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Self-Presentation 2.0: Narcissism and Self-Esteem on Facebook

Soraya Mehdizadeh, B.Sc.

Abstract

Online social networking sites have revealed an entirely new method of self-presentation. This cyber social tool provides a new site of analysis to examine personality and identity. The current study examines how narcissism and self-esteem are manifested on the social networking Web site Facebook.com. Self-esteem and narcissistic personality self-reports were collected from 100 Facebook users at York University. Participant Web pages were also coded based on self-promotional content features. Correlation analyses revealed that individuals higher in narcissism and lower in self-esteem were related to greater online activity as well as some self-promotional content. Gender differences were found to inﬂuence the type of self-promotional content presented by individual Facebook users. Implications and future research directions of narcissism and self-esteem on social networking Web sites are discussed.

Introduction Along with dating sites, friend-networking sites such as

MySpace and Facebook have become extremely popular he Internet officially gained public face in the early www.numerons.inamong college and university students.5 These sites offer a 1990s; since then, it has completely changed the way in- T highly controlled environment for self-presentational behav- formation is broadcasted to the world.1 By means of the ior, which provides an ideal setting for impression manage- World Wide Web, any user with minimal knowledge of the ment.1 Internet is able to relay information to a vast audience through It is estimated that MySpace.com has over 20 million reg- personal blogging, videos, and photos via interactive Internet istered users, with a sign-up rate of over 230,000 users per sites known as Web 2.0 applications.1 By means of these day.5 Even more shockingly, Facebook.com6 reported a specific Web communities, individuals can post self-relevant staggering 733% increase in the number of active Facebook information, link to other members, and interact with other users from 2007 to 2008. Today, the number of Facebook members. Most notably, these Web sites offer a gateway for users is estimated at over 175 million worldwide. Despite the online identity constructions.2 booming success of such friend-networking sites, peer-re- While the impact of the Internet on identity production has viewed published research evaluating the impact of these been under investigation for over a decade, most of these sites on behavior and identity construction is scarce at best.5 studies have focused on anonymous online environments, Against this background, the main goal of this study is to including chat rooms and bulletin boards.3 More recently, address this dearth of research by examining the relationship researchers are shifting their attention to self-presentation in between offline personality and online self-presentation. less anonymous online communities, known as social networking Web sites. These virtual settings cater to a specific Web 2.0 and online self-presentation population in which people of similar interest gather to communicate, share, and discuss ideas. In the early phase of Identity is an important part of the self-concept. Rosenberg7 this research, some studies examined the effect of Internet (1986; as cited in Zhao et al.3) defined self-concept as the dating sites.3 A study of this phenomenon by Ellison et al.4 totality of a person’s thoughts and feelings in reference to found that people act differently in social networking envi- oneself as an object. Identity construction has been studied as ronments when compared to those interacting in anonymous a public process that involves both ‘‘identity announcement’’ settings. This finding had enormous implications in identity made by the individual claiming the identity and ‘‘iden- formation in the online world, as it indicated that online self- tity placement’’ made by others who endorse the claimed presentation varied according to the nature of the setting. identity.3

Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Canada.

357

Compiled by Amit Shekhar Email:[email protected] Contact: +91-9560344245 129 Psychology for IAS: Language and Communication 358 MEHDIZADEH

