Cycling Getting Australia Moving
Barriers, facilitators and interventions to get more Australians physically active through cycling About the authors
Professor Adrian Bauman Adjunct Associate Sesquicentenary Professor of Public Professor Ian Ker Health (Behavioural Epidemiology Research Associate and Health Promotion) Planning and Transport Research Centre University of Sydney Curtin University This report was funded by the Australian Adrian has an active interest in Ian is an economist by training, with Government Department of Health and physical activity, public health, extensive experience in transport Ageing. The views expressed in this health promotion and mental planning. This includes almost 15 report do not necessarily represent the health epidemiology. years with the Western Australian position of the Australian Government. Department of Transport and several Associate Professor with ARRB Consulting. He now runs Chris Rissel his runs his own consulting firm CATALYST. Director Health Promotion Service Sydney South West Area Health Service Ms Rosemarie Speidel University of Sydney Program Director Chris has a health promotion research Cycling Promotion Fund focus directed towards tobacco About this Rosemarie has qualifications and control, sexual health and active experience in community development, transport (walking and cycling). Chris report adult education and public policy. She is currently involved in implementing played an instrumental role in setting and evaluating a three year cycling In August 2007, the Cycling Promotion up the Cycling Promotion Fund in promotion program in western Fund was commissioned by the 2000 which, under her leadership, Sydney on the impact of increases in Commonwealth Department of Health established itself as a credible national cycling on overall population health. and Ageing to develop a report on body in cycling promotion and bicycle participation by Australian adults. advocacy. She has a particular interest Dr Jan Garrard in interventions for women and people The Cycling Promotion Fund was with low physical activity levels. Senior Lecturer specifically asked to investigate the School of Health and Social Development contribution cycling can make to the Deakin University Mr Elliot Fishman health of adult Australians, what barriers exist to increasing participation Jan’s research is primarily concerned Policy and Research and what can be done to overcome with understanding the socio- Cycling Promotion Fund these hurdles. environmental and personal Elliot is a former health professional determinants of physical activity who turned his attention to transport The Cycling Promotion Fund engaged (particularly active transport) planning. He is interested in the four notable academics/practitioners for women and evaluation of health, social, environmental and from the fields of health, transport and interventions aimed at promoting economic benefits of increasing the economics to address these questions. physical activity. role of active transport. He is also Director of the Institute for Sensible Transport.
Suggested citation: Bauman A., Rissel C., Garrard J., Ker I., Speidel R., Fishman E., 2008 Cycling: Getting Australia Moving: Barriers, facilitators and interventions to get more Australians physically active through cycling, Cycling Promotion Fund, Melbourne.
Designed and printed by Graphyte Media Melbourne, Victoria 2008
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CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving January 2008 Summary
Physical inactivity is a major contributor calculated for this report include Recommendations to poor health in Australia – with reduced congestion ($63.1 million) and Establishing a cycling-friendly policy around half the population insufficiently greenhouse gas emissions ($9.2 million). and regulatory environment is a active to protect against sedentary significant challenge and one that is lifestyle diseases, such as diabetes. What barriers exist not entirely within the direct control of to greater cycling the health sector. A multi-faceted, The trend of decreasing rates of whole-of-government approach is physical activity cuts across all ages participation? required. Each of the following and social groups. Modern lifestyles Despite the significant increase in recommendations are largely have engineered physical activity out of cycling over recent years and the dependent upon one another and everyday life. multitude of benefits stemming from increased participation, a number of should be implemented in an Cycling offers significant potential to substantial barriers exist for large integrated, coordinated way to increase physical activity levels in segments of the population. increase bicycle participation: adults. It is already the fourth most Mass marketing campaigns popular physical activity for adults, it Individual barriers, such as a lack of highlighting the benefits of cycling can be undertaken by a wide variety of skills and confidence have been found ages and fitness levels, it is affordable to prevent many people from cycling. Bicycle education programs to and can be integrated into people’s increase skills, confidence and daily life and used as a form of Social and cultural factors can also safety transport. influence rates of cycling. For instance, low income areas were found to have Behaviour change initiatives to This report has been developed to reduced opportunities for cycling and market alternatives to car use assist practitioners, policy makers and their residents make less short trips by Cycling events to provide planners to increase adult physical either foot or bicycle. incentives for people to ride in a activity levels through bicycle riding. It supportive environment particularly does this by first setting the scene on Environmental factors (urban design for novice riders Australian cycling and then outlines and bicycle infrastructure) were found current barriers and facilitators to to be a major influence on levels of Urban planning/bicycle infrastructure/funding focused on greater participation. Finally, the report cycling. Higher density development increasing bicycle friendly design. delivers a set of recommendations to reduces trip distance and this provides overcome these barriers and increase a major boost for cycling, as does the As Australians continue to lead bicycle riding among Australian adults. provision of on and off road bicycle increasingly busy lifestyles, cycling is in routes. In fact, the current lack of a unique position for its ability to Cycling is on the increase! bicycle infrastructure in Australia combine physical activity, recreation presents a particularly strong barrier for Over 1.68 million adults cycled in and transport. This provides an women, who comprise only 20% of important health benefit for a 2006; an increase of 244,000 from commuter cyclists. 2001. Australian capital cities have also population failing to meet minimum experienced an average 22% increase Safety concerns were consistently physical activity requirements. Cycling in bicycle journeys to work, with found to be among the most is also a carbon neutral, petrol free Melbourne’s growth rate soaring 42% significant barriers preventing people form of transport, simultaneously between 2001 and 2006. from cycling. It was even found to be a helping Australians fight climate concern for those that cycle regularly. change and reduce fuel costs. For A range of interventions exist to Yet the perception of risk from cycle peak hour journeys in particular, the encourage cycling; from cycling events accidents is often disproportionate to bicycle can reduce congestion and attracting thousands of people, the actual risk. For instance, the increase the efficiency of the transport behaviour change programs targeting hospitalisation rate from cycling is system. trips to work and school, social seven times lower than that of football, marketing campaigns and multifaceted Creating more cycle friendly communities per 100,000 participants. Moreover, can also play an important role in community based programs. Those the evidence clearly points to the fact programs are successful in creating better places to live, work, that the more cyclists there are, the raise a family and grow old. encouraging people to ride more often safer it becomes. but their reach is currently limited and For Australia to fully capitalise on the effectiveness will be enhanced with the Policy and regulatory factors benefits of cycling, a whole-of- development of more supportive governing key influences on cycling, government approach is required, with physical environments, such as bicycle such as congestion charging, urban commitment from the health, transport, lanes and paths. density and motor vehicle speed limits environment, education and planning have been identified as non-health portfolios. Only through a combined Valuing cycling sector issues that nonetheless have approach can the benefits of cycling The value of current cycling to the important outcomes for public health be fully realised. economy is approximately $154.1 through their effect on cycling. million per annum. Other benefits
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving i January 2008 Executive Summary Physical inactivity is a major contributor 1 2 to poor health in Australia. Approximately half the Australian Setting the scene Current barriers population are insufficiently active, and facilitators which significantly increases their risk Cycling is becoming increasingly of cardiovascular disease, type 2 popular in Australia. Between 2001 to greater cycling diabetes and obesity. A lack of and 2006 the number of Australians physical activity also increases the risk aged 15 years and older who cycled participation by of breast and bowel cancer, for recreation in the previous 12 Australian adults depression and anxiety. The rate of months increased by 244,500, with 1.7 obesity in Australia is among the million having cycled in 2006. In the Cycling participation in many highest in the OECD. There is now same period bicycle journeys to work industrialised countries is higher than in convincing, yet under-recognised have risen 22% in Australian capital Australia. However, bicycle ownership in evidence that boosting levels of cities, with Melbourne achieving an Australia is high, indicating an underlying physical activity through cycling is an increase of over 42%. Women and interest in cycling, with considerable effective method of improving health older Australians are less likely to potential for increased participation. and fostering social connectedness. cycle, a pattern which is not consistent with international cycling prevalence There is a range of significant barriers Cycling offers significant potential to data. Countries with high rates of to the take up of cycling in Australia. increase physical activity levels in cycling for transport and recreation These have been described using the adults: have few gender and age differences in ecological model of physical activity cycling, while countries such as and divided into five sections focused It is already the fourth most Australia, which have relatively low on the following factors influencing popular physical activity for adults rates of cycling (particularly for cycling. This report also provides transport), have large gender and age evidence-based options for It can be undertaken by a wide variety of people of different differences in cycling. Cycling also overcoming these barriers. ages and fitness levels appeals to a large number of people who wish to avoid high impact forms Individual factors It is affordable and can be easily of physical activity. Social and cultural factors integrated into people’s daily lives and used as a form of transport. Valuing Cycling Environmental factors This report has been developed to The value of current cycling Safety assist practitioners, policy makers and participation to the health system is Policy and regulation planners to increase participation in calculated to be approximately $227.2 bicycle riding by Australian adults. It million per annum. In addition, benefits Individual factors does this by first setting the scene on have been quantified in terms of Australian cycling and then outlines reduced congestion ($63.9 million per This review found that a lack of skills, current barriers and facilitators to annum) and greenhouse gas emissions confidence and knowledge are all greater cycling participation. Finally, the ($9.3 million). Substantial increases in significant barriers to cycling. report makes a set of recommendations these benefits will flow from future Consistent Australian research to increase bicycle riding among growth in cycling participation. indicates that motivations for cycling Australian adults. are principally focused on individual concerns, such as health and fitness. Interventions to With this in mind, measures to encourage cycling increase cycling participation include An overview of the Australian cycling the provision of riding skills classes sector and current interventions is and the development of mass included in this report. These range marketing campaigns focusing on key Australia has a from cycling events attracting motivations such as health, social comprehensive network thousands of people, behaviour interaction, and the convenience and change programs targeting ride to low cost of cycling for transport. of cycling organisations work and school, social marketing Large-scale cycling events are also with many of these having campaigns and multifaceted effective in promoting cycling community based programs. participation. These events are not established partnerships These programs are successful in simply one-off activities. Participant with Government encouraging people to take up cycling surveys consistently indicate that or ride more often but their reach is cycling events generate increases in currently limited and effectiveness will pre and post event cycling. be enhanced with the development of In addition, it may be necessary to more supportive physical environments, challenge widely held perceptions that such as bicycle lanes and paths. act as barriers to cycling, such as the need to be ‘super fit’ in order to start and that cycling in traffic is inherently hazardous.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving ii January 2008 Social and cultural factors Social and cultural factors were found “…it is imperative that new suburbs are planned with to have an important influence on active transport in mind, so that bike routes are laid cycling levels. Lower socio-economic groups are less likely to make short down when the streets and sewers are mapped out” trips by foot or bicycle and the physical Senator Penny Wong, Minister for Climate Change and Water environment in some low income areas is less conducive to active forms of travel. However the marked social encourages participation and a lack of measures and general design features gradient evident for leisure time it is a major barrier for non-cyclists, that indirectly impact on cycling, rather physical activity is less prominent for infrequent-cyclists and even regular than specific bicycle infrastructure. cycling. This highlights the role of riders. Material reviewed in this report show bicycle riding in promoting more invisible infrastructure offers cost equitable participation in both physical “The lack of infrastructure for bikes is a effective benefits that often result in activity and personal mobility for barrier. That’s a fear, being injured if I got win-win situations, whereby cyclists population groups who do not own on a bike” and the wider community benefit. For cars (up to 30% in some suburbs). (Non-rider, female, cited in Daley et al, 2007, p. 4). instance, lower speed limits result in Australian cities and towns generally more attractive conditions for cyclists, Social norms which tend to exclude lack integrated networks of good whilst at the same time increasing women, older Australians and culturally quality bicycle paths and lanes and this safety for all road users and improving diverse groups from cycling can be is a significant barrier to greater neighbourhood amenity. challenged through information and participation. education campaigns. It is also Safety necessary to address Australia’s Long term reform in urban design to Surveys and focus group research current culture, whereby short local create more compact, vibrant urban reviewed for this report show safety trips are almost invariably completed and regional centres is vital. concerns to be among the most by motor vehicle, which could easily be Widespread adoption of bicycle friendly significant barriers preventing people undertaken by bicycle. design, such as integrated, connected from cycling, including among those on and off road bicycle routes is who cycle regularly. Environmental factors essential. Secure bicycle parking and The evidence reviewed in this report showers at workplaces were also Safety concerns were found to be identified the physical environment as a found to help more people make the amplified by aggressive motorist key influence on cycling. This was daily commute by bicycle. behaviour. Motor vehicle speed is both divided into general urban design a perceived and actual safety hazard features and bicycle specific for vulnerable road users such as infrastructure. Australian cities and cyclists. An accident at 64km/h puts cyclists at 17 times the risk of a fatality Urban design: The literature is very towns generally lack than if the vehicle was travelling at clear on the influence urban design integrated networks of 32km/h. and land use planning has on ‘walkability’ and this can generally be good quality bicycle paths A combination of speed, volume of extended to include cycling. For traffic and a lack of designated space instance, low density development, and lanes and this is a for people to ride were found to be with zoning that separates residential significant barrier to significant barriers to cycling. This was and commercial areas was found to exacerbated by aggressive driving and increase travel distances which acts as greater participation features as a regularly reported a barrier to cycling. Higher density, deterrent to cycling. mixed use development works to This report also found a strong case reduce average trip distance and this These barriers can be reduced by for better integration of bicycling with makes cycling and walking more implementing neighbourhood speed the public transport system. In attractive. limits of between 30km/h to 40km/h, countries with high rates of cycling, road user education and improved “There is growing evidence that low such as the Netherlands, some 38% of bicycle infrastructure. density neighbourhoods with poorly train journeys begin with a bicycle trip. connected street networks affect how Developing a strategic network of The perception of risk from cycle much time we spend walking, cycling bicycle routes to transport hubs, accidents is often disproportionate to and our ability to use public transport” providing secure bicycle parking at the actual risk. However, perceptions Research Australia, 2007, p. 15 stations and facilitating the carrying of of risk were found to decrease with bicycles on public transport have all cycling experience. Whilst Bicycle infrastructure: Domestic and been shown to be effective methods of acknowledging the legitimate concerns international literature highlight the encouraging cycling and have a high people have to bicycle riding, the important impact bicycle infrastructure level of applicability to the Australian evidence demonstrates that in provision has on cycling participation. context due to its low density land use. Australia, per 100,000 participants, an Although exceptions can be found, the individual is seven times more likely to overwhelming trend identified in this This report also examined the effect of be hospitalised playing football than report is that well designed and ‘invisible infrastructure’ on cycling. riding a bicycle. Risk-benefit analyses connected bicycle infrastructure Invisible infrastructure refers to policy consistently report that the health
