporated into today’s approach to accountability and quality control? The Southern Regional Education Board has studied these reforms for more than a decade. This update incorporates many of our fi ndings.

Corwin. 1993. Doing mathematics together: Creating a mathematical culture. Arithmetic Teacher 40.6:338-341. Elementary school mathematics educators face a real challenge in these times of mathematics and science reform. We are charged with nothing less than improving the mathematics education of America’s children within the next few years—and many approaches have been recommended: Use manipulative materials, support students as they construct their theories, and use activity-based programs. Teach geometry, data analysis, and number concepts in a balanced program. Use problems, projects, and long-term sustained homework assignments. Involve families. Make mathematics relevant to students’ lives. Many teachers are working hard toward these goals, but they need support.

Crawford et al. 1999. Elements of a community of learners in a middle school science classroom. Science Education 83:701-723. The idea of a learning community has gained attention as a desirable environment that could provide opportunities for students to engage in solving problems in collaboration with peers. However, defi nitions of a community of learners are varied, vague, and not well developed. The goal of the research described in this study is to examine the nature of a middle school science classroom during the development of a community of learners by focusing on the teacher–student interactions and the connections made by students with people outside the classroom. The fi rst investigator served as both teacher and researcher in this study. The teacher used a project-based approach that allowed learners to fi nd solutions to authentic problems or questions generated by the students. Students used a process of inquiry and collaboration to fi nd these solutions. An analytical framework developed from the literature consisted of the following components: authentic tasks; interdependency in small group work; negotiation of understanding; public sharing; collaboration with experts; and responsibility for shared learning and teaching. The frame-work was used to analyze the multiple data sources, including videotapes, interviews, a teacher’s journal, and electronic correspondence. Eight major themes emerged from the analysis. These themes included: (1) tasks connected to real- world questions generated more collaborative interactions than topic-bound tasks; (2) collaborative interactions in groups increased when tasks were student-initiated; (3) providing instructional support for students contributed to group decision making; (4) group productivity increased when students gained ownership; (5) student dialogue centered on the procedural aspects of the activity when completing teacher-designed activities; (6) when public sharing centered on discussions of their own experiences, students were more cognitively engaged; (7) interactions with outside resource people increased students’ investment in the project; and (8) when students worked in teams answering their own questions, they took responsibility for learning and teaching. The fi ndings of this study point to three important factors that infl uenced the learning community in this middle school classroom: (1) the importance of the driving question in contributing to the authentic nature of the investigations; (2) the importance of the teacher’s role in supporting students in collaborating with peers and people outside the classroom; and (3) the extended time required for teams to develop collaborative relationships. The role of the teacher appears critical in transforming the roles of students and teacher in creating a community of learners.

Crawford, T. et al. 2000. Ways of knowing beyond facts and laws of science: An ethnographic investigation of student engagement in scientific practices. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.3:237-258. In this study, an anthropological perspective informed by sociolinguistic discourse analysis was used to examine how teachers, students, and scientists constructed ways of investigating and knowing in science. Events in a combined fourth- and fi fth-grade elementary class were studied to document how the participating teacher provided opportunities for students to diverge from the intended curriculum to pursue their questions concerning the behavior of sea animals in a marine science observation tank. Analysis of the classroom discourse identifi ed ways that particular teaching strategies provided opportunities for student engagement in scientifi c practices. Implications of this study for the teaching of science in elementary classrooms include the value of student-initiated science explorations under the conditions of uncertainty and for topics in which the teacher lacked relevant disciplinary knowledge.

Crosswhite et al. 1989. NCTM Standards for School Mathematics: Visions for implementation. Arithmetic Teacher 37.11:55-60. The Standards may be remembered as the fi rst attempt by any teachers’ organization to specify national, professional standards for school curricula in their discipline. This step was bolder than some may realize. We were widely advised that even the word standards might not be well received, that many people might not be able to separate the notion of national leadership from the spector of national control. This reservation seemed particularly strong among funding agencies, especially federal agencies. But the standards pose no threat to local autonomy. They describe a vision for school mathematics—they do not prescribe a curriculum. We have always anticipated that local options and local initiatives would determine how well, and to what extent, the vision of the Standards would be realized. The standards permit a wide variation in the specifi c mechanisms of curriculum consistent with that vision.

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Cuevas. 1991. Developing communication skills in mathematics for students with limited English proficiency. Mathematics Teacher 84.3:186-189. Given the characteristics of second-language learners who have limited English language profi ciency, what can teachers do to furnish opportunities to enhance communication skills in mathematics? More specifi cally, what can be done to help these students participate meaningfully in class activities? How can students be assisted in developing the language skills they need to deal with the tasks and materials given in class? This article suggests some instructional strategies for dealing with these challenges and presents an example of a classroom activity designed to implement these suggestions.

Curcio et al. 1987. Divide and Conquer: Unit Strips to the Rescue. Arithmetic Teacher 35.4:6-12. By the time students reach the division process in their fraction curriculum, they have often spent so much of their allotted time on related topics—equivalent fractions, least common denominator, greatest common factor, addition and subtraction of fractions, multiplication of fractions—that they tend to rush through this topic to make up time. It’s tempting and easy to present the invert- and-multiply rule and follow that with a large amount of drill and practice. If only more time and care were given to the conceptual development of this delicate topic, the concepts learned would remain with students much longer. The following activities develop the imagery and ideas necessary for a proper understanding of dividing fractions and the related computational algorithm. By enlarging, duplicating, cutting out, and using the unit strips in Figure 1, the teacher is able to illustrate division ideas and provide a common base for a further understanding of division of fractions.

Davidson and Pearce. 1988. Using writing activities to reinforce mathematics instruction. Arithmetic Teacher 35.8:42-45. The authors have been exploring various ways that teachers use writing in mathematics instruction. The results of these investigations have suggested that the use of writing activities is sporadic in junior high school mathematics classes (Pearce and Davison, in press). However, a pattern of student writing activities has emerged. In particular, it appears that writing activities used in mathematics classrooms can be classifi ed into fi ve categories: direct use of language; linguistic translation; summarizing; applied use of language; and creative use of language. Writing activities in each of these categories have a use in the mathematics classroom. The purpose in this article is to present different activities for each of these categories and to encourage mathematics teachers to try implementing these suggestions in their own instruction.

de Jong et al. 1999. The integration of computer simulation and learning support: An example from the physics domain of collisions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.5:597-615. Discovery learning is generally seen as a promising but demanding mode of learning that, in most cases, can only be successful if students are guided in the discovery process. The present article discusses a study on discovery learning with a computer simulation environment in the physics domain of collisions. In the learning environment, which is called Collision, students learned about collisions where two particles move in the same direction and interact via a conservative force in such a way that the total mechanical energy is conserved. In the experiment we conducted with Collision, we evaluated the effects of adding two different ways to guide students: model progression, in which the model is presented in separate parts; and assignments, small exercises that the student can choose to do. The effect of providing assignments and model progression was evaluated by comparing the learning behavior and learning results over three experimental conditions in which different versions of the simulation environment were presented: pure simulation, simulation plus assignments, and simulation plus model progression and assignments. Students’ use of the environment was logged, their subjectively experienced workload was measured online, and their learning was assessed using a number of assessment procedures. Providing assignments with the simulation improved students’ performance on one aspect of a so-called intuitive knowledge test. Providing the students with model progression did not have an effect. A subjective workload measure indicated that expanding the simulation with assignments and model progression did not raise the workload experienced by the students.

Dekkers and Thijs. 1998. Making productive use of students’ initial conceptions in developing the concept of force. Science Education 82:31-51. In the fi rst phase of this study, a cognitive confl ict strategy was used to design teaching/learning activities aimed at developing aspects of the Newtonian concept of force. The effectiveness of the activities was studied in classroom research that took place in pre-university courses in Botswana and South Africa. Pre-/post testing showed a considerable increase in correct answers, but the answer-patterns were not consistent with the assumption that most students based their reasoning either on correct or on alternative concepts. Aspects of the initial premises of the conceptual replacement approach were questioned: In what way are student ideas “alternative,” and what is the students’ cognitive basis for their construction of scientifi cally better ideas? We will show that many of the students’ beliefs about motion and its causes, often expressed as “motion implies a force,” do not contradict scientifi c beliefs, provided that we accept that students, when they use the word “force,” refer to a concept which differs from the scientist’s concept of force. Students do not distinguish concepts as precisely as scientists, have beliefs that may be incorrectly generalized to unfamiliar contexts, and frequently express their beliefs in nonscientifi c terms. However, in our interpretation, students do not have beliefs about familiar situations that are incompatible with scientifi c beliefs. Conceptual replacement, therefore, is not an adequate strategy to foster conceptual growth for the topics under consideration. Rather, the students’ prior correct beliefs need to be identifi ed as a potential basis for development of the scientifi c concept of force. The revised interpretation of students’ conceptions guided a revision of the teaching sequence in the second phase of this study, aimed at helping students to develop their own conceptual tools to perceive and potentially resolve dissonance before they experience it. The revised sequence, which is based on concept refi nement and context expansion, resulted in increases in correct answers and answer-patterns more consistent with concept-based reasoning.

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Dori and Tal. 2000. Formal and informal collaborative projects: Engaging in industry with environmental awareness. Science Education 84:95-113. A model of a mixed formal/informal science–technology–society (STS) curriculum that incorporates collaborative projects with case studies, fi eld trips, and formal class sessions has been developed, implemented, and assessed. The contribution of this study is threefold. One is a contribution to the growing body of knowledge on informal education. This is achieved through the establishment of constructivist relationships between formal and informal learning activities. The second contribution is the development of an innovative, collaborative, project-based approach in environmental education, in which the community at large is involved. The third contribution concerns the development, implementation, and validation of an integrated formal/informal assessment system that is tailored to the unique learning environment. Assessment of students’ learning outcomes—the formal learning—is done through case studies dealing with real-life problems in the students ’neighborhood or region. Experts evaluate the collaborative projects—the informal learning—in an exhibition setting. The innovative approach of integrating and assessing projects with case studies was found to be effective and attractive to students, teachers, and parents. It is therefore recommended that collaborative projects be implemented in schools to enhance the value of out-of-school experiences.

Driver et al. 2000. Establishing the norms of scientific argumentation in classrooms. Science Education 84:287-312. Basing its arguments in current perspectives on the nature of the scientifi c enterprise, which see argument and argumentative practice as a core activity of scientists, this article develops the case for the inclusion and central role of argument in science education. Beginning with a review of the nature of argument, it discusses the function and purpose of dialogic argument in the social construction of scientifi c knowledge and the interpretation of empirical data. The case is then advanced that any education about science, rather than education in science, must give the role of argument a high priority if it is to give a fair account of the social practice of science, and develop a knowledge and understanding of the evaluative criteria used to establish scientifi c theories. Such knowledge is essential to enhance the public understanding of science and improve scientifi c literacy. The existing literature, and work that has attempted to use argument within science education, is reviewed to show that classroom practice does provide the opportunity to develop young people ’s ability to construct argument. Furthermore, the case is advanced that the lack of opportunities for the practice of argument within science classrooms, and lack of teacher’s pedagogical skills in organizing argumentative discourse within the classroom are signifi cant impediments to progress in the fi eld.

Duschl. 2000. Editorial: Building community while raising standards. Science Education 84:1-4. How does one judge the quality of a journal? Deans want to know. Tenure review committee members want to know. Authors want to know. One common mechanism combines assessing the notoriety of the members of an editorial board with the acceptance/ rejection rate of articles to the journal. Not unlike the a = 0.05 designation for level of signifi cance, a fi gure in the range of 30% is generally considered to be an appropriate acceptance rate. I have heard arguments that the lower the acceptance rate (e.g., 10%) the more prestigious the journal. I do not know if I would agree with that fi gure or line of reasoning. Having served as Editor of this journal for 7 years, my position is that an extremely low acceptance rate would more accurately refl ect a combative and competitive process between authors and referees rather than one that, I will argue, can be a nurturing and facilitating process. While some individuals may benefi t from such competitive formats, in the long run the adoption of these exclusionary policies will negatively affect the diverse and increasingly expanding community of scholars working in science education and science education–related domains. A balance needs to be struck between, on the one hand, maintaining standards and, on the other hand, providing individuals opportunities to be part of the community and to participate in the review process.

Edgar and Pollaway. 1994. Education for adolescents with disabilities: Curriculum and placement issues. The Journal of Special Education 27.4:438-452. The seminal works by Dunn (1968) and Deno (1970) have had a signifi cant effect on the fi eld of special education. Although the emphasis of these two papers was by no means limited to issues concerning placement, nevertheless, much of their Infl uence has been in regard to the issue of where students with disabilities should be educated. The literature in the fi eld for the quarter century since publication of these two articles has been replete with papers advocating for various placement options. This emphasis on placement has often resulted in somewhat diminished attention to important questions concerning the content of educational programs. In particular, curricular concerns warrant paramount attention for adolescents who have disabilities. This concern is reinforced by the literature on adult outcomes, which paints a rather pessimistic picture of adult adjustment for students exiting from special education programs. Therefore, we contend that issues of educational service delivery should be secondary to an emphasis on outcomes and the nature of the curriculum. In particular, the curriculum for all students in the secondary schools should provide multiple pathways that emphasize the development of skills and opportunities to become productive citizens with a reasonable opportunity to enjoy a positive quality of life. The paper also discusses current and emerging curricular models for students with mild disabilities, which are related to our concern for successful adult adjustment.

21 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Eflin et al. 1999. The nature of science: A perspective from the philosophy of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.1:107-116. In a recent article in this journal, Brian Alters (1997) argued that, given the many ways in which the nature of science (NOS) is described and poor student responses to NOS instruments such as Nature of Scientifi c Knowledge Scale (NSKS), Nature of Science Scale (NOSS), Test on Understanding Science (TOUS), and others, it is time for science educators to reconsider the standard lists of tenets for the NOS. Alters suggested that philosophers of science are authorities on the NOS and that consequently, it would be wise to investigate their views of current NOS tenets. To that end, he conducted a survey of members of the Philosophy of Science Association, and, via various statistical techniques, made claims about the nature and extent of variation among philosophers of science regarding basic beliefs about the NOS. As three philosophers of science, we laud Alters’ attempt to understand philosophers of science’ view on the NOS. We believe, however, that his techniques for investigating this question are inappropriate and that consequently, several of his conclusions are unwarranted. In this comment, we will substantiate these criticisms. In addition, we will address some of the important questions that motivate Alters’ research and attempt to unravel the “byzantine complexity” of philosophical views about the NOS. We begin with our concerns regarding Alters’ research. We then provide a taxonomy of philosophic issues; and fi nally, we suggest some roles for philosophy of science in science teaching and the education of science teachers.

Eichinger and Roth. 1991. Critical Analysis of an Elementary Science Curriculum: Bouncing Around or Connectedness? Elementary Subjects Center Series 32, Institute for Research on Teaching. Michigan State University. Center researchers are identifying exemplary curriculum, instruction, and evaluation practices in the teaching of these school subjects; studying these practices to build new hypotheses about how the effectiveness of elementary schools can be improved; testing these hypotheses through school-based research; and making specifi c recommendations for the improvement of school policies, instructional materials, assessment procedures, and teaching practices. Research questions include: What content should be taught when teaching these subjects for understanding and use of knowledge?; How do teachers concentrate their teaching to use their limited resources best?; and In what ways is good teaching subject matter-specifi c?

Eiser. 1993. Math for a reason. Technology & Learning 13:52-55, 58. Exactly what does the ideal math classroom look like? The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) asserts that it is emphatically not a place where students learn math “in lock-step sequence, memorizing procedures and working in isolation from other students.” Instead, according to the NCTM’s Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics, published in 1991, it is a mathematical community where the students and the teacher talk the language of math; work in groups to solve open-ended, real-world problems; use calculators, manipulatives, and computers intelligently; and verify their answers together, using mathematical reasoning rather than an answer key. In the following pages, we present some of the best commercial math products that fi t the standards, with particular emphasis on those that put mathematics into a real-world context and give students a good reason to “do” math. We think you’ll fi nd in all of them a refreshingly new, problem-centered approach toward math education.

Esty and Teppo. 1992. Grade assignment based on progressive improvement Mathematics Teacher 85.8:616-618. The NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics states, “Evaluation is a tool for implementing the Standards and effecting change systematically” (1989, 189). Tests are one facet of evaluation, and we maintain that mathematics classes are strongly affected by the way in which test scores are used to generate fi nal course grades. In the traditional secondary school mathematics class, current grading practices tend to drive instruction by putting constraints on specifi c course content and its organization. In turn, content and its organization affect testing and therefore grading. The interaction of these factors is an aspect of assessment that is not specifi cally discussed by the NCTM’s evaluation standards. The purpose of this article is to examine the impact of grading on mathematics instruction and on the implementation of the curriculum and evaluations standards.

Fairburn. 1991. Starring in mathematics. Mathematics Teacher 84.1:463-466. The following activities are designed to encourage students to take a simple task, such as drawing stars, and look mathematically at what they are doing. In the process, they should search for patterns; formulate conjectures; and, if they have suffi cient background, prove these conjectures. In this guided-discovery activity, students draw stars and respond to a series of questions. The primary goal of this activity is to encourage students to do mathematics. Let your students make their own discoveries and generate their own conjectures.

Farenga and Joyce. 1999. Intentions of young students to enroll in science courses in the future: An examination of gender differences. Science Education 83:55-75. This study examined young students’ perceptions of gender-appropriate science courses. The sample consisted of 427 students in grades 4, 5, and 6, between the ages of 9 and 13. Students completed the Course Selection Sheet (CSS) to choose courses for themselves and members of the opposite gender. A psychosocial framework was offered to explain the differential course selection patterns between young boys and girls. The study reveals a strong gender effect pointing toward stereotypical perceptions of selected science courses for oneself (p = 0.01). When students selected science courses for the opposite gender, the evidence of gender-role stereotypes was even greater (p < 0.000). Course selection profi les imply that a reciprocal relationship exists in the number and kind of courses selected by girls and boys. A detailed analysis suggests that both boys and girls perceive physical science and technology- related courses as appropriate subjects for boys to study and life sciences as appropriate subjects for girls to study. Surprisingly, students’ future science course selections resemble current enrollment data of master’s and doctoral candidates. The students’ perceptions of science are seen years prior to the actual encounter with the science courses listed on the course selection menu. These fi ndings question the auspiciousness of programs designed to ameliorate gender differences in science during junior or senior high school years. Suggestions for school curriculum development and the importance of informal science experiences were examined.

22 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Farivar and Webb. 1994. Helping and getting help: Essential skills for effective group problem solving. Arithmetic Teacher 41.9:521-525. In this article we outline the steps necessary for students to learn how to use one another as resources for doing mathematics. These steps were used in an urban, predominantly minority (Hispanic and African- American) middle school. The activities, explained in the Helping Behavior Activities Handbook (Fariver and Webb 1991), were based on research showing which kinds of helping behaviors in small groups are effective for learning and which ones are not. Although research on cooperative learning has shown that working collaboratively with others can increase achievement (see, e.g., Slavin [1990]), research on helping behaviors in small groups shows that not all behavior is equally effective for learning. Explaining is more effective for learning than sharing the answer for both the helper and for the student who receives the help (Webb 1985a, 1985b,1991).

Farrell. 1992. Implementing the professional standards for teaching mathematics: Learning from your students. Mathematics Teacher 85.8:656-659. One of the basic assumptions of the authors of the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM 1991, 125) is that “the education of teachers of mathematics is an ongoing process.” How can teachers continue their professional development outside of formal classes or in-service opportunities? One signifi cant way depends on thoughtful analysis of data from the classroom. A rich source of such data is found in the responses of students to the task of learning mathematics.

Feldt. 1993. Becoming a teacher of mathematics: A constructive, interactive process. Mathematics Teacher 86.5:400-403. In this, the fi nal article in this department for the 1992-1993 academic year, the author addresses the standard Developing as a Teacher of Mathematics (NCTM 1991, 160-66). Teacher conceptions and teacher refl ections have been alluded to by each of the previous three authors. In this article, the author places the spotlight directly on teacher refl ection and its relation to classroom practice. Teachers who are looking for ways to reexamine their own teaching will fi nd practical suggestions and the theoretical and research rationale on which these ideas are based.

Fennell. 1990. Probability. Arithmetic Teacher 38.4:18-22. Informal exploration of chance is central to the development of beginning concepts related to probability. Chance is something that most students have experienced in playing games, watching television game shows, and participating in sports. Probability is fun! It should be an important component of any K-8 mathematics program. It should not be one of those “end of year, if I get to it” topics. Probability is of great importance in a number of fi elds. Although it was founded on principles involving gaming, probability is fundamental to decisions made in business, research, weather forecasting, insurance, sports, and other areas. Theoretically, probability is an application and extension of concepts and skills related to the use of rational numbers (e.g., Stacey has a 1/6 [or about 16.6%] chance of winning the game). Equivalent fractions, ratio, proportion, decimals, and percentage are used in many activities that involve probability. Probability represents real-life mathematics. The study of probability serves as a wonderful opportunity for teachers to ask questions that promote thinking and understanding. Instruction in probability involves experimentation and promotes communication, one of the focal points of the NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Standards) (1989). The K-4 and 5-8 Standards involving probability are given here.

