POLYPHONIC CREATION AND THE MUSICAL TEXT ECHO : COGITATIONS ON A MUSICAL AND SPIRITUAL JOURNEY
AMIR A. KOUSHKANI
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Graduate Program in Music York University Toronto, Ontario
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1*1 Canada POLYPHONIC CREATION AND THE MUSICAL TEXT ECHO : COGITATIONS ON A MUSICAL AND SPIRITUAL JOURNEY
by
ABOUNASR AMIR KOUSHKANI
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
©2009 Permission has been granted to: a) YORK UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES to lend or sell copies of this thesis in paper, microform or electronic formats, and b) LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA to reproduce, lend, distribute, or sell copies of this thesis anywhere in the world in microform, paper or electronic formats and to authorize or procure the reproduction, loan, distribution or sale of copies of this thesis anywhere in the world in microform, paper of electronic formats.
The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's written permission. ABSTRACT
This study is an analysis of the Sufistic context, philosophical approach and actual composition of a 10-minute musical text entitled Echo (for orchestra and choir, with one classical Persian percussion instrument, the Clay Tonbak), involving an attempt at synthesizing Eastern and Western classical traditions in a fundamentally creative way. The Eastern tradition in question is that of the radif in Iranian (Persian) classical (traditional) music. Polyphonization and harmonization techniques are discussed with regard to the execution of the musical text. This is done against the background of a theoretical and methodological discussion of certain pertinent musicological topics, such as: monophony versus polyphony; solo performance versus group performance; improvisation versus musical notation; the role of the performer in musical composition; complexity of rhythm in Persian classical music; and the spiritual foundations of musical and artistic creativity. Hand in hand with this, the spiritual motivation for such a musical composition is expounded by reference to the philosophy and practices of Sufism, with particular emphasis on the Sufic ceremony of the sama'. Furthermore, the direct and indispensable role played by a mystical Hafez poem in the musical composition itself is explained and elaborated.
iv DEDICATION
To my Mother and Father
And in memory of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh (1926-2008), my Spiritual Master and Teacher:
The Pirs are they whose spirits Were in the Sea of Divine Munificence Before this world existed. They lived ages before the creation of the body; They harvested the wheat before it was sown. The spirit has beheld the wine in the grape, The spirit has beheld entity in non-entity.
- Rumi - (R.A. Nicholson translation)
v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and fervent appreciation to the following for their friendship and support: my thesis supervisor, Professor David Mott, who gave me spiritual guidance and inspiration; Professor Robert Simms, whom I have known for many years as a magnanimous friend and caring mentor; Mr. Robert Best, doctoral candidate at the University of Toronto, who encouraged me generously; Ms. Nazi Khosrowshahi, who consistently supported me; Mr. Camran Chaichian and Mr. Houman Pourmehdi, my dear friends and brothers in Sufism; and Mr. Teymour Dowlatshahi, a supportive friend and brother.
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i Copyright Page ii Certificate Page iii Abstract iv Dedication v Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents vii
Introduction 1
1. Monophonic versus polyphonic dimensions 4 2. The esoteric concept of hagh-e matlab 8 3. The solo performer versus group performance 10 4. Improvisation versus compositional notation 15 5. Complexity of rhythm in Persian classical music 21 6. Introducing the Sufi poet Hafez 29 7. The mystical path and the ceremonial practice ofsama' 32 8. The performer in musical composition 42 9. Polyphonic techniques deployed in Echo 50
Conclusion 58
Glossary 61 Bibliography 64
Appendix I: The Musical Text: Echo 69 Appendix II: The Recording: Echo
vii O Persian Tar! your voice is silent now but when Love awakens you will echo forth with celestial melodies ceaselessly and forever
INTRODUCTION
Having been commissioned by the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra to write a 10-minute composition for full choir and orchestra, which I have named Echo, I immediately recognized this to be a great opportunity for me to pursue polyphonic ideas, to observe how I would compose a choral/orchestral work, and hopefully learn new compositional techniques that would improve me as a performer-turned-composer.
Having been formally trained in classical Persian/Iranian music, I devoted myself to the extensive study of orchestration and instrumentation in the Western classical tradition after my arrival in Canada in 1991. Through my musical experiences, I have become increasingly aware of the need to gain a deeper understanding of orchestration for
Western musical instruments, not only for the creation of new compositions, but also to acquire the technical vocabulary to effectively communicate with performers and conductors. It is obviously important that the communication between these three parties
(namely, composer/conductor/orchestra) be clear and unequivocal in order to realize the proper execution of a musical work.
1.'Persian' and 'Iranian', 'Persia' and 'Iran', 'Farsi' and 'Persian' have been used synonymously throughout.
1 My past contribution to the promotion of classical Iranian/Persian music in North
America,2 coupled with the attempt to incorporate Western and Eastern (Iranian) musical influences within a syncretistic perspective, has not been negligible. What I have done now with this particular musical composition (namely, Echo) is expand and develop my knowledge and expertise in this area. Having had some familiarity with orchestral arrangements where the Persian tar has been incorporated, I was in a position to explore this dimension further, particularly with regard to Western string orchestras. In this respect, I studied some of those Western and Eastern composers whose work has concentrated on string instruments, and ensembles in particular.
Furthermore, one might say that, as a general rule, musicians specializing in classical
Persian/Iranian music are compelled to confine themselves to monophonic melodies, by virtue of the fact that polyphony is to all intents and purposes alien to Persian classical music. Consequently, my main objective in this compositional endeavour had been to explore this aspect of "polyphonization" more exhaustively. This can only be achieved by the study of the multitude of techniques that Western classical music has utilized in the area of counterpoint.
Three main areas of focus were therefore pertinent to my compositional efforts with Echo, with regard to the respective stages of conceptualization, preparation of text, realization of text through notation, and execution of text through performance: first, exploring the
2. This includes my past musical arrangements and/or compositions involving both Western and Eastern (Iranian) traditions, and my countless past appearances in North America and Europe as a concert- performer of the Persian tar and setar respectively (from 1991 to the time of writing).
2 potential of string ensembles with regard to my own past musical endeavours; second, investigating the phenomenon of harmony in greater depth; and third, familiarizing myself with the art of effective communication employed by composer, conductor and orchestra.
With this in mind, I discuss various musicological concepts both from the theoretical and methodological points of view, as evidenced by the section-headings below. Such cogitations (albeit tentative and exploratory) have led me to my final section on the polyphonic techniques deployed in Echo. My main contention is that attempting to use polyphonization and harmonization techniques within the dimension of non-rhythmic
Persian classical music will as a matter of course generate formidable, if not insurmountable, difficulties of execution for a Western classic orchestra (as, for example, encountered when addressing the rhythmic complexity of Persian classical music), and that more experimentation must be undertaken in this area.
It must not be forgotten, moreover, that our musicological discussion takes place against the all-embracing background of Sufi mysticism as represented by the Sufi ceremony of the soma' on the one hand, and the direct and indispensable role played within the musical piece Echo by a mystical poem of the great 14th-century Sufi poet of Iran, Hafez, on the other.
3 Section 1: MONOPHONIC VERSUS POLYPHONIC DIMENSIONS
Overview
In this section the respective concepts of monophony and polyphony are discussed within the specific context of my task as a composer whilst creating my musical piece,
Echo. Monophony in Iranian classical music is also addressed as a matter of course, as this has been such an important influence in my musical career hitherto.
From monophony to polyphony
Monophonic music can be defined as "unaccompanied melodies without harmony or
counter-melody" (Grout 2001: 4). Music of earlier periods was primarily monophonic,
and it was transmitted orally. This applies to most ancient cultures, which have recourse to a linear musical sound and melodies. In Western classical music monophonic music was a preliminary stage in music, where the emphasis was on plainchant (plainsong) and
conductus (ibid: 57). At this time sacred music in relation to liturgical text verses in Latin
were presented in monophonic music. With the invention of musical notation,
monophonic music moves gradually to diaphonic, heterophonic and polyphonic music.
During the Mediaeval music era (500-1400), the only European repertory which has
survived from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman
Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song.
Compared to the 14th century, more of the surviving music of the Renaissance period
(1400-1600) is secular. By the middle of the 15th century, composers and singers used a
smooth polyphony for sacred musical compositions.
4 Some traditions, such as that of classical Persian music, have known a specific form of monophonic music. Like so many other cultures from the East, the monophonic dimension has been the norm for musical sound-combinations. In traditional Persian music, musical creation has paid attention to a number of principal elements, such as melody and its phrase structure, rhythmic complexity and flexibility, and proper ornamentation. These aspects in music are universal. However, in classical Persian music the focus of the composer has mainly been on the link between the phrases and rhythm structure of the melodies. What is meant by "melody" here is a variation of what traditionally existed before, as well as what the musician has himself created. These extant melodies, which are linear and monophonic, come from the pedagogical repertoire known as radif, and are characterized by a kind of flexible rhythm and ornamentation. It has been very crucial for musicians to practice and master these melodies, and understand and assimilate them to bring out their own creativity. Indigenous factors such as these makes this music relatively stubborn and "unfriendly" in terms of collaboration with other cultures.
Polyphony is a musical texture consisting of two or more lines of melody. A development towards polyphony in church music can be noted in the 11th century, where "separate voices sing together, not in unison or octaves but as diverging parts" (ibid: 70). Along with this, "the kind of notation achieved during this century finally allowed scribes and composers to write down combinations of parts, and the music could now be performed consistently and repeatedly" (ibid: 70-1).
5 The challenge of polyphony
This is the art of harmonization of sound, which has been progressively developed in
Western music across the centuries. This technique changes the linear motions to a new multilinear sound shape. A single melody linear structure changes to a new polyphonic dimension. And musical notation was the key element to aid the composer to achieve this. With this in mind, transforming Persian monophonic music to a polyphonic version of it was the formidable task undertaken by me for Echo.
An Iranian musician does not pay much attention to the vertical arrangement of notation, and only sees the linear continuum of the notes themselves. From time to time, when a written piece is being practiced, different musicians play their part, but as a general rule the general character of Iranian classical music is such that sufficient attention is not being paid to the multi-dimensional configuration of musical sound quality (i.e. timbre) while playing. Regardless of whether he is playing an improvised piece or a composed piece, it scarcely crosses an Iranian musician's mind that music can be played differently with different instruments. Consequently all performers will to all intents and purposes confine themselves to a linear or monophonic dimension.
The effect that monophonic or single tune music has had on music is that each melody has become singularly complicated. The composer and the performer have the freedom and ability to play each tune in its most difficult and most elegant way. In Iranian music melody shows itself in two different rhythmic categories. One is the non-rhythmic style
3. Harmony here is used as a means of looking vertically at more than two points.
6 (which nevertheless consists of "hidden rhythm," see section 5 below), and the second is the rhythmic or metric tune which needs to have a metre, which is an interpretation of this non-rhythmic style in a metrical version.