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving iii January 2008 benefits of cycling outweigh the risks by a unique position for its ability to factors ranging from five to one, to 20 If cycling participation enable people to integrate physical to one. activity into everyday living. Active doubles, the risk per communities also have stronger social Another consistent feature in the kilometre falls by 34%. connections and improved liveability. literature is the robust finding that the more cyclists there are, the safer it Cycling also offers a wide range of becomes. In fact, if cycling doubles, additional benefits when used as an Cycling events the risk per kilometre falls by 34%. To encourage infrequent and alternative to the private automobile. novice riders to cycle in a Cycling is a carbon neutral, petrol free supportive social environment. form of transport, simultaneously 3 helping Australians fight climate Recommendations Urban design change and reduce fuel costs. For To create a physical environment peak hour journeys in particular, the This review has highlighted the need to more conducive to cycling, such bicycle can reduce congestion and overcome some significant barriers to as higher density, mixed use increase the efficiency of the transport further promote regular cycling among development and shorter trip system. adult Australians. The following distances. interventions are recommended to Yet for all these important benefits to Improved bicycle infrastructure be realised, a number of challenges meet this challenge: To provide safe, attractive and need to be overcome. The health enjoyable on and off road bicycle Mass marketing campaigns sector can play a key role in promoting routes as well as high quality end To promote the multiple health, this popular, but under-utilised form of of trip facilities. The health sector environmental, transport, physical activity. can provide a powerful advocacy economic and social inclusion voice for intersectoral action to benefits of cycling, and address provide supportive environments perceived barriers such as safety, for cycling. required fitness level and road user behaviour. These campaigns can Funding be supported through the To better reflect the role and value extensive network of cycling of cycling in a range of areas organisations around Australia and including transport, health and should be combined with bicycle sustainability, with support from all infrastructure improvements. levels of government. Bicycle education programs Australia currently faces a number of To increase confidence and skill emerging health challenges, many of Cycling is a carbon levels in both the child and adult which are caused in part by population. increasingly sedentary lifestyles. neutral, petrol free form of transport, simultaneously Behaviour change programs Cycling is an effective method of such as TravelSmart, Ride to helping to reduce sedentary lifestyle helping Australians fight School and Ride to Work programs: diseases such as cardiovascular To help more Australian children disease, obesity and diabetes. As climate change and and adults make the daily commute Australians continue to lead reduce fuel costs and other trips by pedal power. increasingly busy lifestyles, cycling is in
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving iv January 2008 Contents
1 Setting the Scene 1
1.1 The importance of physical activity and cycling to health 1
1.2 Cycling participation in Australia 3
1.3 Economic benefits of cycling participation 4
1.4 The Australian cycling sector 6
1.5 Current Australian interventions to encourage adult cycling 7
1.51 Cycling education and skills training 7
1.52 Community based programs 7
1.53 Social Marketing 8
1.54 Cycling Events 9
1.55 Recreational cycling events 10
2 Current barriers and facilitators to greater cycling participation by Australian adults 11
2.1 Individual factors 11
2.2 Social and cultural factors 13
2.3 Environmental factors 13
2.31 Urban design 13
2.32 Bicycle infrastructure 15
2.4 Safety 18
2.5 Policy and Regulation 20
3 Recommendations 21
4 Conclusion 22
5 Appendices 23
6 References 32
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CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving January 2008 Setting the Scene 1 1.1 There are a number of specific health and disease outcomes that are The importance of prevented by regular physical activity. physical activity and The epidemiological evidence for each of the major health conditions cycling to health prevented by physical activity is summarised in table 1 (see following Approximately half of all Australian page). As a form of moderate-vigorous adults are not meeting even the physical activity, cycling can contribute modest current national to the multiple health benefits of recommendations that: physical activity. Figure 1 Schematic illustration depicting the relationships between physical activity “every adult should accumulate half an Cycling also has a number of and health benefit. Adapted from hour of moderate-intensity physical additional benefits: activity on at least 5 days per week” Bouchard, 2001 (Commonwealth Health National PA guidelines, As a low-impact form of physical 1999; United States Surgeon General, 1996; Haskell et al, 2007). activity, it appeals to people who participation in sport and recreation, cannot participate in high-impact This lack of physical activity is a major encourage public transport usage, as activities contributor to Australia’s rising obesity well as promoting the use of levels. As a form of active transport and community facilities, parks and recreation, it enables many people recreational resources. Moreover, there Physical activity is an important part of to combine physical activity with are social, economic and overall health promotion and disease transport and recreation environmental benefits to population prevention. Physical inactivity ranks in level physical activity that go beyond There is also evidence that the the five leading risk factors of ill health, the health benefits alone (Bauman, public generally prefer unstructured alongside tobacco use, obesity, high 2003). Being physically active has forms of physical activity (Hahn & cholesterol levels and high blood different benefits across the lifespan, Craythorn, 1994, cited in Sallis et pressure (Australian Institute of Health from childhood participation in sports al, 1998) and cycling certainly fits and Welfare, 2006). In fact, given the and games, through to maintaining into this category interaction between physical inactivity functional status and social and the latter four risk factors, It appeals to people across the engagement among older adults. reducing inactivity may indeed be the age spectrum, from childhood Among older adults, physical activity most important thing we can do for to adults will allow more tasks to be undertaken our health and wellbeing (Morris, for daily living, for longer, such that The promotion of ‘lifestyle’ 1994). Overall health and well being, even the older age groups will have physical activity such as walking quality of life, and reduced risk of greater functional independence and cycling is more cost-effective morbidity and mortality are all (Bauman, 2004). than promotion of structured dimensions of the benefits for adults exercise programs achieving at least moderate-intensity The overall relationship between As a form of active transport, physical activity on most days of the physical activity and health is cycling contributes to the week (Haskell, 2007; United States summarised in figure 1(top). This additional benefits associated with Surgeon General, 1996; Bauman, illustrates that the benefits of physical reduced car use (improved air 2004). The specific disease prevention activity accrue most rapidly when quality, reduced greenhouse gas benefits of being active include moving from sedentarism to moderate emissions, reduced noise pollution, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, levels of physical activity. Encouraging improved community liveability and some cancers, reduced diabetes risk, even short, but regular bicycle journeys social connectedness). improved mental health, and reduced is an effective means of achieving risk of falls in the elderly (WHO, 2000). significant health gains.
It is now acknowledged in the literature The promotion of Australia’s obesity rate is that the health benefits of physical moderate intensity among the highest in the activity are cumulative (Department of Health and Aged Care, 1999, cited in physical activity has been OECD Milligan et al, 2007). In practical terms, described as todays ‘best Australian Institute of Health this means three 10 minute cycle trips and Welfare, 2006 still provide sufficient levels of physical buy in public health’ activity to protect against sedentary Morris, 1994 lifestyle diseases (WHO, 2000). By Beyond health specific benefits, it contrast, public health researchers appears that physical activity is also Frank et al (2004) have shown that each linked to community well-being (Chau In addition to the fact that cycling is additional hour in a motor vehicle et al, 2007), social capital and beneficial to health, there is evidence increases the chance of being obese by community engagement. It has also that car commuting is associated with 6% - adjusting for socio-economic status. been found to foster community
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 1 January 2008 negative health outcomes. Wennberg over an eight year follow up period, combat the growing problems of (2006) reported an independent and compared to those that continued to obesity and diabetes, as well as other increased risk of myocardial infarction actively commute (Bell, 2001)1. lifestyle diseases. Cycling is well suited (heart attack) in those who reported to provide sufficient levels of physical prolonged car transit time (74% ‘The main sources of health-enhancing activity to protect against the diseases increased risk) compared to physically physical activities encompass normal of a sedentary lifestyle. It is able to do active commuters. Furthermore, a and simple activities such as walking, this at minimal cost to the individual cycling…’ study in China examined the transition and wider community and can act as a from active modes of transport World Health Organisation, 2006, p.4 replacement for car journeys, (typically cycling rather than walking) to The evidence reviewed in this report especially for short trips and this has motorised transport. They found a two clearly points to the need for increased been shown to have additional health fold increase in the risks of obesity levels of physical activity, in order to benefits.
Table 1 Potential Health Benefits of Cycling
Physical activity reduces the risk of coronary heart disease by around 40%, compared to those that Coronary Heart Disease remain inactive. Cycling may be useful in angina and other aspects of coronary heart disease as well.
Stroke and Cerebro-vascular Physical activity reduces the risks of ischaemic stroke (insufficient blood supply to the brain) events
Physical activity reduces blood pressure by 3-5 mm (both systolic and diastolic), with a greater effect High blood pressure seen from moderate intensity physical activity (more than for vigorous physical activity); this has been (Hypertension) shown in serial meta analyses of the research base (Kelley et al, 2001a; Kelley & Kelley, 2001; Kelley et al, 2001b).
Physical activity lowers total cholesterol and improves the high density lipoprotein sub-fraction Cholesterol and Lipid levels (protective component of cholesterol, in terms of cardiovascular risk)
Stress, Anxiety and Depression Physical activity may contribute to improved well being, and reduces anxiety and depression symptoms
Physical activity has a role in population level obesity prevention, but here the recommendation is more than the 30 minutes per day; for weight maintenance or obesity prevention, populations need to Overweight and Obesity expend more energy; around 60-90 minutes of moderate physical activity per day is required (Saris et al, 2003). This assumes that dietary intake remains constant.
Physical activity reduces the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes in those at risk, shown through several population based prevention trials; in epidemiological studies, physical activity reduces the incidence Type 2 Diabetes of diabetes. In clinical studies, physical activity improves glucose uptake and insulin metabolism, providing biological mechanisms for these benefits. Similar mechanisms reduce the risk of chronic liver disease, as well as obesity, high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels.
Physical activity strengthens muscles, and improves joint stability and balance, and this reduces the risk of falls and fractures in the elderly. Physical activity could prevent up to 16% of these falls Falls prevention in the elderly (Stephenson & Bauman, 2000), and these injuries, through fractured hips and related conditions are a very common cause of hospital admission and morbidity among older adults.
Physical activity improves bone deposition during adolescence, resulting in stronger bones and Osteoporosis reduced risk of osteoporosis later in life.
Physical activity reduces the risks of developing colon cancer by about 40% and the development of breast cancer, especially among post menopausal women. The amount of physical activity required may be 30-45 minutes daily, and moderate-vigorous activities are required. For cancer prevention, Colon and Breast Cancer lifelong physical activity patterns may be important (whereas for other health benefits, recent physical activity participation is preventive). Other cancers, possibly prostate cancer, lung cancer and cancer of the uterus may also be prevented, in part, by physical activity, although the evidence is less clear here.
Source: Adapted from Bauman, 2004
1 It may also be possible that those who transfer from bicycle to car travel have also experienced increased income. This may be a confounding factor, as it could be associated with increased dietary intake which may increase obesity levels. The authors did attempt to control for confounders measured in this study.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 2 January 2008 1.2 Table 3 Bicycle Journeys to Work 2001 & 2006 2001 2006 Cycling No. of individuals No. of individuals % Change participation who cycled to work who cycled to work in Australia Melbourne 14,443 20,592 42.57% Australians have shown a strong Adelaide 5,101 6,695 31.25% inherent interest in cycling. Figures Hobart 707 886 25.32% from Bicycle Industries Australia (2006) have shown a rapid increase in bicycle Perth 6,218 7,240 16.44% sales, with over 1.4 million sold in Canberra 3,505 4,062 15.89% 2007, outnumbering new car sales for the eighth consecutive year. The rise in Brisbane 7,890 8,889 12.66% the number of Australians purchasing Sydney 11,131 12,132 8.99% bicycles has been accompanied by an increase in cycling participation. Darwin 1,653 1,536 -7.08%
An analysis of the Australian Sports Source: ABS Census 2001 & 2006 Commission Exercise Recreation and Sport Survey (ERASS) reveals that rapid increase, at 42.57% and 31.25% increasing numbers. More Australians cycling is Australia’s fourth most respectively. It should be noted that the are using the bicycle to get to work popular physical activity for adults. Census takes place in August, which is and as a form of recreation, with the Moreover, in terms of frequent typically a less popular month for cycling middle age groups reporting the participation, it is Australia’s third most than the warmer periods of the year. highest participation levels. popular physical activity, as demonstrated in table 2 below. This analysis of cycling participation in The graph below presents the Australia demonstrates that Australians involvement of each adult age group in are both buying more bicycles than cycling – for both commuting and Cycling is the third most ever before and using them in recreational purposes. popular physical activity in terms of regular 30% participation 25% (Australian Sports Commission, 2006) 20% One of the strongest growth areas for 15% cycling in recent years has been as a mode of transport to work 10% (commuting). The latest Census data released by the ABS show Australian 5% capital cities are experiencing an Figure 2 average increase of 22% between 0% Participaton in Cycling by Age Census 2001 and 2006. Melbourne 15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65+ Source: Australian Sports Commission and Adelaide experienced the most Recreational Cycling Commuter Cycling 2005, ABS Census 2006.
