Study Guide for Parents and Educators -53)#!, 4(%!42%  WHAT IS MUSICAL !N INTRODUCTION TO ALL THINGS THEATRE RELATED THEATRE? Musical theatre’s history begins much earlier than Musical theatre establishes 1866, the year the first musical was performed in New York. In fact, evidence suggests elements of this art form were itself as the only genre used over 2,500 years ago! During the 5th century B.C.E., of performance that fully plays in Greece were composed of one to three actors and utilizes acting, singing, and a chorus that responded to the characters’ actions. Both the actors and the chorus sang throughout the play, and the dancing together to further actors incorporated not only dialogue and song into their the development of the plot. role, but dance as well. Grecian theatre can be divided into three main genres, all employing distinct types of music and This differs from traditional dance: tragedy, which required a slow and graceful dance theatre because the story is called the emmeleia; comedy, which used a more fast-paced dance known as the kordax; and enhanced by the addition satyr plays (which poked fun at of singing and dancing, a common belief) used a dance not merely supplemented called the sikinnis that mocked the emmeleia. as in ‘straight’ plays. To After the Greeks were better understand musical conquered by the Romans in the Peloponnesian War, the popularity theatre as a whole, an of theatre declined. The Romans, audience member must known for their military genius understand the importance and stoic nature, didn’t place as much cultural emphasis on the of these three elements. A arts or religion. In fact, because musical theatre performer, the audience at Roman theatre performances was usually loud, talented at acting, singing, the performers mimed the actions and dancing, is sometimes and invented visual codes that were incorporated into their called a triple threat due to costumes to let someone know their mastery of that triad. what kind of a person their Actors in other areas of character was even if no one could hear the dialogue. A red performance do not usually wig, for example, meant that the have these talents. When character was a slave, whereas a yellow tassel indicated that it comes to understanding character was a god. Most of the director’s vision of the the Roman plays were comedies piece, careful attention involving cases of mistaken identity, such as gods disguised must be paid to all aspects as mortals, and these costuming of the production. aids helped in constructing these possible situations. Molière During the Middle Ages, theatre was no longer entrenched in culture and relegated to one particular location. Actors, singers, and dancers went from city to city performing for anyone who would watch. However, they were not always well received. A good example of this is the misconception that such performers carried the plague, and no one would allow them into the city. Musical theatre was not doomed, though – the Catholic Church took theater and transformed it to its own needs. Although the history between Western religions and theatre is not always amicable, the Church used theatre to transmit its messages to the illiterate masses. Most people did not know Latin, the official language of the Church, so clever monks started incorporating music and art to spread their faith using cycle plays. A cycle play is a biblical story that has its scenes divided between different groups of actors. Each group would have a pageant wagon (a stage on wheels), and they would move about the city depicting biblical stories. Once one group was done, the next part of the story started. This allowed religion not only to spread, but also to entertain. The cycle plays helped increase the popularity of theatre, and propel it as an art form into the Renaissance.

West Side Story The Renaissance, which in French literally means “rebirth,” reawakened the public to ! the arts. Throughout Europe, technological, literary, and stylistic advances appeased the audience of the day. One of the most famous Oklahoma playwrights of all time, Molière, shows this. King Louis XIV demanded a further-reaching entertainment, and called on Molière to reformat his plays to do this. Molière added music and dance to his shows fitting his farcical style, song, and dance to the king’s taste during the 1600s. This style grew and by the 1700s there were two main styles: the ballad opera and comic opera. The ballad opera used popular songs of the day with new lyrics, whereas the comic operas had original scores and a more romantic plot development. Both these styles flourished, and the idea of incorporating music into plays stuck. The birth of musical theatre as we know it did not occur until 1866 in New York City. William Wheatley, a theatre manager and producer, was worried about his upcoming show, described as a “boring melodrama.” Looking for something to add excitement (and sell tickets), Wheatley jumped when he saw that the Academy of Music burnt down in a fire, leaving their performers unemployed. Wheatley and the Academy of Music collaborators came together to join Wheatley’s play and the ballet that was scheduled to perform at the Academy. Combining the two in a performance called The Black Crook, audiences were pleasantly astounded at the integration of music, dance, Hello, Dolly! and theatre. In the 1920s, musical theatre faced its first big test. Film had just begun and was already starting to gain popularity. What was theatre going to do with this new entertainment medium stealing their audience? They filled seats by emphasizing theatre’s stars, bigger dance routines, and adding popular songs, increasing the spectacle of the performances. This, however, caused the budget to increase and when the Great Depression hit in 1929 very few former patrons could still afford the theatre. During the Depression, shows which focused on satire and political commentary flourished as patrons wanted “smarter” shows rather than the chorus girls common to the follies of earlier years. The theatre lived on, however, and in the 1940s the Golden Age of musical theatre began with Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!. This was the first show to wholly incorporate dance into the plot line The Drowsy Chaperone of the musical – which happened almost by accident. The Theatre Guild went bankrupt, so Rodgers and Hammerstein received full artistic control. The pair took many chances, including hiring the modern dance choreographer, Agnes de Mille. Since the characters were cowboys and farm girls, the idea of them expressing their emotions through lengthy soliloquies seemed out of character. de Mille used everyday motions to express their ideas, including butter churning, rather than traditional showgirl dancing. Opening night proved the musical was a success, and it is now thought of as a quintessential musical theatre piece.