Frye. 1989. The NCTM standards, challenges for all classrooms. Arithmetic Teacher 36.9:4-7. Just as the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics generates excitement among our members and colleagues, the document also engenders questions from them. Educators and colleagues have asked questions about the standards and the implementing procedure at conferences and committee meetings, through the mail, on the telephone, and in personal conversations. From those submitted or posed, I have selected some typical questions to which to respond.

Futrell et al. 1997. Reaching all students of diverse needs and cultures. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. The purpose of this paper is fourfold: First, we defi ne “students of diverse needs and cultures” and the “standards movement.” Second, we address specifi c initiatives of current reform efforts in progress in mathematics and science education. Third, we discuss critical issues related to the successful implementation of mathematics and science standards (i.e., teachers professional development, technological advancements, opportunity-to-learn standards, school organization, and assessments.) Fourth, we suggest references to be used as curriculum materials, how-to articles of use to teachers in the classroom, and seminal research and philosophical literature related to mathematics and science reform initiatives.

Gallagher. 2000. Meeting challenges inherent in reform of science learning and teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.5:399-400. “Systemic reform” has become a popular term in our professional vocabulary, because of our realization that science education is a complex, interconnected enterprise that is understood more effectively in a holistic sense than through more reductionist approaches. Moreover, people and groups working to foster reform of science teaching and learning recognize that changing only one element of the complex system has not produced desired results. Therefore, policy makers and scholars are recommending and taking multidimensional actions that address an array of entities including policy, curriculum, testing, teacher education, staff development, school organization, and school leadership.

23 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Gallagher and Anderson. 1999. Designing, implementing, and reporting research: The significant role of literature review. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.6:619-620. The parts of a typical research article that should connect the study to the continuing dialogue in the fi eld are the literature review and the discussion. We and our reviewers encourage more attention to preparation of research reports that place strong emphasis on thoughtful, concise reviews of research that is of relevance and signifi cance in framing research questions, methods of data collection, analysis, interpretation, and in the fi nal synthesis at the end of the articles. Typically, analysis of literature is an iterative process. The literature review is not something that can be added on after the research is complete, when writing begins. It must be an initial component of research design. It also must be revisited during and after data collection and analysis, as important new additions to the research literature may emerge while research is being conducted. More importantly, the authors’ perspective on the literature is likely to change as a consequence of carrying out the research and analysis of data. It is only through this thoughtful connection with research and scholarship of others that high quality research and important fi ndings will emerge from inquiry.

Gallagher and Richmond. 1999. Stimulating discourse on science education reform: An editorial and call for papers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.7:753-754. The science education community has been engaged in reform of one sort or another through most of the history of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST). Our current involvement is in elaboration and implementation of a movement whose initiation was marked by the publication of Science for all Americans (Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1989) and whose importance has been reinforced by many writers and reports (e.g., National Research Council, 1996). Signifi cantly, interest in such reform emerged virtually simultaneously around the globe, and its language is now part of the prominent rhetoric used by scientists, educators, and policy makers in many parts of the world. This reform focuses on four major goals which are by now quite familiar to science educators: science for all, teaching for understanding and application of science knowledge and processes, inclusion of a broader view of science in the curriculum, and “less is better.” These four broad goals provide an important guiding framework for the reform, because they are consistent with much of our current understanding of teaching and learning, and of the societal needs science can serve. However, this reform effort represents unfi nished business for the science education community. Despite the seeming effi cacy of the goals and claims that underlie current reform, there has been little formal, scholarly effort on the part of the science education community to ground the reform carefully in research. Moreover, there has been little public discussion about the effi cacy of programs that are widely implemented in school and college classrooms and in other educational settings. As a result current research and development is a patchwork of studies and projects lacking in depth, coherence, and long-range guidance. National and state policies do little to improve the situation.

Garnett. 1992. Testing, do not disturb?: A concerned parent’s view of testing. Arithmetic Teacher 39.6:8-10. Would-be-constructivist teachers, like the ones who populate our children’s school, as well as many preservice and inservice educators nationwide, seem to have learned all too well that culture-rich, project-based learning; cooperative-group explorations; and individual- discovery learning are too risky to insure the required performance on the timed tests that come like taxes every spring. They seem also to have learned that allowing students to construct meaning through their own metaphoric play is not a good idea when “effi cient” algorithms must be taught and rote memorization of facts must be accomplished before April arrives. The process of schooling, for teachers, becomes getting students ready for the test and the next grade level. Creative teaching gives way to telling; after all, it’s April and testing time.

Garofalo and Mtetwa. 1990. Implementing the standards: Mathematics as reasoning. Arithmetic Teacher 37.5:16-18. Why is mathematics a regular part of standard elementary and middle school curricula? What do we believe, assume, or at least hope that students get out of the years of mathematics instruction that they are required to take? We often pose these basic questions to teachers at workshops, and after they get over their initial nervousness and uncertainty, most give one or both of the following responses: (1) mathematics is useful for people—as workers, as consumers, and as educated citizens; and (2) the study of mathematics helps people develop the ability to reason, and thus it helps them to become better problem solvers. These responses are not surprising, since both Dudley (1987) and Smith (1989) list them as two of the reasons traditionally given for the required study of mathematics. The fi rst justifi cation, namely the usefulness of mathematics, seems obvious, at least for most of the mathematics that students study in elementary and middle school, although it can be argued that it is not always taught in the best ways for it to be most useful. The second justifi cation, or more accurately the assumption, that the study of mathematics develops reasoning, is not so obvious. Although many people believe this proposition intuitively, it has been questioned by both Dudley and Smith, as well as many others, on the grounds that little or no scientifi c support can be cited for such a claim. This article will not present differing viewpoints on, and arguments about, this second justifi cation in general, but we think that if we intend to help students learn to reason in mathematical situations, then teaching mathematics as rote memorization and reproduction is certainly not the way to accomplish our goal. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics’ Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) is clearly more likely to take us toward teaching mathematics as reasoning. We believe that it makes little sense to point students in one direction when we want them to move in another.

Gaskell et al. 1998. Representing a gender equity project: Contrasting vision and versions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:859-876. This article provides three different accounts of a gender-equity project in a Grade 10 science class. The three stories, a realist one of victory over oppression, a realist story of inclusion, and a refl exive story of identity, illustrate different rhetorical forms for representing research and different assumptions about gender, pedagogy, equity, and the representation of data. Any version of a project can only be a partial account. As teachers and researchers, our commitments and investments infl uence our questions, understandings, and representations. The content and form of our stories imply particular relationships with an audience. Those responsible for policy tend to favor realist stories that reduce complexity and increase certainty. Others may be more interested in stories that portray complexity and highlight the need for judgments in particular contexts. No one form is appropriate for all occasions.

24 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Glatthorn. 1993. Outcome-based education: Reform and the curriculum process. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 8.4:354-363. Reports in educational journals and newspapers indicate growing interest in Outcome-Based Education (OBE), which is both a comprehensive reform strategy and a curriculum model. It therefore seems like an appropriate time to examine it thoroughly and objectively. This article seeks, therefore, to provide an objective critique of OBE as both a reform strategy and a curriculum process, based on my reading of the OBE literature and my work with several school systems in North Carolina interested in implementing the model.

Gunstone. 1999. Content knowledge, reflection and their intertwining: A response to the paper set. NEED JOURNAL NAME 393-396. Much more than 50 years ago H. L. Mencken wrote something to the effect that, while every complex problem had a simple solution, the simple solution was always wrong. It is not only the practice of teacher education for which this aphorism is appropriate. Much research on teacher education has, in effect, sought simple solutions and thus failed to recognize this dictum from Mencken. The embracing of much that is the complexity of teacher education in the set of papers from the Wisconsin group is then most welcome and, as is clear from a reading of this paper set, most revealing about aspects of the initial education of science teachers. While obvious, it is also important to point to this embracing of complexity lying at the heart of the motivation for the conduct of the research (see, among many examples, the introduction to the fi nal paper in the set). This is the greatest strength of the paper set, one which I hope is recognized and used by readers of the research.

Haber-Schaim. 1993. National Science Education Standards: An asset or a liability? The Physics Teacher 31.4:220. One of the advantages of the American educational system is the absence of a central authority. Neither the federal Department of Education nor most state Departments of Education are the equivalent of a Ministry of Education in other countries. As a result, innovation and change fl ourish here, but even minor changes are slow in coming elsewhere. To be sure, not every change has been for the better, but without the power of authority many of them did not last very long. (Does anybody remember Individualized Instruction?) In countries with central control of education, changes imposed from above are often not tested on a small scale before their implementation on a large scale. If the change is not for the better, it takes a long time to undo it.

Hammer. 1999. Physics for first-graders? Science Education 83:797-799. Some time ago there appeared in Kappan an article titled “Physics for First Graders,” which the author and Kappan felt was an inspiring example of elementary science education. In this essay, which Kappan declined, I criticize the article as naive and Kappan as irresponsible for having published it.

Hanrahan. 1999. Rethinking science literacy: Enhancing communication and participation in school science through affirmative dialogue journal writing. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.6:699-717. For many students the study of science can be very disaffi rming. This may lead to passivity in class and a lifelong disaffection with science, outcomes which defeat the long-term purpose of trying to achieve scientifi c literacy for all students. This article represents a new way of framing scientifi c literacy with a “science for all” goal, based on a nexus of psychological, sociological, and critical literacy theory. A science education researcher and a science teacher collaborated in trialing the use of affi rmational dialogue journal writing with early adolescents in a high school situated in a low socioeconomic status area. The intervention was found to be successful on a number of fronts. An approach that affi rms students’ experience can lead to a deeper approach to learning for adolescent science students.

Harding and Hare. 2000. Portraying science accurately in classrooms: Emphasizing open-mindedness rather than relativism. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.3:225-236. Constructivist science education typically presents a relativist image of scientifi c knowledge that is not shared by scientists. Truth and time are defi ned differently by scientists than by postmodern ob-servers of science; a theoretical defi nition of truth is often applied to scientifi c knowledge within science education, whereas a practical defi nition, supported by evidence, is used within science. Similarly, time is sometimes taken out of context within science education when scientifi c concepts that have developed slowly and are well accepted by scientists are treated as though they were tentative.

Harrison et al. 1999. Investigating a Grade 11 student’s evolving conceptions of heat and temperature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.1:55-87. Many students enter physics courses with highly intuitive conceptions of nonobservable phenomena such as heat and temperature. The conceptions of heat and temperature are usually poorly differentiated and heat is often confused with internal energy. This article focuses on one student’s cognitive and affective changes that occurred during the Grade 11 topic of heat and temperature. The instruction used an inquiry approach coupled with concept substitution strategies aimed at restructuring alternative conceptions identifi ed using pretests. A constructivist perspective drove both the teaching and research, and Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning augmented the interpretive framework. The qualitative data comprising transcripts of all classroom discussions, student portfolios containing all of each student’s written work, and teacher/researcher observations and refl ections were collected and interpreted to generate a case study for one student named Ken. Ken’s initial conceptual framework was undifferentiated with respect to heat and temperature. The course activities and concomitant use of concept substitution helped him differentiate these concepts and integrate them in a more scientifi cally acceptable way. A degree of affective and epistemological change was also identifi ed as the course progressed. In-depth examination of the student’s prior, formative, and fi nal conceptions showed that during this unit, the student progressively accepted greater responsibility for his learning, was willing to take cognitive risks, and became more critical and rigorous in both written and verbal problem solving.

25 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Hart, E. et al. 1990. Teaching discrete mathematics in grades 7-12. Mathematics Teacher 83.5:362-367. The NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Standards) (1989) explicitly recommends discrete mathematics for inclusion in the 9-12 curriculum, and many of the recommendations for the middle grades can be addressed by teaching discrete mathematics in grades 7 and 8. In this article we examine how discrete mathematics can be taught in grades 7-12. We shall fi rst briefl y discuss what is meant by discrete mathematics.

Hart, L. et al. 1992. Implementing the professional standards for teaching mathematics: The role of reflection in teaching. Arithmetic Teacher 40.1:40-42. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, as well as other groups, takes the position that many mathematics classrooms need to change. The vision for change is described and discussed in the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM 1989) and the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM 1991). But how does this process of change occur? How do we, as teachers, know if we are moving in the direction suggested? How do we get from where we are to where the standards documents suggest? Maybe we are already doing the right kinds of things and just don’t know it.

Harte and Glover. 1993. Estimation is mathematical thinking. Arithmetic Teacher 41.2:75-77. Estimation is a process: it involves comprehending the problem, relating it to information that is already known, judging and verifying reasonableness, and revising as necessary. Two major themes of the NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) are embedded in this process: (a) connections through linking mathematical ideas to the physical world and (b) communication through articulation of ideas.

Harvey, B. 1994. The 5 and 3 store. Arithmetic Teacher 41.7:364-366. This unit was introduced during the fi rst month of school when the fi fth-grade students in Room 5—3 at Mayview Elementary in Mayview, Missouri, were asked to start saving empty food containers. Students were told that a grocery store would be set up in the room to present a lesson in consumer mathematics. Each student would be given fake currency by the teacher to gain experience in shopping and learning to work with money. The store was made to look as realistic as possible.

Harvey, J. 1991. Teaching mathematics with technology: Using calculators in mathematics changes testing. Arithmetic Teacher 38.7:52-54. The examples of calculator-active items presented here will give teachers some ideas of how to generate questions of their own. As teachers discover ways of effectively integrating calculators into their own instruction, it should not be diffi cult for them to make up problems that will accurately assess their students’ learning and that will permit students to use calculators in the same ways as they have during instruction.

Hastings-Moore. 1970. On the foundations of mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. An Invitation. The pure mathematicians are invited to determine how mathematics is regarded by the world at large, including their colleges of other science departments and the students of elementary mathematics, and to ask themselves whether by modifi cation of method and attitude they may not win for it the very high position in general esteem and appreciative interest which it assuredly deserves.

Havens. 1989. Writing to enhance learning in general mathematics. Mathematics Teacher 82.7. Several years ago my school district adopted the “writing across the curriculum” idea. The administration hoped that incorporating writing in all areas would result in students’ improving their writing skills. As a mathematics teacher, I never required my students to write. However, in preceding years, as a result of teaching some low-ability science classes in which I included written assignments, I was aware that many students have problems communicating through writing. For this reason, I joined the group of teachers volunteering for the program. I decided to start with the students in a general mathematics class.

Hay. 1993. A collaboration in curriculum redesign. Momentum 24.3:39. Many small Catholic schools are unable to allocate funds for a curriculum specialist. In Louisville, Kentucky, Spalding University and presentation Academy have created a model that meets the need for a curriculum specialist and protects the school’s limited budget.

Heid. 1990. Implementing the standards: Uses of technology in prealgebra and Beginning algebra. Mathematics Teacher 83.3:194-198. An example drawn from the computer-intensive algebra curriculum illustrates how the Standards can be implemented in the context of a fundamentally reformulated computer-enriched course. The article concludes with a description of several ways that all teachers of prealgebra and beginning algebra can begin to implement the Standards in technologically enhanced classrooms.

Helms and Carlone. 1999. Science education and commonplaces of science. Science Education, 83:233-245. In this paper, we describe science as a set of “commonplaces,” similar to Schwab’s commonplaces of teaching, for framing the nature of science and science education (Schwab, J. J. [1978]. Science Curriculum, and Liberal Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Framed thoughtfully, these commonplaces have the potential to incorporate insights from a variety of perspectives. We propose four formulations of the commonplaces of science, based on distinct views of the nature of science, and explore the consequences of each. We argue that, although there are strengths to each formulation, some commonplaces prove more comprehensive than others in capturing the essence of science for the purposes of developing curriculum, educating science teachers, and conducting science education research.

26 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Hershberger and Frederick. 1995. Flower beds and landscape consultants: Making connections in middle school mathematics. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 1.5:364-367. Having students evaluate mathematical representations and their own thinking is a necessary component of any program designed to encourage higher-level thinking and mathematical reasoning. This version of the problem encourages such evaluation and is preferable to the earlier version for several other reasons. First, the students have a direct stake in the problem; they are the ones with the responsibility, not some mythical farmer. Second, the smaller number of possibilities makes it easy to use graph paper to draw all the possible fl ower gardens with whole number dimensions. This process helps introduce or reinforce geometric concepts and images in an applied setting. Third, the students are not told what criteria to use in their selection; they must instead reach agreement among themselves about how to evaluate the different possibilities. Fourth, the students must write up their recommendation in a coherent fashion, which establishes yet another context for creating meaning and forming connections.

Higgins. 1990. Calculators and common sense. Arithmetic Teacher 37.7:4-5. Because they are tangible, calculators will probably always be more newsworthy than abstract ideas, such as a mathematics core curriculum. Rather than wish that the calculator issue would go away, it is time to try to bring some common sense to the topic. Despite the publicity given to arguments about using calculators in the mathematics classroom, I believe that we are devoting time and energy to a nonissue. The real issue is not whether calculators should be used in mathematics classrooms; it is how calculators should be used in classrooms. We ignore this important distinction when, as a profession, we proclaim that the use of calculators should be required. Requiring the use of calculators by mathematics students is a dramatic attention-grabber, but I believe that it is a professional blunder. We need to focus on how the teacher guides students in the use of the calculator, and in some situations we should require that unimaginative mathematics teachers not use calculators.

Hill. 1993. Math reform: No technology, no chance. Electronic Learning 12.7:24-27, 30-32. What frustrates many math reform advocates is their belief that implementing new math standards without the pervasive use of technology is like setting sail without a compass. “The NCTM Standards are great,” says Schwartz “They’re like motherhood and apple pie—it’s wonderful. Now, how do you do it?”

Hind et al. 1997. Preservice elementary school teachers’ conceptual change about projectile motion: Refutation text, demonstration, affective factors, and relevance. Science Education 81:1-27. This study investigates changes in preservice teachers’ conceptions about projectile motion brought about by a combination of reading and demonstration and an appeal to usefulness. Participants were either told in advance they were expected to teach a videotaped lesson on projectile motion or that information was withheld. In addition, teachers either participated in a combined demonstration–text or in a text-only group. We randomly assigned 73 preservice teachers with nonscientifi c conceptions to one of four groups comprised of the two levels of the two conditions (Told/Not Told, Demo–Text/Text only) and documented conceptual change through short-answer, true/false, and application tasks. Additional data were obtained from an interview questionnaire to determine the infl uence of preservice teachers’ attitudes and experiences on conceptual change. Furthermore, the videotapes and transcriptions of 16 videotaped lessons and postlesson, structured interviews were analyzed to provide information about the interaction of variables producing change and to track the changes in thinking that were made. The results indicated the effectiveness of a combined Demo–Text condition on immediate posttests and effectiveness of text in producing long-term change. Descriptive and qualitative analyses indicated an interaction of instructional, motivational, and knowledge factors; provided evidence that conceptual change proceeds in a piecemeal fashion; and documented that restructuring of knowledge may lead to new nonscientifi c conceptions.

Hirsch. 1991. Implementing the standards: Trigonometry today. Mathematics Teacher 84.2:98-106. Trigonometry, either as a separate course or as part of an advanced algebra-and-precalculus course, has traditionally been an integral part of college-preparatory mathematics. As college programs evolve to encompass the full range of the mathematical sciences (Ralston and Young 1983, Ralston 1985, National Research Council 1989), preparation for college can no longer be synonymous with preparation for calculus—or at least calculus as it is often taught with the emphasis on recipes and procedural skills. This realization opens the question of the place and nature of trigonometry in contemporary high school mathematics.

Hitch. 1990. How can I get others to implement the standards? I’m just a teacher! Arithmetic Teacher 37.9:2-4. The vast majority of elementary school teachers are not aware of the Standards, and when these teachers are told about the changes recommended by the NCTM, they are very resistant to changing their behavior and the way they have taught mathematics to their students. These teachers administer timed tests for mastery of facts every day and pass out reams of worksheets to their students. However, this situation is not as hopeless as it sounds. Teachers can control some factors that can help maximize the chances that the Standards will be implemented. To do so, it helps to think of teachers interested in getting other teachers to implement the Standards as backpackers who look at a topographic map to fi nd their way across the rugged terrain. These pioneering teachers may encounter some mountain ridges that appear impassable, but they have a trail set out to achieve their objective—to help students learn more effectively and discover the fascination and joy of mathematical concepts.

Hoffman and Stage. 1993. Science for all: Getting it right for the 21st century. Educational Leadership 50.5:27-31. National standards in curriculum, teaching, and assessment—to be published in the fall of 1994—will translate the vision of “science for all” into concrete direction for achieving it.

