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ARTICLE .45 Creative : The Prospects for a Common in the Age of Globalization

Jay Weinstein Eastern Michigan University USA

Abstract This essay examines some of the ways in which applied can contribute to the repertoire of responses that are available to those seeking to maximize the social benefits and minimize the social costs asso- ciated with the phenomenon commonly referred to as "globalization." Based on the later work of Pitirim A. Sorokin – founder and first Chair of the Department of Sociology at Harvard University, we propose to revitalize the concept of creative altruism and to promote its widespread adoption as a tool of planned sociocultural change. In the course of this discussion, we focus on the relationship between altruism and "coming to species ," as understood by classical philosophers and the earliest sociologists, by Sorokin himself, and by contemporary researchers – especially Kristin Renwick Monroe. We conclude that the of one world at peace can be achieved – and, indeed must be achieved when the alternatives are considered – through the con- scientious application of altruistic thought and practice.

For better or worse, humanity is now becoming a Postmodernization, or internationalization. Sociologist unitary whole in an important and unprecedented way. George Ritzer has influenced many with his evocative Many names have been given to this process; and term, McDonaldization. because names create , it matters very much For the purposes of this discussion, we have cho- which one we use. Some, beginning with the sociolo- sen an alternative formulation, one that might help us gist Harold Innes and his student Marshall McLuhan, see to avoid some of the unwanted connotations that "glob- it as a movement toward a global village. Architect and alization" and the terms carry. This is the process futurist Buckminster Fuller referred to the Spaceship of coming to species consciousness. The phrase charac- Earth. Now current in many quarters is the term global- terizes an evolutionary movement toward a state in ization. Some, with reason, speak of capitalist which every member of the species Homo sapiens is imperialism. Others say modernization, Westernization, aware that – beyond all secular differences – a common Journal of Futures Studies, August 2004, 9(1): 45 - 58 Journal of Futures Studies

humanity exists and demands to be treated as person is part of a larger, effective whole. To one. paraphrase the words of the poet John Donne: No one is an island. No one stands alone. Unfortunately, from a contemporary stand- Highlights in the History of the Idea point, "reason" is an outmoded term that now The idea of species consciousness has can mean just about anything one chooses. For been expressed in many different cultures and example, it can be argued that it is reasonable historical eras. One of its most powerful state- for a person or group to commit genocide, pro- ments is found in the , written in 1677 by vided that the deed is planned clearly and sys- the Dutch-born philosopher Baruch (Benedict tematically (logically).2 Today, the program that de) Spinoza. According to Spinoza, underlying will help us realize our common humanity must all of the diversity that characterizes the various give directives that are far more specific than nations and ethnicities of the world, there is a "be rational," even if we do understand what fundamental "harmony." He believed that this Spinoza really meant in his arguments against harmony could be understood if we think clear- irrational and theologies.3 ly about the of humanity, and that it The German philosopher would be realized if and when people act rea- (who lived during the era of the American and sonably toward one another. "Nothing can be in French Revolutions) was not the first writer to more harmony with the nature of any given attempt to improve upon Spinoza's program, thing than other individuals of the same but he is certainly among the best remembered species," Spinoza wrote. "Therefore for man in and most widely read. Kant believed that there the preservation of his being and the enjoyment exist certain moral standards - rules of right and of the rational life there is nothing more useful wrong – that allow people to understand them- than his fellow-man who is led by reason" selves "under the form of ." These rules (Ethics Part IV, Appendix: proposition IX). are absolute, or "categorical," in that they are valid everywhere and always. In addition, such rules are expressed in the form of a command, The Possibility of Species Consciousness as an "imperative," because one cannot avoid Spinoza and those who embrace his view- acting in the way(s) they stipulate and still be point believe that a species consciousness is considered an ethical person. In his possible; in fact, they assume that it is inherent for the Metaphysic of Morals (1838[1961]: 581- in nature. They also realize, however, 82), Kant notes that an [I]mperative is Categorical [when] it concerns not that it is not automatic. For there are many the matter of action, or its intended result, but its forces arrayed against it, including habit, super- form and the principle of which it is itself a result; stition, and prevailing public opinion, that must and what is essentially good in it consists in the be overcome before we can understand our- mental disposition, let the consequence be what it selves "under the form of eternity."1 This is an may. This imperative may be called that of important point to remember as we consider . the possible outcomes of the rapid sociocultural In recognizing the importance of eternal, changes now underway. That is, if we are going moral rules in the movement toward a species to achieve species consciousness, something consciousness, Kant goes beyond the assertion must be done: a program must be created and that "reason" is all that is required to understand implemented to bring it about. and achieve a common humanity. For one Spinoza chose to emphasize a program thing, because our actions must be rule gov- that involved a turn toward what he called "rea- erned, the movement is viewed as normative son." This concept suggests that if one thinks and thus requires learning. It may be true that about the human condition in a clear and order- the potential to understand ourselves as parts 46 ly way it becomes apparent that every individual of a physical and spiritual whole is inborn, or at Creative Altruism