Disney’s Beauty and the Beast Between 1943 and 1967, dozens of wildly successful shows, such as Rodgers and Hammerstein’s South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959), as well as Irving Berlin’s Annie Get your Gun (1946) and Cole Porter’s Kiss Me, Kate (1948) were produced. Drawing off of history and classical literature (Kiss Me, Kate was based on William Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew), those creating new shows catered to the desire

Legally Blonde: The Musical for deeper, edgier shows rather than the tamer plotlines found in the turn of the century musicals. The hit musical My Fair Lady (1956) was based off of George Bernard Shaw’s play Pygmalion, and shows continued to explore different periods of history as West Side Story (1957), Fiddler on the Roof (1964), Hello, Dolly! (1964), and Cabaret (1966) became successful. Musicals still continued to evolve with the culture of the era. After the success of Hair (1967), the 1970s continued to use rock influence music in their production. Many Broadway productions have been so successful that they have been made into feature films, including Paint Your Wagon (1951), The Music Man (1957), and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962). The counterculture and civil rights movements created an increase in the appearance of socially pertinent issues and themes. Dreamgirls (1981), A Chorus Line (1975), and Evita Seven Brides for Brothers

(1979) are known for reflecting the changing social climate. The 1980s and 1990s brought along the rise of the “mega musicals.” These incorporated larger casts, pop-influenced scores, and an increase in the value placed upon special effects. Audiences were wowed with Phantom of the Opera’s falling chandelier in 1986, and the elaborate and numerous costumes in The Lion King (1997) and Beauty and the Beast (1994) awed theatergoers.

Avenue Q The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee The increase in spectacle had many implications, however. It is now impossible for a single individual to fund shows, so more and more corporations are getting involved. The increased cost also means that ticket prices increased. The price increase changed the status of theatre to a more upper class activity, whereas it historically had been available to all classes, as shown by the cycle plays of the Middle Ages or the groundlings (lowest class of patrons) in the Globe Theater, where all of Shakespeare’s productions were held. Jonathon Larson’s Rent (1996) tried to change this when he added heavily stylized rock music and a young cast, on top of implementing measures to ensure the possibility of acquiring affordable tickets for those who wanted them.

The 21st century has brought on a unique combination of revivals and new styles to musical theatre. The revivals of shows provide an almost guarantee to producers that people will see the show, but new shows stretch the limits of artistic expression. For example, Avenue Q (2003) is a new production where adult-themed material is presented via puppets, and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005) encounters universal issues

Cabaret under the guise of a children’s game – and includes audience participation! Shows like Curtains (2007) and The Drowsy Chaperone (2006) even make fun of the backstage dramas of the musical theater process. Musical theatre will continue to grow and change in

exciting ways that no one now can guess, but that just makes it more thrilling to look forward to the future of musicals.