Face-to-face identity is constructed under a variety of posts, comments). While these sites do indeed serve a com- constraints. Under these circumstances, identity announce- municative purpose among friends, colleagues, and family, ment is influenced by physical characteristics (i.e., gender, other registered users can initiate requests to be friends, and ethnicity, attractiveness) and the shared knowledge of social one’s social network often snowballs rapidly across institu- backgrounds. Furthermore, personal attributes often control tions in this fashion.11 Second, social-networking Web pages identity placement. It is therefore very difficult for indi- are highly controlled environments that allow owners com- viduals to claim identities and create impressions that are plete power over self-presentations.2 Users can convey de- inconsistent with their projected traits.3 In contrast, online sirable information about themselves (via features such as environments enable individuals to engage in a controlled About Me, Notes, and Status Updates routinely found on setting where an ideal identity can be conveyed. social-networking sites) and can select attractive, self- According to Markus and Nurius,8 a person’s conception promoting photographs. This type of virtual arena allows of himself or herself can be distinguished by two categories: narcissists to pursue an infinite number of trivial friendships the ‘‘now self,’’ an identity established to others, and the and further enables them to boast self-views of positive ‘‘possible self,’’ an identity unknown to others. Users can agentic traits.2 achieve the latter state by withholding information, hiding These effects may be even more evident in nonymous Web undesirable physical features, and role-playing. This effect is sites, such as Facebook, where users can make public ‘‘iden- most pronounced in anonymous online worlds, where ac- tity statements’’ that they may not normally do offline. These countability is lacking and the ‘‘true’’ self can come out of statements can take both explicit (i.e., autobiographic de- hiding. However, not all online worlds are completely scriptions) and implicit (i.e., photos) forms and ultimately anonymous. Facebook offers a ‘‘nonymous’’ (i.e., the opposite enable people to stage a public display of their hoped-for of anonymous) online setting where relationships are an- possible selves.3 In accordance with this notion, research by chored in a number of ways, through institutions, residence, Buffardi and Campbell2 confirmed that narcissism predicted and mutual friends.3 Unlike anonymous online environ- higher levels of social activity in the online community and ments, nonymous settings place more constraints on the more self-promoting content in several aspects of the social freedom of identity claims. However, they provide an ideal networking Web pages.2 environment for the expression of the ‘‘hoped-for possible self,’’ a subgroup of the possible-self. This state emphasizes Self-esteem and online self-presentation realistic socially desirable identities an individual would like In psychology, self-esteem is defined as a person’s overall to establish given the right circumstances. self-evaluation of his or her worth.12 Implicit and explicit self- While research on Web 2.0 applications are virtually scarce, esteem are subtypes of self-esteem. Implicit self-esteem is an studies suggest that the most important motive for hosting a automatic, unconscious self-evaluation; explicit self-esteem is personal homepage is impression management and self- 12 1 www.numerons.ina more conscious, reflective self-evaluation. Regardless of expression. Given the theoretical rationale on the potential the type of self-esteem, one of the most pervasive facts about differences between face-to-face and online self-presentation, this construct is that all humans have a vital need to main- this exploratory study examines the effects of two personality tain and=or raise it.1 Parallel to this line of thought, it can traits known to influence self-presentation: narcissism and be expected that individuals will strive for positive self- self-esteem. presentations in both online and offline social settings. It is also likely that people with low self-esteem will be even more Narcissism and online self-presentation eager to engage in online activities that may raise their self- esteem.1 By doing so, it may provide an outlet for the hoped- Narcissism is a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for for possible self to be expressed.1 However, with regard to admiration, and an exaggerated sense of self-importance.9 It online impression management, Kra¨mer and Winter did not is associated with positive self-views of agentic traits, in- find any differences between self-presentation and low and cluding intelligence, physical attractiveness, and power. high self-esteem users.1 These contradictory results warrant Central to most theoretical models of narcissism, the use of further research within the emerging field of online self- social relationships is employed in order to regulate narcis- presentation. sistic esteem. However, narcissists do not focus on interper- sonal intimacy, warmth, or other positive aspects of relational Overview of the present study outcomes. Instead, they use relationships to appear popular and successful, and they seek attractive, high status individ- The present study extends the existing research on self- uals as romantic partners.10 Despite their tendency to seek out presentation in online friend-networking Web pages. Al- many superficial, empty relationships, narcissists rarely though there are many online venues appropriate for this pursue these commitments for long periods of time. Re- type of research (e.g., MySpace), Facebook was used in this lationships are solely pursued when an opportunity for investigation for two reasons. First, Facebook is the most com- public glory presents itself.10 monly used site by individuals in our sample—university Recently, there has been a tremendous amount of media students.6 When this site was first created, a university e-mail attention surrounding the issue of narcissism and social- address was required to set up an account. Although virtually networking Web sites.2 These online communities have been anyone can now sign up for Facebook, this online community targeted as a particularly fertile ground for narcissists to self- remains a popular site for college and university students. regulate for a number of reasons. First, this setting offers a Second, Facebook profile pages have a structured, fixed for- gateway for hundreds of shallow relationships (i.e., virtual mat. This consistency allows for a controlled comparison friends), and emotionally detached communication (i.e., wall among Web page users. This study examines the effects of