Table 2 Most frequent exercise, recreation and sport activities in Australia, 2006
Number of Participation Number of participants Activity participants Rate (%) with a frequency of more than 104 times per year walking 6,001,700 36.2 3,615,900 aerobics 3,161,300 19.1 1,307,700 swimming 2,256,900 13.6 317,900 cycling 1,682,800 10.1 417,400 tennis 1,130,700 6.8 43,600 running 1,224,100 7.4 385,600 golf 1,132,000 6.8 84,400 bushwalking 774,000 4.4 79,500 football (outdoor) 697,400 4.2 74,000
Source: Australian Sport Commission, 2006
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 3 January 2008 Sports Medicine Australia (2007) found 1.3 THE COSTS OF INACTIVITY that the modern lifestyle can act as Economic benefits of Coronary Health Disease $ 371.5 million barrier to physical activity. Cycling to and from work helps to counter cycling participation Stroke $ 162.4 million increasingly sedentary behaviours It is well recognised that cycling offers Type 2 diabetes $ 210.7 million and the negative health outcomes associated with them. considerable benefits to the individual, Breast cancer $ 42.2 million in terms of improved health, reduced transport expenses and lifestyle Colon cancer $ 61.4 million The number of people who cycle to enhancements. Placing a value on work in Australian cities has increased Depression Symptoms $ 177.3 million current and potential cycling markedly between Census 2001 and participation is challenging as there are Falls $468.7 million 2006 (rising 22% on average). a number of different methodologies Total Gross Costs $ 1,494.4 million The primary aim of this analysis is to used and the value varies depending estimate the value of the current on the profile of the person cycling in Source: Econtech, 2007 bicycle commuting trips in Australia terms of their age and current physical based on the 2006 Census. activity levels and frequency and To gain health benefits from physical lengths of their cycling trips. activity, participation has to be regular Cyclists currently save the economy Nevertheless, attempting to determine and of moderate intensity. These $63.9 million per year in reduced the value of cycling participation is benefits are gained from both congestion costs and $71.2 million important for policy formation and recreational and commuter cycling. in reduced health costs. decision making. The benefits of recreational cycling Based on the information presented in Government and the wider community have been simplified for this report to tables 4 and 5, the economic benefit benefit from cycling in the following ways: only include the positive health effects of commuter cycling is $144.3 million of physical activity. per year. Increased physical activity levels, with subsequent reductions in In 2006, over 1.68 million Australians For additional information, including the health care costs. cycled for recreation and of those assumptions upon which the above Reduced cost of transport 417,400 cycled more than 104 times a calculations are based, see Appendix 2. ‘externalities’. year (ERASS, 2006). These individuals can be classified as meeting the levels Potential for improved Externalities are the costs imposed on of physical activity to protect against non-users or those not directly met by sedentary lifestyle diseases from road safety through the the user. These include air and noise cycling alone.4 reduction in car use pollution, road traffic injuries, Road trauma in Australia costs $17 congestion and climate change. Using the Econtech (2007) calculation, billion a year. This is equal to 2.3% of the savings to the health budget from This report brings together different Australia's gross domestic product regular recreational cycling in 2006 is (Centre of National Research on sources of evidence to quantify, in estimated at $82.9 million. monetary terms, the value of current Disability and Rehabilitation Medicine, cycling participation. 2006). There is increasing evidence Benefits of that higher levels of motor vehicle use Commuter Cycling increase the risk of road trauma. Health Benefits Strategies that provide non-motorised The benefits of commuter cycling of Leisure Cycling transport options are increasingly include both the positive impact on The health benefits generated by recognised as an effective road safety public health, as well as the reduction cycling are drawn from the seven key strategy (Litman & Fitzroy, 2005). In in the ‘externalities’ of transport, such medical conditions that are considered fact, policies aimed at reducing car use as reduced air and noise pollution, to have a strong causal relationship typically result in around a 10% congestion and climate change with physical inactivity. reduction in vehicle kilometres travelled mitigation. It should be noted that a and this could cut road trauma costs significant amount of additional According to a recent study (Econtech, by between $850 million and $1.7 transport-based cycling occurs (visiting 2007) the direct gross cost of physical billion per year (Victoria Transport friends, shops etc…), but are not inactivity to the Australian health Policy Institute, 2007). budget in 2006/07 was $1.49 billion. collected by the Census and for reasons of consistency are not The authors note that research on the The value attributable to physical included in these calculations. economic benefits of current and inactivity is based on an estimated According to the Australian future cycling participation is limited in prevalence of 54.2% of the population Greenhouse Office (2006), around 66% Australia. Further research is required between 18 and 75 years of age of personal transport is for non- to gain a clearer understanding of classified as inactive.2 commuting purposes. these benefits, in order to inform public policy. Based on this calculation, the cost of Commuter cycling offers an important each inactive adult person to the opportunity for the Australian workforce health budget is $198.57 per year.3 to get much needed physical activity.
2inactive is classified as not reaching the minimum level of physical activity levels 3Based on 2006 Census population aged between 18 to 75 years recommended for health benefits which is 30 minutes of moderate physical activity 4According to a comprehensive survey (n+1,530) people cycling for recreation cycled levels over at least 5 sessions a week an average 2.5 times a week and the average trip was 1hr 46 minutes (Garrard J., Crawford S., Hakman N., 2006)
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 4 January 2008 Table 4 Bicycle Commuting Travel (Capital Cities)
Bicycle Commuters (sole mode trips only) Kilometres/Year
2001 Census 2006 Census % Change 2001 Census 2006 Census Change
Sydney 8,684 10,175 17.2% 30,394,000 35,612,500 5,218,500
Melbourne 12,179 18,047 48.2% 42,626,500 63,164,500 20,538,000
Brisbane 6,347 7,502 18.2% 22,214,500 26,257,000 4,042,500
Adelaide 4,376 6,085 39.1% 15,316,000 21,297,500 5,981,500
Perth 5,179 6,323 22.1% 18,126,500 22,130,500 4,004,000
Hobart 622 810 30.2% 2,177,000 2,835,000 658,000
Canberra 3,093 3,763 21.7% 10,825,500 13,170,500 2,345,000
Darwin 1,498 1,407 -6.1% 5,243,000 4,924,500 -318,500
TOTAL 41,978 54,112 28.9% 146,923,000 189,392,000 42,469,000
Source: ABS Census 2001 and 2006.
Table 5 Benefit Analysis of Commuter Cycling
Present Value Item Value per km (2006)* Total value (2006)* (25 years @ 6% per annum*** discount rate)*
Externalities $0.0599/car-km $9.2 million $127 million
$0.125 - $0.666/car-km (peak)** Congestion $0.033 - $0.177/carkm (off-peak)** $63.9 million $909 million depending on city
$0.376/cycle-km Health and fitness $71.2 million $982 million (mortality plus morbidity)
TOTAL Capital Cities Benefit $144.3 million $1,527 million to $2,018 million
* Valued at resource costs (ie net of indirect taxes – GST and Fuel Excise) ** Subject to escalation of fuel cost component in line with progressive increase in real cost of petrol to $2/litre by 2016 *** Most jurisdictions use a higher discount rate that broadly reflects the market rate of interest. However, the market rate of interest includes inflation expectations that are specifically excluded from this assessment. The Australian Transport Commission (2006a) recommends using it as the long term government bond rate, which is currently around 6%.
For additional information, including the assumptions upon which the above calculations are based, see Appendix 2.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 5 January 2008 1.4 Local Bicycle User Local BUGs provide The Australian Groups (BUGs) Australia has approximately 100 local valuable community cycling sector BUGs which vary in size, focus and based opportunities activities. They share a common desire The Australian cycling sector is made to promote cycling and a commitment for people to ride and up of an active and diverse range of to develop a bicycle friendly Australia. recreation, advocacy and sporting have a wealth of cycling organisations. In general, they have According to a survey undertaken on knowledge to share been very effective in providing cycling behalf of the Cycling Promotion Fund, events and services to the Australian BUGs have an estimated membership community for over three decades. For of around 20,000. The majority of and infrastructure and lobby councils instance, between 1994 and 2004, members are between 25 and 55 and other agencies for better bicycle Bicycle Victoria organised rides years old and cycle for recreation and facilities. totalling 208,244 participants (Garrard commuting. Some 60% of BUGs et al, 2005). Promoting physical activity surveyed organise regular rides with Local BUGs are run solely by to this large group would be very the majority less than 30km long. volunteers and they provide an costly for the health sector. These Most BUGs are affiliated with their excellent grassroots service to cycling organisations are constrained state cycling organisation and regular members and the general community. by a lack of resources to further rides are promoted through websites They have a wealth of knowledge of promote cycling. and ride calendars. Some state cycling local cycling facilities, are keen to share organisations offer ride leader training tips on cycling and provide valuable Strategically targeted funding from the and insurance cover for BUGs. South community based opportunities for health sector could result in substantial Australia and NSW offer the most people to ride regularly through social leveraged benefits to the community. extensive BUG cycling calendar with support and encouragement. Moreover, it would provide the regular rides most days of the week. opportunity to prioritise disadvantaged The majority of rides are free and open The survey highlighted that there is or under represented groups, as this is to anyone, not just members. considerable potential to strengthen something largely outside of the these valuable grassroots cycling sector’s current scope. Many BUGs also work with their local organisations by offering training, councils to provide input on bicycle plans support and resources.
Table 6 State-based bicycle organisations
Organisation Members Services offered Staff Volunteers Programs/Events
Information, resources, insurance, events, Cycling events, behaviour change Bicycle Victoria 40,000 advocacy, consultancy services, bicycle 35 500 programs (Ride2Work, Ride2School), parking
Information, resources, insurance, events, Community cycling events, behaviour Bicycle NSW 10,000 advocacy, consultancy services, ride 10 100 change programs (Ride2work, Ride2School), leadership training bicycle maintenance courses
Cycling events, women’s ride, bike safety Information, resources, insurance, events, for kids, bicycle maintenance courses, Bicycle Queensland 5,000 5 120 advocacy, bike week, information sessions leisure rides, film night, Ride2School challenge, Ride2Work and Ride2School
Information, resources, insurance, events, Cycling events, bicycle maintenance, skills Bicycle South Australia 3,000 advocacy, bike hire scheme, bicycle 5 200 training, Ride2Work and Ride2School, maintenance programs for disadvantaged kids
Bicycle Tasmania 250 Information, resources, insurance, advocacy 0 20 Cycling events and regular ride, Bike Week
Cycling events, weekly recreational rides, Information, resources, advocacy, Pedal Power (ACT) 1600 2 50 primary school programs, Ride2Work, insurance, skills courses women training program
Bicycle Transport Alliance (WA) Information, resources, insurance, advocacy 1 20 Bicycle maintenance and skills classes
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 6 January 2008 Cycling Sporting Bodies 1.51 Case Study Cycling education Cycling Australia Cycling proficiency and skills training Cycling Australia is the peak body for classes the sport of cycling in Australia, with Intervention description In 2003 the Health Promotion Unit of the aim of developing and promoting the Central Sydney Area Health competitive cycling in Australia. Its Lack of confidence and skills have Service set up a pilot cycling main income is from the Australian been identified as barriers to cycling proficiency training program for adults. Sports Commission and Australian (discussed in Section 2.1), particularly The focus of the program was to Commonwealth and Olympic Games for people who do not currently cycle. provide practical skills and supervised Grants and Athletes with disability grants. In response, a range of cycling training on bicycle paths and on-road. education/skills training programs have The aim of the intervention was to Cycling Australia has affiliated state been set up. increase the number of people cycling, groups which together with local clubs the frequency of cycling and the use of have an overall membership of 12,000. An evaluation undertaken by the bicycles for transport. The program There are 436 accredited coaches Bicycle Federation of Australia on was designed for adults with low to (most are volunteers). Cycling Australia behalf of the Australian Greenhouse moderate-level skills and confidence in and its affiliated organisations have Office on Best Practice in Adult Cycling cycling. From the 113 people starting expanded their regular competition Proficiency Training (Bicycle Federation the program, 72% completed at least program to include a recreation/skills/ of Australia, 2006) indicated that one course and 93% took part in the participation program which includes Australia has a number of agencies pre-program and follow up interviews. Full Cycle, Skill Cycle and J Cycle currently offering cycling skills courses. Participants’ satisfaction with all offering a pathway to competitive This includes a broad range of aspects of the course was very high cycling. The regular competition events stakeholders, such as non-government and the course led to a significant and skill programs are delivered organisations, councils, cycling increase in participants’ self-reported through its state and local affiliated organisations, employers, bicycle skills and confidence in cycling (Telfer member groups. retailers and independent training et al, 2006). providers. Many target new and inexperienced riders. The survey Mountain Bike 1.52 Australia (MTBA) highlighted that current cycling proficiency classes are effective in Community based The objective of MTBA is to develop increasing skills and improving programs and promote mountain biking in confidence but many lack formal Australia for the benefit and enjoyment evaluations, effective marketing and Intervention description of all members. MTBA has 4,200 accreditation. Current availability was members from 100 clubs around also found to be limited. Community based cycling programs Australia and is affiliated with Cycling provide locally based interventions Australia. Clubs organise regular Population group/setting focussing on promoting cycling for events and competitions and recorded health and/or transport. Programs offer 15,000 participants in 2006. Most cycling education programs are information, incentives and/or the Participation in mountain bike events delivered in group settings either at a development of social networks (eg has increased considerably, with some community level or in a workplace group recreational or training rides, events attracting in excess of 1,000 setting. Evidence suggests that more buddy system for ride to work) that riders. In 2006, clubs in Queensland women participate in cycling education provide supportive structures to attracted over 6,300 participants. programs (Garrard et al, 2006). maintain behaviour change.