The pioneers of these types of music have handed down representative samples to their students. The goals of these teachings are for the students to learn the monophonic style of music, grasp the subject-matter as well as the understanding of the movement of the musical tune. Therefore a good mentor in Iranian music teaches his students a deep understanding of the extant melody. The strength and intensity of the melody is what sets the bar for the quality of the music. Attempting to combine the musical cultures of East and West by confronting the monophonic with the polyphonic is quite a challenge for any composer. My greatest challenge while writing Echo, therefore, was to convert a monophonic tune into a polyphonic piece.
When attempting to combine two different musical cultures the similar aspects of the two cultures must be found in order for the musical piece to work. The roots within each musical tradition have to have similarities too. In other words, one must search for some kind of common denominator (Darvishi 1994: 22). Apart from this, of course, there are the differences between these two musical traditions that the artist-creator must also bear in mind. Out of this dialectic process will ultimately emerge the synthesized musical product.
7 Section 2: THE ESOTERIC CONCEPT OF HAGH-EMATLAB
In this section I propose to examine an esoteric concept in musical creation that, from the methodological point of view, is particularly Iranian, but that has nevertheless proved indispensable for the compositional process as I was composing my musical piece, Echo.
In order to conceptualize my piece Echo, and prepare myself mentally for it, what I had to do as a composer was to deliberate within myself by virtue of an introspective, discursive process known in the Persian classical music tradition as hagh-e matlab (a rough free translation by way of paraphrase would be "attaining a central idea in the act of creation through mastery of subject and theme by means of appropriate perception").
A particular "feeling" is contained within a particular melody (for example, the Bidad gusheh in Persian). When the student learns this melody, the teacher will expect his/her demonstration of it to express the "correct" perception or feeling. It is here that the concept of hagh-e matlab applies: the master wants the student first and foremost to grasp the "quintessential core meaning" of the melody. It is quintessential meaning that is essential, not expression.
I was already prepared to change my "tools" as a composer. By tools I mean all the musical possibilities open to me, such as playing the solo tar or improvisation. So my mind was totally immersed in a fundamental idea. I knew that in order to convey this
"central idea," my tools would need to be different. In this case I would be using an orchestra. This would be my primary set of tools.
8 My only hope would be that, having acquired a full and comprehensive understanding of the condition of a solo improviser, I would then be attempting to fully embrace the various ramifications of a Sufi gathering. This experience would lead me to a very profound relationship with a wide range of "tools." This situation would as a matter of course need a large measure of imagination. Any composition that is approached with authenticity, therefore, would have to tax the imagination to a certain extent.
For example, instead of attempting to harmonize, by means of polyphonic multi- instrumentation, a solo piece originally conceived for and in an Iranian musical environment, I actually thought of an orchestral conception from the very outset, without any consideration of a classical Persian dimension whatsoever. Igor Stravinsky (1882-
1971) advised his fellow-composers thus: "Listen profoundly." This is precisely what I did: I listened to the orchestra first, then created my music. I did not create my music first, then arrange it for an orchestra.
It must not be forgotten, however, that my own musical background has been classical
Persian, and that, during the conception stage of my musical piece Echo, this would inevitably have existed within me. But this was not the most important artistic force that propelled me forward in this endeavour. I had no intention of merely converting a monophonic Persian dimension into a polyphonic Western dimension. / was thinking of orchestral actualization first and foremost. My act of creation began with the orchestra, and ended with the orchestra.
9 While incorporating the classical Persian concept of hagh-e matlab, what happened to me in this act of musical creation was that, having studied a whole panoply of Western classical styles, I consciously sought some kind of dialectic process of action and reaction within my compositional activity. Rather than seek to imitate from Persian classical music, and then transfer this over into a Western classical framework, I kept myself within a Western dimension of orchestral sounds, and used this to catapult my "central idea" (namely, expressing the Sufi concept of spiritual Love through a multi-layered musical journey). In other words, what has been relatively radical in my approach to composition in this particular instance is that I have not just taken a classical Persian solo piece and then "westernized" it by furnishing it with an ornamental and subordinate orchestral arrangement. On the contrary, what I have attempted to do is take a kaleidoscope of instrumental and choral sounds as a single, universal, imaginary entity, and make this "imaginary entity" serve my "central idea." This is what I think
Stravinsky meant by "listening profoundly."
Section 3: THE SOLO PERFORMER VERSUS GROUP PERFORMANCE
Overview
In this section the various aspects of solo versus group performance are discussed, with particular reference to how I myself had to come to terms with the different approaches to musical production involved, as I was composing my musical piece, Echo. My past experience in Iranian classical music, both as performer and composer, is also highlighted
in this regard.
10 Solo performance
Unaccompanied performance is an individual approach towards creating music. Solo performance eliminates the need for being concerned about multiple voices or following
a consistent rhythmic pulsation. In fact, solo performers mostly focus on other elements in music such as ornamentation, timbral varieties and expansion on performance techniques in order to create variety of sound effects and finally, a solo piece of music.
Traditionally a good solo performer in Persian musical culture is one who can improvise
melody and words in a manner that would never be the same twice and would correspond
exactly to the mood of the moment (Simms 1996: 24). What makes a musician a good
solo performer in different cultures is different. Presenting music in solo creates an
opportunity for most performers to experience freedom of expression without the
challenge of synchronization with fellow-performers and harmonization with other
sounds. But he or she is responsible for all aspects of the music, such as providing the melody, rhythm, dynamics, ornamentation and timbre.
We should note that each instrument has its own character in the creation of sound. This
is exactly what a performer tries to master over time. In most instruments, creating harmony through the ability to play many notes at once is a limitation. But apart from playing the melodies, there are other ways which would help each individual instrument to generate a rich sound and texture.
11 Solo performance in most cultures goes hand in hand with improvisation, where intuition plays both a primary and primordial role in the act of creation. Performers have a good opportunity to connect to the core of their own understanding of music. This is the place where most musicians realize their own creative powers. Even in prepared music for a single performer playing a specific instrument, there can be considerable autonomy in performance. This autonomy will change some important aspects in the written piece
(with some limitations, of course), such as freedom in tempo, dynamics, timbre and any other factors left to the prerogative of the solo performer. Most solo performers are considered to be rhythmically inconsistent. This does not mean there is no rhythm in the music at all, but simply that a lack of even pulsation might occur for the purpose of achieving a proper feeling in performance. This is almost universal in most cultures.
In Persian classical music one of the most important features of the solo performance form is the way the listener is guided along, not unlike being taken on a journey.
Different moods and emotions such as fear, sorrow, and happiness are experienced throughout this journey; however, the final goal is to free the listener from his worldly shackles and bring him closer to his spiritual self.
Group performance
Now let us consider group performance. Using big bands or an orchestra has more texture and variety, although in an orchestral setting ensembles cannot offer players much latitude or flexibility. However, there are many opportunities for composers to use a vast
4. For this observation I am indebted to an informal discussion with contemporary Iranian master-musician, Ustad Mohammad Reza Lotfi, which took place in the summer of 1999, in Washington D.C.
12 combination of sounds from different instruments, along with the availability of a larger dynamic range: for example, soft volumes can be achieved by having only some members in the orchestra play a given passage, while loud volumes can be achieved by having everyone play.
What is more, there is the opportunity to compose, and then arrange and revise a piece of music. Thoughtful use of different instruments in the orchestra (orchestration) helps composers generate a particular sound which it would not be possible for a single instrument to create. This possibility demands a profound understanding of each instrument not only in terms of itself but also within the multi-dimensional environment of other instruments. Arrangement also has crucial role in group performance. This gives lots of opportunity to the arranger to clarify a musical idea in the orchestra. The arrangement must be done in such a way as to communicate the idea to the conductor.
Performers in an orchestra/ensemble need a lot of consistency and receptivity in order to fulfil the arranger's instructions.
The Persian traditional ensemble
Let us now consider a particular kind of group performance: the Persian traditional ensemble. Creating a new texture with a wider dynamic range, in imitation of other
European cultures, encouraged solo performers to create ensembles. Such ensembles used traditional instruments, but would also play some composed pieces in order to have a longer time for performance. In the eyes of Western classical music, sonically these ensembles were not creating polyphonic music, but rather heterophonic music, where the
13 various performers would be playing the same note in the same range or an octave higher or lower (hence several different versions of the melody at the same time). The idea of giving "form" to radif through such composed pieces, and finally to the whole program itself, was completely Western.
With this in mind, forms such as the overture and concerto in Western classical music encouraged contemporary Persian musicians, such as the master solo improviser
Darveesh Khan,5 to create short pieces such as pishdaramad and tasneef. All these new pieces have been unified and shaped from the Persian repertoire known as radif, and composers were mostly not using notation in their ensembles. Such group performance was a simple approach and a monophonic imitation of the West, and it became popular and accepted (Darvishi 1994: 25). Here is a list of these new forms:
1. Pishdaramad (a slow rhythmic piece of 5 to 8 minutes); 2. Daramad and movement along the general melodies of the dastgah or gusheh ; 3. Chaharmezrab (a fast rhythmic piece lasting between 3 to 5 minutes and melodically following the general mood of the performance); 4. Continuation of the avaz and modulation ; 5. Zarb-i-khani (rhythmic vocal piece) or zarb-i-navazi (rhythmic instrumental piece) after the modulation (lasting between 5 to 8 minutes); 6. Continuation of the avaz and other modulations ; 7. Owj (a movement to the highest degree of the mode); 8. Foroud-e-avaz (return to the home key) ; 9. Tasneef-e-bargardan (a song in the original mode) ; 10. Reng-e-khatemeh (a dance-like piece marking the end of the performance).
5. Ustad Darveesh Khan (1872-1926) was an eminent Persian classical musician and exponent of the Persian tar.
14 Section 4: IMPROVISATION VERSUS COMPOSITIONAL NOTATION
Overview
In this section we juxtapose improvisation with musical notation, and explain how
Iranian classical music has necessarily moved towards musical notation, as any attempt at polyphonization will inevitably necessitate musical notation. However, the shortcomings of musical notation are also discussed from the point of view of the composer, and this has been particularly pertinent for me in my compositional trials and tribulations with
Echo.
Improvisation and the merciless moment of musical actualization
Improvisation within the Iranian classical tradition is a form of composition without revision and is necessarily related to solo performing. The provision of freedom and flexibility is only possible in unaccompanied performance.
Improvisation is an individual interpretation of a moment in music. Musicians exercising the art of improvisation are trying to create music without any kind of blueprint.
Assuming that one is superlatively proficient in playing an instrument, and has outstanding ability in technique, preparation in this kind of approach is possible only through extensive experience in performing. Furthermore, judicious use of tools such as rhythm, dynamics, and timbre in order to present a musical idea by way of melody and sound effects makes an improviser stronger in this field. What makes improvisation
15 relatively difficult, however, is constraint within a time-continuum. This demands a forceful creativity, and each moment must be keenly felt in the mind of the improviser.