Compiled by Amit Shekhar Email:[email protected] Contact: +91-9560344245 Psychology for IAS: Language and Communication 130 NARCISSISM AND SELF-ESTEEM ON FACEBOOK 359 narcissism and self-esteem on online social activity and their an a ¼ 0.84, the NPI-16 has an a ¼ 0.72. Despite this discrep- associations with online self-promotional content. Gender ancy, the two measures are correlated at r ¼ 0.90 ( p < 0.001). differences are explored as moderators of types of self- This 16-item forced-choice format personality questionnaire promotional content presented on personal Web pages. The also has notable face, internal, discriminant, and predictive following hypotheses are tested: validity.13 Example items include ‘‘I am more capable than other people’’ versus ‘‘There is a lot that I can learn from other H1: Individuals with high narcissism scores will be correlated people,’’ and higher scores on the NPI indicate more narcis- with a greater amount of Facebook activity. sistic personality. Overall, the NPI-16 is both a valid and re- liable way to capture a range of different facets of this H2: Individuals with high narcissism scores will use more self-promoting content on Facebook. construct, particularly in situations where the use of a longer measure would be impractical.13 H3: Males with high narcissism scores will display descriptive self-promotion, while females with high narcissism scores Procedure will display superficial self-promotion. Undergraduate students were randomly recruited on H4: Individuals with low self-esteem will be correlated with a campus and asked to participate in a study exploring the use greater amount of Facebook activity. of Facebook. Participants were selected on the basis of whether or not they had an active Facebook account. Upon H5: Individuals with low self-esteem scores will use more agreeing to participate in this research study, participants self-promoting content on Facebook. were presented with a waiver form to sign if they consented to being added to Facebook to have their page rated. Parti- Note that descriptive self-promotion is conveyed by text cipants were also assured that all identifying information (e.g., via About Me, Status Updates, and Notes features), and would be kept anonymous. Following their consent, partici- superficial self-promotion involves images (e.g., photos pos- pants were administered the four-part questionnaire. Upon ted as ‘‘Main Photo’’ or in Web page photo albums). completion, participants were immediately added to Face- book and were then fully debriefed. Method Five features of the Facebook page were coded for the Participants extent to which they were self-promoting: (a) the About Me section, (b) the Main Photo, (c) the first 20 pictures on the One hundred Facebook owners (50 male, 50 female) were View Photos of Me section, (d) the Notes section, and (e) the randomly recruited at York University. They ranged in age Status Updates section. For the purpose of this study, self- from 18 to 25 years (M ¼ 22.21, SD ¼ 1.98). All participants promotion was distinguished as any descriptive or visual gave permission to be added to Facebook and agreed to have www.numerons.ininformation that appeared to attempt to persuade others their pages coded for the present research. about one’s own positive qualities. For example, facial expression (e.g., striking a pose or making a face) and picture Rater enhancement (e.g., using photo editing software) were coded The rater of the participants’ Facebook page was the author in the Main Photo and View Photos of Me sections. The use of this study, a 22-year-old female undergraduate student at of positive adjectives (e.g., nice, sexy, funny), self-promoting York University. mottos (e.g., ‘‘I’m so glamorous I bleed glitter’’), and meta- phorical quotes (e.g., ‘‘A girl should always be two things: Materials classy and fabulous—Coco Chanel’’) were coded in the About Me section. Self-promotion in the Notes section could include After agreeing to participate in this research study, Face- posting results from Facebook applications including book owners were administered a brief four-part question- ‘‘My Celebrity Look-alikes,’’ which compares a photo of the naire. The first section required demographic information, user to celebrities, or vain online-quiz results, which often including the participant’s age and gender. The second sec- provide shallow descriptions of the user (e.g., You are very tion addressed Facebook activity; it required respondents to mysterious and sexy). Status Updates were also coded on the indicate the number of times they check their Facebook page basis of self-promoting information provided by the user. per day and the time spent on Facebook per session. The Each section was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from remaining sections assessed two psychological constructs: 1, not at all,to5,very much. In cases where Facebook users self-esteem and narcissism. kept these features private, the corresponding feature was not The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure rated. participant self-esteem. This 10-item test measured self- esteem using a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly Results disagree to strongly agree. Example items include ‘‘On the whole, I am satisfied with myself’’ and ‘‘I take a positive at- A Pearson correlation addressed the relationship between titude toward myself.’’ The original reliability of this scale is narcissism (M ¼ 8.21, SD ¼ 4.81) and Facebook activity. As 0.72. This measure has gained acceptable internal consistency predicted, higher scores on the NPI-16 were positively cor- and test–retest reliability, as well as convergent and dis- related with the number of times Facebook was checked per criminant validity.1 day, r ¼ 0.462, p < 0.01; and with the time spent on Facebook Narcissism was assessed using the Narcissism Personality per session, r ¼ 0.614, p < 0.01. Similarly, a Pearson correla- Inventory (NPI)-16. The NPI-16 is a shorter, unidimensional tion was used to test the relationship between self-esteem measure of the NPI-40. While the 40-item measure revealed (M ¼ 17.05, SD ¼ 4.96) and Facebook activity. Results