least intuitive, and that even the youngest chil- familiar direction. For in Revolutionary France, dren can grasp the idea. However, by the time Kant's work along with other sources, especially most people reach maturity, they have either the writings of Adam Smith and his students forgotten or have "unlearned" it - or, it is possi- (known collectively as the "Scottish moralist" ble, they never understood it at all. philosophers), became the foundation for a new In any case, Kant implied, people need to field that Comte called sociology. learn, and to learn how to act in accord with, Saint-Simon and Comte investigated many the categorical imperatives. This normative important topics, such as the possibility of aspect also allows for the possibility that people studying human relationships according to the can think and behave in a manner that appears scientific method (another idea that can be "rational" and at the same time act immorally: traced to Kant). Often overlooked among their for example, when orderly, clear thinking never- innovations, however, is their interest in the theless goes against or ignores a key impera- kind of behavior specified in the Golden Rule, tive. Finally, when the importance of impera- Kant's imperative, and in similar moral norms. tives is considered, it is obvious that the possi- From a sociological perspective, such behavior bility of achieving species consciousness is just is prosocial – for the good. This can that, a possibility, not something that is be contrasted with behavior that is selfish -- for inevitable. In brief, reason is necessary, but it the good of the self. Comte coined the terms must be guided by the "rules of the game." whereby we still refer to these contrasting modes of action: altruism and . Using Enter Altruism Comte's word, then, the Golden Rule and the So, we might ask, did Kant have any partic- categorical imperative counsel altruism. Thus ular moral imperative(s) in mind when he con- the essential connection was made between nected them to the quest for a common altruism, on one hand, and the movement humanity? The answer is "yes," he had a very toward species consciousness, on the other, a important one in mind. In fact, in keeping with connection of which the French founders of his view that such moral norms are universal sociology were well aware. and eternal, he drew upon what we now know Comte considered altruism and egoism to be two to be a cultural universal: a that is part of distinct motives within the individual. He did not the morality of every human society ever stud- deny the of self-serving motives, even for ied.4 Because it is so common, it has been helping; the impulse to seek self-benefit and self- he called egoism. But Comte believed expressed in many different ways. Most people that some social behavior was an expression of an in the English speaking world know it as the unselfish desire to "live for others." It was this sec- Golden Rule: "do unto other others as you ond type of to benefit others that he would have others do unto you." Kant put it this called altruism (Comte 1851/1875; quoted in way (as translated from the original German): Batson 1991: 5). "Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal Summary of the History of the Idea law." In other words, see to it that anything that The concept of a common humanity with you might do could and should be done by a consciousness of itself is very old and widely everyone else in the world.5 discussed. In fact, for many centuries in Because of Kant's influence in academic cir- Western and the idea was cles, his ideas - including his categorical impera- believed to be self evident to anyone who could tive - were studied carefully by his contempo- reason properly. Ultimately, such beliefs were raries; and they have continued to influence dismissed as too vague and/or ambiguous. social thinkers to this day. Two of his contem- However, in several instances, such as in poraries in France, Henri Saint-Simon (the older) Immanuel Kant's writings on morality, philoso- and August Comte (the younger), worked on phers attempted to make the quest for a com- developing moral philosophy in what is now a mon humanity more specific. In the early 19th 47 Journal of Futures Studies

century, Kant in particular proposed in his 3. What is the relationship between altru- moral imperative a certain kind of thought and ism and the quest for a common action that would be an effective means to humanity? achieve the goal of species consciousness. At 4. Assuming that such a quest is possible about the same time, , founder and desirable, what needs to be done? of the discipline of sociology, coined the term First we consider the first three questions to refer to such thought and action that is used together, then we continue with a few addition- to this day: altruism. In this way, the links al thoughts on each as we attempt to answer between a common humanity, species con- the fourth question. sciousness, reason, moral imperatives, and altruism were forged. The Alternatives In Karl Marx's revolutionary program to Short of an enormous and unforeseen create a common humanity, one finds the key catastrophe, there appears to be nothing that principle of a group in-itself. This indicates that can stop the increasing connectedness occur- group-consciousness, including in this context ring between and among people in all parts of species-consciousness, is the product of com- the world. Promoted by powerful technologies mon life conditions plus a shared understanding and institutions such as the Internet, satellite by members of the group (species) that they television, radio, and telephones, the spread of have common interests - that the wellbeing of English as a common world language, common each depends on the wellbeing of all. Also nec- currencies such as the Euro and the dollar, and essary is a common "other" against which the the growth, consolidation, and ever-expanding group (species) can identify itself. In the case of reach of multinational corporations, McLuhan's the human species, in particular, this other is global village is, or is on the verge of becoming, nature, with which humanity as a whole can a . Yet, if "village" is the proper metaphor, and must cooperate in order to survive and it is hardly a village at peace. prosper. Because, it appears, the achievement The social, economic, and political inequal- of species consciousness is neither automatic ities that exist between and within the village's nor inevitable, the need for a program to guide "neighborhoods" range from substantial to the quest is once more apparent. In the follow- enormous and from enormous to (there is no ing section, we discuss such a program. other way to put it) obscene. Some residents own two or more cars that cost tens of thou- Applied Sociology and the Quest for sands of dollars each, whereas others cannot even afford an ox cart. Many political and reli- a Common Humanity gious "leaders" of the village are benefiting mightily, some as never before, by preaching Thus far, we have discussed some aspects hatred and intolerance of one's neighbors. God's of species consciousness and the related con- name is routinely invoked to justify all manner cept of a common humanity. Our exploration of murder and mayhem. In some neighbor- has also briefly touched on several related ideas, hoods, residents are on the verge of starvation, including Kant's imperative, Comte's altruism, while in others food is thrown away by the ton. and Marx's theories of social change. This has The emerging political system of the vil- helped to lay the foundation for addressing four lage is highly undemocratic. It is, rather, an key questions that do (or ought to) concern autocracy in which those individuals, groups, people today. These are: and geographic regions currently wielding the 1. What is the alternative to species con- most power have shaped the system in a way sciousness, and what would the conse- that will keep them in power well into the fore- quences be if people did not pursue it? seeable future. Free markets and sovereign con- 2. Is altruism real or is it just a dream of sumers do not characterize the village's emerg- philosophers? 48 ing economy, as its defenders would like us to Creative Altruism