Therefore improvisation has a direct connection with a present moment that is constantly seeking space to operate.
In my view, the noblest path to improvisation is the profound, reverberative reflection of a "central idea" within yourself, rather than the imitation of one's peers (here we mean
"reflection" in both its meanings: intense intuitive deliberation, and a feverish echoing back and forth). If we believe that music is a form of communication, then improvisation is the most direct form of communication possible between the artist-creator and the audience. It happens only once, within the time-continuum of the current moment.
Because such improvisational experimentation can be described as "the music of the moment," most good musicians will attempt to achieve faster and more direct contact with their inner knowledge and intuition, in order to ultimately reach their supreme act of musical interpretation. In other words, the improviser will think in sounds, will respond directly, and will instantaneously and contemporaneously transform this response into music.
Moving towards notation in Iranian classical music
Such direct communication as is the norm in improvisation does not require any musical notation. However, for ensemble and group performance as it has developed in Iranian classical music over the last few decades, this is not the case, and this manner of
6. See section 2 above (on hagh-e matlab).
16 documentation and communication - namely, musical notation - is considered to be an important tool. This tool helps the composer communicate with the performer. Notation is a blueprint of the work, which conveys the most important elements of musical information (such as melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, technique and expression) from the composer's manuscript to the performer's plectrum.
Shortcomings of musical notation
Although standard musical notation can describe or prescribe many important aspects and elements of music and allows the creator to communicate with the orchestra, we should note that there still are many things in the musical performance itself that cannot be written or transcribed in musical notation. Some kind of ancillary verbal instruction and communication, however, can minimize the weakness of such notation.
This shortcoming is also encountered by those who have been learning music aurally.
Therefore musicians within any form of communication - be it aurally or using notation - need to describe some parts of their music verbally, and this in fact defines one of the duties of conductors in orchestras. Description along with notation gives proper information to each performer, and each individual performer should respond to it with his or her best understanding when playing the part.
Let us now delineate those areas of musical information contained in a musical piece that are not adequately addressed by musical notation alone. First we have timbre. There are no two musicians who will create a sound exactly the same, and also there are differences
17 between the sounds of individual instruments (such as, for example, between one Persian tar and another). Therefore, the composer must address his needs for the orchestra through consultation with the conductor. An individual instrument's timbre, moreover, ultimately affects the timbre of the orchestra. Although, as a general rule, the composer's orchestration makes provision for the various aspects of timbre in the orchestra, there are situations where additional written and oral descriptions for individual performers act as a complementary aid to the composer's written notation. In this way the composer will better anticipate problems of timbre. For indeed, the musical notation available to each individual performer cannot be sufficiently expressive for unity and clarity to exist within timbre. Beyond notation, therefore, further unification is required by the conductor, as each conductor has a different idea of what the dynamics of the timbre should be. An illustration of this would be a situation where two different performers are playing "forte expressivo" on the same instrument, but their respective perceptions of the notation will not be identical. Each individual section and instrument within the orchestra, in combination with the others, will create a different ambiance and timbre. Consequently, the perception of each performer will ultimately affect the intended timbre of the orchestra unless the conductor and/or composer unifies the perception of the notational manuscript for the whole orchestra in a cohesive and definitive way.
A second critical area in orchestra that desires description is articulation, which refers to some techniques in music such as: attacks and releases in a note; accents; the characteristics of any vibration; and connected or detached notes. A third area is the emotive aspect of the piece: the mood of a musical piece should also be described in
18 words by the composer. Traditionally, specific expression marks have been used
alongside musical notation for this purpose for centuries (such as "vividly," "adagio," and
so on). But generally speaking, composers should be more descriptive about their
emotional goal in the musical piece. This expressive aspect has an important role in musical notation, but in ensemble work it needs to be supervised and elaborated
interpretationally in order to avoid personal understandings. However, the conductor of
an orchestra has been trained to describe expressions in a written piece of music in such a
way as to prevent performers bringing their individual expression into play.
Special status of timbre within orchestration
It must be stressed that timbre in orchestral music is very crucial, as it is the first musical
element that is communicated to the audience. Therefore, timbre is in some measure the
signature of a composer or a group of performers. The artistic talent and creativity of an
individual composer is demonstrated by the orchestration. However, there are some
elements that would appear to be outside his control, and these can be considered to be part of the "sound" of a type of music. For instance, the "sound" of a symphony orchestra
has its own character in timbre. But this sound can nevertheless be changed by an exceptionally creative composer, in subtle and delicate ways.
Lack of musical notation is not necessarily an impediment
In some cultures, playing as a group does not require written description or notation.
Western classical music itself practiced group performance orally, in the early stages of its development. The music being presented is necessarily monophonic, largely
19 consisting of composed solo pieces played by groups of performers. Performers usually rely on their memory and generally speaking the outcome is impressive. This is largely due to the enormous amount of instrumental practice and training undertaken. Without recourse to notation, the communication between performers is very powerful, and this helps them to hear each other and respond to each other in the appropriate fashion.
Returning to improvisation within the more specific context of Persian classical music, we should concede the fact that improvisation can potentially serve as a source for written composition. In general, documentation of an individual improvisation is possible with notation. This gives an opportunity for expansion from one instrument to a group of performers. With this in mind, we might assert categorically that notation has been the noblest tool, making it possible for musical form to move from monophony to heterophony to polyphony.
Genesis of polyphony impossible without notation
In my view, not using notation is not synonymous with making one's musical culture weak or "deficient" in the eyes of those who are using this system. Having said this, though, we cannot but admit that, when a composer wishes to enter the realm of creativity, a polyphonic piece of music requires a notation system as a matter of course.
In polyphonic composition, regardless of the source cultural idea that the composer might wish to present, the composition needs to be written in such a way that a group of
20 performers can read it and act upon it. There is no single melody to be played by the group. Each performer or each section of the orchestra must play their own parts.7
Section 5: COMPLEXITY OF RHYTHM IN PERSIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC
Overview
This section involves a discussion, on the one hand, of free rhythm with particular reference to what I have designated as the concept of "hidden rhythm" in Persian avaz, and, secondly, the formidable challenge of "complex rhythm" that I experienced when composing Echo.
Non-rhythmic music and Persian avaz
Before the invention of pishdaramad, or the introduction of tasneef and chaharmezrab forms—all of which refer to the deployment of time signature in a piece of music by contemporary musicians in Iran—the performance of Iranian music was based on avaz, where the main emphasis was on the poetic rhythms and vocal styles that, in the framework of the musical performance, were rendered in free rhythmic patterns (i.e. non- metric rhythms) and were nevertheless unified under the structure of the solo performance.
The apparently non-rhythmic aspect of classical musical performance in the Persian avaz has considerable utility for the preservation, consolidation, and profound understanding of Iranian classical music. There is an ultimate sacred quality that is latent, and that is
7. There are exceptions to this rule, such as in jazz, Georgian music and certain African musical traditions, where polyphonic music is presented without notation.
21 only revealed through the spiritual power released by this "non-rhythmic" music (hence its relevance for the sama' ceremony of the Sufis which I have described in section 7 below, and which provided the inspiration for my compositional endeavour).
The non-rhythmic aspect in Iranian classical music, as embodied in a musical piece,
structure, or "form" (in Persian, dastgah), is expressed in several ways that operate symbiotically. Firstly, there is the "introduction" of a specific musical scale (daramad).
Secondly, there is the emphasis on melismatic execution (tahrir). This phenomenon of
'melisma', or demonstration of vocal technique, allows the musician to present music without using words through vocal virtuosity and the imitation of bird-singing (and in
Persian culture the nightingale is evoked more particularly). Thirdly, we have the
intervention of the lyrical element or "verse" (she'r). Persian classical literature is particularly strong in the area of lyrical poetry (as evidenced in the poetry of Rumi, Hafez and Sa'adi, for example). It is the rhythmic and prosodic constitution of this lyrical verse
(aruz) that is incorporated into Iranian classical music within the structure of the aforementioned dastgah. Fourthly, we must make mention of the tradition of "call-and-
o response" (so 'al-o-javab ), which is in fact a type of non-rhythmic presentation or performance of the dastgah, and which as a matter of course reinforces the spiritual bond between student and master. Hand in hand with this, there is the relationship of student
(shagerd) to mentor/master (ustad), which is totally primordial and individualistic, and
8. Likewise, in the Indian raga musical tradition (and alapana within raga), we note the existence of a similar relationship between disciple and master (or "guru"). But I have not discussed non-rhythmic classical music in India in this thesis. Both old musical forms, namely alapana, from South India and avaz, from Iran, have been described by ethnomusicologists as "non-rhythmic music." Both traditions use methods that are similar and parallel, and what I have asserted for Persian avaz could also be considered applicable to Indian alapana. We might also mention incidentally that, among the many diverse musical cultures around the globe, there are about 70 genres represented as free or non-rhythmic music.
22 which is intended to develop the student's capacity for improvisation on the one hand, and composition on the other.
The phenomenon of "hidden rhythm" in Persian avaz
I would contend that, in the final analysis, this non-rhythmic improvisation in actual fact contains a periodic pulsation or "hidden rhythm. " This apparently non-rhythmic system not only comprises an essential and indispensable basis for improvisation and composition in this musical tradition, but also contains a "latent" or "hidden" rhythmic system embodied in actual musical performance. Consequently, this rhythm is not totally
"free," but rather harmonized and regulated through the direct methodological experience of the performer as learned experientially through the esoteric master-disciple relationship mentioned above.
From the perspective of Western music, we cannot make generalizations in the concept of
"free rhythm," because this form of music has a vast variety of forms and contexts around the world. According to Clayton (1996: 327), in order to understand the concept of free rhythm, we should have a better understanding of the terms metre and pulse. Pulse is a regular beat in an equal length of time, and metre is "organized pulsation functioning as a framework for rhythmic design" (ibid. 1996: 329), in other words "measurement of the number of pulses between more or less regularly recurring accents" (ibid. 1996: 329).
Also, "when pulses are . .. counted within a metric context, they are referred to as 'beat'"
(ibid. 1996: 329). In Western classical music, there is also the reference to accent, which is the way beats are organized, namely whether they are strong or weak. This element of
23 strong and weak causes much misunderstanding when one wishes to understand non- metric music from different cultures around the world, because the strength or weakness of a sound is usually part of the "phrase" of the music. In other words, we are here concerned with the specific melody, which demands a very deep understanding from the performer, in order that the correct form of accent is applied.
