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Mechanisms of Translational Regulation in Bacteria:Impact On Mechanisms of translational regulation in bacteria: Impact on codon usage and operon organization DISSERTATION zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) im Fach Biologie eingereicht an der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät I der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin von Herrn Diplom-Physiker Kajetan Bentele Präsident der der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin: Prof. Dr. Jan-Hendrik Olbertz Dekan der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät I: Prof. Stefan Hecht PhD Gutachter: 1. Prof. Dr. Markus Kollmann 2. Prof. Dr. Nils Blüthgen 3. Prof. Dr. Zoya Ignatova Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 16.05.2013 Ich widme diese Arbeit meiner Familie und meinen Freunden Abstract Translation is the final step in the fundamental process of protein biosynthesis, the proper course of which is of utmost importance to the living cell. Here we investigate the relationship between translational efficiency and codon usage at the gene start. It is known for some organisms that usage of synonymous codons at the beginning of genes deviates from the codon usage elsewhere in the genome. By systematically analyzing about 400 bacterial genomes we find that this phenomenon is widespread but differs markedly in strength. We show that this deviation in codon usage is caused by the need to suppress RNA secondary structure around the translation start site, thereby allowing efficient initiation of translation. This pressure to reduce folding increases with the GC-content of the respective genome. In contrast to the current hypothesis that codon usage is adapted in order to slow down early elongation, we conclude that the observed enrichment of rare codons is a consequence of suppressing mRNA structure around the ribosome binding site (RBS). We validate this hypothesis experimentally by varying independently codon usage and folding of mRNA and measuring protein- and mRNA-levels. We investigate further driving forces for genome organization by studying the impact of gene order within an operon on the fitness of bacterial cells. Operons group functionally related genes which are together transcribed as single mRNAs in E. coli and other bacteria. Correlation of protein levels is thus to a large extent attributed to this coupling on the transcriptional level. In addition, the initiation of ribosomes at the RBS of adjacent genes within an operon may be dependent on each other. Such translational coupling can further stabilize a desired stoichiometry between proteins. Here, we study the role of translational coupling in robustness of E. coli chemotaxis. We demonstrate experimentally translational coupling of chemotaxis genes and the beneficial effects of pairwise expression of genes from bicistronic constructs on chemotactic performance. By employing a model of translational coupling and simulating the underlying signal transduction network we show that certain permutations of genes contribute more to robustness of chemotaxis than others. We conclude that translational coupling is an important determinant of the gene order within the chemotaxis operon. Both these findings show that requirements for efficient gene expression and robustness of cellular function have a pronounced impact on the genomic organization, influencing the local codon usage at the beginning of genes and the order of genes within operons. v Zusammenfassung Die Translation ist der letzte Schritt der Proteinbiosynthese, ein Prozess, der von au- ßerordentlicher Bedeutung für die Zelle ist. Hier untersuchen wir den Zusammenhang zwischen der Translationseffizienz von Genen und der Häufigkeit bestimmter Codons am Genanfang in bakteriellen Genomen. Für einige Organismen wurde gezeigt, dass die Häu- figkeitsverteilung der Codons am Anfang der Gene eine andere ist als sonst im Genom. Durch die systematische Untersuchung von ungefähr 400 bakteriellen Genomen haben wir festgestellt, dass dieses Phänomen sehr weit verbreitet ist, sich jedoch in der Aus- prägung zum Teil erheblich unterscheidet. Unsere Analyse zeigt, dass der Grund dieser Abweichung in der Notwendigkeit liegt, RNA Sekundärstruktur in der Nähe des Transla- tionsstarts zu vermeiden. Der evolutionäre Druck die Faltung der RNA zu unterdrücken ist dabei umso stärker, je größer der GC-Gehalt des jeweiligen Genoms ausfällt. Unse- re Ergebnisse stehen im Gegensatz zur gegenwärtigen Hypothese, wonach am Anfang von Genen solche Codons präferentiell benutzt werden, die eine Verlangsamung der Ri- bosomen in der frühen Elongationsphase zur Folge haben sollten. Dieser These zufolge führt das zu einer Anreicherung von seltenen Codons, wohingegen wir zu dem Schluss gekommen sind, dass dies nur eine Folge der Notwendigkeit ist, die Ribosombindestel- le (RBS) einer RNA möglichst unstrukturiert zu belassen. Wir haben diese Hypothese experimentell validiert, indem wir den Gebrauch synonymer Codons unabhängig von der mRNA Faltung variiert und die Protein und mRNA Häufigkeit dieser Konstrukte bestimmt haben. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit untersuchen wir die Genomorganisation auf einer ande- ren Ebene: Den Einfluss der Genreihenfolge innerhalb eines Operons auf die Fitness von E. coli. In den Genomen von E. coli oder anderen Bakterien fasst ein Operon Gene zusam- men, die in einer funktionellen Beziehung zueinander stehen und zusammen transkribiert werden. Die Korrelation zwischen den Häufigkeiten solcherart kodierter Proteine ist daher zu einem Teil auf die Kopplung der Transkription zurückzuführen. Hinzu kommt, dass die Initiation der Ribosomen an benachbarten Gene voneinander abhängen kann. Diese zusätzliche translationale Kopplung kann eine gewünschte Stöchiometrie zwischen Pro- teinen weiter stabilisieren. Hier haben wir die Rolle der translationalen Kopplung für die Robustheit des Chemotaxis Signalweges in E. coli untersucht. Wir haben experimentell gezeigt, dass es eine Kopplung auf der Ebene der Translation zwischen den Chemotaxis- Genen gibt und dass die paarweise Überexpression dieser Gene weitaus besser toleriert wird als die einzelner Gene. Mit Hilfe eines Modells für die translationale Kopplung sowie für den Chemotaxis Signalweg konnten wir zeigen, dass bestimmte Permutationen der Gene mehr zur Robustheit beitragen als andere. Die translationale Kopplung ist daher ein wichtiger Faktor, der die Anordnung der Gene innerhalb des Chemotaxis Operons bestimmt. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass die Anforderungen einer effizienten Genexpression sowie die Robustheit essentieller zellulärer Funktionen einen wichtigen Einfluss auf die Organisa- tion eines Genoms haben können: Einerseits bei der Wahl der Codons am Anfang der Gene, andererseits auf die Ordnung der Gene innerhalb eines Operons. vii Contents 1. Introduction1 2. Gene expression in bacteria7 2.1. The central dogma of molecular biology.....................7 2.2. Molecular details of gene expression....................... 10 2.2.1. DNA and RNA: Information storage and messenger molecules..... 10 2.2.2. The genetic code.............................. 15 2.2.3. tRNAs effectuate the genetic code.................... 16 2.2.4. Transcription of a gene.......................... 18 2.2.5. Translation of a gene............................ 19 2.2.6. Organization of a mRNA......................... 22 2.3. Refined model of translation............................ 23 2.4. Gene expression noise............................... 27 3. Translation initiation and codon usage 31 3.1. Introduction..................................... 31 3.2. Results........................................ 33 3.2.1. Unusual codon usage around the translation start site in bacteria... 33 3.2.2. Suppression of secondary structure around translation start site de- pends on global GC-content........................ 35 3.2.3. Selection of unusual codons correlates with the reduction of secondary structure.................................. 38 3.2.4. Properties of rare and abundant codons................. 41 3.2.5. Rare codons are selected to reduce GC-content in E. coli........ 41 3.2.6. Wide-spread selection for reduced GC-content at gene start...... 42 3.2.7. Evolutionary simulations confirm that unusual codons are required to reduce secondary structure........................ 44 3.2.8. Experiments confirm strong effect of folding on translation efficiency. 46 3.2.9. The impact of slow codons at beginning of ORFs............ 48 3.3. Discussion...................................... 50 3.3.1. Codon usage at beginning of genes is shaped by suppression of mRNA structure.................................. 50 3.3.2. Reduced mRNA folding is important for efficient translation initiation 51 3.3.3. Conclusion................................. 51 4. Translational coupling and chemotaxis efficiency 53 4.1. Introduction..................................... 53 4.2. Results........................................ 58 4.2.1. Translational coupling between chemotaxis genes............ 58 4.2.2. Pairwise coexpression of genes improves chemotaxis.......... 61 ix Contents 4.2.3. Model of the chemotaxis pathway..................... 62 4.2.4. Modeling translational coupling...................... 66 4.2.5. Translational coupling between selected genes is predicted to enhance robustness of the pathway......................... 72 4.3. Discussion...................................... 78 4.3.1. Translational coupling as a mechanism of noise reduction....... 78 4.3.2. Selection for robustness can explain order of chemotaxis genes.... 79 4.3.3. Evolution of gene order in chemotaxis operons............. 80 4.3.4. Conclusion................................. 80 5. Conclusion and outlook
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