Effectiveness 1.5 Population group/setting A recent review identified few rigorous Most community based cycling programs Current Australian evaluations of cycling skills programs are delivered in a group setting at a interventions to for adults in Australia (Rissel & Garrard, community or workplace level. The 2006). Those that have been TravelSmart Communities program encourage adult evaluated show that cycling education (see below for further details) is an cycling and skills training programs are individualised social marketing program effective in assisting people to gain the focusing on individual behaviour This section covers a range of current skills and confidence needed to cycle. change. interventions used to promote and An evaluation of a program run by the encourage cycling including Health Promotion Unit of the Central Effectiveness education/cycling skills training, Sydney Area Health Service resulted in multifaceted community based 56% of participants cycling more often Many community based cycling programs, social marketing campaigns two months after the completion of the programs have not been formally and cycling events. Interventions program. Interestingly, the follow up evaluated, but feedback from the focused on creating supportive survey also showed an increase in organisations that run these programs physical environments, policies and other forms of physical activity by indicate that they are effective in regulations are covered in section two participants (Telfer at al, 2006). encouraging people to increase their of this report. physical activity levels through cycling.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 7 January 2008 The evaluation of the Cycling 100 Case Study Case Study program (see below for further details) indicated that participants’ physical Cycle 100 TravelSmart work capacity improved, and cholesterol In 2000/01 Cycle 100 was developed Communities and coronary risk ratio decreased with the objective of providing TravelSmart is an established program (Marshall, 2001). incentives for people to replace some aimed at encouraging people to reduce of their car trips to work by bicycle, for the number of trips taken by car, and In the town of Vincent in Western health and environmental reasons. The increase the number of trips using Australia, the TravelSmart Communities trial program involved 100 people sustainable transport modes. This is project achieved a 9% reduction in (average age 39 years) who lived done through the use of information single occupant car use and an between 10 to 15 km of their and marketing tools focused on increase in cycling of 30%, with workplace. Participants were provided walking, cycling, public transport, walking trips rising 22% and public with a mountain bike equipped with car pooling and telecommuting. transport up 11% (Social Data, 2005). lights, lock, cycle computer and helmet. As a result of the program, TravelSmart directs its effort towards More details of these and related participants replaced over 12,000 people with an identified willingness to programs are provided in the case kilometres of car commuting with consider ways of reducing their car studies following. cycling. The evaluation demonstrated use, as behaviour change programs that new riders gained significant have been shown to be more effective Case Study health improvements as a result of the in populations already contemplating a Bike Bus program (Marshall, 2001). change in their lifestyle (Milligan et al, 2007). TravelSmart has been operating Many non-commuter cyclists report a since 2001 and has developed a lack of confidence and awareness of comprehensive range of tools to assist bicycle friendly routes as major individuals to make smarter travel reasons for not riding to work. Bike choices. This can include personalised Bus is an initiative aimed at addressing visits, targeted information packs, both these issues. Piloted in Sydney to including public transport time-tables, encourage cycling for work journeys, cycle maps and bicycle maintenance/ each weekday morning, the ‘bus’ riding skills classes. Programs are cycles a set timetabled route through funded by all levels of government but Sydney’s suburbs to the Central currently reach only a very small Business District. It picks people up proportion of the community. along the way, in a similar manner to a regular bus. Figure 4 Cycle 100 participants 1.53 Social Marketing Photo: Public Transport Authority Intervention description In 2007 the Public Transport Authority Coordinated social marketing in Western Australia adapted the Cycle campaigns are designed to motivate 100 program, to increase the level of people to be more active through physical activity of train drivers. Train cycling, by raising awareness of the drivers, due to the sedentary nature of benefits of bicycle riding. their work, are at a higher risk of developing lifestyle diseases and this Population/Group setting program focuses on integrating bicycle Figure 3 The Bike Bus in Newtown, Sydney riding into their daily routine. Large scale community wide campaigns with messages directed to Participants agreeing to ride 60km a large audience through different types Bike Bus has grown substantially, and each week for the duration of the 6- there are now four routes. Bike Bus of media including television, radio, month program were provided with a newspapers, mailings, and events. participants report a significant free bicycle and accessories. increase in their level of comfort, with Effectiveness each route designed to maximise the Cycle 100 proved very popular, with use of quieter streets. Riding in a 160 participants signing up and 90% Messages highlighting health, fitness group helps develop confidence, and completing the program. Each participant and family interaction are effective provides support for those not underwent a medical examination motivators in the promotion of cycling. experienced at riding in peak hour. The before and after the program and the Evaluation of the Cycle Instead pilot program is funded in part by the results showed significant improvements campaign in Perth indicated that the Department of Environment and Water in both physiological and mental majority of people exposed to the Resources and the Cycling Promotion health. The program is intended to campaign correctly interpreted the Fund. continue to provide benefits well main messages and for whom they beyond the 6-month period considered were designed. The evaluation found More information, including a YouTube indicative of sustained behaviour significant increases in cycling behaviour, Video of the Bike Bus in action can be change (Orleans, 2000). intentions to cycle and intentions to found at http://www.bikebus.org.au/ purchase a bicycle (Greig, 2001).
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 8 January 2008 An additional evaluation of the Cycle recreation/advocacy organisations, Instead campaign indicated significant charities, cycling clubs and private increases in the proportion of event operators. Most cycling events respondents who had cycled in the promote cycling as a healthy physical previous six months (29% vs 36%). and/or sporting activity, while others This was backed up by bicycle counts, such as Ride 2 Work and Beyond which recorded increases in cycling by promote cycling as a practical and up to 65% across the Perth Bicycle healthy transport option. Some event Network (ARRB, 2000). Further details organisers provide people with of the Cycle Instead campaign are interactive multimedia resources with provided in the case study below. training tips to enable them to improve their fitness and skills levels. Case Study Population Groups/Setting Cycle Instead campaign The Western Australian Government Cycling events attract people of all age developed a cycling promotion groups and socio economic Riding to work is increasingly campaign, Cycle Instead, using a social backgrounds (Godbold, 2005; Bowles recognised as a healthy, sustainable marketing approach. Extensive research et al, 2006; Cycling Promotion Fund, and cost effective method of was undertaken prior to the development 2005). Event organisers are commuting. of the promotion strategy, through increasingly offering a range of distances to cater for a variety of surveys and focus group discussions. Ride to Work Day commenced in Victoria This identified that the prime fitness and skill levels. A small number of cycling events are for females only, in 1993. The first National Ride to motivators that influence cycling are Work Day was held on October 17th centred on the individual. While the to encourage more women to participate. The Ride 2 Work and 2007 and attracted around 90,000 campaign was promoting cycling as a people, making it Australia’s largest mode of transport, it was clear that the Beyond program targets people travelling to work through workplaces. cycling event and one of the biggest most persuasive way of doing so was work place events in the country. to promote the health and fitness Effectiveness aspects of cycling. Two 30 second television commercials were developed A number of evaluations have to reflect the main motivators of cycling highlighted the effectiveness of cycling - fitness for women, and spending time events in encouraging people to with children for men. These increase their physical activity levels commercials were shown for four through bicycle riding. Ride 2 Work RIDE TO WORK DAY - THE KEY FACTS weeks with modest exposure levels and Beyond has become Australia’s (average 300 Target Audience Rating largest cycling event and has been Ride to Work Day has been running Points (TARPS) per week) and were effective not only in encouraging in Australia since 1993 (originating run in conjunction with a range of people to cycle on the day but also to in Victoria) supporting activities and media maintain their behaviour after the event In 2007, there were 29,000 registered including; community events, Cycle (Bicycle Victoria, 2007). Instead merchandise and a brochure riders – up from 10,181 in 2006 about the benefits of cycling with Recreational cycling events provide 26% of registered riders were frequently asked questions. incentives for people to increase their riding to work for the first time Additionally a range of newspaper physical activity levels in preparation for advertisements were developed, and the event, and have also been effective Actual number of riders in 2007 bicycle retailers engaged to enable in increasing participants’ cycling was estimated at 90,000 them to capitalise on the campaign. participation after the event (Godbold, Participants have increased more 2005; Bowles et al, 2006; Cycling than 5 fold since 2002. Promotion Fund, 2005). Additionally, 1.54 cycling events are also effective in In 2007 there were almost 3000 Cycling Events encouraging social connections and registered workplaces team building with many events Intervention description In 2006, 63% of registered riders providing incentives for team entries, were men and 37% women. Cycling events provide a range of and a high proportion of participants In 2006, for 25% of registered participants, opportunities for people of most ages citing social interaction as a motive for it was the first time they had ridden to and fitness levels to be physically active. participation (Godbold, 2005). work that year. Over 60% said they Australia offers a wide variety of cycling usually travel to work by car. events from small community based Case Study events with less than 100 participants Ride to Work Day In both 2004 and 2006, 27% of first-time and short distances, to large more riders were still riding 5 months later. challenging events with more than Journeys to work are principally made 14,000 riders. Organisers of cycling by private motor vehicle in Australia Source Bicycle Victoria, 2006; Bicycle Victoria, 2007 events include bicycle (ABS, 2006b).
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 9 January 2008 1.55 participants before they commenced In both 2004 and 2006, Recreational training for the event (Godbold, 2005). 27% of first time Ride cycling events A number of interventions have been to Work Day participants Recreational cycling events have seen developed to increase cycling substantial increases in participation participation in Australia. These include were still riding 5 around Australia. The top 10 cycling efforts to increase bicycle riding months later participation events are organised knowledge and skills through the by membership based cycling provision of cycling classes. In addition, organisations and charities. the development of individualised and mass campaigns promoting the The Ride to Work Day event also In 2007, 55,000 people took part in benefits of cycling have encouraged recruits individual workplace the top 10 cycling events around more people to take it up, as either a coordinators to strengthen their Australia (Table 7). recreational or transport option (or both). capacity to provide ongoing support, Other programs focus on the provision information and incentives for These cycling events are more than of bicycles and/or the creation of a colleagues. This helps to maintain the one-off events in terms of physical supportive social environment for cycling to work after the Ride to Work activity participation. Pre and post- cycling and this too has been Day event. This has been instrumental event surveys indicate that participants successful in boosting cycling levels. in ensuring that people maintain their increase their physical activity levels in behaviour in the long term. preparation for the events. While activity levels may drop after the event, they See appendices 3 – 6 for more remain above the levels reported by information on Ride to Work Day.