What we are suggesting, therefore, is that a free rhythmic music, such as is evidenced in
Persian avaz, has its own temporal pulse. Hence any rules of periodic pulse follow the fundamental rhythmic structure of Persian poetry, aruz,9 with a presentation of a specific melody (magham) in Persian classical music. Therefore, musicians with training in the repeating pattern of "strong" and "weak" may experience no sense of rhythm when they are listening to a form of music like avaz. As Clayton has stated, "The terms 'strong' and
'weak' beats will almost certainly prove inappropriate to many musics" (1996: 328). Let us now refer to a graphic illustration (in Clayton 1996) concerning the concept of "free rhythm" with periodic pulse:
FREE RHYTHM
U777777777777777777777777777/// Music *»/////••/A/A* W^Rhythm '//////.A?/A/////A »A////>A/A/A/A'//////>////////<' "- '//////•///A '//••//•/A r//r/////A '//>y//A/A
'///7WA////AA - , '•///AT///////'/. , '/////•7to////////////////////«yr/////A^ 'A/V /////A
The organization of rhythm in music: the shaded area is referred to as "free rhythm'
9. This would also be the case orally for a demonstration of a raga in Indian alapana.
24 Persian avaz within the radif
The repertoire of Persian classical music known as radif, flexible in rhythm and melody, presents Iranian classical music mostly in the form of avaz. This is the oral (i.e. largely though not exclusively non-notational) presentation of Persian classical music. All pieces with their scale and character in melodies have been thought through by virtue of this system.1
AH Akbar Farahani (1821-1857) was the first musician and theorist who managed to reconstruct and transcribe the radif for the first time: "The versions of the radif as they are now known from a number of twentieth-century masters, always seem to be traceable to that of Farahani" (Nettl 1987: 13). Radif 'is the only link to the ancient music of Persia
(Iran), and fundamentally is a collection of melodies by different people from different parts of Iran. It is an order and a method that teachers found to organize Persian songs in the 19th century. For a musician it is the best and only source whereby a comprehensive grasp of Persian classical music can be achieved. Radif can also provide a style of thinking in the art of improvisation and composition. Different schools of radif over the last 150 years have provided many different techniques for vocalists and instrumentalist, especially on tar and voice.
The radif introduces each melody with, firstly, the "introduction" of a specific musical scale. Secondly, it will determine the correct way of moving through the chosen scale.
These flexible melodies will also be ornamental and will emphasize melismatic execution
10. Avaz in Farsi/Persian has two other meanings. In general, avaz means any kind of song or singing. In Persian music organization it also refers to a collection of certain small pieces or gusheh.
25 (tahrir). At this juncture the melody will be reintroduced with a different vocal technique,
and without using words, through vocal virtuosity and the imitation of bird-singing (and
in Persian culture particular recourse is made to the nightingale).
Using lyrics or "verse" became part of this tradition (radif) because, historically
speaking, Persian classical literature has been particularly prominent and influential in
Iran. The creation of some of the pieces in the Persian repertoire originated from this
approach. The art of choosing the right lyrics is part of the artistic vision of the
performer. The poem also helps the melody execute the final spiritual goal of the music11
The rhythmic constitution of these verses (aruz) gives a new form of rhythm to the
original melody, and the pulsation becomes more audible. These kinds of pieces with their lyrics are the oldest form of musical composition in Iran.
Avaz is also presented in a form of "call-and-response" (so 'al-o -javab ), which we have referred to earlier. The pedagogical system of teaching could be the source of this kind of presentation. "Call-and- response" is a type of non-rhythmic duo presentation, which
demands a mutual understanding of the material. This will not occur unless both performers have been trained properly.
Persian melodies in general are very flexible. During their studentship, musicians will learn how to present a piece of music (gusheh) in such a way as to achieve the right
11. In section 7 below (in the sub-section entitled "Choosing a Hafez poem") I have explained my motivation for choosing the Hafez poem incorporated into my musical composition, Echo. 12. This "call-and-response" phenomenon is also alternatively known in Persian as kar-o-amal. This is also a very important contributory factor for the "spiritual bonding" that takes place between student and master.
26 feeling of that specific gusheh. In Farsi (Persian) we call this achievement "hagh-e matlab" (and we have already discussed this concept in section 2 above). Therefore, these
"flexible melodies" (Talai 1993: 22) have the potential to change their rhythm for any kind of poetry. The phenomenon of rhythm, especially in the form of avaz, has been very problematic for those who have tried to describe it. Their approach ended in the analysis of those composed pieces in the Persian repertoire iradif) that had already been composed for a specific poem, and therefore had canonic status. Tsuge defines avaz thus:
"Avaz is the classical vocal style of Iran, which is based on the elaborate modal system called dastgahi and sung mainly with classical Persian verses composed on the aruz system." (Tsuge 1974: 23). Those pieces that he tries to define avaz with are not satisfactory examples for avaz music, as most examples in the Persian repertoire iradif) do not come with a poem. However, the quality of these melodies, as mentioned earlier, has the capability to adapt to the use of any lyrics. Therefore, when one chooses a poem for one piece of flexible melody in the Persian repertoire, this does not determine the rhythm of the original melody. And the rule of aruz is only valid for the poetry, not
Persian avaz. Most researchers appear to have omitted the fact that there are other rules which may apply in performing avaz, therefore they attempted to find examples composed on the basis of a specific poem from one of the original pieces of music of the
Persian repertoire iradif).
The rhythmic aspect of avaz could and can only be understood through an intensive oral training under the supervision of a musical Master. After a long period of practice students will gradually and systematically understand the existence of all the multifarious
27 techniques required for creating periodic pulsation within rhythm. These periodic pulsations appear in the form of both motif and phrase. Although avaz can be measured with "long and short verses," this can only describe the fact theoretically, and with mechanical precision. But this kind of analysis cannot really open any door in terms of
creativity for those who want to learn and present this music.
There is no doubt that Persian music is deeply influenced by the metre of poetry (aruz) within the Farsi (Persian) language, but in the actual practice of the performer such
reference to the 'aruz' is negligible. Most musicians in fact familiarize themselves with periodic pulsation (otherwise known as hidden rhythm: see our eponymous sub-heading
above) when performing orally in the presence of their Master. Following this, they will
translate this learning into reality through improvisation during concert performance.
The challenge of "complex rhythm" within Echo
With particular reference to my work Echo, one of my greatest challenges was in the area
of rhythm. Originally, the rhythm in mind had been very complex. But, in order to
present this for orchestral arrangement, this rhythmic context had to be simplified to a
certain extent. There were two reasons for this: firstly, there were limitations as regards
rehearsal time; and secondly, the coordinative effort required for such a large orchestra
would, as a matter of course, require greater simplicity of rhythm. In order that my
creativity might not be compromised by such a daunting challenge, I deployed specific
Western rhythmic frameworks. However, in contrast to this I also utilized accent on
specific notes, which would still be difficult for the performer to execute, but would
13. This scenario applies more or less for Indian non-rhythmic alapana as well.
28 nevertheless still remain within the possible ramifications of Western classical music.
Finally, I would admit that this musical piece remains quite a formidable task rhythmically for any large orchestra, and that the final performance of such a work may not be the ideal that I was striving for.
Section 6: INTRODUCING THE SUFI POET HAFEZ
This section introduces the great Persian mystical poet, Hafez, who views life and human experience from a largely Sufistic perspective. The poem I have chosen for my musical piece, Echo, is by this selfsame poet (see section 7 below).
The 14th-century Persian mystic poet-philosopher Hafez (1315-1390 AD)14 is affectionately known as the "Tongue of the Invisible," and the great poet-seer Ralph
Waldo Emerson15 himself remarked that "Hafez is a poet for poets." The greatest lyric poet of Persia, Hafez is universally acknowledged as the supreme master of the Persian ghazal, a literary form akin to the ode or sonnet. The ghazal verse form was developed in
Persia in the 10th century AD from the Arabic verse form qasida. The ghazal tradition is currently practiced in Iran (Farsi), Pakistan (Urdu) and India (Urdu and Hindi). A traditional ghazal consists of five to fifteen couplets, typically seven. As Len Anderson has stated, "Each couplet should be a poem in itself, like a pearl in a necklace. There
14. Also spelt 'Hafiz' and 'Hafidh' by scholars writing in English. 15. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882): American philosopher, essayist, and poet; member of the "transcendentalist" group of thinkers.
29 should be an epigrammatic terseness, yet each couplet should be lyrical and evocative."
No Iranian home is without a 'Divan' (or collected works) of Hafez, more often than not
on the bedside table. In all Iranian homes it is almost invariably used as a source of
popular divination. Its power and status is almost sacred. The poems of Hafez have a
beautiful and musical quality, which also embody a great spontaneity. In a myriad of
poetic ways, Hafez expresses the spiritual experiences of a mystic, in love with his
Beloved. Yet he achieves this in a playful and enchanting way. Like other Sufi poets,
Hafez weaves themes of ambiguity into his poems. Often he will use secular images such
as wine, drunkenness and human love. However, these are for the large part just symbols
for the divine experiences to which he is alluding:
The Beloved has gone completely Wild: He has poured Himself into me! I am Blissful and Drunk and Overflowing.17
Shams-ud-din Mohammed Hafez-e Shirazi was born in the beautiful city of Shiraz, in
Persia. He proved to have a prodigious talent for literature. At an early age he
successfully memorized the Qu'ran (Koran), and this is why he took the pen-name of
"Hafez," which means "one who has memorized the entire Qu'ran by heart." As well as
studying the Qu'ran, Hafez was also introduced to the works of the other great Sufi poets,
namely Faridu'1-Din Attar (1142-1220 AD), Jalalu'1-Din Rumi (1207-1273 AD) and
Shaykh Sa'adi of Shiraz (1184-1292). These Sufi poets would later have notable
16. Source: (http://www.baymoon.com/~ariadne/form/ghazal.htm) 17. Source: Maurice Maeterlinck (1922). The Great Secret. Translated by Bernard Miall. New York, Century Publications.
30 influence on the poetry of Hafez, and it is claimed that Hafez knew all their poetic works by heart.
Hafez produced hundreds of poems expressing a Seeker's longing for reunion with the
Divine. His poetry made him famous and he gained the respect and love of many of the local inhabitants. However his ecstatic and unorthodox poetry gained him the displeasure of the ruling Muslim orthodoxy. Because of this Hafez twice had to flee the city of
Shiraz. On many occasions he was only saved by his sharp wit.
At the age of about 60, he attained a state of "cosmic consciousness" akin to union with
God. From this point on Hafez's poems reflected a new mystical consciousness: no longer was there any sense of separateness from God. Hafez wrote about 5,000 poems, although unfortunately these were never written down and therefore there is some scholarly dispute about the authenticity of some poems. In the West, Hafez's poetry started to be explored in the early 19th century, as attested, for example, by the fervent interest expressed in him by Goethe.18 One of the most important early translations into
English was by Gertrude Bell in 1897.19 Recently there have been new translations and versions by authors such as Daniel Ladinsky.20 These have helped Hafez become a renowned poet in the West. The poetry of Hafez has a universal attraction. It is said
18. See the West-Oestlicher Divan of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832). This colossal German poet and dramatist was instrumental in introducing Hafez to the West. 19. Gertrude Lowthian Bell (1897). Poems from the Divan ofHaflz. Heinemann, London. 20. Daniel Ladinsky (1999). The Gift: Poems by the great Sufi master Hafez. Translated by Daniel Ladinsky. New York, Arkana, 1999. (There is some debate among scholars, however, as to whether Ladinsky's translations are authentic translations or merely interpretive adaptations, as it is not certain that he actually knew the source-language, Persian/Farsi).