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Table 1. Self-Promoting Facebook Correlates to examine how particular offline personality traits mani- with Owners’ Self-Esteem Scores fested in nonymous online social environments. Building on the limited existing research within this relatively new field, Facebook content Pearson correlation one of the focuses of this study was to examine the effects of About Me 0.139 offline narcissism on Facebook activity. Given that this Web Main Photo 0.374** site offers various outlets for self-promotion (e.g., via About View Photos (20) 0.097 Me, Main Photo) and also presents the opportunity to display Status Updates 0.103 large numbers of shallow relationships (friends are counted Notes 0.007 and sometimes reach the thousands), it was hypothesized that narcissists would engage in more Facebook activity. < **p 0.01. As predicted, there was a significant positive correlation between individuals who scored higher on the NPI-16, the indicated a significant negative correlation between self-es- number of times Facebook was checked per day, and the time teem and the number of times Facebook was checked per day, spent on Facebook per session. This result is consistent with r ¼0.458, p < 0.01; and with time spent on Facebook per the findings presented in another study that examined nar- session, r ¼0.432, p < 0.01. cissism and Facebook activity.2 A series of Pearson correlation analyses were also used to While the nonymity of this environment places constraint assess the relation between owners’ self-esteem scores and on the freedom of individual identity claims,3 this setting also self-promotional Facebook page content. Results showed a enables users to control the information projected about sole significant negative correlation between self-esteem and themselves. In particular, users can select attractive photo- self-promotion in the Main Photo section, r ¼0.374, p < 0.01. graphs and write self-descriptions that are self-promoting in an The results are summarized in Table 1. Similarly, the relation effort to project an enhanced sense of self. Furthermore, Face- between owners’ narcissism scores and self-promotional Fa- book users can receive public feedback on profile features from cebook page content was assessed using Pearson correlations. other users, which can act as a positive regulator of narcissistic Results indicated significant positive correlations between esteem. Past research shows that narcissists, for example, are narcissism and self-promotional content in the following boastful and eager to talk about themselves,14 gain esteem areas: Main Photo, View Photos (20), Status Updates, and from public glory,15 and are prevalent on reality television.16 Notes. The results are shown in Table 2. Given these findings, it was hypothesized that narcissists Using this information, a univariate analysis of variance would present a similar opportunity for self-promotion on was conducted to determine any gender differences that ex- Facebook. Results partially supported this hypothesis. Sig-