27 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Hogan. 1999. Relating students’ personal frameworks for science learning to their cognition in collaborative contexts. Science Education 83:1-32. This study examines relationships between students’ motivational and epistemological perspectives—called their “personal frameworks” for science learning—and their cognitive engagement with peers during collaborative knowledge-building tasks in two science classrooms. Twelve eighth graders’ perspectives on self, learning, and knowledge were discerned through interviews, and their collaborative cognition was judged through analysis of their discussions during a 12-week unit on building models of the nature of matter. A number of analytic categories that depict students’ perspectives and high and low sociocognitive engagement patterns are described. The dimension of students’ personal frameworks that most closely mirrored their patterns of sociocognitive behaviors were their learning-referenced perspectives. One implication of this fi nding is that a more explicit metacognitive focus in science classrooms might help students develop fl exibility in adopting perspectives on learning that are most productive for their current learning tasks. An implication for research is that individual differences in perspectives should not be ignored as we widen our analytic lens to examine community knowledge building in science classrooms.

Hogan. 1999. Thinking aloud together: A test of an intervention to foster students’ collaborative scientific reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.10:1085-1109. This study addressed the question of how to increase students’ competencies for regulating their co-construction of knowledge when tackling complex collaborative learning tasks that are increasingly emphasized as a dimension of educational reform. An intervention stressing the metacognitive, regulatory, and strategic aspects of knowledge co-construction, called Thinking Aloud Together, was embedded within a 12-week science unit on building mental models of the nature of matter. Four classes of eighth graders received the intervention, and four served as control groups for quantitative analyses. In addition, the interactions of 24 students in eight focal groups were profi led qualitatively, and 12 of those students were interviewed twice. Students who received the intervention gained in metacognitive knowledge about collaborative reasoning and ability to articulate their collaborative reasoning processes in comparison to students in control classrooms, as hypothesized. However, the treatment and control students did not differ either in their abilities to apply their conceptual knowledge or in their online collaborative reasoning behaviors in ways that were attributable to the intervention. Thus, there was a gap between students’ metacognitive knowledge about collaborative cognition and their use of collaborative reasoning skills. Several reasons for this result are explored, as are patterns relating students’ outcomes to their perspectives on learning science.

Hogan. 2000. Exploring a process view of students’ knowledge about the nature of science. Science Education 84:51-70. The role that students’ knowledge about the nature of science plays in their daily learning of science in school is not well understood. To explore this topic, two categories are introduced that classify how students’ understanding of the nature of science has been operationalized. Distal knowledge of the nature of science is students ’declarative knowledge about professional science, including about the nature of scientifi c knowledge and scientists ’epistemological commitments. Proximal knowledge of the nature of science is students ’personal understandings, beliefs, and commitments regarding their own science learning and the scientifi c knowledge they— not scientists—produce and encounter. It is suggested that viewing these two kinds of knowledge structures within modern information processing frameworks that delineate roles of epistemological and metacognitive knowledge in learning can guide future research on students’ knowledge about the nature of science as a mediator, not just an outcome, of their science experiences in school.

Holt. 1993. The high school curriculum in the United States and the United Kingdom: Perspectives on reform and control. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 8.2:157-173. I shall argue here that in democracies, the curriculum is subject to confl icting forces that must ultimately be resolved into equilibrium or settlement, and that in considering the current resolution of these forces in the United States and the United Kingdom, three sources of confl ict are infl uential. These are the confl icts between liberty and equality, between bureaucracy and collegiality, and between accountability and trust.

Horwood. 1994. Integration and experience in the secondary curriculum. McGill Journal of Education 29:89-102. A naturalistic study of an integrated curriculum package in a secondary school shows that, from the students’ perspectives, integration does not happen because the subjects are combined together. Rather, analysis of the students’ statements, combined with other sources of information such as parent interviews, participant observation, and the teacher’s plan book, reveals four integrating factors which transcend the disciplines. The four factors which students experienced are complete process, authenticity, community, and responsibility. The critical presence of such factors leads to explication of two different ways of understanding curriculum integration. One way is to think of integration as combining the subjects together in close proximity of time and space. The other way is to think of integration as arising from general factors, such as those identifi ed which cut across all subjects.

House. 1988. Let the mathematics science connection break the mold in teacher preparation. Mathematics Teacher 87.4:289-293. A rich context in which to revisit important mathematical topics lies in the connections between mathematics and science. Ironically, although most teachers readily acknowledge that mathematics and science are closely related, my experience is that few actually invoke those connections in the classroom. Thus, the science context has several advantages in the teacher-education curriculum. First, it gives prospective teachers an opportunity to reconstruct knowledge of important topics of school mathematics from a fresh perspective. Second, it serves as a vehicle for introducing valid mathematical tasks that can themselves be used with future secondary school students. Third, the laboratory setting for the tasks stimulates discourse that models the communication that we expect teachers to engender in their own classrooms. Finally, the activities counter the mistaken assumption that mathematics must fi rst be studied and mastered in an abstract, symbolic form before it is “applied” to concrete problems.

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House. 1997. Integrating mathematics and science in the light of current reforms. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Throughout history, science and mathematics have long enjoyed a symbiotic relationship: mathematics provides the analytic tools and theoretical models upon which science depends while science brings forth interesting problems and applications that contribute to an understanding and appreciation of mathematics. Men like Kepler, Galileo, and Newton were not only great scientists, but they were outstanding mathematicians as well. Indeed, it can be argued (Karpinski 1929/1990) that they were great scientists precisely because they were able to discern the mathematical relationships underlying their observations. The interplay of science and mathematics is vividly represented in Kepler’s empirical laws and their later mathematical derivation from Newtonian theory, or in Newton’s taking “time out” to invent the calculus before he could proceed with his calculations of universal gravitation. The interaction is a two-way street. Kinney (1930/1990) observed that “although mathematics has developed, and is developing, within itself as a system of thought, its development has been, and is now, spurred on by the demands of the sciences. The sciences, in turn, owe their development, in large measure, to mathematical methods. Moreover, the more mathematics contributes to their development, the more do they become dependent upon it.” Rettaliata (1964) later added, “One of the most signifi cant facts of our technological age is that the frontiers of knowledge and the practical applications of knowledge lie at those points where various disciplines intersect with one another.” The intrinsic relationship between mathematics and science needs to be made explicit in our educational programs, or we shall fail to achieve our goals in either fi eld. Our challenge becomes one of shaping learning experiences that refl ect the spirit and value of science and mathematics and that respect the subject matter of both science and mathematics while at the same time building a common core of understanding that strengthens students’ knowledge, appreciation, and power to do science and mathematics.

Hughes. 2000. Marginalization of socioscientific material in science-technology-society science curricula: Some implications for gender inclusivity and curriculum reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.5:426-440. Science education reformers have argued that presenting science in the abstract is neither motivating nor inclusive of the majority of students. Science–technology–society (STS) curricula that give science an accessible social context have developed in response, but controversy surrounds the extent to which students should be introduced to socioscientifi c debate. Using material from a case study of Salters’ Advanced Chemistry in the United Kingdom, this article demonstrates how socioscientifi c material is marginalized through the structures and language of syllabus texts and through classroom practices. This means students are unlikely to engage with socioscientifi c aspects in their course. Socioscientifi c content is gendered through association with social concerns and epistemological uncertainty, and because gender is asymmetric, socioscience is devalued with respect to the masculinity of abstract science. Teachers fear that extensive coverage of socioscience devalues the curriculum, alienates traditional science students and jeopardizes their own status as gatekeepers of scientifi c knowledge. Thus, although STS curricula such as Salters’ offer potential for making science more accessible, the article concludes that greater awareness of, and challenges to, gender binaries could result in more effective STS curriculum reform.

Irwin. 2000. Historical case studies: Teaching the nature of science in context. Science Education 84:5-26. In this article I research the use of the historical perspective in the teaching and learning of science. I start from the premise that pupils’ understanding of the nature of science is as important as their understanding of current curriculum content. The fact that rigorous assessment of this aspect of science is diffi cult should not lead science educators to undervalue its importance. The research demonstrates that it is possible to assess qualitatively the effectiveness of historical material in achieving desirable attitudes while simultaneously measuring quantitatively the degree to which this approach infl uences understanding of the conventional science curriculum. The concept of the atom and the periodic pattern in the atoms of the elements is the subject of a series of historical episodes in which it is clear that human creativity and the power of the imagination lead the way to giant strides in scientifi c knowledge. By tracing the development of atomic theory from the Greeks to the present day I show that pupils can appreciate that the nature of science itself is in fl ux. The research involves two parallel groups of 14-year-olds of similar abilities and scientifi c background. The fi rst group studied a unit in which a substantial amount of historical material was incorporated. The second group studied a unit covering identical scientifi c content but without any reference to history. The results show that there is no difference in understanding of contemporary science content between the two groups despite my hope that the historical perspective would lead to a fi rmer grasp of concepts. However, it does allay the fears of those who suspect that the introduction of nonessential curriculum material could weaken pupils’ grasp of essentials. In regard to pupils understanding the nature of science I identify several advantages resulting from the historical approach. When pupils see the challenges within their historical context it counteracts the patronizing attitude that many pupils adopt toward past scientists, viewing them, as they do, from their superior vantage point in history. I found that an appreciation of the creative role played by the great scientists of the past was an antidote to the excessive realism and determinism typical of many pupils. Their image of the certainty of scientifi c knowledge is challenged but they see that the uncertainty of a scientifi c theory does not necessarily nullify its usefulness in making further progress possible. Finally, I make a case for the historical treatment of theory as a means of demonstrating to pupils that scientifi c knowledge can range from the highly speculative to the universally accepted and that a critical assessment of any scientifi c knowledge claim can be made accordingly.

Jackson-Barnes. 1993. Involve the community. Mathematics Teacher 86.6:442-448. Many high school mathematics students unrealistically believe that if they can just fi nish one more general mathematics course, they will never again have to face mathematics. They realize that they must know how to write checks and are quite eager to learn about managing a checking account. Other than this banking activity, they are quite sure that only engineers and mathematics teachers use mathematics on a daily basis. When asked about such items as taxes and insurance, the stock answer is, “Oh, I’ll just let my accountant take care of things like that!”

29 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Jacobs. 1993. Mathematics integration: A common-sense approach to curriculum development. Arithmetic Teacher 40.6:301-302. Eight years ago I interviewed Mike, a second grader, and asked him to defi ne “mathematics.” His response was that “math is something you do in the morning.” I have referred to his answer in my workshops and writing as evidence of the isolation of the different subject areas (Jacobs 1989). Children viewed mathematics as a time of day, a textbook, or a change in teacher’s attitude, given the predisposition of the teacher toward mathematics. But, eight years ago the NCTM curriculum and evaluation standards had not hit America’s schools (NCTM 1989). Because of the declarations made in that document, today’s students have a better chance of using mathematics through the course of their day. More students today view mathematics as a common, everyday activity. Through thoughtful integration of the curriculum, students use mathematics at home, the playground, the shopping mall, the corner market, and the baseball game. When mathematics is taught in their classes, it can be seen in a larger real-world context. Unlike Mike, today’s students are more likely to know why they study mathematics. Mathematics gives students learning power.

James and Spradling. 1994. Piloting a dream: An example of district-wide curriculum Reform. Middle School Journal 25.3:35-39. Once the decision is made to focus on interdisciplinary curriculum development-to truly reform the curriculum of the middle school, not just remodel it-the key question becomes “how” does a large, urban school district begin, model, and sustain such an effort. After spending two years of meeting and planning with community members, local university staff, district administrators, teachers, and parents, a state-of-the-art middle school conceptual model was drafted, approved and funded by the school board of Wichita, Kansas. The middle school implementation model, complete with interdisciplinary teams based on an academic core plan, both a team and separate personal planning period for all team teachers, an advisory program, intramurals and clubs, along with a host of other exemplary middle school programs, was implemented in the fall of 1989.

Jockusch and McLoughlin. 1990. Implementing the standards: Building key concepts for calculus in grades 7-12. Mathematics Teacher 83.7:532-540. In this article we discuss a spectrum of activities at various levels suitable for students from middle school through high school. These activities furnish concrete experiences with the concepts of rate of change and slope and approximating areas, the central themes of differential and integral calculus. The idea of a limit arises naturally in these two contexts, creating a setting for students to explore this concept at an informal level. We also discuss how for college intending students we use these informal experiences to build the foundation needed to understand the formal concept of the limit of a sequence.

Jones et al. 1998. Science teachers’ conceptual growth within Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.9:967-985. Within a sociocultural context, this study examined how science teachers’ knowledge of science and science pedagogy changed as a result of participating in a constructivist-based graduate science methods course. Fourteen elementary and middle school science teachers worked with an assigned partner for the duration of the course. Teachers with more than 5 years’ experience were paired with teachers who had 5 or fewer years’ experience. Results from pre- and postinstruction concept maps, journals, portfolios, and transcripts of discourse revealed that within the zone of proximal development, peers, teachers’ students, instructors, readings, and tools mediated the development of content and pedagogical knowledge.

Jones et al. 1999. Children’s concepts: Tools for transforming science teachers’ knowledge. Science Education 83:545-557. This study examined the roles that students’ science concepts play in promoting teachers’ professional growth. Two cohorts of teachers (N = 26 and 30) participated in the study as part of a constructivist-based graduate course on elementary and middle school science methods. A modifi ed learning cycle was used during course instruction as a framework for teachers to explore sound, light, and electricity. Data on teachers’ pedagogical and conceptual growth was obtained from pre- and postconcept maps, journal refl ections, and portfolios. Results of the concept map analysis showed that teachers’ maps became more integrated and cohesive as seen in the increase of crosslinks, hierarchies, and relationships drawn for each science topic. The journals and portfolios showed that students’ science knowledge served as discrepant events that evoked teachers’ dissatisfaction with their own content knowledge and motivated them to reconsider their pedagogical practices. Students’ concepts also served as change agents, resulting in changes in teachers’ views of their roles and instructional behaviors.

Jones et al. 2000. Gender differences in students’ experiences, interests, and attitudes towards science and scientists. Science Education 84:180-192. The purpose of this study was to examine sixth grade students’ attitudes and experiences related to science. The study involved 437 students who completed a survey designed to elicit students’ perceptions of science and scientists, out-of-school science experiences, science topics of interest, and characteristics of future jobs. Results showed that for this sample there continue to be signifi cant gender differences in science experiences, attitudes, and perceptions of science courses and careers. Males reported more extracurricular experiences with a variety of tools such as batteries, electric toys, fuses, microscopes, and pulleys. Females reported more experiences with bread-making, knitting, sewing, and planting seeds. More male than female students indicated they were interested in atomic bombs, atoms, cars, computers, x-rays, and technology, whereas more females reported interest in animal communication, rainbows, healthy eating, weather, and AIDS. In addition, when asked about future jobs, male and female students’ responses differed by gender. Males saw variables such as controlling other people, becoming famous, earning lots of money, and having a simple and easy job as important. Females, more than males, wanted to “help other people.” Students’ perceptions of science showed that signifi cantly more females than males reported that science was diffi cult to understand, whereas more males reported that science was destructive and dangerous, as well as more “suitable ”for boys.

30 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Jones et al. 2000. Exploring the development of conceptual ecologies: Communities of concepts related of convection and heat. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.2:139-159. In this study of fi fth-grade students, we examined the relationships and development of communities of concepts related to heat and convection. The study involved fi ve classes of fi fth-grade students who worked with a partner for a series of heat and convection laboratory investigations. Students’ knowledge was assessed before and after instruction through the use of a written test, concept maps, card sort tasks, and interviews. During instruction each dyad was audio recorded and observed by a fi eld researcher. The patterns and connections among students’ conceptual ecologies related to heat and convection as well as the types of schemas that were accessed preceding and subsequent to instruction are described. The types of knowledge elicited by each type of assessment are identifi ed. Findings include the infl uence of familial and cultural experiences (such as airplanes, weather patterns, and religious beliefs) on conceptual development, as well as the extent to which competing phenomena (evaporation and dissolving) have on the development of new conceptual understandings. The study also found that each assessment measure elicited different types of knowledge. Concept maps were effective in describing students’ existing schemas related to heat prior to instruction. Multidimensional scaling and the card- sorting task provided information on students’ conceptual organization for clusters of concepts. The interviews and dyad discourse transcripts were most effective in revealing the processes and prior knowledge that students used as they interpreted new observations in light of preexisting experiences.

Jur. 1991. The poetry of mathematics: Writing problems as poetry. PRIMUS 1.1:75-80. Story problems were the trivial pursuit games of the Middle Ages in India. Moreover, mathematics was written in verse. To help a group of Intermediate Algebra students understand mathematics in this historical perspective an extra credit assignment of writing word problem poems was made. The history and the results of the assignment are presented in the following.

Kamii and Joseph. 1988. Teaching place value and double column addition. Arithmetic Teacher 35.6:48-52. We have interviewed hundreds of children in grades 1-3, and their teachers are always incredulous when they fi nd out that the children said the 1 in 16 means one. We will describe our interview so that teachers will be able to test each other’s children in the same way. (We say “each other’s children” because children sometimes think about the answer the teacher expects when they are tested by the person who taught the same material.

Kamii et al. 1993. Primary arithmetic: Children inventing their own procedures. Arithmetic Teacher 41.4:200-203. In an article that appeared in the Arithmetic Teacher, Madell (1985) described fi ndings from a private school in New York City in which children were not taught any algorithms until the end of the third grade. Without algorithms, the children devised their own ways of solving computation problems. Madell’s observation of the children’s thinking led him to conclude that “children not only can but should create their own computational algorithms” (p. 20) and that “children can and should do their own thinking” (p. 22). The purpose of the present article is to reiterate Madell’s call for reform, with supporting evidence from a public school near Birmingham, Alabama.

Kass and McDonald. 1999. The learning contribution of student self-directed building activity in science. Science Education 83:449-471. The purpose of this study is to identify features of the knowledge-building processes that secondary science students spontaneously develop and consider useful in the context of personal and social action. Capabilities involved in building things (i.e., in creating physical artifacts that embody functional understanding in a novel and physically contextualized way) are an important source of learning and knowing. Our research focuses on questions of how students create meanings for themselves in complex and evolving building environments. Our interpretations are grounded in a perspective on cognition that is constructivist (i.e., students create their own meanings for their experiences) and enactivist (i.e., person and environment are mutually specifi ed). Problem settings that allow for a high degree of student self-direction permit multiple viable paths of action-thought to be created that contribute to students’ understanding of their capabilities. Four examples of students engaged in self-directed building projects are presented in the form of interpretive vignettes to illustrate a progression of increasing scope and depth in the context of the building activity and student learning outcomes. We were present every day during the classroom building projects to help, videotape, and interview students. An out-of-school component was also studied in two of the projects. Our unit of analysis is person-acting- in-a-setting. The fi rst example focuses on Amy’s metacognitive awareness that thought and action in building have strategic properties. Ronnie and Willie discover a pathway to success through individual and social (classroom) action. Ian develops skill in managing a complex set of social factors in a project with a large out-of-school social context. Dan refl ects on the development of his learning in a sequence of self-directed building engagements over a period of 3 years. The enactivist ideas of enaction, coemergence, mutual specifi cation, and adequate conduct are used to describe and interpret the four cases. Each case illustrates ways in which personally signifi cant meanings and personal competency emerge within the context of self-directed action-thought.

Keith. 1988. Explorative writing and learning mathematics. Mathematics Teacher 81.9:714-719. Short explorative writing assignments can transform the mathematics classroom into a dynamic and exciting learning laboratory. In explorative writing, students explore their knowledge about a topic by writing what they know about it in their own language. Then, to refi ne their ideas further, they share reactions with other students and the teacher. In spite of the signifi cant benefi ts of using such writing assignments, the teacher may feel uncomfortable with the more interactive environment, with the challenge of designing writing assignments, and with fi guring out what to do with the results. This article illustrates how explorative writing assignments can help to expose and identify learning problems and offers some assignments that address these problems. This article briefl y mentions some techniques that I have found helpful for working with the results and comments on the benefi ts of working with these assignments.

31 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Kenney and Bezuska. 1993. Implementing the discrete mathematics standards: Focusing on recursion. Mathematics Teacher 86.8:676-680. Many topics and themes from discrete mathematics are deserving of a closer look to determine how they can be woven into current secondary school mathematics curricula. One of these themes is recursion. The process of recursion is a powerful tool and has applications throughout mathematics. Recursion is closely connected to another important secondary-level topic, mathematical induction.

King. 1994. Providing advice and support for the technology curriculum. The Technology Teacher 53.5:23-26. This article gives an insight into the structure and nature of the Northern Ireland Curriculum the new subject of “Technology and Design,” and the nature and scope of advice and support provided by the South Eastern Education and Library Board, in the curriculum area of technology, for the 233 schools and colleges, and 64,000 pupils in its area.

Kissam. 1991. Native American Culture Across the Mathematics and Science Curriculum: Multidisciplinary Units of Inclusion. Project Future, Potsdam College of the State University of New York. This miniunit is designed to explore Native American health concerns due to environmental issues. It will provide information to students that can be discussed in health, science, or even sociology classes. It includes reference to math skills and examples from the Mohawk culture specifi cally, although basic research will make it adaptable to any Native American culture.