believe. Nor is the economy the socialistic sys- principles of our age – tribalism and globalism – tem – once embraced by capitalism's critics, clash at every point except one: they may both which operates according to the principle of be threatening to democracy."7 "from each according to his abilities and to each In the absence of species consciousness, according to his needs." Instead, it has thus far there is no reason to believe that current trends proved to be simply a more extended and more will cease or even slow down. To the contrary, a coordinated version of the system of huge global village that is not a village for-itself is monopolistic corporations that first emerged in bound to be a village in continual conflict and the early twentieth century.6 As the global vil- strife: autocratic politics, monopolistic econom- lage has taken shape, these corporations have ics, exploitation, religious intolerance, inter-eth- achieved unparalleled political influence. It has nic violence, and militarism. Of course, these also become increasingly clear that they are are hardly new problems. But they are serious indifferent to the and services they actu- and dangerous in a new way when they occur ally produce. For their main business is to maxi- in humanity's one and only village, with no mize profits by underpaying and, when desir- other place to go and no one other than our- able, laying-off workers and by cajoling, tricking, selves to whom we can turn for help. That is or forcing consumers to buy more and more why the need for all people to see themselves things that are less and less important. as one has never been more urgent. The glamorous and seemingly unstop- pable spread of the Internet, cell phones, the Summary of the Research Literature dollar, and corporate economics has a another, Research in the several fields leaves many often unpleasant, side that residents of the unanswered questions about the reality of more affluent neighborhoods tend to overlook. species consciousness and altruism.8 The ambi- Along the same channels that bring innovations guity is, in part, the result of differences among such as satellite TV to the far corners of the vil- disciplinary perspectives from which the prob- lage, great fear and flow about the loss lem is viewed. Some studies focus on motiva- of traditional, local beliefs and practices. tion, others do not even see motives as neces- In response to such fears, the less privi- sary; some studies are concerned with the leged residents seek solace in what they believe behavior of individuals, whereas others look to to be the past (even if it is a largely mythical the group level; etc. Another factor that cannot past). Old languages, art, and music are revived be ignored is an ideological tendency to dismiss from the brink of extinction; and ethnic power apparently altruistic acts as mere manifestations and "cleansing" movements arise to challenge of . Those who take this position the cultural homogenization overtaking the vil- tend to credit themselves as "realists." Yet, on lage. Religious is embraced in reflection, it seems obvious that no facts or logi- increasing numbers by adherents of the village's cal arguments will persuade such people that major faiths: , , , altruism can sometimes be realistic. Thus, they , and in smaller sects and denominations actually have little to contribute to serious as well, in response to the forces of seculariza- research on the subject. (see, especially, tion. Nationalism, and its frequent companion Monroe, Barton, and Klingermann 1990) militarism, experiences a significant revival in an Despite the disciplinary and ideological attempt to counter the reach of multinational obstacles yet to be overcome, it is obvious that institutions. These are not aberrations or myste- the phenomenon of altruism is currently of rious contradictions. Rather, the current growth interest to a wide range of scholars in many and popularity of such movements, and the fields. Moreover, as our knowledge about altru- potential of social conflict that they entail, are as ism, egoism, and their sources and conse- much a part of the global village as e-mail or quences increases, it becomes increasingly clear MTV. As Benjamin Barber notes in his widely that our behavior toward others is intimately read work on this phenomenon, "the two axial connected to our self-preservation - as individu- 49 Journal of Futures Studies