Table 7 Cycling events
Cycling Event Organiser Participants Length
Great Victorian Bike Ride 2007 Bicycle Victoria 3,700 550 km 9 days
Cycle QLD 2007 Bicycle QLD 1,000 500 km 9 days
NSW Big Ride 2007 Bicycle NSW 1,000 500k m 9 days
Annual Tour 2007 Bicycle SA 200 500 km 9 days
Portfolio Partners Around Bicycle Victoria 14,000 50 km to 240 km 1 day the Bay in a Day 2007
Wilson HTM Brisbane to the Bicycle QLD 5,700 100 km 1 day Gold Coast Cycle Challenge 2007
Mutual Community Challenge 2007 Bicycle SA & SA Tourism 2,700 84 km to 128 km 1 day
City of Sydney Spring Cycle 2007 Bicycle NSW 8,500 5 km to 50 km 1 day
Freeway Bike Hike 2007 Asthma Foundation WA 7,015 10 km to 30 km 1 day
Portfolio Partners Sydney MS Society NSW 11,000 56 km & 90 km 1 day to the Gong Ride 2007
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 10 January 2008 Current barriers and facilitators to greater 2 cycling participation by Australian adults
A general theme within this document Figure 6 Ecological model of physical population are physically unable to ride is the need to create supportive activity a regular bicycle due to disability environments for health. The Ecological (Rissel & Garrard, 2006) and this Model of Physical Activity takes the proportion grows with increasing age view that environments can either (Australian Institute for Health & support or restrict healthy behaviour. In Welfare, 2003). this model, used to guide discussion in this section, individual, social/cultural, Extensive research regarding the environmental, and policy factors all influences on physical activity has influence physical activity participation, identified numerous individual factors often unintentionally (Sallis et al, 1998). that affect participation: Safety concerns have been added as confidence an additional influence in this section, due to the strong effect it has on motivation cycling participation. See figure 6 (right) It is particularly noteworthy that in knowledge, skills, beliefs for an overview of the Ecological Model countries such as the Netherlands, and attitudes of Physical Activity. Germany and Denmark, bicycle riding is an inclusive activity, with a relatively time and opportunity even gender and age mix (see perceived benefits and barriers The reasonably high level appendix 11 and 13). Children ride to enjoyment school, adults, including the elderly of bicycle ownership but make trips by bicycle and this helps Confidence relatively low participation them build in recommended levels of physical activity into their daily life, Bandura (1997) demonstrated that rate suggests strong rather than having to make a special confidence is a very important time for it. requirement in order for people to take interest, but the presence up new activities such as cycling. This of a range of significant The following section describes the is supported by recent Western evidence around barriers to cycling Australian research that found a lack of 5 barriers participation in Australia. confidence features as a major reason for individuals choosing not to take up Although cycling is an increasingly 2.1 physical activities (Milligan et al, 2007). popular activity in Australia, a number They found 34% of inactive adults of significant barriers need to be Individual factors described themselves as ‘not at all addressed before it can be adopted by confident’ (p.46). Cycling is an activity a wider section of the Australian Health-related that requires greater confidence than many other forms of physical activity – community. Women in particular are Poor health is potentially a barrier to as it frequently involves interaction with under-represented in Australia (see many forms of physical activity, motor vehicles and a variety of road appendix 11) and there are some including cycling. Around 10% of the important barriers that prevent women surfaces. from taking up cycling in a manner more representative of their proportion OVERCOMING HEALTH-RELATED BARRIERS TO CYCLING of the population and these will be Some styles of pedalled vehicles (eg recumbents) are suitable for use by people with poor discussed below. The various barriers health or with a disability. Moreover, as a low-impact form of physical activity, cycling appeals and motivations discussed will differ, to individuals who cannot participate in high impact activities. The ‘need to swap to a low depending on each individual’s impact activity’ was reported to be an ‘important’ or ‘very important’ reason for commencing circumstance. Non-riders may typically cycling (Garrard et al, 2006). Photo: Greenspeed place a larger emphasis on personal factors and the physical environment, whereas regular riders might flag socio-political issues, such as the underlying basis of modal priorities (motorised over non motorised) as important factors (Daley et al, 2007).
Women represent half the Australian population but only 20% of commuter cyclists.
5 Australia’s per capita sales of bicycles is one of the highest in the world (Bicycle Industries Australia 2005); a NSW survey indicated that 65% of people owning a bicycle wanted to ride more (Rissel C., New C., Pham S., Bindon J., 2008)
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 11 January 2008 DEVELOPING THE SKILLS AND Knowledge and Skills PROMOTE CYCLING AS A TIME SMART SUPPORT TO BEGIN CYCLING The survey of 2403 cyclists by Garrard et al (2006) identified the following WAY OF GETTING AROUND AND Bicycle skills training is an effective way knowledge/skills barriers to greater STAYING HEALTHY of boosting confidence for those new to levels of cycling: cycling (Telfer et al, 2006). The Royal Develop a mass marketing campaign to highlight that cycling can be the perfect Society for the Prevention of Accidents lack of knowledge of local cycling way for busy people to keep active, as it (2001) found that cycle training increases routes, the road rules that apply to combines physical activity with transport individuals’ propensity to cycle and cyclists, and the most appropriate and/or active recreation. In many cases it reduces the chance of being involved in an bicycle to purchase. accident (cited in Telfer et al, 2006). can be time equivalent to other transport lack of cycling skill in regards to modes and at times, the fastest way to get operating a bicycle, cycling in Local Bicycle User Groups (BUGs) are able from A to B. traffic, cycling in a group, and to provide social support for those looking People frequently overestimate how long a bicycle maintenance. to ride with others. trip takes by bicycle and underestimate concerns that you need to be fit to the time required to undertake a journey ride a bicycle, that the terrain by car (Tranter, 2004). As Australians try to needs to be flat, the weather fine, fit more into their day, cycling offers an and the distance short (many of elegant solution for an increasingly time these perceptions and concerns are poor society by combining the need for reduced with cycling experience). transport and physical activity. Daley et al (2007) found that Many perceived physical barriers to occasional riders studied in Sydney cycling, such as poor weather and distance identified that a lack of knowledge to destination are actually perceptual about bicycle routes and basic barriers that modify when people start mechanical issues was a deterrent to riding (Rissel et al, 2002; Garrard et al, regular riding. 2006).
Motivations PROVIDE INFORMATION KITS ON CYCLING TO DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE think it is acceptable to always travel A wide range of surveys have AND SKILLS by car, regardless of distance (Hinde & consistently found that motivations for Dixon, 2005; Woodward et al, 2002). cycling tend to be focused on the Provide well publicised information packs This becomes normal, habitual behaviour individual. Central to this is the desire on cycling that includes details of: that results in many short trips being to improve or maintain personal health undertaken by automobile. In Australian and fitness (Garrard et al, 2006; Greig, recent bicycle route improvements in the local area capital cities, 52% of car journeys are 2007). In a large scale mass marketing under 5km and 38% are under 3km campaign, pre intervention focus cycle route maps (Austroads, 2005; RMIT, 1999). These groups reported the desire to exercise distances are easily covered by bicycle. four times more frequently than the the personal and community next most common reason for benefits of cycling The fitness image of cyclists, such as choosing to cycle. Other motivations the wearing of lycra can act as a focused on the individual include stress bicycle skills training classes barrier to bicycle riding (Greig, 2001). reduction, social interaction and available exercising with the family. The evidence reviewed for this report a contact list of local, state and demonstrates that there are a number national cycling organisations of important individual factors that can MASS MARKETING CYCLING act as a barrier to cycling. A lack of cycle awareness tips for Mass marketing campaigns to motorists (road safety) confidence, knowledge and riding skills encourage cycling should focus on have all been shown to reduce cycle the key motivations associated with participation. Interestingly, although a cycling: lack of time presents in the literature as Time and opportunities a barrier to physical activity, cycling is in a Personal health and fitness Lack of time is a commonly reported unique position, in that it can be combined constraint on all forms of physical activity, with transport, which means that in Social interaction including cycling (Trost et al, 2002). many cases, it can actually save time. Cut fuel costs Perceived social norms They should also address the Rose’s (1992) population-based theory negative perceptions of cycling: of health improvement demonstrates In Australian capital cities, that social and cultural norms shape cycling is too dangerous individual behaviour, which in turn 52% of car journeys are influences health risk factors and you need to be very fit under 5km and 38% are health outcomes at a population level. under 3km it’s only something you do if you In Australia’s car-oriented culture, the cannot drive a car perceived norm is that most people (Austroads, 2005; RMIT, 1999)
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 12 January 2008 2.2 In a sample of 3361 adults from allow Australians of all social and Western Australia, Milligan et al (2007) cultural backgrounds to live a healthy Social and cultural found obesity and inactivity were lifestyle, it is necessary to provide an factors disproportionately high in those with environment supportive of cycling. low levels of education, the unemployed Cultural values and norms include and the retired. Similarly, they found 2.3 systems of belief and codes of the propensity to undertake short walks behaviour that shape the structure of or bicycle trips rather than car journeys Environmental society. These systems of belief, many increases with education level. The factors of which are unstated or unconscious, encouragement of cycling in populations influence behaviour in subtle ways. of economic and educational The constructed environment… They can be difficult to identify, disadvantage is therefore particularly often seems intentionally designed challenge or change. Nevertheless, pertinent. The promotion of more by human beings to impose barriers successful public health strategies regular utilitarian cycling may help to physical activity demonstrate that health enhancing reduce the socio-economic differential Sallis et al, 1998, p. 381 changes in community attitudes are in physical activity. A ‘whole of Environmental influences on physical possible (eg tobacco control, drink- community’ childhood obesity activity, including cycling are well- driving, bullying, and violence against prevention program in Colac, Victoria documented. Community women). This section describes some (Be Active, Eat Well) successfully characteristics such as urban density, of the social and cultural factors that reduced Body Mass Index relative to road and street design, housing type, constrain cycling. the control group. The program included a component on bicycle accessibility to and connectivity of Figure 8 The effects of ever-increasing car education and promotion, especially bicycle paths, lanes and trails, and use on walking and cycling to school cycling to school. The results location of community services all play demonstrated a flattening of the a substantial role in promoting or gradient between socio-economic discouraging cycling (Giles-Corti et al, group and Body Mass Index 2005; Newman & Kenworthy, 1999; (Sanigorski et al, 2007). Handy, 2004). The following section on the physical environment’s influence on Recent evidence suggests that, in the cycling and health is divided into urban US, ‘lifestyle’ physical activity (eg design and bicycle infrastructure, utilitarian walking and cycling) does not although it should be noted that there show the marked social gradient is considerable overlap. evident for leisure-time physical activity (Berrigan et al, 2006). Participation in 2.31 cycling is a low cost activity and has the potential to actually save money if Urban design used to replace some car journeys Public health researchers studying the (Tranter, 2004). link between environment and health have found that land-use mix has a Social norms governing behaviour strong association with obesity. Frank Source: Dora and Phillips, 2000 have tended to favour motorised travel et al (2004) found in their study of over Socio-economic over active transport, even for journeys 10,000 people that each quartile short enough to be completed by increase in land use mix is associated status and cycling bicycle. A paradoxical situation was with a 12.2% reduction in the Lower socio-economic groups found to exist whereby low income likelihood of obesity across sex and participate less in physical activity areas are less conducive to the most ethnic groups. (Kavanagh et al, 2007; WHO, 2006; affordable and physically active forms Dowler, 2001; World Health Organisation, of transport and recreation, such as 2004; Wardle & Steptoe, 2003; Coggins cycling. Yet in comparison to other There is growing evidence et al, 1999; Milligan et al, 2007). forms of physically active leisure, bicycle riding was found to display a that low density Several studies have investigated the more level social gradient. In order to neighbourhoods with specific barriers experienced by low income groups to physical activity. The poorly connected street following factors were found to act as BRIDGING THE GAP – ENSURE networks affect how much greater barriers to physical activity in CYCLING IS ENCOURAGED ACROSS low income areas than for higher time we spend walking, THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SPECTRUM income groups: cycling and our ability to Develop bicycle friendly infrastructure Reduced access to supportive initiatives in areas of low socio-economic use public transport physical environments (Popkin et areas to ensure they have the same level al, 2005; Estabrooks et al, 2003; (Research Australia, 2007, p. 15). of access to cycling facilities as higher Kavanagh, 2007). income groups. Lower financial capacity to pay for Ensure new housing developments have Professor Billie Giles-Corti of the various activities (Sobal & cycle lanes integrated into their design University of Western Australia has Stunkard, 1989). from the planning stage. demonstrated a clear link between the
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 13 January 2008 quality of public space and levels of THE WHO EUROPEAN MINISTERIAL walking and cycling (Research Australia, CONFERENCE ON COUNTERACTING 2007). Figure 9 (below) offers a good OBESITY RECOMMENDED: illustration of the sort of conditions that have been found to promote active Removing barriers to physically active transport, whilst figure 10 (below) is an transport can be achieved, for example, example of poor amenity, which act as by providing adequate infrastructure for a barrier to active transport. cycling and walking, reducing speed limits in environments where vulnerable road users mix with motorised transport, reallocating space to cyclists and pedestrians and working with urban planners to ensure that services, jobs and amenities are situated within distances that can be conveniently Figure 11 Public space is where most covered on foot or by bicycle physical activity occurs for both sexes
Source: WHO, 2006, p. 22 Source: Milligan et al, 2007
Photo: Elliot Fishman A recent report commissioned by the household was found to be inversely Western Australian Government proportional to physical activity levels. (Milligan et al, 2007) cited extensive To assess the influence of the physical research (Hill & Peters, 1998; French et environment on cycle participation, al, 2001; Swinburn et al, 1999) Pucher & Buehler (2006) examined why demonstrating that ‘obesogenic’ it is that Canadians ride to work three environments are acting as barriers to times more frequently than residents of physical activity, with corresponding the United States. They found that increases in obesity. Canada’s higher density and land use This is supported by a major study of mix reduces trip distance (and superior bicycle infrastructure) encourages Photo: Billie Giles-Corti, University of Western Australia the effects of land use and transport policy in Atlanta, United States. The cycling. The cost of car ownership and research team found that residents of usage is also higher in Canada and Low density development has been suburbs with better active transport this was found to encourage active found to be a barrier to cycling, as it options drive less, are more physically forms of transport. Canada’s cooler increases average journey distance active and less likely to be overweight climate was a less important and fosters a culture of car- or obese (Frank et al, 2007). determinant of cycling. Another Canadian dependence (WHO, 2006; Racioppi et Importantly, these results take into study found that the development of a al, 2005; Steele, 2007; Killoran, 2006; account self-selection. Self-selection comprehensive and connected Handy, 2004; Giles-Corti et al, 2005). relates to the possibility that the network of local roads and pathways residents with a predisposition to encourages a higher level of commuter cycling (Aultman-Hall et al, 1997). “ We know there’s a lot of evidence that physical activity chose to live in a people aren’t healthy and aren’t getting particular area because it had good healthier and yet, up until recently, most active transport options. Self-selection End-of-trip facilities of the focus was on health promotion was taken into account by investigating End of trip facilities, as their name campaigns focusing on the individual. the behaviours of people that did not suggests, refer to the provision of There’s no point telling people to cycle live in their preferred neighbourhood facilities designed to improve cyclists more if their environment is so unfriendly type. Frank et al (2007) found that the they can’t” amenity at their destination. Secure residents with the most favourable Libby Darlison, Chair, NSW Premier’s Council for bicycle parking is a basic minimum Active Living environment for walking and cycling and may include the following were 2.4 times as likely to undertake additional facilities: the 30 minutes of physical activity suggested by the United States Showers Surgeon General (1996). In fact, the Lockers CREATE AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT youth surveyed living within a kilometre Change rooms CONDUCIVE TO WALKING AND CYCLING of a recreational space, such as a bicycle path, or a retail destination were Laundry facilities Encourage a diverse range of land use around 2.5 times more likely to report practices, by mixing residential, retail and undertaking active transport (walking Bicycle repair office space. By boosting the density of or cycling). urban areas and regional centres, trip PROVIDE END OF TRIP It should be noted that in many of distance can be reduced and this FACILITIES FOR CYCLISTS encourages active forms of transport. these studies walking is more frequently undertaken than cycling and Encourage the introduction of legislation to Plan for active transport infrastructure in that walkability is the more commonly require developments to include end of trip new suburbs – it is cheaper and more assessed item (rather than bikeability). facilities for cyclists. See appendix 12 for effective than retrofitting. Finally, the number of cars per further information.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 14 January 2008 CASE STUDY – BRISBANE CITY COUNCIL Brisbane City Council has recently developed purpose built, high quality end-of-trip facilities for their staff. As the pictures below illustrate, the council has gone beyond simply providing bicycle parking; they also feature showers, lockers and ironing facilities.