Kleinman. 1998. Overview of feminist perspectives on the ideology of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:837-844. As a body of feminist scholarship from the past 2 decades has persuasively shown, we can interpret science as being gendered as a masculine domain in many ways. The purpose of this essay is to show that, using historical and contemporary examples, many of these feminist analyses fi t together into a compelling perspective on the ideology of science. The essay addresses how ideology affects who pursues careers in science. The implications of the gendering of science for science practice are also discussed.

Konold. 1994. Teaching probability through modeling real problems. Mathematics Teacher 87.4:232-235. In an attempt to reduce the growth of its population, China has instituted a policy that limits a family to one child. This policy has been particularly unpopular among rural Chinese, who have suggested revising the policy to limit families to one son. Suppose you were among those in the government considering the implications of adopting this proposal.

Korithoski and Korithoski. 1993. Mean or meaningless? Arithmetic Teacher 41.4:194-197. Many students are able to calculate the mean of a string of numbers by using a traditional algorithm. This article explores some learning activities that helped intermediate-grade students develop an understanding of the concept of arithmetic mean, or average. The authors share some experiences that took place when a group of fi fth graders from McAuliffe Elementary School in Green Bay, Wisconsin, accepted the challenge to learn about the arithmetic mean in a different way. Efforts were also made to explore both the role of the teacher and the role of the students in classroom discourse as the students worked on the problems posed.

Kroll et al. 1992. Cooperative problem solving: But what about grading? Arithmetic Teacher 39.6:17-23. Do your students use cooperative-group work when they are involved in mathematical investigations and problem solving? If you answered yes, you are in good company. More and more teachers these days are fi nding that working together helps students become better problem solvers. Do you also grade some of your students’ cooperative-problem-solving efforts? If you answered no, you are not atypical. Using cooperative groups for classwork is a lot easier than assigning grades for that work, but it can be done--and we think you’ll be pleasantly surprised at the results!

Kyle. 1998. Viewing science in a different light: Making meaning of the science education goal “science for all”. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:835-836. I believe you will fi nd this issue of the Journal to be both intellectually stimulating and thought provoking. Each article focuses upon feminist scholarship, issues of gender, and/or gender equity. The authors challenge the historical, sociocultural, and political ideologies of science and the associated implications in the context of science education. The authors urge science educators to begin to view science in a different light so that we might come closer to our ideal of “science for all.”

Kyle. 1999. Untracking science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.10:1065-1067. Policymakers and educators associated with the process of schooling use testing and tracking to determine who has access to education and who has access to training. While the focus of this editorial is upon testing and tracking, I believe it is important to clarify the purposes of schooling, education, and training before proceeding further. Schooling is primarily a mode of social control. Education has the potential to transform society, with the learner functioning as an active subject committed to self and social empowerment. Training refers to a type of functional literacy in which students learn to read, write, and acquire skills for specialized employment, with the learner typically being subjected to a classroom where transmission, standardization, and control are the defi ning principles of the curriculum. Present-day variations on the corporate-inspired reform movement referred to as “school-to-work” epitomize the values of training and the desire to reduce the curriculum to little more than job preparation. Educators ought to be concerned about the dual threat of such corporate-inspired reforms: the shifting of the cost to train employees to the public schools and the loss of control of the educational system to corporate intervention, commercialization, and consumerism/consumption.

32 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Lambdin. 1993. The NCTM’s 1989 Evaluation Standards: Recycled Ideas Whose Time Has Come. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Yearbook. 7-16. When the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) published its Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics in 1989, many readers may have felt that its recommendations seemed novel. For example, the Standards recommended assessing domains that seemed unfamiliar to many teachers: “disposition toward mathematics” (p. 205), ability to “translate from one mode of representation to another” (p. 223), and ability to “express mathematical ideas by speaking, writing, demonstrating, and depicting them visually” (p. 214). Also, many of the recommended assessment methods were different from those routinely used in mathematics classrooms of the 1980s: for example, having students write essays about their understanding of mathematical ideas, and using classroom observations and individual student interviews as methods of assessment. Although some of the standards may have seemed innovative, their authors never claimed that they were a new revelation. In fact, the Standards document is a compilation of recommendations, many of which have been discussed for decades but all of which seem especially appropriate, in recycled form, for today’s classrooms and for those of the foreseeable future.

Lang. 1997. Connecting mathematics and science to real life: The role of mathematics and science in school-to-work transitions. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. There has been much written about the problems of today’s education, but more remains to be written, particularly about the school-to- work reform movement, one of the latest attempts at restructuring the school’s role. Let’s take a look at why people feel it is necessary.

Lapp and Flood. 1994. Integrating the curriculum: First steps (issues and trends). The Reading Teacher 47.5:416-419. Have you ever observed an integrated curriculum classroom and wondered how to do something similar with your students? Let’s look at Ms. Curiel’s classroom, which has been transformed into an Asian museum, and think about the “how to” of developing such a curriculum. An integrated curriculum approach is being used within this classroom to help students from a variety of ethnic backgrounds learn more about their personal and cultural histories.

Lappan. 1993. What do we have and where do we go from here? Arithmetic Teacher 40.9:524-526. The vision articulated in the two standards documents promotes several interrelated components of a powerful mathematics education for students, including ( 1 ) students actively “doing mathematics”; (2) mathematics as thinking and sense-making; (3) powerful, but changing, mathematical content; and (4) a belief that all students can learn and appreciate mathematics. The implications of this vision of mathematics and mathematics learning for teacher education and professional development are major. We are talking about the need to begin at ground level and build a teacher-support system that can help teachers in changing their beliefs and their practice to support more powerful mathematics and mathematical thinking for students. Bruner (1992, 6) describes the need for reform:

Larter and Donnelley. 1993. Toronto’s benchmark program. Educational Leadership 50.2:59-62. For more than 30 years, the City of Toronto chose not to evaluate its elementary student population against any internal or external standards. Teachers at Toronto’s more than 100 elementary schools assessed students according to their own preferred methods, including self-made tests, cumulative samples of students’ work, and teacher-student conferencing. For reporting to parents, they developed their own schemes- ranging in style from highly personalized anecdotal reports to numbers and computer-coded comments.

Laugksch. 2000. Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education 84:71-94. In this review of the published literature in English on the concept of scientifi c literacy, the net is cast wider than just the professional science education community, and the diverse works on scientifi c literacy are brought together in an interpretative synthesis of this literature. Scientifi c literacy is fi rst placed in an historical context, and a number of different factors that infl uence interpretations of this concept are discussed thereafter. These factors include the number of different interest groups that are concerned with scientifi c literacy, different conceptual defi nitions of the term, the relative or absolute nature of scientifi c literacy as a concept, different purposes for advocating scientifi c literacy, and different ways of measuring it. The overview yields a fuller understanding of the various factors that contribute to the concept of scientifi c literacy, and makes clear the relationships between these factors.

Leach. 1992. An alternative form of evaluation that complies with NCTM’s standards. Mathematics Teacher 85.8:628-632. During my problem-solving scored discussions, a group of three to six students were seated in front of the class to discuss and solve a problem in a given period of time. I have found that for most middle school and high school classes, fi ve minutes is a suffi cient amount of time to develop a strategy for solving a problem. I scored the students on the discussion of the problem. Points were assigned according to strategies applied and communication skills exhibited, not on whether a solution was determined. Unlike in an oral presentation in which a student demonstrates the fi nal result of a When I fi rst tried a scored discussion, I was afraid the students would hate it. I was wrong. Those students in front of the class were trying their best, since they were working in front of their peers. The students in the audience listened intently. I learned more about how the students reasoned than I had by watching them in cooperative groups. Best of all, the approach took no more time than preparing, administering, and grading a short written quiz.

33 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Lederman. 1999. Teachers’ understanding of the nature of science and classroom practice: Factors that facilitate or impede the relationship. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.8:916-929. The purpose of this multiple case study was to investigate the relationship of teachers’ understanding of the nature of science and classroom practice and to delineate factors that facilitate or impede a relationship. Five high school biology teachers, ranging in experience from 2 to 15 years, comprised the sample for this investigation. During one full academic year, multiple data sources were collected and included classroom observations, open-ended questionnaires, semistructured and structured interviews, and instructional plans and materials. In addition, students in each of the teachers’ classrooms were interviewed with respect to their understanding of the nature of science. Using analytical induction, multiple data sources were analyzed independently and together to triangulate data while constructing teacher profi les. The results indicated that teachers’ conceptions of science do not necessarily infl uence classroom practice. Of critical importance were teachers’ level of experience, intentions, and perceptions of students. The results have important implications for teacher education as well as the successful implementation of current reforms.

Leinwand. 1992. Sharing, supporting, risk taking: First steps to instructional reform. Mathematics Teacher 85.6:466-470. For many of us, the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM 1991) represents a much scarier and much more intimidating vision of school mathematics than its predecessor, the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM 1989). Accordingly, implementing the teaching standards will require different strategies from those being used or proposed to implement the curriculum standards.

Lester and Kroll. 1991. Evaluation: a new vision. Mathematics Teacher 84.4:276-284. A good evaluation program should not focus on specifi c, isolated skills. Evaluation is more than marking answers right and wrong. Instead, increased attention should be given to observing and questioning students, both to assess their understanding and to gain insight into their feelings and their beliefs about mathematics. Holistic scoring techniques are needed for better evaluation of students’ written problem solving efforts. Information should be collected through students’ responses to short answer questionnaires or through such written assignments as journal entries or brief essays. Before describing these and other techniques, we shall refl ect on the goals of evaluation.

Loewenberg-Ball and Schroeder. 1992. Improving teaching, not standardizing it. Mathematics Teacher 85.1:67-72. In March of 1991, NCTM published the Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Professional Teaching Standards), a companion to the earlier Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Curriculum and Evaluation Standards) (1989). Whereas the earlier document focuses on curriculum, the new document addresses teaching. It elaborates the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards’ vision of teaching, in which mathematical reasoning, problem solving, communication, and connections are central. It addresses such questions as: What are classrooms like in which students are able to encounter, develop, and use mathematical ideas and skills in the context of genuine problems and situations? What roles might a teacher play in helping students learn to use a variety of resources and tools, such as calculators and computers, and concrete and pictorial models? What is meant by engaging students in mathematical reasoning-making conjectures, presenting arguments, constructing proofs-at various grade levels? How can adequate mathematical skill be developed in concert with mathematical reasoning? The list of questions can be extended indefi nitely, for what we are trying to create is quite different from what we experienced when we were in school and even quite different from much of what we are doing now as teachers.

Long. 1997. Things to consider when implementing reforms in the mathematics classroom. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. There is a crisis afoot in our schools, greatly exacerbated by the fact that it is a crisis of long-standing. Put another way, it is a crisis that, much like a virulent virus, has resisted reform: the reality is that the great majority of precollege students are not learning important and useful mathematics. And however dismal the situation is in somewhat affl uent communities, it is manifestly more so in disadvantaged urban and rural areas. Let’s look together at the situation that has made it more important than ever to fi nd ways to ensure that all students learn powerful, contextually-rich, standards-based mathematics from kindergarten through twelfth grade—mathematics that will serve them well in their careers, at college and university, and as citizens.

Longbottom and Butler. 1998. Why teach science? Setting rational goals for science education. Science Education 83:473-492. In this article we develop a fundamental rationale for teaching science to all children. We justify the teaching of science by linking scientifi c ways of thinking with the advancement of democratic society. Rather than simply treating science education as a civics course, we take the strong view that science education should produce a population with the skills to critically analyze and change society. Science students must learn science, but they must also learn about science, they must develop a scientifi c view of the world, and they must adopt some of the creative and critical attributes of scientists. To achieve these outcomes, science educators must be clear about what view of science they refl ect and, in particular, they must reject both positivist and postmodernist elements. Science education must refl ect the way in which the theories and practice of science are constrained by the real world. In setting out a robust answer to the question of why teach science we provide three aims for science education. These aims can assist science educators to decide what and how they teach, and help us all to defend science education from antiscientifi c criticisms.

34 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Lorson et al. 1993. Integrating Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education: Resources and Guidelines. Curriculum Files. Much of science and mathematics education comes from textbooks and workbooks where the approach to teaching appears to be lecture and review. Also, teachers, it has long been recognized, tend to skimp on presenting newer concepts or topics that intimidate them or in which they lack adequate knowledge. For example, in many elementary classrooms mathematics and science are given small time frames usually near the end of the school day. It is diffi cult for the student to develop an appreciation for science or mathematics when the instructors themselves show little interest or motivation. Environmental topics may be the focal point for combining science and mathematics.

Luft et al. 1999. Learning to teach in a diverse setting: A case study of a multicultural science education enthusiast. Science Education 83:527-543. This study explores the student teaching experience of Jill, a multicultural science education enthusiast who taught in a school whose predominant culture was different from her own. The purpose of this study was to thematically describe Jill’s student teaching experience as a multicultural science education enthusiast and to examine how she negotiated the constraints she encountered. Three data sources were used to capture Jill’s student teaching experience: in-depth interviews that were conducted with her throughout the semester; observations that were made while she taught different classes; and her journal that described her teaching experiences and refl ections. Themes describing Jill’s experiences were developed, evaluated, and refi ned from various data sources to ensure their authenticity. A constant comparative analysis revealed that Jill experienced: (1) an unfamiliarity with her students and their life experiences; (2) a marginalization of herself as she tried to create new lessons for students in science; and (3) a desire for her science instruction to be more relevant to her students. Within each salient experience, Jill felt constrained. Some of the constraints she encountered were mediated, whereas others remained present throughout her student teaching experience. Jill’s experiences reveal the complexity of learning to teach in a school whose predominate culture is different from your own.

Lumpe et al. 2000. Assessing teachers’ beliefs about their science teaching context. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37.3:275-292. The primary purpose of this study was to develop and apply a method for assessing teachers’ context beliefs about their science teaching environment. Interviews with 130 purposefully selected teachers resulted in 28 categories of environmental factors and/or people who were perceived to infl uence science teaching. These categories were used to develop items for the Context Beliefs about Teaching Science instrument and provided evidence for content validity. Construct validity was partially confi rmed through factor analysis that resulted in 26 items and two subscales on the fi nal instrument. Using Ford’s Motivation Systems Theory and Bandura’s Theory of Collective Effi cacy, additional evidence for construct validity was found in the modest correlation of context beliefs with outcome expectancy beliefs and the low correlation with science teaching self-effi cacy beliefs. The instrument was tested using 262 teachers participating in long-term science professional development programs. These teachers possessed fairly positive context beliefs and, according to Ford’s theory, should be capable of effective functioning in the classroom. It was concluded that the assessment of context beliefs would complement current science teacher self-effi cacy measures, thereby allowing researchers to develop profi les of science teachers’ personal agency belief patterns. It could also be used to determine the factors that predict particular personal agency belief patterns, and assess teachers’ perceptions of the strengths and weaknesses of school science programs, and could be used in planning and monitoring professional development experiences for science teachers.

Macbeth. 2000. On a conceptual apparatus for conceptual change. Science Education, 84:228-264. The project of “conceptual change” has assumed a central place in science education, as both a research program and professional maxim. Conceptual change fl ags the transformation of students ’naive conceptualizations of science into the scientifi c understandings of their curriculum. This article organizes a reading of the literature that brings into view a collection of design specifi cations for a conceptual change apparatus. Moving from the conceptual to the practical, it then pursues an analysis of one such apparatus, in the particulars of a science education demonstration program produced by the Harvard–Smithsonian Private Universe Project.

Maher and Martino. 1992. Teachers building on students’ thinking. Arithmetic Teacher 39.7:32-37. Teaching mathematics from the perspective of developing in students “mathematical power” (NCTM 1989) requires the building of a new vision for learning that focuses on thinking and reasoning. This endeavor draws on many complex and interrelated domains of knowledge. The reasons some teachers are more successful than others in facilitating thoughtful mathematical learning environments are varied and intricate. Perhaps a look at classroom sessions in which students are thoughtfully engaged in doing mathematics might lend further insight into what it means to pay attention to the thinking of students as they are engaged in doing mathematics and what it means to build on students’ thinking.

Maher et al. 1992. Teachers paying attention to students’ thinking. Arithmetic Teacher 39.9:34-37. The Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics in its call for reform underscores the importance of teachers’ knowledge of how students build their mathematical ideas. In our own work we have come to stress the importance of teachers’ awareness of students’ thought processes (Davis 1984; Davis and Maher 1990; Maher, Davis, and Alston 1991; Maher and Davis 1990). Teachers’ knowledge of students’ thinking is an important guide in planning effective lessons.

35 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Manzanal et al. 1999. Relationship between ecology fieldwork and student attitudes towards environmental protection. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.4:431-453. This article is a summary of research carried out on Spanish secondary school students 14–16 years of age, with the intention of fi nding out what contributions fi eldwork makes toward the under-standing of concepts and principles of ecology, and also to ascertain the effects of fi eldwork on the defense of the studied ecosystem. Before further research was conducted, an exploratory study was carried out consisting of an initial diagnosis of the pupils’ ideas; fi eldwork materials were prepared and an ecology unit for the study of a freshwater ecosystem was designed, along with evaluation instruments. The experimental design was given shape thanks to work done with two groups of students on whom a more exhaustive study was performed. The independent variable consisted of a fi eld trip; the dependent variable was the learning of ecological concepts and their application to the assessment of an environmental problem. The study combined qualitative and quantitative research methods. A result of the research work was the conclusion that fi eldwork helps clarify ecological concepts and intervenes directly in the development of more favorable attitudes toward the defense of the ecosystem. Both components are seen when making valid judgments for the resolution of problems that negatively affect the ecosystem and for showing the way toward the type of actions and solutions which should be adopted.

Marion et al. 1999. Teaching for conceptual change in elementary and secondary science methods courses. Science Education 83:275-307. This article describes and analyzes two science methods courses at the elementary and secondary levels. The courses were components of a larger study of a science teacher education program whose goal was to graduate teachers who held conceptual change conceptions of teaching science and were disposed to put them into practice. The methods courses and their accompanying practicum experiences were analyzed in terms of how they dealt with four related ideas: (1) how students learn science; (2) how teachers teach science to students; (3) how prospective science teachers learn about the fi rst two ideas; and (4) how methods instructors teach prospective science teachers about the fi rst two ideas. Data were gathered by observing the methods courses, interviewing the course instructors, and observing prospective teachers teach in practicum settings. The study found that, within the constraints of a three-semester-credit course, each course considered the fi rst three ideas in signifi cant depth, but did so with different emphases on teaching for conceptual change. The elementary instructor modeled complete science lessons followed by pedagogical discussions; the secondary instructor provided extensive written materials and modeled components of conceptual change science lessons. Opportunities for prospective teachers to practice teaching for conceptual change were constrained by their practicum placements.

Martin and Zawojewski. 1993. An illustration from the middle school addendum to the standards. Arithmetic Teacher 41.4:220-223. Individuals’ decision strategies are not always rational. People make decisions that do not necessarily maximize their chances of making a “correct” choice. For example, a person interested in buying a car may research the repair records on hundreds of cars by reading such sources as Consumer Reports Buying Guide Issue (Lakeville, Conn.: Grey Castle Press, annual). Having decided on a particular model, that same person may easily be persuaded to drop his or her plan on the basis of the repair report of one trusted friend who recently purchased the same car. The tendency to ignore data based on a large sample in favor of a vivid report from a sample of one is widespread. An analysis of such behavior should be a part of students’ education in statistics.

Marzano. 1994. Lessons from the field about outcome-based performance assessments. Educational Leadership 51.4:44-50. Our studies of outcome-based performance tasks indicate that they have defi nite promise. Teachers view them as valuable assessment tools, superior in many cases to more traditional forms of classroom assessments. For the types of profi ciencies commonly identifi ed by schools, districts, and states involved in outcome-based education, they might be the most viable means of collecting assessment data. For a few profi ciencies, holistic, retrospective judgments may be effectively used. These positive fi ndings, however, must be interpreted with caution. Given their complexity, outcome-based performance tasks probably cannot be used very frequently by classroom teachers; thus, they will probably not totally replace more traditional assessments. Finally, much research is needed to determine the validity of outcome-based performance tasks and the conditions under which high inter rater reliabilities can be guaranteed.

Matras. 1991. Technology in the classroom: Beginnings and endings. Mathematics Teacher 84.2:86-87. For many tasks in mathematics, the pencil is still the most effi cient tool. When a student can use a pencil to do a calculation faster than, and as well as, he or she can do it with a computer or calculator, then the tool for the job should be the pencil. However, when a calculation can be done more quickly or more effectively with a computer or calculator, then it should be done with one of those tools. The challenge now facing us is to make those decisions concerning when the tool of choice should be the pencil or when it should be the calculator or computer.

Matthews. 1998. In defense of modest goals when teaching about the nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.2:161-174. This article mentions briefl y the long tradition of proposals for including historical and epistemological elements in science programs; it draws attention to some contemporary educational issues that hinge upon interpretations of the nature of science, especially constructivist proposals; it mentions the range of philosophical debate on the merits of constructivism; it examines one goal commonly advanced for teaching about the nature of science and suggests that this can amount to indoctrination; and, fi nally, it proposes a modest goal for such teaching.