als, as groups, and as a species. Sociologists and subjects apart from the others is a shared gen- others are still far from solving all of the riddles eral perspective, a "cognitive orientation." She that are associated with altruism, but a signifi- concluded that the perspective itself, and not cant movement among those interested in it is the specific factors, consistently accounted for taking shape around the connection between altruism. pro-social behavior and perceptions of a com- For Monroe, the altruistic perspective is mon humanity. This connection is especially best understood in philosophical and psycho- important in the work of one of the leaders of logical terms, although she uses principles from this movement, political Kristen other social sciences as well. In fact, the per- Monroe. spective is quite complex and consists of several Monroe has provided a significant contri- components: cognition and cognitive process- bution to the literature on altruism. In The es, expectations, , , and Heart of Altruism: Perceptions of a Common views of self. Following is a brief description of Humanity, she defines altruism as "behavior each of these components. intended to benefit another, even when this Cognition is the process by which indi- risks possible sacrifice to the welfare of the viduals make sense of the world. It actor." (Monroe 1996: 6) Monroe examines the consists of being aware of something possible influences that encourage altruism and and making a judgment about it. It also highlights the importance of separating this dis- accounts for cultural norms. It allows one to interpret how altruists see them- cussion from a rational choice perspective. As a selves, as members of a group or as indi- staunch advocate of the plausibility of altruism viduals. as part of , Monroe succinctly Expectations imply what the altruist argues against the limitations provided by expects will occur under certain circum- rational choice theorists. (As noted above, the stances. These include opinions, beliefs, key to their argument is that egoism is normal and of what helping means. behavior, even in the performance of apparently Worldviews consist of people's ideas other-directed acts.) about the world and themselves, for Monroe's work is based on an in-depth example, how they think about them- study of individuals whose behavior can be selves as individuals and as members of placed along a continuum from altruistic to ego- groups. Empathy is the result of a cognitive and istic and which includes several points in affective response toward someone between. As in the work of Fogelman (1994) else's feelings. and Oliner and Oliner (1988), Monroe argues Finally, views of self are related to one's that the most altruistic individuals are rescuers identity perception and whether or not of Jews during the Holocaust. In addition to the it is consistent with behavior. rescuers, along the continuum from more-to- Based on these components, the most less altruistic are heroes, philanthropists, and altruistic subjects – especially the rescuers – entrepreneurs. For Monroe, entrepreneurs dis- consistently saw themselves as members of a play the least altruistic behavior. Using these shared humanity. They thought of themselves categories, she contrasts research findings with as ordinary people who had not done anything theoretical assumptions based on both rational praiseworthy by saving other people's lives. choice and altruistic theories. Her conclusion is They exhibited a universalistic , in that rational choice theories cannot account for which being part of the human community was the behavior of altruists. more important than being part of a just world Monroe originally believed that the roots or believing in the inherent goodness of people. of altruism might be traced to factors such as They understood what is meant to be in need, parental modeling, education, and ; but and therefore felt that they had no choice in her findings did not support this. Rather, she their actions. 50 discovered that what sets the more altruistic Monroe's concept of common humanity Creative Altruism

reinforces the findings of other research on interested in the phenomenon of altruism. altruism. For instance, Sorokin noted how his However, the field that has the potential to "good neighbors" had a similar attitude toward make one of the most important contributions the whole world and humanity. Similarly, Oliner to the practical aspects of this research is and Oliner (1988:84) referred to a kind of cogni- applied sociology. There are two main reasons tion or inclusiveness as "a predisposition to for this. First, the field, although labeled "sociol- regard all people (universally) as equals and to ogy," is highly interdisciplinary and thus includes apply similar standards of right and wrong to insights and principles from psychology, social them without regard to social status or ethnici- philosophy, , anthropology, and political ty." Fogelman, too, discussed the importance of science.9 Second, sociology was founded by "awareness" or the process of transformation Comte and his contemporaries as an applied that a bystander goes through before becoming field and with the explicit mission of promoting a rescuer. Such awareness signifies that others altruistic thought, behavior, and institutions. are in need and that all should be treated equal- Many "mainstream" sociologists have, of ly. In a broader sense, Monroe's research draws course, taken the field in different directions. on Kant's categorical imperative, Comte's altru- Yet, the original interest in altruism and related ism, and Marx's theories of social change, as dis- phenomena has been kept alive, at least at the cussed above. margins of the discipline and especially among Monroe's concept at first proved difficult those involved in sociological practice. So, we to test empirically. For each of her key compo- may ask, is there in applied sociology a program nents includes several intricate, multi-leveled that links the research of Oliner and Oliner, variables. However, her more recent research Fogelman, Monroe, and the others with moral (Monroe 2001) suggests further ways to analyze imperatives, altruism, species consciousness, the altruistic perspective, in the context of res- and the human prospect? Our answer to this cue behavior and other uncalculated, sponta- question is a cautious "yes." Although a com- neous acts. Although this is highly analytical plete and perfect program has yet to be creat- work, rooted in psychological, linguistic, and ed, applied sociology today is well on its way to psychoanalytic theories, it does provide a clear- developing a commonly accepted of ethical er understanding of the interconnections dimensions and/or moral imperatives that fea- among altruism, morality, and our sense of ture altruism.10 In fact, a framework for this task selves. In particular, she has discovered that has already been established. "morality is driven not by ratiocination or reli- The framework to which we refer was first gion but by identity and perceptions of self in proposed by the sociologist, Pitirim A. Sorokin relation to others." (Monroe 2001:491) That is, (1880-1968), whose work was mentioned earlier. the human need for consistency and self- Sorokin was the first Chair of the Department of esteem, and our desire to be treated by others Sociology at Harvard University, and he served as we treat them, result in a "universal entitle- as President of the American Sociological ment." This is an entitlement to extend univer- Association in 1964. Among the key concepts sal rights to others (compare with Kant's cate- introduced by him are sensate and ideational gorical imperative); and, according to Monroe, culture types, creative altruism, and integralism. it is what drives people to be moral actors. Since Sorokin's death, several studies have sup- plemented his approach, some with explicit ref- Elements of the Program erence to him but, because his contributions If it is both desirable and possible for peo- were generally ignored, most lacking such cita- ple, everywhere, to become more altruistic, tions.11 Among the works that do cite him are then the next step is to advance the program those of Kristen Monroe, especially in relation meant to achieve this goal, the program begun to her discovery of the important cognitive ori- by Spinoza, Kant, Comte, and Marx. We have entation, perception of a common humanity. noted how researchers in several disciplines are 51 Journal of Futures Studies