isted in the types of self-promotional behavior presented by nificant positive correlations were found between scores on the narcissistic Facebook pagewww.numerons.inowners. Unexpectedly, there were NPI-16 and self-promotion in the following areas: Main Photo, no significant interactions between narcissism, gender, and View Photos (20), Status Updates, and Notes. However, a any of the coded self-promotional content. However, results Pearson correlation analysis failed to show a significant cor- indicated a main effect for gender and self-promotional in- relation between narcissism and About Me self-promotion. A formation in the About Me section, F(1, 96) ¼ 6.367, p ¼ 0.013; study by Zhao et al.3 examining identity construction on Fa- the Notes section F(1, 96) ¼ 17.074, p < 0.001; and the Main cebook also found that users were less likely to make positive Photos section F(1, 96) ¼ 5.731, p ¼ 0.019. Specifically, males self-descriptions in the About Me section yet were more apt to displayed more self-promotional content in About Me and showcase themselves through photos. This preference for Notes; see Figures 1 and 2. Females displayed more self- ‘‘show’’ versus ‘‘tell’’ can be attributed to the college sample, as promotion in the Main Photo section; see Figure 3. No main the campus setting set the stage for offline socializing and thus effects were found for gender and self-promotional content a greater need to conceal socially undesirable narcissistic ten- in View Photos (20) or Status Updates. Results are presented dencies. Similarly, a study by Collins and Stukas17 found that in Table 3. college students who rated higher on the NPI-40 were more apt to present themselves in a self-enhancing manner through Discussion an external domain (e.g., physical attractiveness) than through an internal domain (e.g., intelligence). Although these studies Based on the literature review, it was postulated that on- support the findings in the About Me, Main Picture, and View line communities offer a gateway for identity construction Photos (20) sections, they are also paradoxical to the relation and self-presentation. The goal of this exploratory study was between narcissism and self-promotion in other implicit domains: Status Updates and Notes. This can be attributed to the Table 2. Self-Promoting Facebook Correlates distinctiveness of the Facebook environment and features. with Owners’ Narcissism Scores Status Updates are generally used to broadcast current states, and in this context, it is both acceptable and the norm to use Facebook content Pearson correlation this feature to boast. It should also be distinguished that the Notes feature of Facebook can include other information be- About Me 0.136 sides written text, such as images of My Celebrity Look-alikes. Main Photo 0.493** This application was common among this sample and was View Photos (20) 0.408** noted as self-promotional behavior. Status Updates 0.200* Notes 0.315** Based on these findings, additional tests were also conducted to assess whether gender differences existed with re- *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. gards to the types of self-promotional features that narcissists

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FIG. 1. Estimated marginal means of About Me self-promotion. were apt to include in their Facebook profiles. It was hy- Notes sections than women. Conversely, women displayed pothesized that male narcissists would include more de- more self-promotional Main Photos. scriptive self-promotion, while female narcissists would Although there has been no research examining gender include more superficial self-promotion. Although no signif- differences in types of self-promotional domains, particularly icant interactions werewww.numerons.infound among narcissism, gender, and in online settings, this premise supports simple socialization self-promotional content, there were some main effects be- processes. Specifically, it is probable that gender roles influ- tween gender and self-promotional content. Males displayed enced narcissistic females’ tendencies to include revealing, more self-promotional information in the About Me and flashy, and adorned photos of their physical appearance and

FIG. 2. Estimated marginal means of Notes self-promotion

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FIG. 3. Estimated marginal means of Main Photo self-promotion. trends in narcissistic males to highlight descriptive self- normative behavior on Facebook. Thus, both males and promotion reflecting intelligence or wit in the About Me females may be equally as likely to use it as a means of self- section. promotion. Second, View Photos (20) include photos of the Despite this notion, gender differences were not significant user from other individuals’ albums. For this reason, there is in the View Photos (20) or Status Updates sections. Although less control of what pictures are being displayed and thus a there is no empirical reasoning behind this finding, several lesser likelihood for self-promotional differences among males hypotheses can be madewww.numerons.into explain this result. First, self- and females. However, given the exploratory nature of this promotional Status Updates are more widely accepted as study, future research is needed to explore gender differences

Table 3. The Effects of Gender on Self-Promotional Facebook Content

Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.