36 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

McCarthy. 1993. Challenges to the public school curriculum: New targets and strategies. Phi Delta Kappan 75.1:58-60. Curriculum challenges are not a new phenomenon. However, recent efforts in this regard are particularly noteworthy, not only because of their increasing frequency, but also because of the shift in targets and the change in strategies used to infl uence the content of the public school curriculum.

McClintock. 1993. Pixy Stix segments and the midpoint connection. Mathematics Teacher 86.8:668-675. The NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) offers a vision of mathematically empowered students embarking on exciting fl ights of discovery. This vision challenges teachers to look for ways to incorporate problem solving, cooperative learning, mathematical connections, reasoning, communication skills, and proofs into lesson plans. The Pixy Stix activities described in this article are not quite as magical as Peter Pan and Tinkerbelle’s prescription of sprinkling pixie dust over children who want to fl y, but they do embody all the attributes mentioned above and may enable your high school geometry students to take off in some surprising directions.

McClure et al. 1999. Concept map assessments of classroom learning: Reliability, validity, and logistical probability. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.4:475-492. The psychometric characteristics and practicality of concept mapping as a technique for classroom assessment were evaluated. Subjects received 90 min of training in concept mapping techniques and were given a list of terms and asked to produce a concept map. The list of terms was from a course in which they were enrolled. The maps were scored by pairs of graduate students, each pair using one of six different scoring methods. The score reliability of the six scoring methods ranged from r 5 .23 to r 5 .76. The highest score reliability was found for the method based on the evaluation of separate propositions represented. Correlations of map scores with a measure of the concept maps’ similarity to a master map provided evidence supporting the validity of fi ve of the six scoring methods. The times required to provide training in concept mapping, produce concepts, and score concept maps were compatible with the adoption of concept mapping as classroom assessment technique.

McGinnis and Pearsall. 1999. Teaching elementary science methods to women: A male professor’s experience from two perspectives. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:919-949. This is an action research study using an N of one (a case study) from the theoretical stance of symbolic interaction. This study of one male science education professor’s experience teaching elementary science methods to females is told from two perspectives: the perspective of the professor and of a female coresearcher. In this study, the coresearchers present their perspectives of studying the gender difference between the male professor and his female elementary science method students and the attempts he makes to implement gender inclusive pedagogy. Discussion focuses on what each has learned through this study of examining the professor’s practice as he takes action to improve the teaching and learning in his science method classes predominately populated by women. A key implication from this study is the assertion that male science methods professors have a special obligation to break the cycle of inequity in science teaching and learning for females by taking action to foster a female-friendly classroom climate and to encourage females to become engaged in class conversations and activities. However, professors should be aware that both female and male elementary teachers socialized in a system privileging men may not value efforts, or may even actively resist efforts to promote gender- inclusive science education during science methods.

McGinnis and Simmons. 1999. Teachers’ perspectives of teaching science-technology-society in local cultures: A sociocultural analysis. Science Education 83:179-211. The teaching of science–technology–society (STS) topics to school-age children is generally advocated by the science education community as a critically needed infusion throughout the K–12 science education curriculum. In many instances, the STS initiative does not play a signifi cant role in the science teaching of practicing teachers because they perceive many topics as controversial. In this context, we undertook an exploration using a sociocultural perspective to understand teachers’ perspectives on teaching STS topics. We employed the constructs of taboos (beliefs that constrain action by making those behaviors perceived as threatening by the members of the social group forbidden and improper for discussion) and noas (instructional topics that teachers generally perceived as not forbidden and as proper topics for discussion in local cultures) to investigate the perceptions of science teachers about controversial topics and curriculum infusion. Interpretative research strategies were used to describe and interpret fi ve teachers’ classroom practices of STS after an extended STS in-service experience. Two principal assertions relate the teachers’ perspective on job security to their STS curricular decisions and the teachers’ perceptions as outsiders to increasing conformity to the school’s local culture and decreased teaching of controversial issues. A key implication for teacher education is that more attention should be placed on consideration of the impact of practitioners’ beliefs concerning their local school cultures on their STS teaching practices.

McGoey and Ross. 1999. Research, practice, and teacher internship. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.2:117-120. In the February 1996 JRST editorial, Pekarek, Krockover, and Shepardson despaired over the lack of teachers’ application of research in informing their day-to-day practice. We agree that such a theory–practice (or research–practice) gap by science teachers deserves their concern. We would like the research community to know that some practitioners are listening. Researchers calling for greater participation in action research: please keep calling. You are being heard. Do not, however, look to the status quo to implement your cutting edge ideas. For those researchers out on your edge of theory, here is a response from some practitioners who are out on our edge of classroom teaching.

37 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

McIntosh. 1991. No time for writing in your class? Mathematics Teacher 84.6:423-433. Instead of burdening mathematics teachers with the idea that they need to teach writing in addition to mathematics, I intend in this article to give mathematics teachers the hope that they can use a writing-to-learn approach as another teaching technique (Davison and Pearce 1988; Evans 1984; Johnson 1983; Watson 1980). Using a writing-to-learn approach in the mathematics classroom does not mean changing course content but rather incorporating writing strategies into existing courses (Gere 1985). I intend to show that writing to learn in the mathematics classroom is a means for teachers to help students learn and to assess whether their students are learning what they are trying to teach.

McKernan. 1993. Some limitations of outcome-based education. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 8.4:343-353. This article contends that OBE serves as a limited model for curriculum and that its greatest successes may lie in designing training and instruction. However, it is not compatible with a liberal notion of education as induction into knowledge, particularly in such disciplines as the arts and humanities, and the “forms of knowledge” (for example art, science, mathematics, history, literature, poetry, and music) that illuminate other areas of life and culture. These activities can be distinctly separated from games, exercises, and subjects that have neither a broad cognitive domain nor complex conceptual frameworks. Flying or building kites, for example, requires relatively little knowledge.

MEDC. 1990. Implementing the NCTM Standards for School Mathematics for the 21st Century: Final Report. Mathematics Education Development Center. The major component of the project described here was six keynote workshops by nationally known experts in elementary mathematics education. Follow-up was provided only for those participants involved in a concurrent inservice project. A surprising fi nding of this project was that even without follow-up, most participants felt the workshops were infl uential in getting them to improve their teaching. While reasons for this are not completely clear, three factors appear to be keys. First, those who changed most were all open to change before the workshops began. Second, the workshop speakers were dynamic, motivating individuals who were able to get teachers excited about change. Third, those who changed had peer and administrative support for improved teaching.

Meier. 1992. Evaluating problem-solving processes. Mathematics Teacher 85.8:664-666. During the years since NCTM fi rst published An Agenda for Action (1980), our school district has incorporated more problem-solving instruction into mathematics classes. Although we have administered monthly problem-solving tests since the early 1980s, the emphasis of scoring has been strictly on the answer. Meanwhile, instruction regarding problem-solving began to emphasize techniques and strategies. In short, instruction focused on process, but assessment still focused on the end product. My own research showed that this situation was not unique. When studying problem-solving instruction, I found that teachers who used cooperative-learning groups in problem-solving instruction often did not evaluate the problem-solving process in a formal manner. This lack formal evaluation happened most frequently when teachers viewed this type of activity as for extra credit or enrichment. When teachers treated small- group problem-solving activities as a regular portion of the mathematics class, they were more likely to assess the results (Meier 1989). Even so, the focus of the instruction was process and the focus of the assessment was often results.

Meyer et al. 1999. Relationships between prospective elementary teachers’ classroom practice and their conceptions of biology and of teaching science. Science Education 83:323-346. This article describes the journeys—in the form of case studies—that three individuals took as they prepared to become elementary teachers of science. These prospective teachers were in a science teacher education program whose goal was to graduate teachers who held conceptual change beliefs of teaching science and were disposed to put them into practice. It describes these prospective teachers’ conceptions of teaching science and selected portions of their knowledge base in life science, and explores how these conceptions, along with their teaching actions, developed during the course of the program. There are several conclusions. First, all three individuals started the program with views of learning in which the learners’ role was to be receptive to the knowledge presented from other sources. There were considerable differences between the three individuals with respect to their initial perspectives on the nature of knowledge and of science. Second, there were changes in these prospective teachers’ content knowledge, largely with respect to the quality, rather than the quantity, of what they knew. Third, all three prospective elementary teachers made progress in the direction of the goals of the program, although in different ways that were dependent on their own conceptions of knowledge, science, and learning. Fourth, all three individuals came to accept that students’ views were important, but interpreted the signifi cance of these views in different ways. Finally, there was evidence of unevenness in the relative development of their thoughts about teaching science and their actions in teaching science. This meant that there were some aspects of teaching for conceptual change that they adopted more readily than others. Focusing on students’ ideas was seen as important for tracking their progress and increasing their motivation, but not as a basis for understanding their meaning-making.

Miller. 1991. Writing to learn mathematics. Mathematics Teacher 84.7:516-521. The use of writing in mathematics is receiving increased attention as an instructional tool for teachers and as a learning aid for students. Johnson (1983) suggests that if students can write clearly about mathematics concepts, then they probably understand them. Writing about how they approach problems makes students’ thinking clearer and sharper (McMillen 1986). Writing has also proved to be an effective and practical tool for teaching mathematics problem solving (Bell and Bell 1985). In fact, several teachers and mathematics educators agree with Bell and Bell in suggesting that writing should become a part of the daily routine of every mathematics classroom, with the writing tasks carefully designed to reinforce the mathematics concept or skill being taught.

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Milne. 1999. “Only some facts matter for my given pattern”: The facts of stories in scholl science. A response to Whitaker. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.10:1155-1157. In preparing to respond to Whitaker’s comments I fi nd that in many ways I am in agreement with much of what he has to say. However, I think our notions of the relationship between science, facts, and stories might be at odds. It seems to me that one of Whitaker’s major concerns is whether all the events or statements presented in the stories that I used to illustrate my argument were facts. I feel a little sorry for Murphy and Smoot (1982) because my selection of their story to illustrate my argument was based purely on convenience. Although I might have thought that some of the events they used were of questionable provenance, my interest in the story from Murphy and Smoot was in the big picture of science that this story promoted. I do not think that I ever argued that the science stories that I presented or examined (Milne, 1998) were myths; rather, that they sometimes promoted a notion of science that I would describe as mythical. Nor do I see the notion of stories in science as pejorative. Instead, it is recognition that in the process of selection of events for the telling, stories are presented that support a particular notion of science. The focus of my argument is that an author’s values and meanings can be inferred from the selection of events for the telling and in the rhetoric used to present those events. My interest was in the implications of these meanings and values for the teaching and learning that take place in school science.

Mistler-Jackson and Songer. 2000. Student motivation and internet technology: Are students empowered to learn science? Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37.5:459-479. The Kids as Global Scientists (KGS) project engages students in the study of atmospheric science through the use of current imagery and on-line communication in a reform-minded, inquiry-based curricular program. This article presents case study data on one sixth- grade classroom of KGS participants during the 8-week program. Six students representing three motivation levels were selected for intensive study to help illustrate how different students view learning science and the use of technology both before and after a technology-rich program. Preassessment and postassessment scores were analyzed for the entire class, and the six students’ comments from individual interviews served as one example of voices for each motivation group. Results indicated that students made signifi cant gains in weather content knowledge as measured by written assessments, and interviews revealed a high level of student motivation and satisfaction with the project. We conclude with a discussion of the program characteristics we believe are important for creating a learning environment that fosters the motivation and achievement we observed.

Monson and Monson. 1993. Who creates curriculum? New roles for teachers. Educational Leadership 51.2:19-21. Despite a growing body of literature that suggests that classroom teachers “will require substantial autonomy to make appropriate instructional decisions” (Smylie and Conyers 1991), new roles for teachers in curriculum development confl ict with traditional expectations. The perception of teaching as isolated work persists (Lortie 1975, Little 1990), while on the other hand, some scholars point to the “de-skilling of teachers” (Shannon 1989) and an acquired “habit of mindlessness” (Meier 1992) that have contributed to over reliance on instructional materials and an inability to make instructional decisions. In addition the political concern over educational quality, the increased pressure for accountability, and an emphasis on the need for national standards give teachers mixed messages regarding their level of authority and the extent of their autonomy.

Montgomery-Lindquist. 1989. The measurement standards. Arithmetic Teacher 37.2:23-26. In analyzing performance on measurement items on the fourth mathematics assessment of the NAEP (Lindquist and Kouba 1989), I was struck with how well our students did if the item involved a measurement of length smaller than a textbook page or if the item was exactly like simple textbook problems and how poorly they did otherwise. Students should not be expected to learn about capacity, about feet, about meters, about weight, about surface area, about volume only from exercises on a page. They need to explore attributes and use measuring instruments. They need to explore relationships among fi gures to determine effi cient ways to count the number of units rather than memorize formulas. They need to learn to make decisions about what is to be measured and how it will be measured. They need to experience being unable to measure an attribute with inappropriate units (e.g., measuring weight with units of capacity). That is, they need to use the measurement process.

Moon. 1993. Connecting learning and teaching through assessment. Arithmetic Teacher 41.1:13-15. Using assessment to make connections between learning and teaching requires both conceptual and refl ective involvement by classroom teachers, such as thinking about the big ideas that evolve into designing a lesson. The success of the project described in this article describes some of the benefi ts of the teacher-as-researcher role in making assessment a true part of mathematics teaching.

Mortimer and Machado. 2000. Anomalies and conflicts in classroom discourse. Science Education 84:429-444. In this study, a teaching episode is analyzed to determine how a confl ict is perceived as such and overcome by students as a result of the verbal interaction between the teacher and the students. The episode is part of a teaching sequence aimed at discussing the particulate nature of matter with students aged 15 –16 years. In the task that generated the episode, the students observed a glass of water with a piece of rock and a ice cube and represented, by particles, the constitution of these three materials. The students represented the particles of ice closer than the particles of water, ignoring the observation that the ice cube fl oated on the water. The episode consisted of a discussion between the teacher and a group of students and shows the laborious construction of the confl ict in the verbal interaction. The episode is analyzed by drawing from two different theoretical perspectives. The Piagetian theory of equilibration is used to describe the phases of compensatory construction in the students ’attempts to deal with the problem. Analysis of the verbal interaction that resulted in the confl ict’s compensation is based on the work of investigators such as Vygotsky, Bakhtin, and Wertsch, and allows us to redefi ne the Piagetian constructs. The main theoretical issue raised by the present analysis is the shift from a personal perspective to a social one, which is a consequence of changing from personal construction to verbal interaction as the unity of analysis.

39 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Mullis et al. 1991. The State of Mathematics Achievement: NAEP’s 1990 Assessment of the Nation and the Trial Assessment of the States. United States Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. THE NATION’S REPORT CARD, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), is the only nationally representative and continuing assessment of what America’s students know and can do in various subject areas. Since 1969, assessments have been conducted periodically in reading, mathematics, science, writing, history/geography, and other fi elds. By making objective information on student performance available to policymakers at the national, state, and local levels, NAEP is an integral part of our nation’s evaluation of the condition and progress of education.

Mullis et al. 1993. NAEP 1992 Mathematics Report Card for the Nation and the States. United States Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. NAEP’s 1992 mathematics assessment included nearly 250,000 fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students attending approximately 10,000 schools across the nation and the states. The assessment itself was forward-looking, comprising several hundred questions at each of the grades assessed. Consistent with standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, many questions required students to construct their responses and some questions asked for explanations of their reasoning. For various portions of the assessment, mathematical tools and aids were supplied, including scientifi c calculators, protractor/rulers, and geometric shapes. One portion was administered using a special audiotape to pace students through estimation questions.

Mumme and Weissglass. 1989. The role of the teacher in implementing the standards. Mathematics Teacher 82.10:522-526. NCTM’s Standards document sets forth a new vision for mathematics education. The changes envisioned will require teachers both to develop a deeper understanding of mathematics and to construct new understandings of the teaching and learning of mathematics. In the previous article in this series, a prototype was suggested for beginning to implement the Standards at the district level. For individual teachers to fulfi ll the goals of the Standards—improving the mathematical learning experiences for all students and enabling them to gain mathematical power-teachers must themselves be empowered. Empowerment implies that teachers cannot simply be handed a curriculum package and be told to “go teach.” Teachers will need to be empowered to make decisions not only about the curriculum but also about the nature of their own professional-development experiences.

Munby et al. 1998. The books. Science Education 82.6:699-718. A series of book reviews.

Munby et al. 2000. School science culture: A case study of barriers to developing professional knowledge. Science Education 84:193-211. A detailed case study of classroom observations and interviews with Bess, a grade 9 science teacher, is used to explore how school science constrains the development of Bess’s professional knowledge. The themes characterizing Bess ’s teaching, such as “science is fun and activity-oriented ”and “science is fact,” appear more related to the ethos of school science than to demonstrating to students something of the practice of science. This study argues that the version of experiment and inquiry seemingly prescribed by the institutional science of school is antithetical to the sort of exploratory inquiry she uses when planning and changing her own teaching. Accordingly, Bess’s authentic inquiries into her own teaching are quite different from the “scientifi c ”inquiries she has her students undertake. Building on earlier cases, the article concludes that the nature of school science infl uences how teachers assess their own teaching and sets boundaries to the social- scientifi c inquiries teachers make of their teaching.

Munby et al. 2000. Postmodernism versus science versus fundamentalism: An essay review. Science Education 84:113-117. A series of book reviews.

Nahrgang and Peterson. 1986. Using writing to learn mathematics. Mathematics Teacher 79.6:461-465. The purpose of this article is to show that writing can be used in mathematics to enhance learning. The act of writing gives students the opportunity to formulate, organize, internalize, and evaluate concepts. Emig, who has done extensive investigation of the thinking processes involved in writing, argues that writing “ represents a unique mode of learning—not merely valuable, not merely special, but unique” (Emig 1977). The idea that writing is a powerful aid to learning has also found much support in cognitive psychology. For example, Bruner (1966) states, “the more we know about the manner in which it [writing] can aid thought... [the more it] leads me to put language at the center of the stage in considering the nature of intellectual development.” Our experience indicates that the most effective method of using writing to help students learn mathematics is through the use of journals. These in-class writing exercises offer students the opportunity to work informally and personally on mathematical concepts, using their own language and real-world experiences. They can plan with a variety of concepts without the fear of the formal evaluation of their writing and their mathematical skills. Our experience in college-level classes, from algebra through calculus, makes us feel confi dent that these short but powerful writing exercises enhance learning. The journal goes beyond rote learning and challenges the students to use intellectual skills. Myers relates writing to individual learning: “ When doing this simple activity [writing], students will be forced to relate information from the lecture to what they already know and to organize and synthesize it so that the concept becomes their own “ (Myers 1984).

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Nakhleh and Samarapungavan. 1999. Elementary school children’s beliefs about matter. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.7:777-805. In this study, we investigated young children’s (ages 7–10) spontaneously constructed or naive understanding of the particulate nature of matter prior to any formal instruction in the domain. Fifteen students were interviewed concerning their understanding of the macroscopic and microscopic properties of the states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas), as well as their macro/microscopic understanding of phase changes and dissolving. Children expressed ideas about states of matter that were categorized as macrocontinuous, macroparticulate, or microparticulate. Nine children (60%) stated beliefs about matter that were macroparticulate in nature, and three (20%) expressed microparticulate beliefs about matter. The three remaining children (20%) held macrocontinuous beliefs about matter. Furthermore, a substantial number of the children provided explanations of properties and processes that were consistent with those beliefs. These children’s beliefs about matter were not fully and consistently developed across the spectrum of substances from continuous solids to particulate solids to liquids to gases. We speculate that children fi rst develop local frameworks particular to different classes of substances and then slowly expand these frameworks to include a wide range of substances and their properties, as well as such processes as melting and freezing.

NCTM. 1989. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. These standards are one facet of the mathematics education community’s response to the call for reform in the teaching and learning of mathematics. (1) They refl ect, and are an extension of, the community’s responses to those demands for change. (2) Inherent in this document is a consensus that all students need to learn more, and often different, mathematics and that instruction in mathematics must be signifi cantly revised.

Nelson and Frederick. 1994. Can children design curriculum? Educational Leadership 51.2:71-74. Lin Frederick, a 1st grade teacher at Robert Reid Laboratory School, [1] and I began to search for a framework with which to coordinate and validate potential instructional practices as well as align learning practices with the strengths and developmental levels of students. Frederick and I believed that if students helped create the curriculum, the classroom dialogue about this process would shed light on how to make learning experiences more cohesive and purposeful. [2] So, over the course of a school year, we created the Learning- Centered Curriculum-Making Project.

Nesbitt-Vacc. 1993. Teaching and learning mathematics through classroom discussion. Arithmetic Teacher 41.4:225-227. Mathematics educators enjoy the uniqueness of being part of the only school discipline that has a set of professional standards on what students need to know in mathematics (Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics [NCTM 1989]) and what teachers need to know to empower students mathematically (Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics [NCTM 1991]). Also unique is the endorsement within the curriculum standards document of “a [mathematics] curriculum and an environment… that are very different from much of current practice” (1991). As illustrated in the foregoing vignette, one strategy that can be benefi cial in helping students learn mathematics is involving them in an interesting classroom discussion (i.e., student-student and student-teacher verbal discourse).