31 Hafez once stated, "No one could ever paint a too wonderful picture of my heart or
God."
Section 7: THE MYSTICAL PATH AND THE CEREMONIAL PRACTICE OF SAMA'
Overview
In this seminal section I discuss Sufi philosophy and its all-embracing relevance to my musical work. It is the Sufi ceremony of sama' itself that has inspired my musical piece,
Echo. The Hafez poem I have chosen for my musical offering is a direct representation and embodiment of this mystical inspiration.
Mystical inspiration for Echo
When I was commissioned to compose my musical piece Echo, I pondered, for several months, as to what it should be. Although I had previously experienced composing for an orchestra, the utilization of a choir was new to me. For years I have striven to express the essence of Iranian classical music, as I feel it, through my work. I saw this as a unique and entirely novel opportunity to use the Western Symphonic Orchestra and Choir to achieve that aim.
Iranian classical music is essentially esoteric and inseparable from divine mysticism. It is considered to be a powerful medium through which one can awaken to the divine. As the
32 great Iranian Sufi sage and poet, Rumi, says about the Rebab (a stringed instrument related to the lute):
The rebab, fountain of love, Companion to the intimates of God, Resembling a rain cloud Which slakes the garden's thirst, Feeds and intoxicates man's spirit...
In Iran, the birthplace of Sufism, music is an integral part of that spiritual practice. Sufi gathering-places, or ikhaniqahs\ almost invariably involve the playing of spiritual music.
It is precisely in such gatherings that I found my inspiration for Echo. The Sufi sage,
Khwajah Esmat Bokhara'i, has said about the Khaniqah:
This is a temple of total ruin, Inside are the drunk, from pre-eternity To the Judgment Day, Gone from themselves.
So the Sufis sit in a circle of unity, in silent remembrance of the Beloved, while music elevates them from the plane of the ego to the plane of the heart. Eventually, the individual silent remembrance gives way to the audible and sometimes ecstatic chanting of a zikr (mantra), instigated by the Master, and joined in by the entire congregation in unison. In this aspect, the ceremony is a gradual evolution from the personal to the communal remembrance of God; from the individual to the unity, or the sum of individuals chanting the names of God as one. The goal of the gathering is to reach sama': literally, hearing the sound of God by being the sound of God.
21. Jalalu'1-Din Rumi (1207-1273 AD) was the greatest mystical poet of Persia. His followers called him Molana (also spelt Maulana or Mevlana), meaning "Our Master."
33 Choosing a poem by Hafez
The musical piece I have composed strives to be an orchestral/choral representation of this process. The choir chants a poem (in fact two beyts or couplets of a ghazal) of Hafez
(the 1 ^"century Iranian master-poet and Sufi mystic whom we have discussed above), in which he sings:
Speak not to the Pretender Of the secrets of Love and intoxication So he may die, oblivious, In the Pain of self-adoration
Love, for if not, one day The work of the World shall come to an end And in the workshop of Existence The script of Love shall remain unpenned
Your Locks broke us, By God, My King 'Till when will these outstretched hands To our world, such dreaded darkness bring.22
Hafez's collection of mystical ghazals (rhyming couplets) is a quintessential part of
Iranian spiritualism. Much like other Iranian mystical poets, his language is specifically
22. Translated from the Persian by my friend and brother in Sufism, Mr. Camran Chaichian, to whom I am deeply indebted. The original Persian/Farsi "bayts" or couplets from the "Divan" of Hafez are: baa moda 'i magu 'id asraar-e esgh-o masti taa bikhabar bemired dar dard-e khodparasti aashegh sho arna roozi kaar-e djahaan sar aayad nakhaandeh naqsh-e maqsood az kaargaah-e hasti soltaan-e man khodaaraa zolfat shekast maaraa taa kei konad siyaahi tschandin deraazdasti
34 and intentionally musical, and as such, ideal for a choral piece of this kind. As the
Iranologist A. J. Arberry has stated, "... this form of poetry was always associated with music ... and in fact it was designed to be sung" (Arberry 1962: 22) (my italics).
The philosophical message of the admonition contained within this particular segment of the aforementioned Hafez ghazal is sung by Jalalu'1-Din Rumi in another way:
Do not speak of love To lovers of the self and the world, Those who are pulled and tossed By fear and hope, punishment and reward.
Union with the Beloved is the goal of the Sufi. This requires the abandonment of all sense of the Self, as expressed in the words of the late Master of the Nimatullahi Order of
Sufism, Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh (1926-2008), who was my beloved spiritual teacher and mentor:
Through love, I have reached a place Where no trace of love remains: Where I and We And the painting of existence Have all been forgotten and left behind.
It is to his spirit that I humbly and lovingly dedicate this musical work. "Love speaks," my teacher tells us, "using another language, different words." I humbly pray that this musical piece is, in a small way, an utterance of that language, an "echo" of that love.
This is how, therefore, I chose the title of my piece.
35 The essential meaning of Sufism
Echo is a personal experience that I have experienced first hand in a tradition within the world of Sufism or the "seekers of the truth." Echo is the representation of the gathering of the Sufis at the presence of the Master of the Path. Sufis gather to see the Master
(murad, the Desired One), who guides the travellers to lose themselves in God, which is the essence of Sufism. The gathering starts with the Sufis remembering God with a form of meditation called zikr-i khafi, then they start chanting God's name loudly with one tune together, following which they enter the realm of ecstasy or sama'. Echo is a musical representation and interpretation of Sufi gatherings, their rituals and traditions.
But it is more than this. It totally transcends this contingent world and the limitative confines of human language, and enters a purely spiritual realm where music and silence meet at one point in eternity, and remain indefinitely suspended in time:
Sufism is a school of spiritual states, not discourse, and a Sufi is something to become, not something to merely read about. Since spiritual states cannot be expressed in words, Sufi Sheikhs have declared whatever can be expressed in words is not Sufism. (Nurbakhsh 2003: 29) (my italics)
The quest of Sufism is Love, which is supposed to bring hearts closer to one another, eliminate all anger in the soul, and act as a kind of ceasefire for all the disputing instincts and motivations that exist in one's ego. It is only possible for someone who is truly in love with God to love all His creation and be kind to them, since he believes that He was the one who has created them. The core of Sufism is the Truth and its true meaning lies in the selfless experience that a true disciple experiences, and the actualization of the Truth.
36 "Sufism leads to non existence, non-being, loss of self, and passing away in the beloved"
(Nurbakhsh 2003: 18). When a person sets foot in the path of love he or she tries hard to
forget about themselves, forget yesterday: don't think of tomorrow and only live for today. They enter a state where they forget about both worlds:
O Friend, the Sufi is the child Of the moment. On the Path, talk of tomorrow Has no place.
When the Sufi passes beyond time and space, he or she travels from pre-eternity to post-
eternity in one breath. "Sufism is a path towards the truth where there are no previous
paths except love. Its method is to look solely in one direction, and its objective is God.
That is, at the end of the path nothing remains but God" (ibid. 2003: 29). Sufism involves
a progressive and freethinking deliberation within the inner being, and not intellectual
proof or disclosure. In many ways, it is non-intellectual (but not anti-intellectual) and
does not subscribe to logic. "The Sufi is one who moves towards the truth by means of
love and devotion" (ibid. 2003: 30). The desire of the Sufi is the desire of the Beloved, he
is totally surrounded by God's will. In the final analysis, the Sufi is nothing and the
Beloved is everything. The Sufi is the one who is the lover of the truth. He moves towards perfection by means of love and devotion. "As necessitated by love's jealousy, the Sufi is taken away from everything but the truth." (ibid. 2003: 17). The Sufi knows that the realization of the truth is only possible for the "perfect" human being, or the
Perfected One. The Sufi knows that in a state of imperfection human beings are unable to recognize the truth. "Imperfection can be seen as an abnormal condition in which one's
23. Jalal-ul Din Rumi: Divan-e-Kolliyat-e Shams. Quoted in Nurbaksh 1983:148.
37 ability to see things as they really are is deficient" (ibid. 2003: 30). The imperfect beings, due to their imperfection, misunderstand the truth without being aware of it, and therefore their understanding of the truth is definitely wrong. The Sufi is the lover of God. The Sufi is like someone who is captivated by human love, always thinking of his or her lover. A
Sufi's heart is ravished by the divine love, is continually immersed in remembrance of the Divine Beloved.
Zikr meditation during the sama' ceremony
The spiritual path (known as tariqaat) is the Way by which the Sufi comes into harmony with the Divine Nature. This "way" is comprised of spiritual poverty (faqr), devotion, and the continuous, selfless remembrance of God (zikr). The feeling of seeking (talab) is a manifestation of what is known in Sufism as spiritual poverty. This is the feeling of being imperfect and needy, along with the desire for perfection. These people feel that they are lacking higher attributes which are humanity's true potential. Zikr is defined in the dictionaries as "remembrance." However, to the Sufis this term has a much more specific meaning: total and uncompromising attention to God, ignoring all that is not
God. He is the rememberer and the remembered. "Remember thy lord when thou hast forgotten."24 It also has been said that zikr is the act of sitting and waiting for a sign of acceptance by the Divine after having been detached from Him through negligence and forgetfulness. The continous, selfless remembrance of God (zikr) is prescribed by the
Master of the spiritual path to cure disciples of the disease of the self and its desires and fears. But this remembrance is of no value unless all of one's senses come to be fully centered on the meaning and reality of the respective names. For indeed, 'Allah' has 99
24. The Koran (Qur'an) 18:24.
38 names, indicating specific divine attributes. It is only by the full acknowledgement and love of the reality of these divine names that attention to the self falls away. Then, the self becomes purified and adorned by the Divine Attributes (Nurbakhsh 2003: 20). It is only in this fashion that the repetition of the Divine Names can be called the selfless remembrance of God, or zikr. Since words are the manifestation of objects, concepts and truths, Sufis feel that by continous and complete attention to the meaning and reality of the remembrance of God, they become the true manifestations of that remembrance. It is by means of continuous and selfless remembrance of a Divine Name that a Divine attribute will predominate in the Sufi's being:
Zikr is the means by which Stations yield their fruit, until the seeker reaches the Divine Presence. On the journey to the Divine Presence the seed of remembrance is planted in the heart and nourished with the water of praise and the food of glorification, until the tree of zikr becomes deeply rooted and bears its fruit. It is the power of all journeying and the foundation of all success. It is the reviver from the sleep of heedlessness, the bridge to the One remembered.25
This concept of zikr can be likened to a broom that with the aid of the master sweeps everything but God from the heart of the Sufi to the extent that even the dust of one's being is swept away:
I thought of you so often That I completely became you. Little by little you drew near, And slowly but slowly I passed away.26
25. Source: http://www.naqshbandi.org/topics/dhikr.htm 26. From the Divan-e Shams-e Maqrebi (Persian mystic poet of the 14th century AD).