Creative Altruism: A Summary emerging (if it could be helped along). We focus here on Sorokin's work at the According to Sorokin, each type of culture Research Center in Creative Altruism at Harvard is characterized by a particular way of knowing University to examine his concept of creative about reality. The sensate stage is characterized altruism and to indicate how it can be used by by the core that truth is based on the applied sociologists today. Also relevant are senses alone. This is opposed to both the truth Sorokin's contributions as viewed by his biogra- of reason and a supersensory truth, which per- pher, Barry V. Johnston. Johnston has stated meate the idealistic and ideational types of cul- that, by the end of his long and productive tures. By the rule of "logico-meaningful" affinity, career, Sorokin had arrived at an integrated the- whereby specific cultural traits reflect the mas- ory of social action and reform. (Johnston 1995: ter values, the sensate stage is dominated by 127-28) , greed, and egoism. [Sorokin's ] frames a universe of dis- With the help of philanthropist Eli Lilly and course, produces an ontological and epistemologi- others, Sorokin founded the Center to combat cal consensus on the nature of and the exclusive role played by sensate beliefs and knowledge; sets malleable boundaries for doing practices in contemporary society. In their sociology; and emphasizes the application of place, he sought to promote behavior based on knowledge to practical problems of existence. altruistic values and integralism, which com- (Johnston 1998: 17) bines all three ways of knowing reality. (the sen- Guided by these principles, applied sociol- sory, the rational, and the super-rational) This ogists are currently in a position to influence combination is the hallmark of idealistic culture. the movement toward a species consciousness To Sorokin, the time had come to do some- by practicing what Sorokin preached. That is, thing about transforming society through the the study of creative altruism and the method- application of integralism, to act in a reconstruc- ologies to put it into practice are key steps in tive way. (Johnston 1995: 127, 128, 240) developing a program for our global village that As Johnston (1995: 204) observes, howev- works. (Weinstein 2000a: 6) er, "the research of the Center failed to start a Following the founding of the Research significant mass movement or to institutionalize Center for Creative Altruism at Harvard the study of altruism in the social sciences." The University in the late 1940s, Sorokin explored sociological community showed little interest in the principles of a social science based on an altruism, integralism, or the reconstruction of integral philosophy and a new applied science, society. In fact Sorokin's work, especially the which he called amitology. (see Sorokin 1954a; earlier volumes of Dynamics, was criticized as b) His integral philosophy, or integralism, is pre- metaphysical. Johnston (1995: 174) suggests the sented as the solution to problems associated reason for this negative reaction: with the most recent stage of a long historical Sorokin's methods simply will not sustain his argu- cycle. This cycle is comprised of three alternat- ments with the precision he desires...what he has ing types of cultures: the sensate, the dominant produced in Dynamics and the works that follow type in the contemporary Western world; the is a broad and valuable . It is ideational, characterized by and a start, not a science... altruism; and the idealistic, a transitional stage As Johnston also points out, the critics that occurs between the other two. These are failed to see that in the fourth volume of described and illustrated extensively in his com- Dynamics Sorokin had arrived at integralism, a prehensive four-volume study, Social and theory of social reform. It appears that by then Cultural Dynamics. (Sorokin 1962; also see the community was no longer inter- Johnston 1995: 143-49) Sorokin believed that ested. Nevertheless, many sociologists now the present stage, which he further defined as believe that the time has come to continue the cynical or late sensate, is on the verge of work that began with Sorokin's explorations. 52 decline and that a new, idealistic stage might be Clearly, given the nature of today's social prob- Creative Altruism

lems and the challenges of the global village, it importance of altruistic phenomena. However, might be wise at least to consider what Sorokin if such ideas are to in our quest for a global called "positive types of social phenomena." For, village at peace, we must first teach and learn as he argued, too much of social science has about their underlying values and positive focused on negative types: effects. Our schools and colleges must develop A scientific study of positive types of social phe- and offer courses that focus on the teachings of nomena is a necessary antidote to that of negative altruism. Then, on this informed basis, we types of our cultural, social and personal world. might try to modify our culture and social insti- The moral effect alone fully justifies a further tutions by acting through the concerted actions investigation of persons and groups of good will of individuals united as groups. and good deeds.(Sorokin 1950: 87) Degrees of Altruism in the Work of Amitological Principles Sorokin and Monroe The activist part of Sorokin's program was We have reviewed some of the literature the development of amitology, the applied on altruism principally to stress the importance aspect of integralism. Sorokin defines amitology of learning and teaching about it, and the ways in Forms and Ways (1951) as: "The applied sci- in which we might approach practicing it in the ence or art of developing , mutual aid real world. Of course, many people are already and in individual and ." altruistically inclined; but the philosophy and If the goals of amitology are to be achieved, techniques of altruism are rarely if ever part of Sorokin noted, not only is it necessary to inves- our formal education. Even more serious is the tigate altruistic phenomena, but altruistic acts fact that most people, even those who study must be practiced by ordinary people involved sociology, have not had the opportunity to in common social settings. Sorokin wrote in reflect on the phenomenon. One gets the Altruistic Love (Sorokin 1950: 10), referring to impression that when people hear about altru- the altruistic activities of "good-neighbors": ism, they either disregard it as unimportant, or Great altruists alone cannot supply even the very they believe that it is unattainable.13 minimum of love and mutual help necessary for any surviving society...it is furnished by thousands Taken as a whole, Sorokin, Monroe, and and millions of our plain "good-neighbors." Each the research literature on the subject, in gener- giving a modest contribution of love, in their totali- al, strongly indicate that various degrees of altru- ty they produce an enormous amount of "love ism exist; and much human behavior can be energy". Without this moral foundation of the explored along the diverse range encompassed deeds of the "good-neighbors" no society can be by the concept and phenomenon. This, in turn, satisfactory. suggests the need to invent more effective tech- At the Center, Sorokin produced his major niques for ennobling human beings, and, works on altruism, from which we can draw through these perfected techniques and some of his definitions.12 In Reconstruction increased knowledge, it will become possible to (Sorokin 1948), he defines altruism as develop appropriate strategies for planned the action that produces and maintains the physi- social change (Sorokin 1948: 234). Finally, in cal and/or psychological good of others. It is order for our techniques and plans to be truly formed by love and empathy, and in its extreme effective, we must show not only that they are form may require the free sacrifice of self for important to pursue, but also that they work. another. Although we have seen that much research and In Altruistic Love (Sorokin 1950), he charac- related work remain to be done, considering terizes "good neighbors" along these lines: A quest for , understanding, and encour- the centrality of the concept of altruism in the agement – the desire to find a co-sympathizer in social science tradition and the current state of either despair or loneliness – is just as strong in affairs in the world, it seems well worth the human beings as the need for food or clothing. effort. These comments obviously point to the The observation that there are degrees of 53 Journal of Futures Studies