Nesbitt-Vacc. 1994. Planning for instruction: Barriers to mathematics discussion. Arithmetic Teacher 41.6:339-341. If given an opportunity and encouragement, students can communicate mathematically. Developing this competence is important for two major reasons: when children verbalize their mathematical thinking, they are able to construct or reconstruct knowledge, and the teacher is able to assess their level of understanding more easily. These outcomes are further enhanced, however, when the individual verbalization is part of classroom discussion whereby students have an opportunity to exchange ideas and learn from each other rather than solely from the teacher.

NGA. 1994. Developing Systems of School to Work Transitions: A Report on State Progress. National Governors Association. With the passage of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 and the distribution of state planning grants, the federal government has embarked on an ambitious campaign to build on what states already have achieved in school reform and workforce development. The act presents a signifi cant challenge to the nation’s secondary and postsecondary education systems. In most instances, implementation of the reforms necessary to realize the goals of the act will take several years and will require a major shift in how Americans regard high school education. Meeting this challenge will require the ongoing support of parents, students, teachers, employers, and union leaders, as well as the collaboration of countless public and private entities at both the state and local levels. Developing a truly comprehensive and integrated system and sustaining it after the federal school-to-work grants are completed will require the creative, coordinated, and effi cient use of federal, state, and local resources.

Nicol and Roempler. 1997. Using ENC materials to connect mathematics and science in the classroom. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. So you want to connect math and science resources in your classroom and don’t know where to start, what materials are available, or how to use them? The following vignettes tell the stories of teachers that are using the resources of Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education (ENC) to do just that—a group of elementary teachers visiting the ENC site in Columbus, Ohio, and looking at actual materials; a middle school teacher helping her district develop a new science course of study; and a high school teacher who was given money to buy integrated math and science resources. As you read their stories, you will learn more about the resources ENC makes available to teachers and how to use them.

41 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Noble and Mullen. 1992. The ACT assessment in the 1990s. Mathematics Teacher 85.1:22-25. American College Testing (ACT) was founded over thirty years ago by E.F. Lindquist, who believed that a college-entrance test should measure as directly as possible examinees’ ability to do the kinds of tasks required in college and beyond. In the instance of mathematics, Lindquist believed that the test should focus on the outcomes of secondary mathematics education that are necessary for successful performance in college courses; it should be a test of achievement (acquired or developed abilities) and should consist of tasks that correspond to recognized high school learning experiences. This test should be designed so that examinees must use their acquired skills and knowledge to complete complex, heterogeneous tasks successfully.

Norwood and Costen. 1993. Ideas. Arithmetic Teacher 40.8:454-462. When students are presented with colorful candies, a common reaction is for them to pick out their favorite colors. This tendency is explored in this activity, which focuses on organizing and displaying data, as well as exploring concepts of chance, by using a “manipulative” familiar to many students, SKITTLES® bite size candies.

O’Daffer. 1993. It’s time to use our OOB detectors! Arithmetic Teacher 40.7:376-377. As with many reforms, it is easy for us to lose perspective, jump on a bandwagon, and throw the original intent of the reform out of balance. We could invent a new word, OOB, (which is short for out of balance to describe this situation). It is easy to come up with OOBs from the past. In the modern mathematics era, an OOB could be the heavy focus on mathematical structure. In the seventies, the overemphasis on drill and practice was an obvious OOB. We need to take a careful look at what we are doing. What are our possible OOBs today? What can we do to control OOBs and maintain balance in curricular reform?

O’Neil. 1995. On lasting school reform: A conversation with Ted Sizer. Educational Leadership 54.5:4-9. Previous reforms amounted to fi ne-tuning a Model T, says Ted Sizer. Lasting reform requires creating a climate for local educators and community members to craft their own improvement strategies.

Ost and Yager. 1993. Biology, STS, and the next steps in program design and curriculum development. The American Biology Teacher 55.5:282-287. In all science programs that have been identifi ed as “exemplary” in the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) Search for Excellence program there was an overt effort by science teachers to help students develop into scientifi cally literate citizens. (i.e. persons who have the skills of critical thinking, who can make reasoned judgments and who understand that the society of the future will be increasingly technological in function and driven by science.) Perhaps this is not unexpected since the Project Synthesis goal clusters were accepted by NSTA as appropriate when criteria were developed for its Search for Excellence effort. In all, 30 biology programs were selected in the various searches conducted during the 1982-89 interval.

Palmer. 1999. Exploring the link between students’ scientific and nonscientific conceptions. Science Education 82:639-653. In recent years, a large amount of research has focused on alternative conceptions, but some studies have shown that students may also have scientifi cally acceptable understandings in the same content area. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether these two types of understandings are linked, and if so, how. Individual interviews were carried out with 63 11–12-year-old students and 44 15–16-year-old students. The interviews were designed to identify students’ conceptions of biological role (i.e., every living thing has a role to play in nature) as applied to a range of different types of living things. A signifi cant proportion of students had both an alternative conception and a scientifi cally acceptable conception. Their explanations indicated that they were using an “if ...then” type of reasoning which linked the two conceptions

Parker, J. and Widmer. 1991. Teaching mathematics with technology: How big is a million? Arithmetic Teacher 39.1:38-41. Despite frequent exposure to such terms, people fi nd it diffi cult to have any intuition for large numbers. Not until these numbers are put in relative terms do we get a sense of their size, as when we are told that the budget defi cit is about $700 for every American. The following activities and guidelines suggest ways to use such relative terms to make large numbers more meaningful to students. Calculators or computers are indispensable aids in facilitating this process.

Parker, R. 1991. Implementing the curriculum and evaluation standards: What will implementation take? Mathematics Teacher 84.6:442-449, 478. Mathematics classrooms must be restructured so that students’ work in mathematics more closely resembles the work of mathematicians in the fi eld. Our goal is to develop students who are challenged by messy, ill defi ned situations or complex problems; who are curious and have developed “thoughtful habits of inquiry” (Wiggins 1989a); who are able to use important mathematical ideas to make sense of information, events, and situations in the world; and who understand the power of mathematics as a way to reveal signifi cant patterns and relationships that surround them. Course content must be restructured to refl ect the dynamic, ever-expanding nature of mathematics, the availability of technology, and the study of mathematical topics relevant to the world of the 1990s.

42 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Payzant. 1994. Commentary on the district and school roles in curriculum reform. Yearbook. 203-209. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. The current organization and structure of most public schools in America assumes that the tasks of teaching and learning can be standardized. Teaching strategies and instructional materials are based on assumptions about learning and teaching that are out of step with current research. The expectations for what all children must know and be able to do go far beyond basic literacy. The policy implications for the development of new curriculum and its implementation are the focus of three chapters in this volume, the subject of my commentary.

Perlmutter et al. 1993. Whole math through Investigations. Childhood Education 70.1:20-24. Many theorists insist that the only meaningful and genuine learning is that which is constructed by the learner from within (Baroody, 1987; Elkind, 1989). Kamii (1985) states that in order to understand and enjoy mathematics, children must literally reinvent it through their own daily explorations and with number games. Traditional math instruction with drills, fl ash cards and work sheets may, in fact, lead to math anxiety. The following account describes a class where, instead of disliking math, children develop a disposition to enjoy problem-solving and mathematical activities.

Piazza. 1994. Thematic webbing and the curriculum standards in the primary grades. Arithmetic Teacher 41.6:294-298. The thematic approach is a method of instruction teachers use to allow children to engage actively in activities that focus on a topic that children, preferably, have selected to study. Lilian Katz and Sylvia Chard (1989) describe an extensive thematic experience in their book, Engaging Children ‘s Minds: The Project Approach, which discusses the processes of active construction of knowledge for young children. Although the work is larger in scope than the typical thematic unit, Katz and Chard explain how to engage children actively in constructive ways through the in-depth study of a central idea. How do dogs grow? What is a train? and Who am I? are examples of central questions. A thematic approach that considers the applications of the K-4 curriculum standards offers the classroom teacher a unique planning process to facilitate students’ construction of a range of mathematical concepts.

Pittman. 1999. Student-generated analogies: Another way of knowing? Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.1:1-22. Recently, a growing awareness of the relationship between assessment and learning has resulted in several major critiques of existing practice and proposals for reform in science education at national and regional levels. One initiative advocates the use of carefully constructed performance tasks that give students opportunities to demonstrate their understanding as they would in the world outside of school. The purpose of this study was to explore relationships among school students’ (n 5 189) acquisition of meaningful understandings of protein synthesis. Students were tested before and after protein synthesis instruction using a multiple choice assessment format and an open-ended assessment format. The assessment instrument was designed to measure students’ interrelated understanding of protein synthesis. An independent t-test analysis was conducted on the posttests to measure retention of factual information and gender differences. Analysis of student-generated analogies also revealed unique patterns in students’ understandings of this topic. This research provides information for educators on students’ acquisition of meaningful understandings of protein synthesis and has many implications for educators.

Pogrow. 1995. Making reform work for the educationally disadvantaged. Educational Leadership 54.5:20-24. Even though the primary motive behind the research is to make HOTS more effective, pattern sense making has generated fundamental new knowledge about the nature of the learning needs of educationally disadvantaged students. In addition, this approach to research has generated very different conclusions from those of conventional research-conclusions that I believe are more valid and valuable for making national and school policy than those generated from either the prevalent quantitative or qualitative research techniques.

Porter et al. 1994. Standards setting as a strategy for upgrading high school mathematics and science. Yearbook. 138-166. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. The following discussion is based on a study of curriculum upgrading by states, districts, and schools in response to these calls for reform. It focuses particularly on policy and its effects on high school mathematics and science. Policy includes increasing course requirements in academic subjects for high school graduation, developing curriculum frameworks and guides, initiating various types of student assessment, and providing staff development. Can policies signifi cantly upgrade instruction? What are the effects of various curriculum policies on what happens in the classroom? How do policies interact with one another and with other factors that shape classroom practice? Our analyses suggest that policy effectiveness is increased as elements of clarity, coherence, authority, and power increase in the formulation of policy initiatives.

Powell. 1994. Equity in the Reform of Mathematics and Science Education: A Look at Issues and Solutions: Executive Summary. Southwest Consortium for the Improvement of Mathematics and Science Teaching. The current push for reform in mathematics and science education cannot succeed unless it addresses the critical and persistent issue of equity. This paper reviews the literature regarding that issue; its purpose is to provide a reference tool for those who are working to change educational policy and practice. Part 1 of the review discusses the importance of equity - the moral, social, and economic imperatives for assuring educational success for all students. This section also describes the multiple meanings of the term equity as it is used in the educational literature. Part 2 explores a range of equity issues, from the structure and fi nancing of schools to teachers’ training, expectations, and classroom practice. Part 3 describes educational strategies designed to broaden student success. The conclusions in Part 4 call for a transformation in the structures of U.S. schooling. While this executive summary follows the general outline of the full text, some subsections have been collapsed or resequenced for brevity’s sake.

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Pratt. 1997. Things to consider when selecting materials for implementing reform in the science classroom. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for the Classroom. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. As a classroom teacher, if you are interested in responding to the need for reform in science education, what can you do? What things should you consider if you want to implement new practices recommended by the reform literature in your classroom? This paper will provide you with a number of concrete suggestions on how to better understand the reform recommendations, specifi c changes you can make in your teaching and the curriculum materials you use, and other activities you can undertake to help improve the quality of the rest of the system, including the support available to you and your fellow teachers. As you read this report, think about the following kinds of action: reading and becoming familiar with a few science reform reports; discussing the messages in these reports with your fellow teachers, administrators and science educators; attending conferences, meetings and professional development opportunities; experimenting with new materials and new instructional strategies; asking for support in the terms of dollars, materials and staff development.

Prevost. 1993. Rethinking how we teach: Learning mathematical pedagogy. Mathematics Teacher 86.1:75-79. In this second article in the series, the author addresses the professional development standard “Knowing Mathematics Pedagogy” (pp. 151-59). As in the article in the November 1992 issue, teachers are urged to reexamine what happens in their classrooms. However, the emphasis in this article is on the effectiveness of teachers; classroom practices. Are our typical teaching strategies effective in helping students communicate, apply mathematics, reason, and solve problems? Teachers are challenged to take a risk and are given suggestions to meet the challenge.

Prichard. 1993. Applying the standards to the college mathematics classroom: Ideas and obstacles. Mathematics Teacher 86.9:744-747. This article is written for mathematics and mathematics education faculty at colleges and universities. It fi rst presents some specifi c tasks that illustrate ways in which college mathematics students can experience good mathematics teaching. Next it discusses some obstacles to change in college-level mathematics teaching and strategies for dealing with and overcoming these obstacles.

Rathmell and Leutzinger. 1991. Number representations and relationships. Arithmetic Teacher 38.7:20-23. Two recent studies indicate the positive effects of instruction that focuses on part-whole number relationships. One study of kindergarten pupils examined the effects that activities to develop part-whole number relationships have on understanding number concepts and addition and subtraction (Fischer 1990). The activities involved exploring partitions of numbers. For example, as these pupils were learning about the number 5, they separated sets of fi ve objects into such parts as four and one, two and three, three and two, and so on. Students with these part-whole experiences had signifi cantly higher achievement on assessment items involving number concepts, addition and subtraction word problems, and place-value concepts than did pupils without these experiences.

Rennie. 1998. Gender equity: Toward clarification and a research direction for science teacher education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:951-961. One of the highlights of my participation in the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST) meeting in Chicago in 1997 was a well-attended symposium led by Randy McGinnis and involving Tom Koballa and Ken Tobin. They addressed the issue of gender-inclusive education by refl ecting on their situation of being men professors who teach science methods to classes containing a majority of women. As I listened to the speakers in this symposium, three issues about gender equity and research were raised that I felt were particularly important. The fi rst issue was the need to recognize difference in the meaning and the use of the terms sex and gender. The second issue arose from the clear statement by each of the three participants that trying to ensure that science methods classes are gender inclusive and that their members are committed to gender equity is a diffi cult and risky business. In fact, McGinnis reported considerable resistance from the members of his science methods class in response to his spending time on matters relating to gender equity. The third issue follows from this. If changing gendered practice is so diffi cult, why do we want to try, and how should we go about it?

Reys and Reys. 1990. Estimation—Direction from the standards. Arithmetic Teacher 37.7:22-25. Estimation includes various interrelated concepts and skills, including mental computation, concept development and number sense. In fact, research suggests that number sense, mental computation, and estimation are often very diffi cult to separate. Further, the development of any one of these abilities often stimulates further growth in the others.

Rice et al. 1998. Using concept maps to assess student learning in the science classroom: Must different methods compete? Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.10:1103-1127. This yearlong study was implemented in seventh-grade life science classes with the students’ regular teacher serving as teacher/researcher. In the study, a method of scoring concept maps was developed to assess knowledge and comprehension levels of science achievement. By linking scoring of concept maps to instructional objectives, scores were based upon the correctness of propositions. High correlations between the concept map scores and unit multiple choice tests provided strong evidence of the content validity of the map scores. Similarly, correlations between map scores and state criterion–referenced and national norm–referenced standardized tests were indicators of high concurrent validity. The approach to concept map scoring in the study represents a distinct departure from traditional methods that focus on characteristics such as hierarchy and branching. A large body of research has demonstrated the utility of such methods in the assessment of higher-level learning outcomes. The results of the study suggest that a concept map might be used in assessing declarative and procedural knowledge, both of which have a place in the science classroom. One important implication of these results is that science curriculum and its corresponding assessment need not be dichotomized into knowledge/comprehension versus higher-order outcomes.

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Richmond et al. 1998. Connections and critique: Feminist pedagogy and science teacher education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.8:897-918. In this article, we authors and feminist science and teacher educators share assignments we developed and used in our undergraduate and graduate teacher education classes. We designed these varied assignments to help students feel comfortable with science, to begin to understand and critique the many ways science has been narrowly and powerfully shaped and has marginalized signifi cant groups of individuals, and to begin to deconstruct scientifi c knowledge and construct alternative views of science and science education that are gender and culture sensitive. We also challenged them to use what they were learning to develop pedagogical strategies that would be inviting to their own students. The focus of the article is our students’ reactions to these assignments and how these reactions—both inviting and resisting— informed us about their notions of science, of teaching, of themselves as learners, and of the social context in which they would teach.

Riechard. 1994. National Science Education Standards: Around the reform bush...again? The Clearing House 67.3:135-136. How will new standards affect science in the classroom? In part, the answer depends on how well we heed the invaluable guide of past experience. If standards are used in the descriptive way many developers envision, I think they could provide useful direction to local school systems. However, if they are misused to impose unattainable goals and excessive federal regulation, the standards could become yet another reform movement that merely frustrates and, in the end, fails to improve science education.

Rodriguez. 1998. What is (should be) the researcher’s role in terms of agency? A question for the 21st century. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.9:963-965. In this editorial, I raise some questions on the power of the researcher to choose whether to be an agent of change while engaged in research involving marginalized Other’s lives. To assist me in this endeavor, I will draw primarily from the JRST Theme Issue on Pedagogies in Science Education, guest edited by Angela Calabrese Barton and Margery D. Osborne (1998). Most of the articles in this Theme Issue draw from critical, feminist, and poststructural theories to, as Barton and Osborne (1998) suggest, “deconstruct the canon of science as well as critique who one must be to partake in that canon” (p. 339). While I celebrate the contribution made to our fi eld by this Theme Issue, I believe some of the articles therein provide excellent examples of the need to (re)address the construct of agency in educational research.

Rop. 1999. Student perspectives on success in high school chemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.2:221-237. The purpose of this study was to hear the voices of college-bound high school students concerning meaning and action in cultural context. Students explain what it means to understand and to succeed in introductory chemistry. The method was ethnographic and interpretive as the researcher took on the role of participant observer in introductory chemistry classes in two Midwestern public high schools during one school year. A focus group of students from each school and the two teachers were interviewed and participated in informal conversations. Field notes and interviews were considered primary data sources. Audiotape transcriptions and written artifacts served as secondary sources. Students explained understanding in at least two ways, one practical and task oriented, while the other defi nition was theoretical and epistemological. Success associated with the latter understanding was elusive, yet considered more meaningful.

Rosebery and Puttick. 1999. Teacher professional development as situated sense-making: A case study in science education. Science Education 83:649-677. This article presents a case study that explores the ways in which a beginning elementary classroom teacher gained a foothold in the complex terrain of teaching science. The analysis examines the teacher’s experiences learning science in an educational research project and her work in the classroom to bring her students’ ideas into contact with accepted scientifi c ideas and practices. The educational research project explored an approach to professional development that engaged teachers in learning and viewing science as a socially and historically constituted sense-making practice and in viewing and practicing science teaching itself as a form of sense- making. The analysis suggests that engaging in these dual strands of activity directly shapes teachers’ understanding of scientifi c ideas and practices and their view of how knowledge is constructed in science. It further provides them with a foundation for making informed decisions about teaching science and for exploring the teaching dilemmas that arise spontaneously as opportunities for learning. Implications for professional development in science are addressed.

Rosser. 1993. Female friendly science: Including women in curricular content and pedagogy in science. The Journal of General Education 42.3:191-220. Two decades of women’s studies scholarship and experience with curriculum transformation projects have enabled faculty to develop models (McIntosh 1984; Schuster and Van Dyne 1985; Tetreault 1985) that chart the phases through which changes occur in a variety of disciplines in diverse institutions. This paper explores a model which examines how the composition of the community of scientists may be refl ected in specifi c curricular content and pedagogical techniques through theoretical questions and issues deemed as signifi cant from the perspective of that pool of scientists. Changing the curricular content and pedagogical techniques may lead to a different composition of the pool of scientists who hold a slightly modifi ed theoretical perspective. This perspective may in turn be refl ected in further transformation of the curriculum and teaching techniques. The ultimate end of this upward spiral would be a community of scientists representing the same diversity with regard to race, gender, class, and sexual orientation as the United States population as a whole. Their perspective would be refl ected in a transformed curriculum and methods that would attract scientists who might evolve an improved science.

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Roth and McGinn. 1998. Knowing, researching, and reporting science education: Lessons from science and technology studies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.2:213-235. Recent research in science and technology studies changed the way we understand science as it is practiced—that is, how scientifi c knowledge emerges from social, natural, social, political, cultural, historical, and economic contingencies of scientifi c work. Many science educators agree that students should learn not only science but also about science. In this article, we (a) outline important fi ndings, re-search methods, and ways of reporting research that emerged from science and technology studies; and (b) show how familiarity with science and technology studies research can provide science educators with valuable insights about curriculum design and research on learning. We conclude that science and technology studies can serve as a resource to science education and that there is a potential for conducting collaborative work between science education and science and technology studies. Such collaborations have the potential to yield better theories about how people become competent in science from childhood to adulthood.