39 Zikr can be can be done in two ways: silently (zikr-i khafi or zikr-i qalbi), or aloud {zikr-i jali). The Prophet encouraged both kinds. Such meditation is integrated with the rhythm of breathing. No single breath passes without the remembrance of God. "With the dhikr-i khafi there is no need for a special gathering ; moreover, no vocal utterance is necessary"
(ibid. 2003: 134). The Sufis gather together in a circle and chant the zikr-i jali or vocal zikr under the direction of the Master of the Path or the Sheikh of the Way (or tariqaat).
This usually happens in a dark place in order that the Sufi disciple will pay less attention to his or her surroundings. The same zikr is chanted with the same rhythm and tone by all present, thus generating a concentrated atmosphere of love and unity. This experience encapsulates the true meaning of zikr and takes the Sufi far from the material world and closer to the Beloved. This act of meditation (or muraqiba) aims at keeping the Sufi disciple away from "what is not God." While meditating or doing the muraqiba the Sufi is repeating his or her zikr. Meditation can provide self-control: it gives the Sufi disciples the ability to control their thoughts, and one's heart reaches calmness and serenity. It brings the Sufi closer to God. When the Sufi advances on the Sufi Path and his or her meditation deepens, then the Sufi becomes separated from the world of T and 'you'.
The ceremonial practice of sama'
Sama' involves a trance-like, deeply spiritual condition articulated through chanting, meditating, singing and dancing. One activity progresses into another , in a spontaneous and systematic fashion. "In the sama' there are three stations: understanding, wajd, and movement." (Nurbaksh 2003: 89). Wajd is the strong yearning for God arising in the Sufi disciples during sama'. They experience various intense emotions at this time. Sufis truly
40 immersed in wajd do not move until their being is completely overwhelmed in sama',
following which the movement spontaneously and involuntarily comes upon them.
Sometimes, but not always, the wajd movements in the Sufi disciple are dance movements, either as a group or singly:
Dancing is not getting up any time painlessly Like a speck of dust blown around in the wind. Dancing is when you rise above both worlds, Tearing your heart to pieces, giving up your soul.
Through sama' the Disciple seeks to "hear" God, and then ultimately "lose himself in
God. This ardent quest is engendered by the inner spiritual intuition of the Disciple, and
the emotional excitement and inner feelings which penetrate back into the subconscious.
Regardless of the time and place, the Disciple of the Path will instinctively clap, dance
and hop. "In some of the paths of Sufism sama' is the rescuer of the human from the vegetative life."28 As one Sufi master has put it,
Our ecstasy in sama' is no superficial experience, Nor is this dance of ours something we do For amusement. Tell those who know nothing about it, O you without wisdom, there would not be much talk about sama' if there were nothing essential in it.
All the time as the Sufi disciple listens to and meditates on the most profound melodies, rhythmic harmonies and lyrical poetry of the mystic poets, he is filled with a special state
27. Jalal-ul-Din Rumi: Divan-e Kolliyat-e Shams. Quoted in Nurbaksh 1983: 85. 28. The Sound of Ney (Music Of Iran): a collection of articles. PPOIR, Tehran, 2002, p.71 29. From the Divan-e 'Ala'al-Dawla Simnani (one of the most influential Sufi masters in Iran, 13th to 14lh century AD).
41 so deeply charged with love that there is no taint of self left within consciousness. In Sufi terminology this is sama' or the "Call of God." Consequently, Sufis in the state of sama' do not pay attention to this world or the next. They are so charged with love that everything but God is forgotten. Sama' feeds the fire of love and gradually brings the source of the sound and the listener closer and closer together until they become one.
During the sama' ceremony the Sufi gets closer to the angelic world. By listening to mystical poetry hand in hand with harmonious melodies the heart of the Sufi is directed towards that realm. When the Sufi becomes selfless, and Lovers become sincere, they hear the call of God in every sound:
Sama' is like the sun: it caresses and inflames, melts and burns. (Nurbakhsh2003:84)
Section 8: THE PERFORMER IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION
Overview
In this section I attempt to discuss some of the various roles and perspectives of musical performance from the point of view of the performer. In this regard I have also endeavoured to show how the performer reacts to the challenge before him, which is to bring a work of art into being via an act of interpretation of the musical composition.
Certain essential concepts such as fluidity, musical text, inner gesture, and performance are defined and discussed, against the background of the respective aesthetic insights of the 19th-century philosopher Schopenhauer and the 13th-century mystic poet Rumi.
42 Finally, the phenomenon of improvisation is highlighted as indicative of radical evolution
with regard to the role of the performer.
One essence, many forms
Every musical performance of a given composition is a one-time experience, never to be
repeated in exactly the same way. But the composition itself transcends this instantaneous
dimension and, from the moment of its inception, can be performed countless times, by
countless performers, in countless different ways, and in manifold different periods of
human history. Each performance will be a novel interpretation of that composition,
across time and space. This perspective had been forcefully postulated by the prominent
19th-century German philosopher Schopenhauer:
The true work of art leads us from that which exists only once and never again, i.e. the individual, to that which exists perpetually and time and time again in innumerable manifestations, the pure form or Idea ... (Schopenhauer 1970: 160)
The concept of fluidity in performance
"Fluidity" is an important concept in musical performance (i.e. the realization and
execution of "musical text"), and is related to what we have just discussed. The
performer is suspended within a time continuum that is finite. Each moment of musical
translation from musical composition (i.e. the musical text) to musical performance is
fleeting. It can never be re-captured. The musical composition itself, however, can be
considered to be "static," and not contingent upon the limitations of time. Consequently,
even a tape-recording of a particular performance, when heard a first, a second, an umpteenth time, will not be an identical experience for the listener on every occasion.
43 Furthermore, even where the composer and performer are the same, the performer will not reproduce a selfsame performance on subsequent occasions. Each time, there will be some kind of variation, be this at the mechanical level, or at a more imaginative level of create vity.
Rebirth of a text through "inner gesture"
In light of what has just been said, music needs constant renewal at the level of performance, and it is in this particular context that the composition itself is given new
life. Of course, the composer's musical notation (containing invariable elements on the
one hand, such as pitch, relative note values, and the details of rhythmic articulation, and variable elements on the other, such as dynamic indications, and silent or "breathing" periods contributing to movement and flow) will direct the course of the performance within certain boundaries of execution, but the performer will still have a certain latitude
of style and interpretation, especially when we are encountering solo performances. (In
certain musical traditions, such as that of Iran, where the musical notation that originally
emerged in mediaeval Europe had not been introduced in its modern form until very recently, the musical performer will have demonstrated a greater, quasi-improvisational
freedom with regard to interpretation, via the oral tradition transmitted from master to pupil).
The task of the performer is twofold. On the one hand, he must ensure that he is faithful to the composer's text; on the other hand, he necessarily expresses his artistic personality
44 as a performer through the creative expressivity he will have brought to bear on the composer's text. If there is no fidelity with regard to the musical text, the performer's
interpretation will be false. And if there is no depth, passion and conviction in the performer's interpretation, the performance will be lifeless and uninspiring:
"It seems to me clear and beyond all doubt that both elements - fidelity, not so much to the text as to the music as expressed in the text, and conviction as animated by the musical nature of the performer - are essential. Without fidelity a performance is false, without conviction it is lifeless ; in other words, it is hardly music.'''' (Sessions 1962: 78) (my italics)
Here an important distinction has been made by Roger Sessions between the "musical text" and the "music of the text." By the former is meant the physical notation of the text
as expressed by the musical symbols and the extra-segmental features denoting such
aspects such as dramatics, tempo, and rhythm. By "the music of the text," however, is meant the "inner gesture" (which is the term Roger Sessions uses [ibid.]), the visceral movement of the music itself in its holistic ramifications:
Musical Text -» Inner Gesture -> Performance
It is this "inner gesture" that allows the performer room for manoeuvre with regard to interpretation, so that the performer re-instigates the musical experience in a totally unique way, with the upshot that he performs a veritable act of re-creation, respectful of, but also complementing, the composer's original artistic intention. Whereas, therefore, the musical text is static, the "music of the text" or "inner gesture" is dynamic. (It is this
"inner gesture" that can be likened to the Platonic Idea mentioned in the quotation from
45 Schopenhauer above, in the sense that the individual performance of a composition is merely one of thousands of apparent, illusory incarnations of the ideal, quintessential performance that can never be realized, for then it would be equated with perfection itself).
Having said this, we can categorically state that, without the performer, the composer is totally impotent, as it is the performer who will actualize the composer's creation.
Direct relationship between performer and composer
Any investigation of the philosophical implications of this relationship between performer and composer cannot prove to be other than fruitful. On the one hand we have the composer, who is anxious to see his artistic creation reach its supreme consummation through performance. On the other, we have the performer, who is keen to ensure that he does justice to the musical text before him, and who also wishes to be creative in the process.
In reality, the actual process whereby the performer proceeds through the respective stages of examination and analysis, rehearsal, and final performance of a musical text is tantamount to a documentary journey through the musical, cultural, and philosophical constitution of the composer. It is a journey into all-embracing familiarization and spiritual communion with the composer's world even before the actual composition is realized at the level of performance.
46 Sufi analogy of the reed-flute
The performer can be considered to be an empty vessel that acts as a channel for the work of art to be actualized. The lS^'century Persian Sufi mystic poet, Rumi (Molana), uses the analogy of the reed-flute, which has been totally emptied of all that is ego and self, and which is then actualized with life, when it is played:
Listen to the reed-flute, How it tells its story, As it relates The lament of separations.
The Performer (and one can also say this for the Composer) can be likened to this
Instrument, which coexists with Eternity and the Silence of God (the same silence from which we have been separated, and it is this very separation we are complaining about).
Once its music is set in motion, the Breath of Eternity is brought into being, and made to pulsate. The performer has completely transcended his ego. He has no ego. He becomes pure medium. Through him, pure art will flow unhindered and in its purest form. The
"inner gesture" of which we have spoken above can never be actualized without this total self-effacement and absolute humility on the part of the performer. And without this
"inner gesture," the performer will never achieve authentic actualization.
Of course, we must not forget that this is the idealization of what true performance should be. This is the ultimate goal of the performer. We might be audacious enough to say that it is rarely achieved.