Figure 12 Staff Bicycle Parking Figure 13 Ironing facilities provided for Figure 14 Secure bicycle parking cyclists outside a transport hub in Brisbane
The development of first class end of trip facilities at Brisbane City Council offers a very good demonstration of the importance of end of trip facilities in encouraging bicycle commuting. Prior to the development of the new facilities, Council provided 100 basic bicycle parking spots. The new facility accommodates 150 bike spaces and 200 lockers. The new facility reached capacity within a few months of opening and there is now a waiting list. Photos: Courtesy of Brisbane City Council
A lack of end of trip facilities has been supported by the case study on page streets, footpaths and shared paths. highlighted as a significant barrier to 16 which shows that increasing the Boosting the level of active transport cycling, especially for journeys to work length of the Maylands bicycle path in infrastructure is therefore likely to bring (Mellifont, 2001) and this finding was Western Australia contributed about increases in physical activity supported by a qualitative analysis of considerably to the increased volume levels and public health. the needs of cyclists, using a sample of cycle trips made. of riders and non-riders (Daley et al, “…it is imperative that new suburbs are 2007). Conversely, the provision of planned with active transport in mind, workplace car parking has been found so that bike routes are laid down when to decrease the likelihood of the streets and sewers are mapped out” commuting by bicycle (Mobilität in der Senator Penny Wong Minister for Climate Change and Water Schweiz, 2001, cited in WHO, 2006). Busy roads have also been found to 2.32 act as a significant barrier to cycling, Bicycle infrastructure especially for women (Garrard et al, A lack of bicycle infrastructure is 2006). The overwhelming majority of regularly reported to be a major barrier commuter arterials lack adequate provision for cyclists and this is likely to to increase cycling participation in Figure 17 Many Australian roads lack Australia (Garrard et al, 2006; Daley et bicycle infrastructure explain part of the reason why bicycle al, 2007). journeys to work make up around 1 – 2% of commute trips and only 21% of The lack of infrastructure for bikes is a This Australian data is consistent with these are female cyclists (ABS, 2007a). barrier. That’s a fear, being injured if I the international findings on the got on a bike relationship between the availability of (Non-rider, female, cited in Daley et al, 2007, p. 4). active transport infrastructure, and the community’s participation in cycling. To assess the influence of bicycle Milligan et al (2007), after surveying infrastructure on the level of cycling BICYCLE INFRASTRUCTURE over 3000 Western Australian adults participation, researchers have on physical activity found that there is PROVISION IS ESSENTIAL investigated the association between a strong and growing demand for the number of kilometres of bicycle Ensure that street design encourages walking and cycling paths and that paths per 100,000 residents and the rather than discourages bicycle use through when bicycle facilities are provided, proportion of bicycle commuters. The the provision of on road bicycle lanes. they are used increasingly for the study found that low levels of bicycle combined purposes of transport and Provide numerous off road options for infrastructure have a negative impact exercise. They concluded that ‘public those uncomfortable riding on the road. on levels of bicycle use (Nelson & infrastructure is important for providing Allen, 1997). Importantly, this Target bicycle route development around opportunities to facilitate regular relationship remained after adjusting for high demand locations such as schools, physical activity participation’ (p. 59). weather, terrain and the number of shops, community facilities and public They found that the majority of physical university students. Their results are transport nodes. activity occurs in public areas such as
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 15 January 2008 In countries with high bicycle transport CASE STUDY – EAST PERTH TO MAYLANDS PRINCIPAL SHARED PATH mode share, cycling is a socially inclusive activity (Pucher & Dijkstra, The East Perth to Maylands Principal Shared 708 extra cyclists used the route 2003; Pucher & Buehler, 2008). Path offers a good example of the influence each weekday, of which only 102 Garrard et al (2006) found that female of high quality bicycle infrastructure on were transferred from other routes usage. cyclists often choose routes that 206,500 extra cycle trips per year separate them from traffic, even if it The below graph illustrates the substantial may result in longer journeys. This is A 50% increase in usage was recorded increase in cycling coinciding with the years when the path was extended 2km testament to the notion that motor in which improvements had been made to vehicle traffic is a significant barrier to the bicycle route. The figures below Cost benefit ratio found to be 3.3:1. cycling. International studies indicate a reinforce the influence improvements in strong inverse relationship between bicycle infrastructure have on participation bicycle mode share and female (Ker, 2004; Cornwell & Barker, 2007): participation in cycling (Pucher & Buehler, 2008), suggesting that female participation in cycling may be an indicator of a cycling friendly environment. Consequently, any measures that increase female participation in cycling may have a flow-on effect for other groups (eg more risk-averse males, children, older Australians).
For instance, in the 2005 online survey of 2403 cyclists in Victoria, the majority of respondents who cycled for transport used roads with no bicycle facilities (83 per cent of females and 87 per cent of males) but only 6 per cent of females and 12 per cent of males actually preferred this option (Garrard et al, 2006).
Source: Ker, 2004; Cornwell & Barker, 2007.
OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO CYCLING WITH TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT Travel Demand Management refers to techniques aimed at reducing the need for car use and making alternative forms of transport more attractive. This can take a number of forms and the following outlines a few examples: Restricting motor vehicle access in city centres and creating a pedestrian and bicycle friendly inner core. Raising money through higher car parking charges and investing the revenue in pedestrian and bicycle facilities as well as improved public transport. Melbourne currently operates such a scheme. Congestion Charging: Since 2003, London has been charging cars for entering the inner city. This has resulted in less traffic congestion and a 43% rise in bicycle journeys. Revenue is invested in the public transport system and this has resulted in a large jump in passenger boardings and improved travel time (Transport for London, 2007). It is important to stress that the ‘stick’ approach should be balanced with ‘carrots’ to ensure that a wide range of mobility options are offered. When used in the right balance, they provide a win-win as they improve the traffic environment for those that need to drive, whilst promoting a range of healthier, sustainable travel options for others in the community (Litman, 2007).
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 16 January 2008 How to encourage better integration of bicycles with public transport
Bicycles and Public Transport BICYCLES AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT The combination of cycling and public transport offers the opportunity to cover distances not comfortably achieved by bicycle alone. In countries that have maximised opportunities for bicycling, such as the Netherlands, 38.6% of train trips involve a bicycle ride to the station (Cycle Council of the Netherlands, 2007). Secure Safe bicycle Carrying The three key areas to encourage more people to integrate bicycle and public bicycle routes bicycles transport travel are: parking at to public on public transport Safe Bicycle Routes to Public Transport Hubs: This is the essential first step transport transport hubs required to enable more people to feel safe and comfortable when riding to the station/stop. Appendix 16 illustrates how an integrated network of bicycle routes leading to train stations can increase the catchment area of public transport hubs. Secure Bicycle Parking: Once passengers have cycled to the station, they will require a secure place to lock their bicycle – as it will typically be left unattended for a large portion of the day. Taking bicycles on public transport: Providing the opportunity for people to take their bicycles on public transport allows people to ride both to and from their public transport journey. This has proven to boost the attractiveness of each of these modes of transport, as demonstrated by a comprehensive review of current programs throughout the United States (Federal Transit Administration, 2005).
See appendix 17 for information on the opportunities available for carry bicycles on public transport.
THE NETHERLANDS MODEL FOR BICYCLE INFRASTRUCTURE THE WESTERN AUSTRALIA EXPERIENCE WITH PUBLIC The pictures below demonstrate how well the Netherlands’ efforts in providing TRANSPORT CATCHMENT AREAS safe bicycle routes to train stations and bicycle parking have been embraced. A study on Perth’s Northern Suburbs Transit System has found that 30-55% of those driving to the station live within 3km (Department for Planning and Infrastructure, unpublished). At another station, with a relatively narrow catchment in an older developed area, nearly half the cars in the Park and Ride facility are registered at addresses within 800 metres of the station (Jim Krynen, Western Australian Public Transport Authority). This pattern of vehicle usage reinforces the potential of cycling to replace short distance car trips to public transport Multi level bicycle parking outside a Bicycle parking outside Groningen facilities like railway stations. train station, Amsterdam train station, The Netherlands
Photo: Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Photo: Elliot Fishman Management, The Netherlands 2007
The heavy demand for bicycle parking at train stations is not limited to major centres such as Amsterdam. Even regional centres have successfully fostered a culture of riding to the train station, as illustrated in the second photograph.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 17 January 2008 2.4 In Australia, you are seven KEY FINDINGS FROM THE 2006 AAMI Safety CRASH INDEX times more likely to be Most Australian drivers (88%) Safety concerns are a significant and hospitalised playing consistently reported barrier to cycling exceed the speed limit at least some and this is true for non-riders, football than riding a bike of the time infrequent and even regular riders (Flood and Harrison, 2006) More than one third of Australians (Daley et al, 2007; Greig, 2007). This (36%) sometimes speed to arrive at section discusses the issue of safety work or home sooner as a barrier to cycling and offers (30%) than by other drivers (13%), which Four in ten drivers (42%) admit to evidence based facilitators to help the authors attributed to a consistent having driven when over the legal overcome these concerns. pattern of regarding “the behaviour of drink-drive limit ‘out-group’ members more negatively Daley et al (2007) conducted a series than the behaviour of ‘in-group’ One in ten drivers (10%) say it is OK of focus groups with riders and non members” (Basford et al, 2002). for them to drink and drive after a few riders in Sydney and found that fear drinks so long as they feel capable was a significant and frequently reported theme when investigating Speed barriers to initiating or maintaining The evidence linking excessive speed be a most significant barrier to cycling regular riding. They also found that and heightened road traffic danger (Daley et al, 2007; Garrard et al, 2006). ‘Cycling’s dangerous image prevented could not be clearer (Whitelegg, 2006) It is often exacerbated by aggressive many non-riders from contemplating and this is illustrated in the table below driving and this has been consistently riding’ (p. 4). by the World Health Organisation: identified as a major deterrent to regular cycling, as has the general lack of bicycle infrastructure (Greig, 2001). Hostile Road Behaviour DRIVING AT 64KM/H IS 17 TIMES In a telephone survey of a random MORE DANGEROUS THAN 32KM/H Speed control in Australian cities and neighbourhoods is poor, with 50km/h sample of 1880 adult Australians in Speed Pedestrian Fatality Rate 2004 by the Australian Associated acting as a standard, compared to Motor Insurers, a high proportion of 32km/h 5% 20/30 km/hr in many European cities (Whitelegg, 2006; Pucher 2006). respondents agreed or strongly agreed 48km/h 45% that “Aggressive drivers put me off cycling or walking” (46% of women 64km/h 85% A review of the literature finds that the and 38% of men) (Australian perception of bicycling as a high risk Associated Motor Insurers, 2004). Source: Dora, 1999 activity, due to possible collision with Moreover, 66% of respondents in the motor vehicles deters many potential 2005 survey of 2403 cyclists in Victoria The table above shows a clear cyclists (Garrard et al, 2006). Although reported experiencing intentional correlation of the impact vehicle speed it is necessary to acknowledge the harassment from motor vehicle has on the likelihood of pedestrian legitimate concern of cyclists and non- occupants in the previous 12 months fatality. Cyclists, as a similarly cyclists, the data on road traffic injury (Garrard et al, 2006). The rate of cyclist vulnerable road user, can expect presents strong evidence that riding harassment was an average of 24 similar fatality rates. Killoran et al may not be as hazardous as incidents every 12 months (approx (2006), in their report Transport commonly perceived. In Australia, you once a fortnight). These disturbing interventions: Evidence briefing, for the are seven times more likely to be results are supported by a smaller United Kingdom’s National Health hospitalized playing football than riding survey of cyclists in South Australia Service found clear evidence that a bike (Flood and Harrison, 2006). (Brisco, 2006). Further evidence of road speed reductions significantly increase Research conducted by the British user behaviour acting as a barrier to safety levels and peoples’ propensity Medical Association found that the cycling can be found in appendix 14. to walk and cycle. health risks of inactivity are 20 times Only one in five drivers knew that it The combination of speed, volume of greater than the health risks posed by was legal for cyclists to ride two traffic and a lack of designated space a potential cycling accident (British abreast, 44% that cyclists were for people to ride has been found to Medical Association, 1992). allowed to ride along a clearway, and 63% that cyclists were allowed to occupy a whole lane (Rissel et al, 2002).