Rowan. 1990. The geometry standards in K to 8 mathematics. Arithmetic Teacher 37.6:24-28. Geometry inspires a wide variety of opinions whenever mathematics teachers discuss the curriculum. It doesn’t seem to matter whether those in the discussion are elementary school, middle school, or high school mathematics teachers. Most agree that geometric knowledge and concepts are important for students to acquire. When, how, and what knowledge should be acquired are not so well agreed on, however. Research by the van Hieles of Holland, which has been replicated and extended by some American researchers, has elicited various recommendations with respect to these questions (Crowley 1987).

Rudner and Boston. 1993. Performance assessment. ERIC Review 3.1:2-12. This article describes performance assessments, weighs their advantages and disadvantages as instructional tools and accountability measures, and offers suggestions to teachers and administrators who want to use performance assessments to improve teaching and learning.

Ryder et al. 1999. Undergraduate science students’ images of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.2:210-219. This article describes views about the nature of science held by a small sample of science students in their fi nal year at the university. In a longitudinal interview study, 11 students were asked questions about the nature of science during the time they were involved in project work. Statements about the nature of science were characterized and coded using a framework drawing on aspects of the epistemology and sociology of science. The framework in this study has three distinct areas: the relationship between data and knowledge claims, the nature of lines of scientifi c enquiry, and science as a social activity. The students in our sample tended to see knowledge claims as resting solely on empirical grounds, although some students mentioned social factors as also being important. Many of the students showed signifi cant development in their understanding of how lines of scientifi c enquiry are infl uenced by theoretical developments within a discipline, over the 5–8 month period of their project work. Issues relating to scientists working as a community were underrepresented in the students’ discussions about science. Individual students drew upon a range of views about the nature of science, depending on the scientifi c context being discussed.

Samuel. 1993. Impediments to implementing environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education 25.1:26-29. The purpose of the study was to assess an attempt to put environmental education into practice, in the hope that this information will contribute to understanding how best to implement environmental education in schools. A case study approach was used to reveal the complexities and dynamics of implementation in a meaningful context.

Sanchez and Valcarcel. 1999. Science teachers’ views and practices in planning for teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.4:493-513. This article studies the views and practices of a group of secondary school science teachers toward lesson planning. The two main questions posed are: “What do teachers do when they prepare their lessons?” and “What do teachers think of their own planning?” We describe the decisions made by the teachers, the things they take into account, what they give most importance to, the time spent, the source of their knowledge, and how they evaluate the results. The information was obtained by structured personal interviews, which were compared with reports written by the teachers. Our fi ndings led us to refl ect on ways in which lesson planning may be introduced into training programs.

Schmalz. 1989. Problem solving: An attitude as well as a strategy. Mathematics Teacher 82.9:685-687. Both Henri Poincaré (1929) and Jacques Hadamard (1949) wrote on the subject of mathematical breakthrough. More recently, a book has appeared by Noddings and Shore (1984) that covers the subject quite thoroughly from a general rather than a mathematical perspective. These works seem to agree that some ways of sitting tight and waiting are more productive than others. For want of a better phrase, we can call these more productive ways of sitting and waiting a problem-solving attitude.

Schultz. 1991. Teaching informal algebra. Arithmetic Teacher 38.9:34-37. AIgebra is described in the NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989, 150) as “the language through which most of mathematics is communicated.” For many years algebra has often referred to a single course or two featuring manipulative skills and punctuated by other courses called prealgebra or geometry. In the spirit of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards, it is more appropriate to think of algebra as a cohesive body of concepts, closely connected to other branches of mathematics, in which manipulative skills play a supporting rather than star role. In this context, the distinction between prealgebra and algebra is less apparent. Rather, a gradual building from informal to formal concepts takes place over most of the K-12 curriculum. In the continuing series on implementing the Standards, this article presents suggestions for developing algebraic concepts beginning in the early grades.

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Schwarz and Cavener. 1994. Outcome-based education and curriculum change: Advocacy, practice, and critique. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 9.4:326-338. Three questions have determined the direction of this study. What theory or worldview informs OBE? How are classroom teachers dealing with OBE? What philosophical problems or conceptual weaknesses of OBE do implementation efforts reveal? This article presents an explication of OBE, followed by the results of an ongoing dialogue about OBE between classroom teacher Lee Ann Cavener and university researcher Gretchen Schwarz.

Settlage. 2000. Understanding the learning cycle: Influences on abilities to embrace the approach by preservice elementary school teachers. Science Education 84:43-50. The purpose of this study was to deepen science teacher educators’ knowledge about the process of instilling the learning cycle within the teaching repertoire of elementary education majors. A previous study revealed great variability in preservice teachers ’capacity to understand the learning cycle; the current study was designed to explore factors contributing to this situation. Attitudes toward science and teaching effi cacy were posited to explain the rate at which students grasped this instructional approach. Understanding of the learning cycle was found to be predictable by science teaching out- come expectancy but not by personal science teaching effi cacy nor attitudes toward science. Signifi cant increases in both measures of effi cacy were discovered and individual effi cacy scores at the end of the methods course were correlated signifi cantly with scores on the learning cycle instrument. These data suggest that preservice teachers ’belief in their ability to shape students ’science learning can accurately foretell their potential for embracing the learning cycle as a viable teaching approach. In addition, instruction about the learning cycle appears to contribute to the teaching effi cacy of preservice teachers.

Shearer and Vogt. 1996. Rockets: A Teacher’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Human Resources and Education, Education Division; NASA Johnson Space Center, Education Working Group. With some simple and inexpensive materials, you can mount an exciting and productive unit about rockets for children that incorporates science, mathematics, and technology education. The many activities contained in this teaching guide emphasize hands-on involvement, prediction, data collection and interpretation, teamwork, and problem solving. Furthermore, the guide contains background information about the history of rockets and basic rocket science to make you and your students “rocket scientists.”

Shepardson. 1999. Learning science in a first grade science activity: A Vygotskian perspective. Science Education 83:621-638. The objectives of this article are to: (a) synthesize the key aspects of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning; and (b) interpret classroom vignettes and child interviews from a fi rst-grade science activity in light of Vygotsky’s theory. The key aspects of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory explored in terms of the teaching–learning process are: the social interactional nature of learning; the role of psychological and technical tools, the role of social interactions in mediating children’s thought; and the interplay between everyday and scientifi c concepts.

Shields et al. 1994. Volume 1: Technical Report Evaluation of the National Science Foundation’s Statewide Systemic Initiatives (SSI) Program: First Year Report. National Science Foundation. Shymansky et al. 1997. Science and mathematics are spoken and written here: Promoting science and mathematics literacy in the classroom. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. One can imagine both the excitement and the anxiety that a teacher might experience when fi rst presented with the NCTM Standards or the AAAS Benchmarks and told to “teach for literacy.” If a teacher were to start at the beginning and teach through the tomes, the length of the schooling experience would likely have to be increased substantially. In many ways, these standards documents are far more voluminous and complex than any scope and sequence in place in school systems today. But these documents are meant to be used as frameworks that provide guidance in education reform—they are not the defi nitive sources articulating to teachers how education reform must occur in their classrooms. So, the question is: given the information and goals contained in these standards documents and the importance of developing mathematical and science literacy, how can teachers create classroom environments that foster students’ development in mathematics and science literacy? Using this question as our guide, join us in an exploration of the issues and an examination of the strategies related to teaching for mathematics and science literacy.

Siegel and Borasi. 1992. Toward a new integration of reading in mathematics instruction. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics 14.2:18-36. In this paper, we focus in on one form of communication—reading—and explore the learning opportunities that might be created in mathematics instruction if reading were reconceptualized along the lines described in the NCTM statement on communication. From that perspective, reading is a mode of learning, not in the sense that the author’s meaning is transmitted from the text to the reader, but rather as a generative process in which the reader uses her language and experience as well as the context of the reading event to make connections, generate hypotheses, raise questions and in this way make sense of the text. Twenty years of research on the reading process has substantiated a view of reading as an active process of constructing meaning (Harste, 1985), a view that holds much promise for rethinking mathematics instruction. Drawing on this body of research as well as the recent directions in the fi eld of mathematics education (NCTM, 1989, l991; National Research Council, 1989, 1990), this paper will present new integration of reading in mathematics instruction and provide examples of the opportunities for meaningful learning that may result from a fuller integration of these two curricular “basics.”

47 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Silver and Smith. 1997. Implementing reform in the mathematics classroom: Creating mathematical discourse communities. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Reports from the National Academy of Sciences (National Research Council (NRC), 1989) and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989, 1991) have stimulated educational practitioners and policy makers to focus their attention on mathematics education reform. These reports describe mathematical profi ciency in a manner that emphasizes reasoning, problem solving, conceptual understanding, and communication. Of these, the theme that is arguably the most novel is communication. In fact, the emphasis placed on communication in contemporary discussions of mathematics education signals a call for a radical departure from the way mathematics has conventionally been taught and learned.

Simmons et al. 1999 Beginning teachers: Beliefs and classroom activities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.8:930-954. The current national priority for systemic approaches to the reform of science and mathematics education has led to unprecedented interest in research on the effi cacy of science and mathematics teacher preparation programs. In response to this priority, a focus on collaborative approaches to educational reform and to research on educational reform resulted in a national collaborative research consortium of institutions of higher education. The consortium was formed to investigate the following question about secondary science teacher education: What are the perceptions, beliefs, and classroom performances of beginning secondary teachers as related to their philosophies of teaching and their content pedagogical skills? The research design and instrumentation yielded detailed descriptions that elicited knowledge and beliefs held by beginning teachers about science, the nature of teaching and learning, and their philosophy of teaching. An analysis of video portfolios of beginning teachers provided classroom-based evidence of their performance in both subject matter and pedagogical dimensions of teaching. Among the fi ndings from this 3-year exploratory study were that teachers graduated from their teacher preparation programs with a range of knowledge and beliefs about: how teachers should interact with subject content and processes, what teachers should be doing in the classroom, what students should be doing in the classroom, philosophies of teaching, and how they perceived themselves as classroom teachers. Beginning teachers described their practices as very student-centered. Observations of these teaching practices contrasted starkly with teacher beliefs: While teachers professed student-centered beliefs, they behaved in teacher-centered ways. Undertaking intensive, collaborative studies such as the one described in this article, is the beginning of efforts through which the science and mathematics education communities can strive to address the needs of students, teachers, teacher educators, and other stakeholders working to establish a common vision for excellent instruction and systemic, long-lasting reform.

Smith and Anderson. 1999. Appropriating scientific practices and discourses with future elementary teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.7:755-776. We describe a physics course designed to engage preservice elementary teachers in the practices and discourses of science through activities they would later use with children. Formerly successful science students encountered considerable barriers in giving up prior conceptions of science as an enterprise practiced alone, with quick and certain answers that were obvious to everyone, and external authority as the preferred grounds for knowing. Other students, who deemed themselves unsuccessful in previous science learning, came to the course with a value for personal understanding—something they had not accomplished in earlier science courses. We describe how both sets of students made progress in inventing and testing models, working with empirical data, critically evaluating and using authoritative sources, and talking and thinking within a community of validators.

Smith and Hausafus. 1998. Relationship of family support and ethnic minority students’ achievement in science and mathematics Science Education 82:111-125. The academic interest and competencies in science and mathematics of children are often begun in families. This research seeks to identify those aspects of family support that have the most infl uence on students’ learning in mathematics and science. It examines the relationship of the mother’s support and participation to the eighth grade ethnic minority child’s score on standardized tests, particularly mathematics and science. Mothers of 80 students responded via telephone to 63 questions on their behavior, on the physical environment of the home, on their attitudes toward science and mathematics, and four demographic questions. Alpha reliabilities of groups of questions, frequencies, factor analysis using varimax rotation and principle components, and ANOVAs were computed. Finally, multivariate analyses ended with three stepwise multiple regressions using the test scores as dependent variables. This preliminary research on involvement of parents of ethnic minority students shows that students have higher test scores if parents help them see the importance of taking advanced science and mathematics courses, emphasize the importance of mathematics in today’s careers, set limits, and visit science/mathematics exhibits and fairs with their child.

Smith and Scharmann. 1999. Defining versus describing the nature of science: A pragmatic analysis for classroom teachers and science educators. Science Education 83:493-509. There appears to be an almost universal commitment among science educators to promote the goal of student understanding of the nature of science. Recent disagreements among philosophers of science and between philosophers and other groups such as scientists and science educators about the nature of science, however, leave classroom teachers in a quandary: If experts disagree about the nature of science, how should we decide what to teach students? In this article, the authors fi rst reconsider what level of understanding of the nature of science students should experience so that they can become both intelligent consumers of scientifi c information and effective local and global citizens. Second, based on an analysis of the literature, it appears that there is a general agreement among science education stakeholders regarding a set of descriptors that can be used to judge which questions or fi elds of study are more scientifi c or less scientifi c than others. Therefore, we propose that most precollege teachers should attempt to teach students how to use these descriptors to judge the relative merits of knowledge claims instead of teaching a set of rules that attempt to demarcate science completely from non-science. Finally, we suggest two classroom activities based on this proposal and draw some implications for teacher preparation and future research.

48 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Smith, S. et al. 1993. What the NCTM Standards look like in one classroom. Educational Leadership 50:4-7. A new middle school curriculum designed to support the vision of the Standards is currently in development [1]. The approximately 40 units to be included in Mathematics in Context will explore problem situations based on interesting real-world contexts and emphasize the interconnectedness of mathematical concepts. Within these contexts, all students can explore multiple strategies and engage in sense-making through problem solving and mathematical discourse.

Southerland and Gess-Newsome. 1999. Preservice teachers’ views of inclusive science teaching as shaped by images of teaching, learning, and knowledge. Science Education 83:131-150. This was a descriptive study of preservice elementary teachers’ understandings of and approaches to inclusive science teaching. This study was situated in an elementary science methods course that used a variety of teaching methods to focus on issues related to inclusive science teaching. Data sources included student written work and audiotapes of classroom discussions related to inclusion. Through our interpretive analysis we identifi ed the preservice teachers’ positivist views of knowledge, learning, and teaching as one of the most prominent tools through which they understood and reacted to ideas of teaching science to diverse student populations. The impact of this view on preservice teachers’ interpretations of science teaching methods presented in the course as well as on their own teaching efforts is described. Finally, suggestions of how to help preservice elementary teachers recognize and build upon student diversity through science instruction are discussed.

Speece. 1993. National Science Education Standards: How you can make a difference. The American Biology Teacher 55.5:265-267. There is a growing concern about the lack of science literacy among our youth and citizenry. Despite several reform efforts, there is no foundation that can direct where we need to be going as a nation with these reform programs and assess how we will have done once we arrive where we think we want to be. To address the perceived problems in science education, the National Research Council has established an advisory committee to help plan and advise the development of National Science Education Standards. The advisory committee and three working groups (on curriculum, teaching and assessment) include 89 individuals representing science teaching, science education and science research. The committee’s charge is to formulate the National Science Education Standards.

Spiegel et al. 1995. Action Research: Perspectives from Teachers’ Classrooms. Science FEAT (Science For Early Adolescence Teachers), 1995, SouthEastern Regional Vision for Education (SERVE). Throughout academia, action research is being endorsed as an effective means to change classroom practice. The NSTA and NCTM both acknowledge the role of “teacher as researcher” as an effective means in promoting professional development and professionalism in teaching. Moreover, it serves as a bridge to link research and practice. This bridge allows practitioners to use and value research by being a part of the process.

Stahly et al. 1999. Third grade students’ ideas about the lunar phases. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.2:159-177. The purpose of this study was to examine third-grade students’ ideas about the lunar phases prior to and following an instructional period designed to promote students’ conceptual change. Four third-grade students enrolled in an elementary school near a large midwestern university participated in this study. Qualitative methods of interviewing and observation were used to identify students’ conceptions of the lunar phases. Analytical induction was used to analyze data collected in the forms of researcher notes and transcriptions of audiotaped and videotaped interviews and lessons. The results of this study indicated that students held individual views that were scientifi cally accurate; however, they also held conceptions that were scientifi cally inaccurate. In addition, the results demonstrate that students are capable of making conceptual changes; however, they also continued to hold views that were inconsistent with the scientifi c perspective.

Stein. 1993. Young’s Vision. Mathematics Teacher 86.4:330-334. J. W. A. Young’s The Teaching of Mathematics, originally published in 1906, established Young as a prominent authority in the newly created fi eld of mathematics education rather than pure mathematics. Young earned his Ph. D. in group theory in 1892 at Clark University and then went on to become a professor of mathematics and mathematics pedagogy at the University of Chicago. Young himself was one of the fi rst to enter the fi eld of mathematics pedagogy, and his book is regarded as one of the cornerstones in this newly created discipline (NCTM 1970, 42). His original work was devoted entirely to the actual science of teaching mathematics to students and to attributes of a successful teacher of mathematics rather than to mathematical formulas, proofs, and concepts that students should fully understand by the time they fi nish their precollege schooling. Simply put, Young strongly believed that one needed many more tools and skills than just mathematical comprehension to be a successful mathematics teacher, an idea that was quite foreign in the mathematics fi eld at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Swetz. 1991. Incorporating mathematical modeling into the curriculum. Mathematics Teacher 84.5:358-365. The word model implies something that can be manipulated and that lends itself to experimentation. In a mathematical model, this manipulation and experimentation need not be physical-it can be intellectual (Swetz 1989a). A sense of experimentation should be involved in the conception, realization, and eventual refi nement of a mathematical model. Mathematical modeling as a process should include conjecturing, modifying, and adapting mathematical theories to fi t the real-world situation under consideration. Then these modifi ed theories can be tested to see whether they supply the required information or solution. The process of modeling consists of (1) identifying the problem, including the conditions and constraints under which it exists; (2) interpreting the problem mathematically; (3) employing the theories and tools of mathematics to obtain a solution to the problem; (4) testing and interpreting the solution in the context of the problem; and (5) refi ning the solution techniques to obtain a “better” answer to the problem under consideration, if necessary. This series of steps involves a certain degree of uncertainty, of exploring, of groping, and also of moving forward mathematically to obtain a solution. This process is the very essence of “doing” mathematics, an essence that can be reached through mathematical modeling.

49 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Tabachnick and Zeichner. 1999. Idea and action: Action research and the development of conceptual change teaching of science. Science Education, 83:309-322. This article describes and analyzes an action research seminar for prospective elementary and secondary teachers. The seminar was a component of a larger study of a science teacher education program whose goal was to graduate teachers who held conceptual change conceptions of teaching science and were disposed to put them into practice. The article addresses the character of the action research seminar, and how it facilitated prospective teachers learning to teach for conceptual change. It does so by outlining the context in which the research was performed and the methods that were used; by summarizing how the action research seminar worked in two successive semesters and the principal themes that were discussed; and presenting the fi ndings with a discussion of their implications for the larger study. There were two major fi ndings. First, the action research seminar helped prospective teachers understand their students’ thinking and preferences. More quickly than is usually the case for prospective teachers, they shifted their focus away from themselves as teachers to their students as learners. The process of doing action research, including as it does the gathering of data about student learning, encouraged this shift in focus. Prospective teachers began to probe what their students were thinking. Second, although most of the prospective teachers became practiced in eliciting students’ prior knowledge, only a few were able to use their knowledge of their students’ thinking to plan their teaching. Various factors hindered the implementation of conceptual change teaching of science. These included the prospective teachers’ own (non-constructivist) views of knowledge, their fragmented and static knowledge about science content, the scarcity of school placements that could model conceptual change teaching, and the conditions of teacher and prospective teacher work.

Tao and Gunstone. 1999. The process of conceptual change in force and motion during computer- supported physics instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.7:859-882. The process of students’ conceptual change was investigated during a computer-supported physics unit in a Grade 10 science class. Computer simulation programs were developed to confront students’ alternative conceptions in mechanics. A conceptual test was administered as a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest to determine students’ conceptual change. Students worked collaboratively in pairs on the programs carrying out predict–observe–explain tasks according to worksheets. While the pairs worked on the tasks, their conversational interactions were recorded. A range of other data was collected at various junctures during instruction. At each juncture, the data for each of 12 students were analyzed to provide a conceptual snapshot at that juncture. All the conceptual snapshots together provided a delineation of the students’ conceptual development. It was found that many students vacillated between alternative and scientifi c conceptions from one context to another during instruction, i.e., their conceptual change was context dependent and unstable. The few students who achieved context independent and stable conceptual change appeared to be able to perceive the commonalities and accept the generality of scientifi c conceptions across contexts. These fi ndings led to a pattern of conceptual change that has implications for instructional practices. The article concludes with consequent implications for classrooms.

Thompson and Briars. 1989. Assessing students’ learning to inform teaching: The message in NCTM’s evaluation standards. Arithmetic Teacher 37.4:22-26. Educators commonly think of assessment as separate from teaching- as an activity that is typically done after a unit or chapter is completed or at specifi ed times during the year to issue grades. But assessment that is most useful is continuous. Every lesson has built into it an assessment of students’ progress toward the objectives of the lesson. Such assessment need not be formal. A teacher can assess students’ understanding informally through their responses to oral questions or by listening to students’ comments as they carry out a task. To obtain useful information, however, it is helpful for teachers to plan thoughtful questions and activities that have the potential to elicit the desired information.