30. From Rumi's Mathnavi. This translation is by my friend and brother, Mr. Teymour Dowlatshahi. The original Persian couplet reads: beshno as ney cho hekaayat mikonad azjodaahiyaa shekaayat mikonad
47 Improvisation in certain kinds of contemporary music as a special case
In modern contemporary music, the role of improvisation in performance has come to the fore. With improvisation, the conceptualization of the act of composition becomes precarious. Improvisation as evidenced in jazz, for example, involves cohabitation of composition and performance where composition is not musical text but eternally recurring "inner gesture" (in the way that we have used the term above).
The writer had a discussion on this particular topic with one of Canada's finest musicians, clarinetist Francois Houle.
With the advent of improvisation as a legitimate musical practice in the late Sixties, stemming from the American jazz vanguard and European experimentalism, the creative aspect of composition (or "instant" composition) no longer rests in the hands of the so-called "serious" composer. This coincides with the plaintive condition of the performer when confronted with ever more complex and technically demanding scores. Questioning the justification of spending countless hours studying, practising, and developing the necessary technical arsenal to execute a composition, the classically-trained performer has no option other than to accept the workload with stoicism, often accompanied by frustration, anger and resentment. Today's performers and composers are quickly realizing that the traditional relationship between them needs to be revamped. Historically, composers were often virtuoso instrumentalists, performing their own work. In the era of specialization this type of composer-performer became nearly extinct; the more demanding the musical language became (say, at around the turn of the 20th century), the more focus was placed on the performer to become a specialist of his/her
31. This discussion took place in March 2008, in Vancouver, Canada.
48 instrument. Nowadays performers have the option of branching out from the tradition of classically-trained instrumental practices to include improvisation, composition, and other World Music-based repertoire. This brings a new attitude towards the symbiotic relationship of performer and composer.
The "symbiotic" relationship of which Houle speaks suggests that hitherto the composer needed the performer, and the performer needed the composer. Now, however, especially with regard to World Music, this relationship no longer involves this mutual dependence.
Regardless of the merits of this view, we can still assert that what we are concerned with first and foremost is the role of the performer in musical actualization, and we have already acknowledged that this role is still evolving in a very significant way.
The ideal performance in the Platonic sense
When attempting to actualize the musical text, the performer has a dynamic and life- affirming role. On the one hand he/she is concerned with fidelity to the musical text itself. On the other, the performer wishes to render an authentic and sincere interpretation that will be close to the "ideal" performance in the Platonic sense, namely the "Idea, " which totally transcends what the composer may have originally conceived. In order for the performer to achieve this, there is a transitional area of execution, termed "inner gesture," where the work of art undergoes a quasi-dialectic process before it reaches actualization in performance. Furthermore, the emphasis on improvisation in certain kinds of contemporary music performance (such as in jazz and World Music) has necessarily led to a re-assessment of the respective roles of composer and performer.
49 Section 9: POLYPHONIC TECHNIQUES DEPLOYED IN ECHO
Overview
This section discusses in greater detail the various polyphonic methods and techniques I have utilized for the composition of Echo. Furthermore, in the actual musical discussion we have been careful not to lose sight of the sonic landscape generated by the Sufi spiritual and philosophical perspective, which is, of course, the central motivating force of this musical piece.
Synthesizing the traditions of East and West
My purpose throughout this academic and compositional endeavour, namely my musical piece Echo, has been to investigate the phenomenon of polyphonic creation through the synthesis of Eastern and Western traditions. I have attempted to bring together all that is best in Eastern improvisational techniques with the rigorous discipline imposed by the
Western classical tradition of what is idiomatic to orchestral writing. Polyphonic experimentation in both the vocal and instrumental parts will have become metaphors for how music and literature influence the setting of this music. My hope is that the resulting work will have transcended cultural barriers with the power that surges from inspiring words spoken by the beloved 14th-century Sufi poet, Hafez.
In this compositional undertaking, my main goal has been to incorporate my creativity into a large orchestral framework. In this way, a body of work will have been realized which presents Persian classical music in the form of "new voices." Most composers are seeking new sounds, just as a writer is seeking new ways of expression. I have been immersed mostly in the music of my own culture, and now wish to synthesize this with
50 Western music. I wish to explore in what ways I can transition from monophonic music to polyphonic music. In other words, to create music that turns a single voice into many voices.
It is my hope that, ultimately, this musical composition will exemplify how Eastern and
Western traditions of music can merge to create an orchestral and choral music that
satisfies the cultural expectations of each musical culture and yet creates something new, thus reflecting the growing trend (especially in Canada, with her multicultural mosaic) in contemporary composition to compose music that features cross-cultural musical
innovations.
Contrapuntal techniques deployed
I have utilized various contrapuntal techniques like canons and imitation to create layers of polyphonic harmony. This type of Western tradition is an effective way to take monophonic ideas and make them harmonic. Imitation, canon and layered melodies have the added express purpose of facilitating the transmission and understanding of the ambiance and atmosphere of the musical piece. I have used percussive sounds, whispering, human breathing, and certain effects from instruments such as harp, piano, cymbal 'rubs', timpani rolls and string harmonics in the opening of the work to create an atmosphere of Sufic meditation (moraghebeh). It must not be forgotten, moreover, that each "moment" presents the expression of a "space" that transmits feelings, like spinning portals of complete musical universes. With this in mind, I have composed contrapuntal melodies at times in the orchestra and have had these echoed in the choral part in order to
51 generate more "colour." All voices have been chosen in a manner that promotes smooth
voice-leading and accentuates a clear expression of each melodic event.
The challenge of rhythmic complexity
In terms of Eastern musical traditions, it must be noted, I have employed a number of
Persian classical music elements. An example of this is the complexity of the rhythm.
Within a large orchestral framework, this has arguably been the most challenging
phenomenon for me (as has already been explained and elaborated in section 5 above).
A sonic portrayal of a mystical journey
As mentioned previously (see the sub-heading in section 7: "Choosing a poem by
Hafez"), I have wanted this musical piece to serve the lyrics of the classical Persian poet I
have chosen. I consider this to be a sonic portrayal of a Persian mystic's event. I wish to bring to life in sonic images the words of the great being Hafez. As the mother-tongue of
Hafez will be alien to the audience, I wish to musically translate the beauty and wisdom
of his words as well as I can, directly from the music. The design and structure of the
composition is intrinsically connected to the meaning of the poem mentioned. Musically
speaking, this can be considered a programmatic work in the tradition of some of the late
Romantic tone-poem composers, such as Richard Strauss (1864-1949). But the piece will not consciously be borrowing any types of formal structure other than the above- mentioned contrapuntal and melodic devices.
The listener is to be taken on a "spiritual journey." Each section of this composition has been shaped in accordance with the momentum of the poem itself. One musical culture
52 will be shifting into another musical culture. Monophony moves into polyphony, and the opaqueness of improvisation moves into the accuracy of compositional notation.
We have already mentioned that, apart from the Hafez poem, Echo draws its inspiration from a specific Sufi ceremony, and the physical movements associated with this
ceremony.3 Furthermore, several Western composers have created musical works that I have found useful in creating the right type of choral and orchestral language and colour.
A few composers in particular have been helpful: the French composer Maurice Ravel
and his piece "Bolero"; the tone-poem by Bedrich Smetana entitled "The Moldau" (the
fourth movement in particular); Philip Glass' minimalist techniques and his choral works;
David Mott (his Eclipse CD); and certainly the choral and orchestral writing of John
Tavener.3
Extra-musical features (lyrics) and the orchestration of Echo
The form and structure of the piece has a direct relation to the lyrics deployed, namely the poem (in this case three couplets34 from the ghazal of the great 14l -century Persian poet, Hafez) and the subject (which is a ceremonial Sufi event called sama ').35
The most obvious extra-musical usage of the lyrics is in the opening sequence of the piece. The piece begins with the choir whispering the text "Speak not/The secrets of existence''' and then proceeds to a 4-part fugue employing whisper. In this way I used
32. See section 7 above. 33.1 have decided not to discuss these in any detail, for want of space. 34. See Mr. Camran Tchaichian's laudable English translation of this poem in section 7 above. 35. See section 7 above.
53 polyphony to create the hushed atmosphere of a sama' gathering while using a Western contrapuntal technique on whispered words.
A more subtle structural component of the work that has extra-musical meaning is the usage of modes. My direct experience with, and impressions of, the sama' event inspired me to divide my composition into four sections centred around two primary modes and the pitches G and D:
1. G Ab B C D Eb F is used for the first section of the piece; 2. G A Bb C D Eb F# G is used for the second section ; 3. the last two sections of the piece centre around the V degree of the second mode of G harmonic minor, which creates a third mode: D Eb F# G A Bb C D.
I visualized these modes as a type of spiritual practice known as zhikr (see section 7 above). There is a left swing of the head towards the left shoulder, and back across to the right shoulder, then a rise of the head that dips sharply towards one's solar plexus and rises back upward with one's face pointed upwards. I think of these two modes as the horizontal and vertical aspects of this practice.
The modes themselves are from Persian modal systems called dastgah. Persian modes are based on tetra chords called gusheh. Section one uses a combination of two gushehs:
G Ab B C (the daramad gusheh from the chahargah dastgah) and C D Eb F (the bidad gusheh from the homayoun dastgah). This combination of two gusheh results in mode #1 outlined above: G Ab B C D Eb F. The second mode employed is the same as the
54 Western G harmonic minor mode: G A Bb C D Eb F# G. The tonal structure of this work then divides fairly evenly between the pitches G for parts one and two and D for parts three and four.
The programmatic aspect of this piece, as mentioned above, is motivated not only by the inspirational words of Hafez, but also by the ceremonial practice of soma'. The opening section imitates the arrival of all the Sufis to the ceremony. This I have accentuated with irregular metric structure with multiple layers of choral whispering. The ensuing 6/8 metre portion is like an energetic chant on the meaning of the opening whispered words.
The next section of the piece is a more subdued and inward meditation on the chant
"Hoo, ya man hoo" ("O Essence of the One Heart's Being"). This change in the atmosphere of the ceremony is indicated with a transition to the second mode of G harmonic minor.
Parts three and four of the work build to a more celebratory tone around the final mode:
D Eb F# G A B C. Woodwind figures that dance and glitter like rays of subtle light permeate the atmosphere of the jubilant voices singing in praise of the "Great Secret" that the "Pir" (the Holy Sage or Master of the Sufi ceremony) relays to those gathered. The title of this musical journey, "Echo," is the theme of this imaginary gathering, echoing forth its message of love, which is that Love is the ultimate power of all that is, and that unites all beings in its perfection. To emphasize this meaning, the piece culminates by
55 uniting the central pitches of G and D, and also modes one and two, in the final melodic phrases of the work.
Importing polyphony into the Persian classical aesthetic
Iranian classical music is typically performed either solo with an accompanying instrument (in my case, the tar), or in group performance where musicians will play together mixing string, aerophone and percussion instruments, but usually with no attempt to harmonize or polyphonize the melodic ideas that are developed from improvising on traditional melodies that are used as the starting-point of long extended improvisations. Because so much emphasis is placed on the improvisational development and variation of their traditional melodies (or radif), it can be argued that harmonization of this process has been deemed unnecessary and possibly a distortion of what is more of a monophonic aesthetic.