The Transport Research Laboratory in the United Kingdom investigated driver’s attitudes to cyclists, using both qualitative and quantitative methods. They found drivers often have a negative attitude to cyclists and see them as an ‘out group’. This view was found to result in many cyclists Figure 12 experiencing aggressive and Cycling is Safer dangerous behaviours from motorists. Drivers were more annoyed by cyclists
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 18 January 2008 THE MORE CYCLISTS THERE ARE, THE SAFER IT BECOMES
Source: (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2005), European Union (2003), US Department of Transportation (2003 & 2005) citied in Pucher, 2006)
The graph illustrates that countries with high of cyclists (Transport Western Australia, SOME KEY POINTS: cycling use have much lower cycling 1996). See appendix 14 for additional fatalities. The notion that, as the proportion information. The more cyclists there are, the safer it becomes. of cycling trips increases so does safety, is Research has shown that the more often also supported by Jocobson (2003) and you cycle, the safer it is. In fact, by riding Motorists behaviour largely Robinson (2005)–the latter investigated this twice a week instead of once a week, the controls the likelihood of collisions relationship in the Australian context. Both chance of an accident halves, due to training with people walking and cycling. authors found that increasing the number of and increased awareness of cars (Transport cyclists on the road is an effective strategy Comparison of pedestrian and Western Australia, 1996). to improve road safety. In fact, their cyclist collision frequencies investigation of transport injury and bicycle The United Kingdom’s Social Exclusion Unit between communities and over usage data allowed them to conclude “If found that roads with heavy motor vehicle time periods need to reflect the cycling doubles, the risk per kilometre falls traffic act as a barrier to walking and cycling amount of walking and bicycling. 34%” (cited in Robinson, 2005, p. 48). (2003). This barrier can be ameliorated by Numerous other authors have found that as placing restrictions on heavy vehicle traffic Efforts to enhance pedestrian and the number of cyclists increase, the number on roads that form part of a bicycle network. cyclist safety, including traffic of accidents dramatically reduces on a per engineering and legal policies, A recent review by the World Health kilometre basis (Litman & Fitzroy, 2005; Birk need to be examined for their Organisation on the literature examining the & Geller, 2007; Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003). For ability to modify motorist behavior. effect of the road traffic environment on instance, cycling in London has increased cycle and pedestrian safety found that area Policies that increase walking and 83% over the last 6 years, yet the number of wide traffic calming significantly reduce cycling appear to be an effective serious crashes involving cyclists has fallen road traffic injury (Bunn et al, 2003, cited in route to improving road safety. proportionally by 28% (Greater London Killoran et al, 2006). Authority, 2007). The more cyclists there are, (Jacobson, 2003) the more visible they will be to other road users, as people will be expecting to see If cycling participation cyclists. It is also more likely that car drivers will, themselves, ride a bike at some time – doubles, the risk per car drivers who also ride a bike are more kilometre falls by 34%. likely to be aware of and respect the rights
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 19 January 2008 2.5 community (Dora, 1999) is an PRESCRIBING CYCLING important precursor to the Policy and development of a transport system The World Health Organisation (2006) regulation that works for rather than against the recommends that health professionals can public’s health. play a lead role in the promotion of Public health is affected by a range of physical activity. Their role is unique in that factors not generally considered A comprehensive review of the they have a particular advantage at related to the health sector. As evidence supporting cycling by the targeting those that stand to benefit the described above, transport and land National Institute for Health and Clinical most from the activity, namely, physically use policies can have powerful Excellence in the United Kingdom under active groups. Moreover, they are an influences on public health, in either a recommended that ‘Transport policies important and respected source of health positive or negative direction. should be subject to more systematic information (Milligan et al, 2007). use of health impact assessments’ Encouraging GP’s to effectively convey the Sallis et al (1998) in their paper (Killoran et al, 2006, p. 5). It is importance of physical activity to Environmental and Policy Interventions essential that such health impact appropriate patients is an under-utilised to Promote Physical Activity noted that assessments be conducted on all method of reducing sedentary lifestyle much of the available evidence major transport projects. The disease. Specifically, the World Health suggests that many of the assessment would include impacts on Organisation recommends: interventions necessary to increase road safety, noise and air pollution, Increasing the level of eduction offered physical activity will need to be funded liveability, and sedentary lifestyle to health professionals during training outside the health sector. An disease. Importantly, it would also on the importance of bicycle riding as acknowledgement by public health assess the project’s impact on climate preventative medicine. experts, including the World Health change, as it has now been Organisation that the transport sector established that climate change has Providing financial motivation for health has an extremely important role to play profound public health implications professionals prescribing physical in the creation of a physically active (Research Australia, 2007). activity. Encouraging the health sector to lead by example; encouraging active travel INVISIBLE INFRASTRUCTURE to/from health institutions. Physical bicycle infrastructure, such as bike lanes, signage, ramps etc are traditional, A number of researchers in the field of straight-forward strategies used to encourage cycling. Whilst these initiatives are evidence- physical activity promotion at a population based methods of encouraging cycling, there are additional solutions that do not directly level have suggested incentive based involve the development of bicycle specific infrastructure. These initiatives have nevertheless programs may be effective at boosting proven to be an efficient method of improving bicycle friendliness and participation. ‘Invisible physical activity. According to Sallis et al Infrastructure’ (Sully, 2005) focuses on regulatory and design features that are not directly (1998), providing discounts on health bike-orientated. Examples include speed restrictions and traffic calming. insurance for people that ride to work for Sully (2005) argues that such policies, practices and physical measures encourage a modal instance may hold promise. shift in favour of cycling without a significant financial investment in cycle-specific Western Australia’s Premiers Council on infrastructure. An important advantage of invisible infrastructure is that it provides a range of Physical Activity (Milligan et al (2007) additional benefits – not simply for cyclists, but for the community as a whole. For instance, found that only 18% of overweight patients speed restrictions have been shown to increase both the perceived and actual level of safety had received GP advice on physical – for all road users (Dora, 1999; Hillman et al, 1991). activity, as demonstrated in appendix 9. The effectiveness of invisible infrastructure is demonstrated in Hilden, Germany, which experienced a significant increase in cycling through the implementation of wide spread speed restrictions. Residents of Hilden report improved perceptions of safety as a principal reason for cycling more (King, 2005).
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 20 January 2008 Recommendations to increase 3 adult cycle participation
Physical inactivity and the resulting A significant body of evidence now Recommendation 3 lifestyle diseases are reducing Australia’s exists to demonstrate that many public health status and quality of life. health issues have been successfully Behaviour change tackled with a population-wide programs “We…have created an environment that approach; tobacco control and makes it very convenient for people to This report recommends the expansion seatbelt wearing are good examples. of behaviour change initiatives such as be inactive, and subsequently develop Policy interventions to encourage unhealthy behaviours. The only way to TravelSmart, Ride to School and Ride physical activity using similar combat this is to make it equally to Work programs. convenient for people to become active, population wide measures are likely to and moreover, easier for them to inherit be successful. This includes political a better quality of life”. support, appropriate funding and Recommendation 4 Libby Darlison, whole-of-government strategies (WHO, Cycling events Chair, Premiers Council on Active Living, NSW. 2006). These policies must translate into an on the ground reality that This report recommends government Boosting the level of bicycle riding makes the healthy choice the easy support for cycling events, to act as an offers significant opportunities to choice. Cycling is certainly the healthy entry point for new cyclists. reverse the emerging trend of choice. Making it the easy choice is decreasing activity levels and spiralling the focus of this report’s Recommendation 5 rates of obesity and diabetes. recommendations. Urban design The following policy interventions are This report recommends the Recommendation 1 designed to respond directly to the establishment of national guidelines to barriers to cycling outlined earlier and ensure the built environment are based on the best available, most Mass marketing campaign contributes to, rather than detracts domestically relevant evidence. from, public health. Design should be This report recommends that a As previously highlighted, researchers encouraged through legislation that national mass marketing campaign be increases density, combines residential have consistently found that a lack of developed to address perceived time is one of the most frequently cited with other land uses and prioritises barriers to cycling. Key messages likely active forms of transport. reasons for not participating in physical to be successful include: activity. Cycling, as a form of transport and active recreation, overcomes this Cycling is safer than you think Recommendation 6 issue, as individuals’ health, transport You don’t need to be super fit to Bicycle Infrastructure and recreation needs are combined into cycle the same activity – thereby saving time! This report recommends the provision Improve road user of high quality, integrated bicycle The World Health Organisation has behaviour/safety/awareness of routes (on and off road) to meet the established that a wide range of cyclists challenge of increasing Australia’s interventions, at a population-wide and participation in active travel and Benefits of choosing to cycle; individual level are required to boost recreation. health improvements, greenhouse levels of physical activity (WHO, 2006). gas and petrol savings, relief from Professor Boyd Swinburn has congestion and parking problems. demonstrated the importance of Recommendation 7 comprehensive and long-term It is important to ensure that mass Funding approaches to tackling such issues as marketing is done in coordination with This report recommends that funding obesity (Swinburn & Egger, 1996). It is infrastructural improvements to ensure needs to be substantially increased at for this reason that it is important to new cyclists are not deterred from the all levels of government to better reflect provide both a supportive physical experience. the contribution cycling makes to environment for cycling and priorities in the transport, climate encouragement programs and events. Recommendation 2 change, health and economic sectors. It is this combination of the ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ infrastructure that offers the most Bicycle education effective strategy. programs This report recommends that a national bicycle education program be Cycling is certainly the developed and implemented across years 5 and 6, as well as community healthy choice. Now we and workplace programs for adults. need to make it the easy choice
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 21 January 2008 Conclusion 4
Australians have reduced their Although cycling is increasing in An integrated suite of solutions have level of physical activity over popularity, both as a form of recreation been recommended that address each and transport, participation remains of the aforementioned barriers to recent decades and this has low by international standards and cycling. These include: impacted negatively on our some significant barriers must be health. overcome before considerable gains Mass marketing the benefits of can be expected. These barriers have cycling Physical inactivity is now a major been identified in terms of: Providing bicycle education cause of ill health, contributing programs in schools, workplaces Individual factors such as a lack of and community settings to obesity, diabetes and riding skills and confidence cardiovascular disease, as well Supporting cycling events Social and cultural factors such as as breast cancer and depression. societal acceptance of heavy car Improving urban design/planning use, even for short trips to make cycling more attractive It is now clear that cycling offers an effective but underutilised Environmental factors such as Boosting the quality and quantity urban planning and bicycle of bicycle infrastructure networks form of physical activity, infrastructure such as on and off-road bicycle providing significant contributions routes and end of trip facilities Safety issues to public health. Moreover, Better integration of cycling with when used as an alternative to Policy and regulation matters public transport systems Solutions to each of these challenges motorised transport, cycling is Reassessment of funding for an effective method of reducing exist and a focus of this report has cycling; to better reflect cycling’s been to outline practical, cost-effective contribution to health, traffic greenhouse gas emissions, solutions to increase adult participation congestion and increasingly congestion, climate change and in cycling. high fuel costs. expensive fuel costs. As Australians continue to lead time poor lives, cycling is in a unique position for its ability to integrate physical activity into everyday living, especially through the use of the bicycle as a form of transport and active recreation.