Tinker. 1997. Information technologies in science and mathematics education. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. While technology is not a quick fi x, it does represent the only major new resource education can draw on for reform. Just as information technologies are changing the larger society, they do have the potential to support a major reform of education. (See, for instance, Means, 1994.) Information technologies, when used intelligently in combination with good curricula and good learning strategies, can result in learning that is much faster, deeper, and more lasting than we have come to expect is feasible. But it is important to realize that the technology is a necessary, but not suffi cient, part of the resulting improvement. Used only in small doses, without thought to curricula or with poor learning strategies, information technologies have little educational value.

Trachtman. 1997. Looking at school-business interactions over time. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for Teachers. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. Using the framework established by the Committee for Economic Development (CED) in its work, Investing in Our Children (1985), I will describe the historic and current interactions between the private sector and the public schools by examining initiatives related to science and mathematics education. The CED framework organizes school-business interactions into three categories, focused on funding, on programs, or on policy-setting. Given the limits of space, in each of these categories I will highlight one or two comprehensive corporate initiatives as examples of the kind of interactions that are possible. I will conclude by describing a fourth category of interaction that demonstrates how some corporations choose to join together with other business institutions in order to leverage their resources and clout.

TTRC. 1993. Why School-to-Work. Training Technology Resource Center (TTRC).

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Turner and Meyer. 1995. Motivating students to learn: Lessons from a fifth grade math class. Middle School Journal 27.1:18-25. In recognition that many teachers would like to know more about building on the positive characteristics of this dynamic age group, we present the following instructional model. This model is based on the needs of young adolescents, motivational theory, and research with middle grade teachers who are trying to create stimulating and nurturing environments for learning. In order to assist readers, we have identifi ed the essential features of the model as the 3 C’s. Each C stands for one principle of instruction that addresses the needs of young adolescents and supports their motivation for reaming. They are challenge, control, and collaboration. In this article, we begin by defi ning the 3 C’s and explaining why they are important for engagement in higher level learning activities. We illustrate with classroom examples of practices that incorporate challenge, control, and collaboration, including specifi cs of how two fi fth grade mathematics teachers used these ideas in their classes. We conclude with a discussion of some common pitfalls teachers may encounter when they try to implement the model.

USDE. 1990. What Curriculum for the 21st Century? New Things Considered. Educational Resources Information Center. Recent SEDL-SCAN scanner surveys indicate that there is no easy solution to the dilemma faced by a large system with a long history of doing things in a prescribed way when the external world is changing too fast. Indeed, there is every indication that technology will continue to advance at least at the current rate. A few educators are beginning to raise the question, “How do we prepare teachers if the traditional capabilities and applications will no longer be necessary and we do not know which types of knowledge will be needed instead?”

USDE. 1995. Promising Practices in Mathematics and Science Education—1995: A Collection of Promising Educational Programs and Practices from the Eisenhower Mathematics and Science Regional Consortia. United States Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement. This volume of promising practices in mathematics and science education provides an array of innovative ideas that should be of interest to teachers at the elementary, secondary, and preservice levels of education. These models of programs and practices can be used to improve teaching and learning in mathematics and science education. They can also be used to modify and adapt one’s own practices in the classroom; to prepare ongoing professional development experiences that improve and increase the effectiveness of the practices already being used; and to suggest ways in which teachers can collaborate with developers to produce new and better practices which may one day appear in a future volume of promising practices.

USDHHS. 1991. State of the Scene: Science Education in the Nation. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. This updated version of State of the Scene: Science Education in the Nation, is intended as an information resource for teachers, scientists, and others involved in developing science curricula, science literacy materials for the public, or related information addressing issues of science education reform.

Usiskin. 1993. Lessons from the Chicago mathematics project. Educational Leadership 50:14-18. Before the University of Chicago School Mathematics Project began in 1983, many national reports had issued recommendation for improving the state of mathematics education.[1] Most of these recommendations reappeared in the recent Standards documents published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.[2] In general, our project’s purpose has been to ascertain whether key recommended changes could actually be implemented.[3] What we have found should be considered by anyone attempting to change curriculum in the direction of the NCTM Standards.

Vacc. 1993. Questioning in the mathematics classroom. Arithmetic Teacher 41.2:88-91. It is clearly reasonable that if students are to develop an understanding of and an ability to use mathematical applications in a variety of contexts (NCTM 1989), they should have meaningful and relevant experiences that will actively engage them in constructing their own knowledge. Also, that active engagement needs to be accompanied by opportunities for students to talk about what they already know and don’t know and what they are doing as they strive to extend or change their current level of understanding. For many teachers, however, offering this type of instruction means changing their beliefs about mathematics instruction. After all, most of us are products of elementary and secondary school classrooms in which the teachers told us what we needed to know or do and we listened to and did what they told us to do. What we were thinking about during this interaction often did not matter, and we were unaware that it should. This same type of discourse existed in many of our methods courses. The instructor spent most of the class telling us what we needed to know so that we could tell our future students what they needed to know. Fortunately, we have come to the realization that this style of teaching is not as effective as once thought, and consequently we need to change what we are doing. However, how we go about making needed changes in our teaching is unclear.

Van de Walle. 1991. Redefining computation. Arithmetic Teacher , 38.5:46-51. Pencil-and-paper computational skills have long dominated the elementary school curriculum. For over ten years we have been hearing that the emphasis on these skills must be reduced because in our technological society they are much less important than in previous times. Furthermore, a valid, frequently voiced argument suggests that the time spent on computation is the one “fat” area where cuts can be made to allow time for the many new concepts and higher-order processes that are more important. Ironically, the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Standards) (NCTM 1989) actually calls for a broadening of the treatment of computation in school mathematics, not a reduction. This notion of doing more and better with computation, not less, is directly on target for a mathematics curriculum of the 1990s. It is also an expedient political view to take when advocating change. As Coburn ( 1989) points out, “reform will not come smoothly… . The public will be skeptical about any proposals for de-emphasizing computation” (p. 43).

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van Reeuwijk. 1992. The standards applied: Teaching data visualization. Mathematics Teacher 85.7:513-518. As part of the project Design, Development and Assessment in Mathematics Education, I spent four weeks at Whitnall High School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, testing a booklet on descriptive statistics called Data Visualization (Freudenthal Institute 1989). This textbook was developed in 1989 by the Freudenthal Institute’s Research Group on Mathematics Education of the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands in cooperation with Gail Burrill of Whitnall High School. Especially written for this project, the booklet is based on the NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards (1989) and on the philosophy of “realistic mathematics education” developed by the research group of Utrecht University. According to this philosophy mathematics originates from daily life and should be a useful tool in solving problems in real-life situations. Mathematics is seen as an integrated subject in which such parts as geometry, algebra, arithmetic, calculus, and statistics are very much related. Some of the ingredients of “realistic mathematics education” are developing a critical attitude, understanding the underlying concepts, and using mathematics in problem-solving situations. These ingredients are also refl ected in the Data Visualization program.

Vellom and Anderson. 1999. Reasoning about data in middle school science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.2:179-199. This case study illustrates instruction in an urban 6th-grade classroom in which students were learning about mass, volume, and density by attempting to layer (stack) three miscible solutions with differing densities atop one another. The study examines classroom discourse and interaction on the basis of four teaching goals: (a) reaching consensus about which stacks were possible, (b) developing persuasive arguments that separated data from noise, (c) establishing social norms for collective inquiry, and (d) appreciating the epistemological status of scientifi c knowledge. The study traces the fate of three stacks that students claimed were possible after initial investigations with the solutions. These claims underwent a process of collective validation in which consensus without coercion was the goal, which illustrates emergent standards for backing claims with evidence, as well as for replicability, among the students. Students were successful in achieving three of the four goals, with some qualifi cations. In relation to Goal 3, which required generalization to other situations, somewhat less success is reported. Limitations in the current standards, diffi culties of time allotment in current curricula, and establishing classroom cultures of inquiry are discussed.

Venville and Treagust. 1998. Exploring conceptual change in genetics using a multidimensional interpretive framework. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.9:1031-1055. This article examines changes in Grade 10 students’ conceptions of genes during a 10-week genetics course. Data collected by student worksheets given before and after the course, observations of lessons, videotape and audiotape recordings of classroom discourse, and detailed student interviews at the end of the course are interpreted using a multidimensional framework of conceptual change from epistemological, ontological, and social/affective perspectives. The results indicate that students’ ontological conceptions of genes develop from the idea that a gene is a passive particle passed from parents to offspring, to being a more active particle that controls characteristics. From a social/affective perspective, it was evident that even though the students enjoyed the genetics course and participated in classroom activities, they often were uninterested in the microscopic explanatory mechanisms of genetics. The teaching approaches did not encourage a sophisticated conception of a gene in the minds of the majority of students. From an epistemological perspective, it was possible to classify the students’ ontological conceptions as being intelligible, plausible, or fruitful. The article concludes that Grade 10 student learning about the concept of the gene is an evolutionary process that is more like weaker descriptions of conceptual change such as assimilation and conceptual capture than stronger forms such as accommodation and conceptual exchange. However, there is evidence to suggest that the conceptual change observed may be of a stronger form because students’ conceptions changed to an ontological category that primarily relates to process.

Vesilind and Jones. 1998. Gardens or graveyards: Science education reform and school culture. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.7:757-775. This case study describes what happened when two lead teachers in a statewide reform project tried to change science teaching in their schools. Instead of using traditional criteria for leadership, we view their work in the context of their schools’ cultures and use Rosenholtz’s (1991) concepts of egalitarianism and isolation to analyze how those cultures contributed to and obstructed reform. Five themes illustrate this model of teacher leadership and the fi rst stirrings of school change: reform as a “science look,” change through parental involvement, competing reforms, change through a “sideways door,” and change through public events. The study shows the importance of patience in reform implementation and the need for sensitive study of early change within school contexts.

Von Secker and Lissitz. 1999. Estimating the impact of instructional practices on student achievement in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.10:1110-1126. This study used a hierarchical linear model (HLM) to estimate direct and indirect effects of instructional practices recommended by the National Science Education Standards on individual achievement. Three pedagogical reforms—namely, providing more opportunities for laboratory inquiry, increasing emphasis on critical thinking, and reducing the amount of teacher-centered instruction—were expect- ed to account for variability in school mean achievement and explain why gender, racial-ethnic status, and socioeconomic status have more infl uence on achievement of students in some schools than in others. Results suggest that whereas the instructional policies recommended by the authors of the Standards may be associated with higher achievement overall, they are equally likely to have the unintended consequence of contributing to greater achievement gaps among students with different demographic profi les. Theoretical expectations about the impact of instructional practices on academic excellence and equity require further evaluation.

52 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

Voss. 1997. Alternative assessment in K-12 science education. Reform in Math and Science Education: Issues for the Classroom. Eisenhower National Clearinghouse. If achievement tests are used for large scale assessments at the state and national level, certain concerns must be addressed. Davis and Armstrong (1992) caution that the use of state tests for promotion and graduation (as they are currently designed) has negative implications for instruction, because the tests present a small number of multiple choice items as the de facto goal of science education. Kulm and Stuessy (1992) express concerns about moving toward the notion of a national exam, stating that a traditional multiple choice test would not be acceptable. They are concerned that an exam may be biased toward being skills-based rather than having a balance that would include understanding of basic laws, concepts, and principles. They further explain that science education assessment measures that contain constructed responses and lab performances would have to be scored reliably. The concern about equity is raised by Marshall (1992). Bias toward ethnic groups and minorities can occur, and high stakes graduation tests should include studies describing the students’ opportunity to learn the material the tests assess.

Wearne and Hibert. 1994. Place value and addition and subtraction. Arithmetic Teacher 41.5:272-274. Understanding place value involves building connections between key ideas of place value such as quantifying sets of objects by grouping by ten and treating the groups as units, and using the structure of the written notation to capture this information about groupings. Different forms of representation for quantities, such as physical materials and written symbols, highlight different aspects of the grouping structure. Building connections between these representations yields a more coherent understanding of place value.

Webb. 1991. Task related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 22.5:366-389. The past fi fteen years have shown a resurgence of interest in small-group, peer-directed learning in the classroom. This article reviews and analyzes the research linking task-related verbal interaction to learning in small groups in mathematics classrooms, as well as factors that have been shown to predict peer interaction in mathematics groups, and discuss strategies for shaping group interaction. Critical features of group interaction include the level of elaboration of help given and received and the responsiveness of help to the needs of students. Important predictors of group interaction included student ability, gender and personality, and group composition on ability and gender. Possible strategies for promoting effective small-group interaction include using certain group compositions, altering the reward structure, providing training in desirable verbal behavior, and structuring the group activity to require students to give explanations to each other.

Weidemann. 1995. Problem solving in math class: word problems were never like this. Middle School Journal 27.1:11-17. In our adult lives, we all use problem-solving skills. Most of us have to plan our daily schedules, make decisions at work, and manage our money; all of these and many other decisions that we make during a day require logical thinking skills. No one tells us what operations to use or how to set up the problem. We recognize problem-solving skills as necessary, yet we give them inadequate attention in most mathematics classrooms. Because of this oversight, many middle school teachers miss a wonderful opportunity not only to help their students learn problem-solving skills, but also to help them build confi dence in handling unfamiliar situations.

Welchman-Tischler. 1992. How to Use Children’s Literature to Teach Mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Mathematics activities should be appropriate to a child’s level of development and should engage children in doing mathematics. This booklet suggests ways to provide thought-provoking mathematics experiences related to literature in a manipulative context. Sample activities lay the groundwork for the sound development of concepts and promote experimentation with ideas. Many suggestions are included for modifying activities to meet individual needs. The four generic standards proposed by NCTM are mathematics as problem solving, mathematics as communication, mathematics as reasoning, and mathematical connections. All these underlie the approach to mathematics teaching in this booklet. Promoting the connection between mathematics and children’s literature is the fundamental purpose of the booklet, problem solving and reasoning play an important role in most activities, and communication is fostered in many forms—verbal, visual, manipulative, and symbolic.

Welchman-Tischler. 1992. Making mathematical connections. Arithmetic Teacher 39.9:12-17. Whitaker. 1999. Reflections on Catherine Milne’s “Philosophically correct stories? Examining the implications of heroic science stories for school science.” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 36.10:1148-1154. Milne (1998) has suggested the importance of examining the stories that are found in science textbooks for their philosophical assumptions about science. Of the kinds of stories she has identifi ed are examples of those she calls “heroic.” She notes that many such stories may be myths and are often simplistic. Heroic biographies have long been popular, but these are often criticized as being “hagiography,” rather than biography (Woodward, 1970, pp. 26–27). Indeed, such writings may often be closer to historical fi ction than to history. Thus, an examination of the philosophical—implicit or explicit—foundations of statements about historical fi gures, as well as care for the historical accuracy of these statements, is one that should be of concern to both the writers and the readers of these textbooks.

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Wiebe. 1990. Teaching mathematics with technology: Teacher-made overhead manipulatives. Arithmetic Teacher 37.7:44-46. To the rescue, your trusty overhead projector on which transparent models can be manipulated and projected for all to see! A limited number of transparent manipulative materials are available commercially, but they are expensive and limited to a few models (e.g., Cuisenaire rods). The alternative is to make transparent models yourself. These manipulatives are easy to make with readily available materials, are easy to manipulate, and are highly visible to everyone in the class. Furthermore, some evidence indicates that students can benefi t just as much from watching the teacher manipulate models as from performing their own manipulations (Knaupp 1970).

Williams and Copley. 1994. Promoting classroom dialogue: Using calculators to discover patterns in dividing decimals. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 1:72-75. For the past three years, a team of mathematics education researchers at the University of Houston has collaborated with middle school mathematics teachers in a nearby urban-suburban school district to develop a mathematics calculator curriculum for grades 6-8. With funds and services furnished by the United States Department of Education, Texas Instruments, the University of Houston, and Alief Independent School District, 7000 TI Explorer and scientifi c calculators were purchased and issued to students. The teachers of these students wrote calculator-curriculum items and fi eld-tested the activities in their classrooms.

Windschitl and Andre. 1998. Using computer simulations to enhance conceptual change: The roles of constructivist instruction and student epistemological beliefs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35.2:145-160. Learners enter the classroom with informal ideas (alternative conceptions) about scientifi c phenomena; these ideas affect how the corresponding scientifi c explanations are learned. In addition, students’ epistemological beliefs concerning learning infl uence achievement. This study investigated the effects of a constructivist versus objectivist learning environment on college students’ conceptual change, using a computer simulation of the human cardiovascular system as an instructional tool. This study also investigated the interaction between constructivist versus objectivist learning situations and the students’ epistemological beliefs. The constructivist approach resulted in signifi cantly greater conceptual change than the objectivist approach for 2 of 6 commonly held alternative conceptions; the other 4 of 6 areas showed no signifi cant differences for treatment group. More important, however, the treatment interacted signifi cantly with epistemological beliefs. Individuals with more advanced epistemological beliefs learned more with a constructivist treatment; individuals with less developmentally advanced beliefs learned more with an objectivist treatment.

Wiske and Levinson. 1993. How teachers are implementing the NCTM Standards. Educational Leadership 50:8-12. Policy initiatives from Kentucky to California are espousing curriculum based on core concepts that students understand through induction rather than memorization, teaching based on guided inquiry rather than didactic instruction, and assessment that is open- ended rather than machine scorable. The challenge of these extensive reforms for teachers is to teach and test in new ways. For schools and districts, the challenge is to provide the necessary support for teachers as they follow these new directions.

Yackel and Wheatley. 1990. Promoting visual imagery in young pupils. Arithmetic Teacher 37.6:52-58. The purpose of this article is to describe instructional activities that we have used successfully to facilitate development of visual imagery in elementary school pupils and to describe pupils’ responses to these activities. The pupils’ responses reveal that the visual-imagery activities used foster development of what the Standards calls spatial sense. Although the activities described were used in second- grade classes, they should be of interest to all elementary school teachers because they can easily be adapted to any grade level.

Yackel et al. 1990. Research into practice: Experience, problem solving, and discourse as central aspects of constructivism. Arithmetic Teacher 37.4:4-5. Over the past fi ve years, we have collaborated with teachers to develop forms of instructional practice in elementary school mathematics that are compatible with a constructivist view of teaching and learning. Two key aspects of our work form the basis for this discussion: fi rst, the process of developing instructional activities, and second, the importance of engaging students in mathematical discussion.

Yerrick et al. 1998. “We’re just spectators”: A case study of science teaching epistemology and classroom management. Science Education 82:619-648. Project 2061, Benchmarks, and National Standards for Science Education are forwarding a vision for science teacher educators in which a constructivist teaching perspective is implicit. Included in these documents is an epistemological treatment of scientifi c knowledge that contrasts starkly with what researchers have found prolifi c in most science classrooms. It is becoming a more mainstream perspective among science educators that classrooms are places in which students and teachers jointly construct meaning from discursive events. Beliefs about the nature of science and the purpose of school are not constructed in isolation from one another. Rather, the philosophical treatment of science in classrooms, especially physics, has revealed that the dominant epistemology is a strong predictor of the types of learning strategies deployed by students. Given that the dominant epistemological treatment of high school physics is of a positivist origin and the purpose of normal classroom discourse is to make classrooms operate smoothly, we ask if the concerns of management are free from the infl uences of students’ beliefs of what science is and what school is for? Practical teacher knowledge often quantizes the complexities of instruction, management, concept development, and philosophical frameworks as separate and discrete components of normal classroom science. Our purpose is to raise the critical issue of understanding the nature of certain classroom management problems as we examine the interaction of two contrasting epistemological treatments of science in a high school physics class and the subsequent classroom management techniques infl uenced by these beliefs. A physics teacher and

54 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH ARTICLES

his students were surveyed, interviewed, and observed during normal instruction and a range of epistemological commitments were identifi ed. We argue that differences in epistemological stances can invoke antagonistic interactions that may not be well understood from a purely management or pedagogical approach to teacher knowledge and, inasmuch, classroom management choices made independent of epistemological considerations miss the mark.

Zucker. 1995. Cross-cutting themes. National Science Foundation. In 1992, NSF contracted with a consortium of organizations to evaluate the SSI program. This summary describes fi ndings from the second year of the evaluation, based on data collected through the spring of 1994. The report discusses the progress of the SSIs on developing visions of good mathematics and science practice, on creating effective strategies for putting those visions in place, and on ensuring the equitable participation of all students in improved mathematics and science classrooms. For each of these topics, key fi ndings are outlined, as well as the most important problems or issues facing the SSIs.

Zucker et al. 1995. Second Year Case Studies: Connecticut, Delaware, and Montana. Evaluation of the National Science Foundation’s Statewide Systemic Initiatives (SSI) Program. National Science Foundation. All three states have chosen to begin by working intensively on a selected piece or pieces of the education system in mathematics and science, not equally at all grade levels and in all schools in the state. Connecticut—like Michigan, New York, and several other SSI states—has chosen to concentrate funds on a particularly diffi cult part of the education system, in this case selected poor, urban districts. The problem of how to scale up to include larger pieces or all of the education system in reform efforts is a diffi cult one, and none of these states has yet solved that problem.

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