About Me Gender 16.539 1 16.539 6.367 0.013 Narcissism 7.236 1 7.236 2.786 0.098 Gender & narcissism 1.883 1 1.883 0.725 0.397 Error 249.362 96 2.598 Notes Gender 40.850 1 40.850 17.074 0.000 Narcissism 46.927 1 46.927 19.614 0.000 Gender & narcissism 3.122 1 3.122 1.305 0.256 Error 229.680 96 2.393 Main Photo Gender 11.011 1 11.011 5.731 0.019 Narcissism 62.403 1 62.403 32.479 0.000 Gender & narcissism 0.125 1 0.125 0.065 0.800 Error 184.449 96 1.921 View Photos (20) Gender 0.695 1 0.695 0.308 0.058 Narcissism 40.400 1 40.400 17.920 0.000 Gender & narcissism 0.637 1 0.637 0.283 0.596 Error 216.430 96 2.254 Status Updates Gender 6.158 1 6.158 2.899 0.092 Narcissism 12.259 1 12.259 5.771 0.018 Gender & narcissism 3.496 1 3.496 1.645 0.203 Error 203.944 96 2.124

Compiled by Amit Shekhar Email:[email protected] Contact: +91-9560344245 134 Psychology for IAS: Language and Communication NARCISSISM AND SELF-ESTEEM ON FACEBOOK 363 in Web page self-promotional content and interactions be- promotional content. Future research should address this ca- tween narcissism and gender in an online environment. veat by creating a more objective measure of self-promotion. A popular view on the etiology of narcissism, rooted ini- This can be achieved by taking the mean of the coders’ ratings tially in psychoanalytic theory, proposes that narcissism is across several categories to measure self-promotion (e.g., deep-seated in fragile self-esteem or vulnerability to shame.18 Main Photo self-promotion could be created by taking the Although this hypothesis is widely accepted in clinical psy- mean of the coders’ ratings of how provocative and vain the chology, empirical evidence presents both equivocal and in- photo was). verse findings with regards to this relationship.18 Despite this uncertainty, this association was used to hypothesize that Future directions individuals with low self-esteem would be correlated with a Aside from including a more objective measure of Face- greater amount of Facebook activity. book page coding and incorporating multiple page coders, As predicted, results indicated a significant negative corre- future research should seek to expand these results across a lation between self-esteem and Facebook activity. Specifically, larger sample that is more diverse in age and selected across individuals who rated lower on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem a variety of settings. However, for the purpose of this study, a Scale were correlated with a greater amount of time spent of university student sample was most desirable, as they repre- Facebook per session and a greater number of Facebook logins sent the majority of users on Facebook.6 The results presented per day. These results are contradictory to those presented by in this study provide valuable insight in understanding how Kra¨mer and Winter,1 which found that self-esteem was unre- narcissism and self-esteem are constructed in a virtual envi- lated to StudiVZ (a German Web 2.0 site) activity. Never- ronment. This research has several implications in marketing theless, given the limited nature of research in this particular and advertisements in online communities. For example, it can field, these results should not be viewed as conclusive. be used to sell products that enhance physical attractiveness, a The association between narcissism and self-esteem was feature that is desired by narcissists and individuals with low also used to predict that individuals with low self-esteem self-esteem. would be correlated with a greater amount of self-promotional This research initiative was but a first step in clarifying content on their Facebook pages. According to Markus and online self-presentation. Future studies should investigate the Nurius,8 the actualization of the hoped-for possible self can be social consequences of friend-networking sites. For example, blocked by the presence of physical gating features, such as an if individuals with low self-esteem are indeed more apt to use unattractive appearance or shyness.3 Using this theory, Zhao these sites, will their use cause an indirect effect on social self- et al. suggested that nonymous online environments provide a esteem and well-being? It would be fruitful to have further fertile ground for these ‘‘gated’’ individuals to actualize the research designated in this field in order to bridge the gap identities they hope to establish but are unable to achieve in between the online self and the offline individual. face-to-face situations.3www.numerons.in In accordance with this notion, a significant negative cor- Acknowledgments relation was found between participant self-esteem and Main Photo self-promotion. In this case, Main Photos could have Thank you to Dr. Edward Haltrecht and to Carmen Bewell been selected or enhanced to cover up undesirable features by (Ph.D. Candidate). individuals with low self-esteem in order to enable the actualization of their hoped-for possible selves. However, results Disclosure Statement failed to show any significant correlations between self- No competing financial interests exist. esteem and self-promotional content in View Photos (20), About Me, Status Updates, or Notes. These results can be References explained by the context of the Facebook environment. The nonymity of the environment, especially the anticipation of 1. Kra¨mer CN, Winter S. Impression management 2.0: the re- subsequent face-to-face encounters with Facebook friends, lationship of self-esteem, extraversion, self-efficacy, and self- has been hypothesized to narrow the discrepancy between presentation within social networking sites. Journal of the actual selves and the ideal selves in people’s online self- Media Psychology 2008; 20:106–16. presentations. Alternatively, a fully anonymous online envi- 2. Buffardi EL, Campbell WK. Narcissism and social net- ronment might create a less inhibited environment for the working web sites. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin fantasized ideal self to be projected (e.g., via About Me, 2008; 34:1303–14. 3. Zhao S, Grasmuck S, Martin J. Identity construction on Fa- Notes).3 In this case, self-enhanced written descriptions are cebook: digital empowerment in anchored relationships. less likely, while self-promoting Main Photos are normative Computers in Human Behavior 2008; 24:1816–36. and thus accepted in this particular online community. 4. Ellison N, Heino R, Gibbs J. Managing impressions online: self–presentation processes in the online dating environ- Limitations ment. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication 2006; 11:415–41. The central concern with this study was the subjectivity in 5. Raacke J, Bonds-Raacke J. MySpace and Facebook: applying the Facebook page coding. This potential bias could have been uses and gratifications theory to exploring friend-networking avoided by having several raters who were different in age, sites. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2008; 11:169–74. gender, and race. Future studies should also include raters 6. Facebook Press Room. www.facebook.com=press=info.php? who are not strangers to the participant (i.e., friends, family) statistics (accessed Jan. 15, 2009). in order to get a more accurate assessment of self-promotion. 7. Rosenberg M (1986) Conceiving the self. Robert E. Krieger: Another limitation of this study was the subjectivity of self- Malabar, FL.