altruistic behavior – that might be measured delineated three broad categories of quasi-altru- along a continuum – is tied to a contrast istic motivation: (1) spontaneity, (2) lack of between the "rational" actors of classical eco- choice, and (3) the constancy and universality of nomic theory and altruists. Monroe has pointed the altruistic bond (Monroe 1996: 234). out that rational choice theories, which equate Similarly, Sorokin (1950: 39) found that seemingly altruistic behavior with acts pursued "...the majority of 'good-neighbors' have a simi- solely for extrinsic rewards, cannot account for lar attitude toward the whole world and altruism. Not all normal human behavior con- humanity." sists of the pursuit of individual self-interest. They are not notable altruists; but all in all they You will recall that, based on her research, the are seemingly above the average in their altruistic factor that best explains altruism is a cognitive activities and "good-neighborliness." Most of them orientation, one that is not considered in ration- do not look heroic in their good deeds. Their altru- al choice or related theories: the perception of a ism is plain and fairly ordinary. It is however, real...their plain good deeds make the moral foun- common humanity. dation of any society (Sorokin 1950: 7-10). While there are clear cognitive influences on altru- ism, the influence does not take the form tradition- These findings bear on recent and future ally suggested in the literature. Instead, the rele- research in sociology and other fields. For vant cognitive component centered more on altru- example, we might narrow our focus to the ist's world views and canonical expectations about study of particular degrees of altruism (from what constitutes normal behavior and on their "pure" egoism to "pure" altruism) and various perceptions of a shared humanity (Monroe 1996: behavioral patterns (spontaneity, lack of choice, 197, our emphasis). constancy, and universality) along Monroe's Monroe's ideas about what it means to continuum. Also, we might concentrate on spe- perceive a shared or common humanity should cific social contexts. Thus, on the high end of sound a familiar note by now. A worldview is the scale of Monroe's altruism, we might study "important to the extent to which it provides a authentic heroes. Or, on the low end, we may sense of connectedness to others ... a percep- prefer to focus on the type of persons who we tion of self at one with all mankind ... a different are more likely to encounter in day-to-day inter- way of seeing things." actions. It is not any mystical blending of the self with another; rather it is a very simple but deeply felt recognition that we all share certain characteris- Conclusion: Altruism and the Global tics and are entitled to certain rights, merely by Village of our common humanity. It constitutes a powerful statement about what it means to be a Popular culture and perspectives like common humanity (Monroe 1996: 206). rational choice theory would have us believe In directly addressing the question of that altruism as something dangerous, impossi- degrees of altruism, Monroe (1996:7) observes ble or, at best, of little practical . Yet, a con- that "the world is not divided into altruists and siderable amount of research in several fields non-altruists." Rather, pure self-interested has demonstrated that it is real and that it has behavior and pure altruism are the two poles of an important role to play in human relations. In her continuum, and normal behavior generally fact, the theories of Sorokin, Monroe, and oth- occurs at some point between them. Some ers have suggested that altruism can mitigate if people "engage in quasi-altruistic behavior, in not solve many of the social problems encoun- other words, without being altruists." And, in tered today, including such controversial issues her analysis, quasi-altruistic behavior is normal as religious and ethnic intolerance, family crisis, behavior that exhibits some but not all of the health care, and . More than a defining characteristics of altruism. Based on a century after Comte's death and decades after series of intense, in-depth interviews with sever- Sorokin's, the study of altruism is now begin- 54 al ordinary people and "good-neighbors," she ning to make inroads into our educational sys- Creative Altruism