In Western music, however, there has been a long tradition of polyphony, which many musical historians suggest started with the species of counterpoint developed by the
Medieval French composers Leonin (circa 1150-1200 AD) and Perotin (circa 1160-1240
AD). In Persian (Iranian) classical music, this is not the case. Importing polyphony and homophony into the language of Persian music is therefore something of a new exploration and full of interesting possibilities.
Utilizing the technique of imitation
In Echo, I use the imitation of motifs to generate more timbral colour by having the orchestra sustain melodies that are echoed in the choral part. This "echoing" is a device
56 used in works by Vivaldi (1675-1743) and Corelli (1653-1713), and was a useful means of creating polyphonic layers simply by repeating a monophonic idea. Imitation, canon and layered melodies have the added express purpose of facilitating the transmission and understanding of the ambiance and atmosphere in my composition, Echo. It was important at the same time to adhere to smooth voice-leading while accentuating a clear expression of each melodic event.
Voice: a new perspective of polyphonic creation
All the elements within my music must translate the literary framework and source of the musical inspiration behind it, without loss of aesthetic effect. The spiritually potent words of Hafez, together with the essence of Persian classical music, I am certain will create a synergetic whole that I am defining as "voice. " As classical Persian music is generally lodged within a fixed and monophonic soundscape, this composition for orchestra and choir has provided me with the opportunity to generate a kinetic, polyphonic counterpart that will constitute a totally new creation, a new fusion genre, in its own right.
Methodologically speaking, I have attempted to transfer the "main idea" (or hagh-e matlab) of my work as embodied in my source-material (comprising the monophonic dimension of certain elements of Persian classical music on the one hand, and the metaphysical core of a Hafez poem on the other) to a polyphonic dimension as actualized in Western orchestral arrangements. In other words, we are taking the quintessential message of a musical text (in the same way that a literary translator would do), and then translating it in such a way as to create a new musical text with its own dynamic existence. In this regard, what I would have been requiring of my musical text or composition to do is to translate or re-interpret, through the musical text, my own
57 experience of improvisation as a solo performer into a communal performance within a
Western orchestral framework. To do this has meant facing the fundamental challenge of moving away from the spontaneous improvisation that is my customary mode of expression. To create an idea that is fixed and disciplined, but remains as dynamic and self-rejuvenating as improvisational music, has indeed been supremely challenging. With this in mind, every utilization of the respective Eastern and Western traditions has been mindful and respectful of cultural considerations, technical accuracy, and formal precision.
CONCLUSION
With regard to the act of creation within a musical work and the concomitant artistic creativity such an act involves, the relationship of the creator of the work with his "inner consciousness" is its motivating force. The composer is merely a channel for the inspired work. For me personally, the act of creating a musical work is first and foremost a spiritual act, not exclusively an artistic one. The requisite "tools" in terms of orchestral possibilities that I will have had available for this purpose, both in the capacity of a solo improviser and a musician-composer with substantial exposure to Western classical music, will have been utilized in order to achieve the spiritual reality contained within my
"central idea" as a composer.
With this in mind, the "central idea" in question was the spiritual experience of the Sufi gathering ofsama' which, together with the Hafez poem, were to constitute a musical and
58 spiritual journey. In this particular compositional undertaking, all the imaginative powers
contained within me focussed on wishing to convey a spiritual message from the
Beloved, the Friend. And every voice that had to be "profoundly listened to," as
Stravinsky had said,36 would have to have attained realization towards the "Mystical
Truth" through the musical instruments that the composer will have brought to life. In
this particular regard, the great mystic poet Rumi, speaking of the role of the musician, remarks thus:
O Musician, with countenance Both lovely and divine, Trust us with the Secret: Tell us what thou hast Heard, Tell us what thou hast Seen.37
With regard to the actual execution of Echo, my past musical vicissitudes have caused me to foresee the diverse obstacles that might have been in my path. Of course, the practical difficulties in this musical piece constituted the veritable methodological frontiers that I had to transcend in order to reach beyond myself as a composer. In other words, this musical composition proved to be nothing short of a formidable challenge for me, at times bordering on the impossible.
36. See my discussion of Stravinsky's admonition to composers in section 2 above. 37. From the Divan-e Kolliyat-e Shams. This is a free rendering by Mr. Teymour Dowlatshahi of an original Persian text that reads thus: motreb-e mahtaab-ru aantche shanidi begu ma hamegaan mahraam im aantche bedidi begu
59 Having said this, I have not made use of any composer's opus directly, and whatever I have reaped in this regard has been from the composers and musicians who gave me spiritual inspiration, rather than actual insights of a technical nature. For indeed, that which is heard in the musical piece Echo is the sonic embodiment of the imaginary voices within the composer expressing and reflecting that which he will have grasped from the mystical journey of the Sufi gathering known as sama'. In other words, the composer has sought to be a mere channel (the empty vessel or Reed-Flute of which
Rumi has spoken; see section 8 above) in the humble service of the Sufi gathering, thereby allowing the spiritual message of this gathering to echo forth into the celestial- musical realm. In the final analysis it is the Sufi Path, and the venerable Masters of that
Path, who have guided me towards the source of artistic and creative activity, namely the
Invisible Source or cosmic consciousness:
Of this musical Gift I humbly ask you to partake, Born of the Eternal Breath And of my ardent labours. O Hafez ! How my heart rejoices When I speak your name, For you remind us of Love eternal •30
And the Source invisible.
TAMAMSHUD.
38. My own poem (translated from the Persian by Mr. Teymour Dowlatshahi).
60 GLOSSARY
ALAPANA Melodic improvisation in free rhythm using meaningless syllables within the framework of a single raga.
ARUZ System of versification and prosody in classical Persian poetry.
AVAZ ("voice" in Persian). Melodic improvisation in free rhythm using both lyrics and meaningless syllables within the framework of Persian dastgah.
BAYT A couplet of Persian poetry.
CHAHARGAH A dastgah, or collection of gusheh.
CHAHARMEZRAB ("four strokes" in Persian). A fast instrumental piece, usually in compound metre and characterized by an ostinato plectrum pattern; may be composed or improvised.
DARAMAD ("coming in" in Persian). 1. Any opening section of a composition 2. The first and most important gusheh of a dastgah that establishes the fundamental modality of the latter.
DASTGAH ("apparatus" in Persian). 1. The organization of pitches . 2. A collection of gusheh. 3. The new organizational system of Persian classical music, which divides all scales or modes into seven major divisions: 1. Mahour 2. Shour 3. Seghah 4. Chahargah 5. Nava 6. Homayoun 7. Rast Panjgah. There are also five secondary dastgahs: 1. Dashti 2. Abu Ata 3. Esfahan 4. Afshari 5. Bayate Tork.
DIAPHONY The combination of two or more voices in simultaneous chanting.
DIVAN A book containing a collection of poems (usually Persian or Urdu poetry).
FOROUD ("descent" in Persian). 1. A melodic device of varying lengths that brings about a return to the modality and tessitura of the main mode of the dastgah. 2. The final gusheh of a dastgah ; any closing section of a composition.
GHAZAL A short form of classical Persian/Urdu poetry, usually of mystical- erotic content, consisting of mono-rhymed couplets, commonly used for avaz texts. It originated from the qasida verse-form.
61 GUSHEH ("comer" in Persian). 1. A melody. 2. A sub-mode, sub-section, and melodic formula of a dastgah ; characterized by a particular and narrow ambitus, a functional hierarchy of modal degrees, specific thematic material, and occasionally chromatic alterations of the main mode creating the effect of a modulation. Comprising collected pieces and songs which create the Persian classical music repertory, gushehs have name-designations (e.g. "Homayoun") and vary in length from a few seconds to several minutes.
HETEROPHONY Heterophony is a type of musical texture that refers to the practice of two or more musicians simultaneously performing slightly different versions of the same melody. Each version would be characterised as improvised or ornamented versions of the melody as opposed to harmonized versions of a melody as in polyphonic music. This can refer to a kind of complex monophony in which there is only one basic melody, but realized at the same time in multiple voices, each of which play the melody differently, either in a different rhythm or tempo, or with various embellishments and elaborations.
MAGHAM The ancient (i.e. pre-Qajar dynasty) system of Persian classical music which organized the various melodies. In contemporary classical Persian music, magham refers to a specific melody that constructs a gusheh.
MELISMA The technique of changing the note (pitch) of a single syllable of text while it is being sung. Music sung in this style is referred to as melismatic, as opposed to syllabic, where each syllable of text is matched to a single note. Music of the ancient cultures used melismatic techniques to achieve a hypnotic trance in the listener, useful for early mystical initiation rites and religious worship. This quality is still found in much Jewish, Hindu and Muslim religious music today.
MORAGHEBEH Sufi meditation practice where the breathing technique is intended to empty the body of self or ego.
OWJ The melodic culmination or apogee of a dastgah, as it occurs in a particular gusheh.
PISHDARAMAD ("before the daramad' in Persian). An introductory overture consisting of a slow rhythmic piece which initiates some of the important components (i.e. gusheh) of the dastgah.
PITCH Exact height or depth of a particular musical sound or note.
62 QASIDA A form of poetry from pre-Islamic Arabia. It typically runs more than 50 lines, and sometimes more than 100. It was later (in the 10th century AD) inherited by the Persians, where it became sometimes longer than 100 lines and was used and developed immensely. Qasida is often panegyric, written in praise of a king or a nobleman.
RADIF A pedagogical system organizing the repertory of Persian classical music, and which was established one hundred and fifty years ago by two brothers, Mirza Abdollah Qoli and Aqa Hossein Qoli.
RAGA The melodic basis of Indian classical music on which the musician improvises. Each raga has definite melodic qualities that create an emotional impact on the listener, and distinguish it from all other ragas.
RENG A dance piece in moderate or fast compound metre, often concluding the performance of a dastgah.
SAMA' (Arabic word that means "hearing"). It refers to some of the ritualistic and mystical ceremonies and gatherings held by various Sufi orders involving activities such as silent concentrations, prayer, sung or chanted sacred sounds and words, and special forms of dance.
SUFISM Islamic esotericism as practised by various Sufi Orders ; the mystical dimension of Islam.
TAHRIR Melismatic ornamentation line with meaningless syllables in Persian avaz.
TASNEEF (Also tasnij). A composed, metrical and frequently strophic setting of a classical Persian poem.
USTAD (Alternatively Ostad). Prestigious title given to master-artists in the Islamic world.
ZIKR (Also spelt zekr and dhikr). An Islamic practice that focuses on the "remembrance of God." Zikr as a devotional act often includes the repetition of the many names of Allah, as well as supplications and aphorisms from sections of the Koran (Qur'an).
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