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8. Markus H, Nurius P. Possible selves. American Psychologist 16. Young SM, Pinsky D. Narcissism and celebrity. Journal of 1986; 41:954–69. Research in Personality 2006; 40:463–71. 9. Oltmanns FT, Emery ER, Taylor S (2006) Abnormal psychol- 17. Collins RD, Stukas AA. Narcissism and self-presentation: ogy. Toronto: Pearson Education Canada. the moderating effects of accountability and contingencies 10. Campbell WK. Narcissism and romantic attraction. Journal on self-worth. Journal of Research in Psychology 2008; 42: of Personality & Social Psychology 1999; 77:1254–70. 1629–34. 11. Walther BJ, Van Der Heide B, Yeon SK, et al. The role of 18. Lima NE. The association between narcissism and implicit friends’ appearance and behavior on evaluations of indi- self-esteem: a test of the fragile self-esteem hypothesis. PhD viduals on Facebook: Are we known by the company we dissertation. Florida State University, 2007 In Dissertations & keep? Human Communication Research 2008; 34:28–49. Theses, Full Text [database on the Internet]. Available from 12. Weiten W. (2004) Psychology themes and variations. Belmont, www.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca. Publication CA: Wadsworth=Thomson Learning. AAT 3282639. 13. Ames RD, Rose P, Anderson PC. The NPI-16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality Address correspondence to: 2006; 40:440–50. Soraya Mehdizadeh 14. Buss DM, Chiodo LM. Narcissistic acts in everyday life. 16 Foot Hills Rd. Journal of Personality 1991; 59:179–215. Maple, Ontario L6A 2V6 15. Wallace HM, Baumeister RF. The performance of narcissists Canada rises and falls with perceived opportunity for glory. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 2002; 82:819–34. E-mail: [email protected]

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