tem, while people everywhere are beginning to egoistical models in the social sciences and in take altruism seriously as a behavioral option to culture generally, and the consequent failure to "rational selfishness." grant altruism a serious role in human affairs. Sociology in general and applied sociology Strong opposition to altruism exists in beliefs in particular has a major role to play in these such as those outlined above. That is, in our changes. For there is obviously a close connec- type of culture altruism is understood to be tion between and the belief deviant behavior. that all have common needs and inter- "Good neighbors" and saints are deviants who ests. Moreover, the existence of a common rise above the level of moral conduct demanded humanity is a core belief among sociologists. by the official law. Their actions are "superlegal." Indeed the sociological enterprise is premised Some of these superlegal actions do not conflict on the view that as a species humanity is essen- with the official law; others result in conflict between the good-neighbors and saints on the one tially one, but that socialization and other socio- hand, and the official law and government on the cultural forces create profound differences other (Sorokin 1950: 208). among us. Those who teach sociology have Sorokin believed that the more altruistic a nothing to teach if it isn't this: Whereas there person is, the more likely he or she is to come are degrees of altruism, the idea of "degrees" of in conflict with society's prevailing norms. He humanity, from less to more, higher to lower, also thought that altruistic people are more like- etc. has no scientific basis. ly to come in conflict with others who, for one In this light, all of us, experts and layper- reason or another, feel uncomfortable about sons alike, would benefit substantially from fur- altruistic behavior. Thus, learning about altru- ther study of Monroe's observation that per- ism also entails trying to understand why altru- spective promotes altruism. The perception ism is viewed as a threat. that a common humanity exists and the type of Can there be a pure and lofty altruism, not gener- thinking related to this perception can lead to ating collision and conflict...tentatively, the answer altruistic behavior. This is an especially impor- is that there is such a way, but that it requires tant task because intolerance, homelessness, among other conditions, an extension of our "in- and many other of today's social problems are group" feelings to all humanity; and this extension caused or intensified by egocentric, self-inter- must be real, manifested not only in our speech ested behavior and the perception of some reactions but in our entire behavior...Jesus rightly people that others are less than human. Many said that he brought not only peace but also the problems can be solved if we follow Kant's cate- sword. So does any unselfish person or deed! gorical imperative. We know that people in situ- (Sorokin 1950: 83-84) As we gain a better understanding of why ations of conflict often do forget that we are all some people are more altruistic than others human. They tend to deal with others in terms and what shapes altruistic acts may take, stereo- of stereotypes or as enemies. The failure to rec- types will cease to limit our ability to resolve ognize our common humanity does stand in many of today's problems such as sexism or eth- the way of effective resolution of a large propor- nic conflict. Learning about "good neighbors" as tion of the problems faced in today's society. deviants may reveal much about the moral val- The mission to insert into our practical ues and ethical boundaries of ordinary people. work the imperative that others are no less By insisting that we are all human beings, all human than ourselves is both timely and poten- part of one world, we may be able to be more tially effective. And it may be an important step effective actors. We would then be prepared to toward improving human relations before it meet the challenges of this late sensate era and, really is too late. Of course, as is true of other at last, to realize the promise sensed by the first well-intended programs, this is much easier said sociological students of altruism, especially than done. In this case, there are several obsta- Comte. That is, the promise of what Sorokin cles to putting these sound - but not especially (1948: 225) called "the ennoblement of human novel - ideas into practice. One is the tenacity of 55 personality." Journal of Futures Studies

The practice of and love is one of the best one does of (toward) oneself (see Ozinga therapies for many mental disorders; for the elimi- 1999, especially p. xvi). nation of sorrow, loneliness and unhappiness; for 4. The question of what constitutes cultural uni- the mitigation of hatred and other antisocial ten- versals and, if they exist, what they are is one dencies, and, above all, for the ennoblement of of the most hotly debated issues in social sci- human personality, for release in man of his cre- ence. For background on this debate, see ative forces, and for the attainment of union with Brown (1991). God and peace with oneself, others, and the uni- 5. Thomas Hill (1993) has developed an explicit verse. theoretical linkage between Kant's work and contemporary approaches to altruism. Correspondence 6. One of the more recent and most complete studies of the emergence of corporate [email protected] power is Derber (2000). 7. Several sociologists and other observers have written about the dialectic of globalization, Notes in which cosmopolitan innovations and local reactions to them are viewed as parts of a 1. Spinoza's idea of species consciousness is whole. The basic premise is that modernity also expressed in his argument that the phys- does not replace tradition; instead it dis- ical unity of humanity is reflected in its uni- places tradition. In this way, rather than dis- tary mind, "under the form of eternity." "The appearing, traditional values and practices mind does not conceive anything under the move over, so to speak, to make room for form of eternity, except in so far as it con- modern ways. As a result of such coexistence ceives its own body under the form of eterni- there is bound to be conflict: action/reaction. ty." (Ethics, Part V, proposition XXIX) An early statement of this view is in 2. The sociologists Max Weber and Karl Weinstein and McNulty (1980). Also see Mannheim, among others, attempted to res- Weinstein (1997: Chapter 14). Benjamin cue the related concept of "" by dis- Barber (1995) has popularized this perspec- tinguishing between (1) acts (or thoughts) tive in his contrast between "Jihad versus that are rational in relation to a specific task McWorld." and (2) those that are rational in relation to a 8. Key works in this surprisingly vast (and grow- widely accepted system of values. In this ing) body of research literature on altruism way, the clear and orderly pursuit of geno- include Hoffman (1981), Oliner and Oliner cide might be considered rational in the first (1988), Fogelman (1994), Piliavin and Chang sense but irrational in the second, because 1990), Hutchinson (1993), Staub (1991), and genocide is widely viewed as immoral. It has Sober and Wilson (1999). now become clear that the situation is more 9. As is true of other practice-oriented fields, the complex than that, and that there are many main purpose of applied sociology is not to levels of rationality. For example, the group advance the knowledge base of the disci- pursuing what some would label "genocide" pline (although this often happens). Rather, it might believe that it is protecting itself from is to solve practical problems for clients. But an imminent and threat. Thus, in relation practical problems (for example, how to bet- to that group's value system, so-called geno- ter organize a state-wide childcare program) cide is actually self-preservation and a ration- are just problems and do not come with al means to achieve peace and security. The labels such as "sociological," or "political." rest of the world might believe that it is irra- Thus, it is generally necessary for the applied tional, but that just increases the complexity sociologist to draw on knowledge from of our judgments. other fields, within a broad sociological 3. Spinoza was hardly the first philosopher to framework. argue that the unitary nature of humanity is 10. To many academic social scientists this obvious to anyone who thinks clearly about might seem a rather strange, if not unap- the matter. , the founder of Western pealing, project. For it assumes that we can philosophy, defined "ignorance" as the inabil- and should agree about the kinds of social 56 ity to conceive of (and act toward) others as Creative Altruism

