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The Radiology of Referred Otalgia

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The Radiology of Referred Otalgia Published October 1, 2009 as 10.3174/ajnr.A1605 REVIEW ARTICLE The Radiology of Referred Otalgia R.C. Chen SUMMARY: Pain referred to the ear is a well-documented phenomenon, which can be due to a A.S. Khorsandi multitude of disease processes. With the recent and rapid progression of CT and MR imaging technology, radiologists have played an increasing role in solving this potentially difficult diagnostic D.R. Shatzkes dilemma. Essentially any pathology residing within the sensory net of cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X R.A. Holliday and the upper cervical nerves C2 and C3 can potentially cause referred otalgia. This article will attempt to outline the various sensorineural pathways that dually innervate the ear and other sites within the head and neck, as well as discuss various disease processes that are known to result in referred otalgia. ar pain (otalgia) can be divided into 2 main categories: Eprimary and secondary.1 Primary ear pain is an entity whereby the origin of the pain arises from the ear itself. Com- mon disease processes resulting in primary otalgia include otomastoiditis, cholesteatoma, and foreign bodies lodged within the ear canal. In close to 50% of cases, however, the source of the pain does not reside within the ear but, rather, originates from sources distant from the ear—so called “re- ferred otalgia” (Fig 1).1,2 The focus of our topic is the radiology of referred otalgia. Significance Many cases of referred otalgia are secondary to benign pro- cesses.2 However, referred otalgia may be an early harbinger of serious underlying pathology; each case must be carefully and individually evaluated.3 Otalgia may be the earliest and only REVIEW ARTICLE symptom of cancer lurking somewhere within the head and neck. The severity of the symptoms do not correlate with the Fig 1. Otalgia arising from head and neck sources. Essentially any pathology residing within gravity of disease: Dental caries have the capacity to produce the sensory net of cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X and upper cervical nerves C2 and C3 can constant boring pain ear pain, whereas laryngeal cancer may potentially cause pain referred to the ear. Reprinted with permission from the American Journal of Clinical Oncology (2003;26:e157–62). result in a much less intense earache.1,4 Diagnostic Work-Up for Referred Otalgia Mechanism of Referred Otalgia In the setting of otalgia with completely negative findings on Although the mechanism of referred otalgia is slightly contro- ear examination (including an unremarkable otoscopic exam- versial, the most accepted theory is the convergence-projec- ination and dedicated CT of the temporal bone), it is impera- tion theory, which states that multiple nerves converge onto a tive that distant sources within the head and neck be evaluated. single shared neural pathway, with the central nervous system 6 To clinicians, this may include palpating within the patient’s (CNS) unable to differentiate the origin of stimulation. In oral cavity or performing an indirect mirror examination or referred otalgia, there is a convergence of common sensory fiberoptic examination of the hypopharynx and larynx.5 If the pathways between the complex sensory innervation supplying source of the patient’s pain is found, no further work-up may both the ear and cranial nerves innervating the head and neck, be necessary. However, in the cases of negative findings on with the CNS unable to correctly pinpoint the location of pa- 7 physical examination, CT or MR imaging may be an excellent thology. This sensory “error” is analogous to a patient’s hav- tool to investigate further regions of the head and neck that are ing pain in the medial left arm when experiencing an acute not easily evaluated by physical examination.5 It is, therefore, coronary syndrome or patient’s feeling pain in the shoulder important that radiologists are cognizant of the types and lo- when, in actuality, a lesion is irritating the patient’s 7 cations of relevant disease processes so that they are best diaphragm. equipped to aid their colleagues and patients. Sensory Innervation of the Ear The innervation to the ear is one of the most complex in the From the Department of Radiology (R.C.C., A.S.K.), Beth Israel Medical Center, New York; body, and a brief introduction to the neural pathways in the Department of Radiology (D.R.S.), St. Luke’s-Roosevelt Hospital Center, New York; and Department of Radiology (R.A.H.), New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, New York. ear is necessary to appreciate the concept of referred otalgia. Please address correspondence to Robert C. Chen, Massachusetts General Hospital, There are 4 cranial nerves and 2 upper cervical nerves that Neuroradiology, Gray Building 273A, 55 Fruit St, Boston, MA 02114; e-mail: contribute to sensory innervation of the ear: cranial nerves V, [email protected] VII, IX, and X and upper cervical nerves C2 and C3.8,9 Al- though the sensory innervation to the ear may appear fairly Indicates open access to non-subscribers at www.ajnr.org well defined, there is considerable overlap and ambiguity in 10 DOI 10.3174/ajnr.A1605 the sensory distribution of these nerves. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol ●:● ͉ ● 2009 ͉ www.ajnr.org 1 Copyright 2009 by American Society of Neuroradiology. Fig 2. Primary and referred otalgia pathways of the mandibular nerve (V3). Cranial nerve V is the most frequent pathway for referred otalgia via the auriculotemporal branch of the trigeminal nerve. Reprinted with permission from the American Journal of Clinical Oncology (2003;26:e157–62). within the oral cavity (specifically including the floor of mouth, cheek, anterior tongue, hard palate, and sublingual and submandibular glands), lower teeth, mandible including the TMJ, and parotid glands can all be sites of distant pathol- ogy resulting in referred otalgia.1,10 Within the subset of processes affecting V3, dental diseases account for most pathology causing referred otalgia.3 Plain film bite wing radiographs are still the workhorse for dental evaluation because of their superior resolution and low cost compared with conventional CT,15,16 but CT can still accu- rately detect periodontal disease, periapical abscesses, and condensing osteitis if dental radiographs have not been ac- quired by the referring physician. Periodontal disease refers to infection around the tooth, which begins at the gum line and burrows down the margin of the tooth to widen the perio- Fig 3. TMJ. Coronal reformatted CT scan demonstrates severe erosion and irregularity 15,16 involving the head of the left condylar process. TMJ disease has been well documented to dontal ligament. If progressive enough, it may result in a be associated with referred otalgia via the auriculotemporal and masseteric branches of visible radiolucency on CT surrounding the margins of the V3. tooth. Periapical abscesses, on the other hand, develop when bacteria burrow through the substance of the tooth by eroding through the enamel, dentin, and neurovascular pulp/root ca- V3 supplies the tragus, helical crus, anterosuperior wall of 15 the external canal, adjacent tympanic membrane, and tem- nal to exit the apical foramen. Condensing osteitis is the 9,11 result of an osseous stress response indicated by an area of poromandibular joint. The facial nerve (VII) supplies the 16 posterior-inferior portion of the external ear canal and adja- increased sclerosis surrounding an infected tooth, which it- cent tympanic membrane.9 The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) self does not result in referred otalgia but is an indicator of supplies the inner ear and inner tympanic membrane, whereas periodontal or periapical infection that can produce referred otalgia. Unerupted wisdom teeth, erupting teeth, and mal- the vagus nerve (X) supplies a similar distribution to IX but 14 also innervates the concha.8,9 The upper cervical nerves (C2 occlusion can likewise cause referred otalgia. Otalgia is listed as a chief complaint by 70%–78% of pa- and C3) innervate the skin in front of and behind the ear and 17,18 also of the medial and lateral aspect of the auricle and tients with TMJ disorders (Fig 3). TMJ disorders have a lobule.8,9,11,12 2–9 times higher prevalence in women than in men and occur in both sexes between 40 and 70 years of age.19,20 It is unclear Sources of Referred Otalgia, Grouped According to whether this is a true reflex referred ear pain secondary to 21,22 Cranial and Cervical Nerves direct impingement of the auriculotemporal nerve, re- lated to masseteric muscle spasm, or secondary to a direct Cranial Nerve V3 ligamentous connection between the TMJ and middle ear, but The trigeminal nerve is cited as the most common sensorineu- 1 or all of these theories may potentially explain TMJ pathol- ral pathway leading to referred otalgia because of the wide ogy resulting in otalgia.20 Clark et al19 performed a study at the sensory “net” that it covers and the type of pathology that Mayo Clinic during a 9-year period and found that 164 of 222 occurs within this region.2,13 V3 innervates the ear via the au- patients with bony crepitus had signs of degenerative changes riculotemporal branch but also has sensory nerve fibers via the of the condyle, glenoid fossa, and/or articular eminence on lingual, buccal, and inferior alveolar nerves, which serve to plain film. However, the degree of plain film TMJ degenerative innervate the oral cavity and floor of mouth, lower teeth, pal- changes has little bearing on clinical symptoms.23 ate, mandible including the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), Major salivary gland pathology, particularly the parotid and the 3 major salivary glands (Fig 2).1,7,10,12,14 Any irritative gland, is known to cause otalgia.2 Infectious parotitis, typ- focus such as tumor, infection, or inflammation of structures ically from mumps, sialolithiasis, and occasionally neo- 2 Chen ͉ AJNR ● ͉ ● 2009 ͉ www.ajnr.org parapharyngeal and retropharyngeal spaces (Fig 8).1 Any pathologic process involving the aforementioned areas can re- sult in referred otalgia.
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