As Australians continue to lead time poor lives, The responsibility to create healthy cycling is in a unique position for its ability to conditions for cycling is not entirely within the direct control of the health integrate physical activity into everyday living, sector. It is important to recognise a especially through the use of the bicycle as whole-of-government approach is required, with commitment from the a form of transport and active recreation. health, transport, environment, education and planning portfolios. Only through a combined approach can the significant benefits of increased cycling be fully realised.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 22 January 2008 Appendices 5
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CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 23 January 2008 Appendix 1 Energy expenditure of physical activities, including cycling, according to an individuals weight
Energy expenditure in kilojoules per hour (based on an individual’s body mass)
Physical activity 50 kg 68 kg 77 kg 86 kg 91 kg 100 kg
WALKING AND RUNNING Walking, 3.3 km per hour 276 376 426 477 502 552 Walking, 4.8 km per hour 368 502 568 635 669 736 Bushwalking, carrying 5kg load 828 1129 1279 1430 1505 1655 Jogging, 8 km per hour 849 1162 1317 1471 1547 1701 Running, 14 km per hour 1517 2069 2345 2621 2759 3035 CYCLING Bicycling, 15-16 km per hour 577 786 890 991 1045 1150 Bicycling, 21 km per hour 920 1254 1421 1588 1672 1839 OTHER DOMESTIC TASKS Trimming hedges 481 660 744 832 878 966 Vacuuming, window cleaning, car washing 343 468 535 594 627 690 OTHER PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Swimming (25 metres /minute) 552 752 853 953 1003 1104 Swimming (50 metres /minute) 1037 1413 1597 1789 1881 2069 Tennis (doubles) 506 690 782 874 920 1012
Source: Bauman, 2004
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 24 January 2008 Appendix 2 Value of Commuter Cycling Assumptions
Climate change cost savings of The savings to the health system In assessing the value of cycle commuter cycling were calculated is calculated based on net commuting, all impacts have been using A$40/tonne of carbon mortality (death rate) reduction and valued at resource cost (ie net of dioxide. This is higher than the reduced morbidity (disease) pure financial transfers such as Australian Transport Commission’s (updated values from Ker, 2004). indirect taxes – GST and fuel (2006a) default value, but is still excise) at 2006 prices. However, The value for mortality very low by European standards. we have included a progressive improvement was estimated on The United Kingdom, for example, increase in the price of petrol to the basis of (a) Hillman (1997), currently requires a value of $2/litre by 2016, reflecting a who concluded that for every life approximately A$200/tonne for conservative increase in the real year lost due to cyclist fatalities transport project appraisal. cost of oil. This has an impact on there is a corresponding gain of car operating costs and Road traffic congestion is 20 life years through improved congestion costs, both of which calculated based on incremental health and fitness and (b) costs of have a fuel component. values derived from the Australian cyclist fatalities in WA provided by Bureau of Transport and Regional the Road Safety Council of Cycling offers the potential for Economics (2007) for each capital Western Australia, to derive a considerable personal savings, in city. value for each life-year. terms of reduced transport expenses. This can occur through The value of reduced congestion Less research has been done on reduced need for car ownership was determined using capital city the value of morbidity and/or reduced car usage. These cycling to work only, as this is improvements. The value used cost savings have not been where congestion costs are here was originally suggested by calculated for this report but may greatest. Similarly, the assessment Ker (2003) as a sensitivity test, be helpful for future investigations has been on the basis of cycle- based on limited information on the economic benefits of only commuting trips, as bicycle + available. cycling. other mode trips (usually with The average length of bicycle public transport) will tend to be commuting trips (with bicycle as shorter and also occur in outer or sole mode) is around 7 kilometres middle suburbs, where congestion each way (derived from data in and the impacts of air pollution are ABS, 2006). less intense. Our estimates will be, if anything, underestimates of the true impact of cycling to work.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 25 January 2008 Appendix 3 Ride to Work Day: An effective behaviour change tool
Ride to Work Day is an effective A thought-provoker for those A reminder or prompt to get back behaviour change event on a number who are yet to commence riding into riding for seasonal or lapsed of levels. It encourages people to to work. riders (maintenance). contemplate, prepare for and trial An opportunity to prepare for and Behaviour reinforcement the ride-to-work experience, then to trial the experience for those who (maintenance) and an opportunity maintain that behaviour after the event. have been giving riding some to support new and returning As a tool for behaviour change it acts as: thought. riders for regular riders. A deadline to get ready for those who have already begun preparing.
Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006, p. 9
Appendix 4 The Distance Travelled on Ride to Work Day (one way, all respondents)
Average
Note: The averages for graph 2 are calculated on distances less than 31Km (<31Km is 4% of the national data set) as this removes outliers that live large distances from work and whose figures would skew the avraged results
Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006
Appendix 5 The Distance Travelled on Ride to Work Day (one way, first-time riders)
Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 26 January 2008 Appendix 6 Normal transport mode for Ride to Work Day participants
Source: Bicycle Victoria, 2006
Appendix 7 TravelSmart Workplaces
TravelSmart Workplaces: develops CycleSmart software to help staff Car pooling software into partnerships with organisations to gauge how their decision to cycle workplace intranet reduce car use, particularly to and from helps their health (eg/ calories Information on public transport burnt), the environment (eg/ work. This typically involves the options development of a Green Travel Plan for greenhouse gas saved), and their the organisation, highlighting a range wallet (eg/ reduced fuel costs). On line toolkit to develop the of initiatives to promote alternatives to business case for reducing car use Staff Bicycle Fleet: Operating in a single occupant car use – including: similar manner to an organisation’s Development of Bicycle User motor vehicle fleet, a bicycle fleet Groups (BUGs) and staff is a healthy alternative for short bicycle fleets trips. The Department of the Environment and Water Resources Installation of end of trip facilities (2007) have recently released a for cyclists, such as bike parking, toolkit designed to help showers and change rooms. organisations get started.
Appendix 8 The 2006 Brisbane to the Gold Coast Ride – A Snap Shot
Participant total was 3,800, an 50% normally ride 5 to 10 hours 97% were satisfied or very increase of 73% from 2,200 per week satisfied with their experience in 2005 on the day. 61% were not Bicycle Queensland 74% were Male and 26% were members Funds raised for Diabetes research female. was $60,000 (increased from 40% had not previously been $22,000 in 2005 79% were between 26 and on a BQ event 55 years of age 87% entered the event online Approximately 1,000 riders were 99% of riders said they would from outside the greater Brisbane recommend the event to others area Source: Bicycle Queensland
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 27 January 2008 Appendix 9 GP advice on physical activity
Times Proportion (%) Gender Male 15.5 Female 13.8 Age Group 18 to 29 years 8.3 30 to 44 years 17.2 45 to 59 years 17.0 60 years or more 14.7 Location Perth metropolitan area 14.9 South West 14.1 Kimberley/Pilbara 15.9 Midwest/Goldfields 12.7 Activity Level * Inactive 15.5 Insufficient 17.3 Sufficient 13.2 BMI Category Underweight 8.8 Acceptable 6.6 Overweight 17.6 * Sufficient activity is defined at 150 minutes of moderate physical activity Obese 36.2 over five or more sessions or 60 minutes of vigorous physical activity Overall 14.6 per week (excludes gardening and household chores).
Source: Milligan et al, 2007
Appendix 10 The Ecological Model of Physical Activity
According to the Ecological Model of Physical Activity, the policy goal must be one that seeks to create a positive interaction between environmental, social and personal factors, to bring about increases in physical activity. A practical example of such an approach would be the simultaneous creation of improved bicycle infrastructure, combined with behaviour change programs to promote the adoption of cycling.
Whilst a combination of environmental and behavioural interventions are considered to be most effective in boosting levels of physical activity, it is essential to recognise that supportive physical environments should precede behaviour change programs (Sallis et al, 1998). After all, promoting the benefits of physical activity in an environment that is hostile to such behaviour is unlikely to be effective, enjoyable or sustainable.
The figure below offers an overview of the Ecological Model of Physical Activity, providing an outline of where each influence sits in the model. It groups environmental and policy considerations as one, whereas in this report, they have been treated separately, but no less interrelated. Source: Hume, 2007 (adapted from Davison & Birch, 2001)
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 28 January 2008 Appendix 11 Women’s share of bicycle journeys – an international comparison
60
55% 55
59% 50
45% 45
40
35
29% 30% 30
25%
Percentage of trips by women Percentage 25 21% 20
15 Data sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007); Department for 10 Transport (2007); Danish Ministry of Transport (2005); Statistics Netherlands (2005); German Federal Ministry of Transport (2003); U.S. Department of Transport 0 (2003) and information provided directly by planners in Australia USA UK Canada Denmark Germany Netherlands Canadian provinces and cities
Source: Pucher & Buehler, 2008
Appendix 12 End of trip facilities for cyclists
Workplaces are beginning to provide change at the beginning or end of their iv) The change rooms to be secure end of trip facilities and legislation has journey to and from work. The facilities facilities capable of being locked. been shown to streamline and include separate male and female v) A locker to be provided for every coordinate the process of developing change rooms, showers and storage bicycle parking bay provided. the wide spread adoption of end of trip lockers. All new developments, and facilities. This has already started to where appropriate, developments In 2004, Victoria became the first state occur in select areas around Australia. which involve a change of use and/or to amend their planning code to For example, the Parking and Access additions/enlargements to an existing encourage the development of end of Policy for the Town of Vincent (WA) building, that are required to provide trip facilities in large new commercial states, for non-residential 10 or more bicycle parking bays in and residential projects. Bicycle parking, development, that: accordance with the employee showers, lockers and change rooms requirements of the above table, are will be mandatory for all new buildings Bicycle parking facilities and end of trip required to provide end of trip facilities, greater than 1000m2. Offices, retail, facilities are to be provided in addition as follows: hospitals and apartments over 1000m2 to the calculated [car] parking will be required to include at least one requirement at the rate specified in the i) A minimum of one female shower bike parking space for every 300 square Bicycle Parking requirements Table. and one male shower, located in metres of floor space (TravelSmart, 2004). Bicycle parking is to be provided for separate change rooms. employees/residents as well as In 2006, the Australian Capital Territory ii) Additional shower facilities to be visitors/shoppers in accordance with introduced Bicycle Parking Guidelines provided at a rate of one female the specifications (p.3). which requires commercial shower and one male shower for developments to provide one bicycle every additional 10 bicycle parking parking space per 250m2 and for each The Town of Vincent bays, to a maximum of five female apartment. In addition, it is possible to Parking and Access Policy and five male showers per replace one car space with four bicycle development. Provision of End of Trip Facilities spaces to a maximum of 5% of the total End of trip facilities are facilities which iii) End of journey facilities should be number of mandatory car parking spots enable the cyclist to shower and located as close as possible to the (Planning and Land Authority, 2006). bicycle parking facilities.
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 29 January 2008 Appendix 13 Age group diversity in bicycle participation is possible
Source: Pucher & Dijkstra, 2003
Appendix 14 Poor behaviour on the road is a barrier to cycling
A Victorian Parliamentary inquiry into 63% that cyclists were allowed to and this is supported by Robinson violence associated with motor vehicle occupy a whole lane (Rissel et al, (2005) who found that the more use received a large number of 2002). Importantly, this lack of cyclists there are, the safer it becomes. submissions from the cycling knowledge regarding vital aspects of Riders described altercations where community reporting instances of road the road rules has been found to be motorists took out frustrations on violence. Several submissions associated with a negative attitude them, often triggered by the motorist’s suggested that the presence of cyclists amongst motorists towards people on view that their journey was delayed by on the road was a trigger for road bicycles (Rissel et al, 2002). The hostile the rider. Riders felt there was a violence against cyclists (Drugs and reception reported by bicyclists from skewed driver perception that a cyclist Crime Prevention Committee, 2005). motorists is a consistent theme when held up traffic, rather than seeing them surveying people who ride bicycles. as a legitimate part of the traffic Driver knowledge of the road rules as Daley et al (2007) found that many system. It is this lack of they relate to people on bicycles has occasional and regular riders perceived acknowledgement towards people on been found to be generally poor. Only the average Sydney driver as impatient bicycles that has been found by Greig one in five (19%) of drivers knew that it and intolerant. Some thought drivers (2001) to be a significant deterrent was legal for cyclists to ride two were more likely to respect cyclist’s towards regular cycling. abreast, 44% that cyclists were safety and rights if bicycles were more allowed to ride along a clearway, and frequently encountered on the roads
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 30 January 2008 Appendix 15 More bikes improves safety for everyone
Bridge bicycle traffic Reported bicycle crashes Indexed bicycle crash rate (trend line)
10,000 600
550
500 7,500 Indexed Crash Rate 450
400 Crashes 5,000 350
Cyclists per day Cyclists 300
250 2,500 The long blue line left represents 200 the proportion of cycle crashes relative to actual number of 150 cyclists. It clearly illustrates that as the number of cyclists 0 100 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 increases, the safer it becomes.
Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 200 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Bridge Bicycle Traffic 2850 3555 3885 3830 3207 4520 5225 5690 5910 6015 7686 8250 8562 8875 10192 Reported Bicycle Crashes 155 163 171 189 195 160 167 166 161 179 175 173 164 174 188 Indexed Bicycle Crash Rate 544 459 440 493 514 354 320 292 272 298 230 210 192 196 184 Bicycle Fatalities 204321510050414
Source: Birk & Geller, 2007, data collected from Portland, US
Appendix 16 Encouraging cycling to the station can increase its catchment area by a factor of 15
Source: Elliot Fishman, adapted from Hudson, 1978
CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 31 January 2008 Appendix 17 Carrying bicycles on public transport
The United States has a very Transit Administration, 2005). Two successful federally funded program to small pilot projects in Brisbane and allow passengers to carry bikes on Canberra have shown only limited buses (Federal Transit Administration, success due to the fact that only a 2005).The United States Federal small number of buses were fitted with Government provides the capital costs the racks and only on limited routes. to install racks on the front of the bus. Despite initial apprehension from bus The following pictures offer a good companies, the experience has been overview of the diverse range of overwhelmingly positive and it has options provided in the United States grown to include over 30 cities. A key by the Federal Government to learning from this program is the encourage the combination of bicycles importance of installing racks on all and public transport. buses in the company’s fleet (Federal
Bicycles on the front of a bus, Canberra
Source: Cycling Promotion Fund
Bicycles on the inside of trams A bicycle on Portland's light rail Bicycles on Trains, California, in Maryland, United States United States Source: Elliot Fishman Source: Michael Jackson, Department of Transportation, Source: Altamont Commuter Express, California Maryland, US
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CYCLING: Getting Australia Moving 38 January 2008 Cycling offers an effective form of physical activity, providing significant contributions to public health. When used as an alternative to motorised transport, cycling is an effective method of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, congestion and increasingly expensive fuel costs
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