relations we would like to create or avoid in 28 (29): 5-321. the global village. On reflection, however, Hutchinson, Elizabeth, ed. 1993. Social Service these concerns make us uncomfortable Review 67, 3. Special Issue: Altruism. only when viewed from a largely outmoded Chicago: University of Chicago Press. "value free" perspective in which such parti- Johnston, Barry V. 1995. Pitirim A. Sorokin: An sanship is to be avoided - not sought out. Intellectual Biography. Lawrence Kansas: For today's sociological practitioner, the University Press of Kansas. search for the right and the wrong ways to _____. 1998. "Pitirim A. Sorokin and Sociological conduct human affairs is no more unusual Theory for the Twenty-First Century." than the physician's attempt to define Michigan Sociological Review 12 (Fall): 1- health and illness. 23. 11. Among the works of special relevance to Kant, Immanuel. 1838 [1961]. "Foundation for our discussion are: Hutchinson (1993), the Metaphysic of Morals." In W. Macaulay (1970), Midlarsky and Kahana Kaufman, Ed., Philosophical Classics: (1994), Oliner and Oliner (1988), Paul, Bacon to Kant. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Miller, and Paul (1993), Penner (1995), Prentice Hall. Piliavin and Charng (1990), Rushton (1980), Macaulay, Jacqueline. 1970. Altruism and Wildavsky, (1993), and Wispé (1978). : Social Psychological 12. August Comte, who coined the term "altru- Studies of Some Antecedants and ism" in the 1850s, believed that some social Consequences. New York: Academic behavior was an expression of an "unselfish Press. desire to live for others." (Batson 1991) Midlarsky, Elizabeth and Eva Kahana. 1994. 13. We have noted that "altruism and apposite Altruism in Later Life. Thousand Oaks concepts have been viewed as 'soft' and CA: Publications. marginal to the main thrust of social scien- Monroe, Kristen Renwick. 1996. The Heart of tific research." (Weinstein 2000b) Altruism: Perceptions of a Common Humanity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. References _____. 2001. "Morality and a Sense of Self: The Importance of Identity and Categorization Barber, Benjamin R. 1995. Jihad Vs McWorld. for Moral Action." American Journal of New York: Times Books. Political Science, Vol.45, No.3: 491 -507. Batson, C. Daniel. 1991. The Altruism Question: Monroe, Kristen Renwick, M.C. Barton, and U. Toward a Social Psychological Answer. Klingermann(Eds). 1990. "Altruism and Hillsdale, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum the Theory of Rational Action: Rescuers Associates. of Jews in Nazi Europe." Ethics (October): Brown, Donald. 1991. Human Universals. 103-22. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Oliner, Samuel P., and Pearl M. Oliner. 1988. Comte, I. Auguste. [1851] 1875. System of The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Positive Philosophy (Vol. 1) London: Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Longmans, Green & Co. Press. Derber, Charles. 2000. Corporation Nation: Ozinga, James R. 1999. Altruism. Westport, How Corporations are Taking Over Our Conn.: Praeger. Lives and What We Can Do About It. Paul, Ellen Frankel, Fred D. Miller Jr., and Jeffrey New York: St. Martins Griffin Paul (eds). 1993. Altruism. Cambridge: Fogelman, Eva. 1994. and Courage. Cambridge University Press. New York: Anchor Books. Penner, Paul S. 1995. Altruistic Behavior: An Hill, Thomas E., Jr. 1993. "Beneficence and Self- Inquiry into Motivation. Amsterdam and Love: A Kantian Perspective." In Ellen Atlanta: Ropi B. V. Frankel Paul, Fred D. Miller Jr., and Jeffrey Piliavin, Jane Allyn and Hong-Wen Chang. 1990. Paul, Eds. Altruism. Cambridge: Cambridge "Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory University Press. and Research." In W. Richard Scott and Hoffman, Martin L. 1977. "Personality and Social Judith Blake, eds., Development." Annual Review of Sociology Annual Review of 57 Journal of Futures Studies

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