Disney’s The Lion King Librettist: No musical would be possible without the imagination or inspiration of its authors. Over one-third of the musicals on Broadway are based on an existing book, play, or movie (some examples are Oprah Winfrey Presents The Color Purple, Legally Blonde: The Musical, and Happy Days: A New Musical). Upon other occasions, musicals are written from an original idea or concept (like The Drowsy Chaperone). The librettist is the book writer – the person that writes the script for the show. While one might think that the music is the most important portion of a show, historically, musicals with a strong score but bad libretto tend to flop, while shows with an average score but strong libretto have much greater chances of success.

Composer/Lyricist: The element of a musical which separates it from other forms of theatre is the orchestration and songs. Composers and lyricists begin to write the songs that fir the overall tone of the musical, but the songs also further the plot so the audience can better understand the show. The composer writes the music, while the lyricist writes the words that accompany the melody. Sometimes, the same person will perform both tasks.

Producer: The role of producer has greatly evolved over the years. In the past, a show would only have one producer who has a tremendous impact on the creative direction of the show. Many shows came to fruition because a single producer has an idea for a musical and wanted to make it come to life. Now, musicals have become big business with even bigger budgets and it is almost impossible for a singer producer to support a show. Currently, Broadway shows tend to have a dozen producers, making it difficult for one to exercise full creative control.

Investor: Traditionally, investors would give a few thousand dollars in return for some tickets and possibly money back from their investment if the show was a hit. This is no longer possible, however, because of the high price of producing a Broadway show. Investors now contribute hundreds of thousands of dollars with little chance of making any form of profit. Why do this? Most investors enjoy being a part of show business and receive perks like great seats to the show!

Director: The director is the person who stages the show, making it come to life for the audience. In the past, directors were merely puppets doing what the producer envisioned, but since the 1950’s they have taken control. A director works with the cast’s singing, acting, and dancing to tell a cohesive story for the audience. The director will help each actor understand their character’s motivation, block the action, and oversee how everything comes together. The director controls the overall artistic vision of the show.

Choreographer: A choreographer designs dance sequences for the performers that cohere with the director’s vision. These dances are intricate movements that express the meaning of each song. Through the choreography, the audience should understand what each character is feeling. The choreographer works a lot at the beginning of the show process and works less and less as the dances are perfected close to the opening of the show. Casting Director: A casting director has the difficult job of finding the perfect person to play each role in a production. They need to stay up-to-date on the changing talent scene and be ready to set up an audition for major and minor roles at any moment. Casting directors usually work as contractors for a variety of producers but in some cases top producers have exclusive contracts with a casting director.

Music Director: The music director is in control of all of the music in the show. They help the cast learn the music, and then they are given the task of keeping all of the music to the correct tempos. The music director often doubles as the orchestral conductor which works well as the music director needs to know the music so well anyway. They are also usually in charge of recruiting the members of the orchestra.

Costume Designer: The costume designer envisions and then creates the costumes for everyone in the show, ensuring that each piece speaks to the audience just like any other aspect of the production. While looking at the historical accuracy of designs, the costume designer is able to utilize details in color and trims that express the personality of that particular character or of a theme throughout the show.

Set Designer: The set designer plays an important backstage role by designing how the stage itself should look. As set pieces are generally seen even before the first performer, the set designer literally “sets the stage” for how the audience perceives the show’s location in space and time. The set designer also has to determine what each set piece should be constructed of and how many materials will be needed. Sometimes, the set designer will double as the scenic painter and paint the backgrounds and props too.

Lighting Designer: A lighting designer’s job is illuminating the stage and placing more light on where the director wants the audience to focus, such as the main character. He/she also has to set the tone and mood of the show by using different forms and combinations of light. A lighting designer needs to always pay attention to the performers’ action during the shows, as well, to ensure that they do not step out of the light.

Sound Director: A sound director has the complex job of ensuring the performance is easy to hear! Since most of the performers onstage wear a microphone, the sound designer needs to monitor the levels of each mic. This job was previously not even credited, but with the rise of technology and how the theatre community has embraced it, this is now a crucial role in the production.

Stage Manager: The stage manager is usually the unsung hero of a production. They are in control of making sure all the elements of a show come together during each and every performance. They are in control of “calling the show,” meaning they cue the technical aspects of the show. They are in full command of the backstage area, and once the show opens, they receive full control from the director. Their script, the “stage manager’s bible,” has every cue for the whole show marked so that the action onstage can continue unimpeded. The stage manager usually has a team of assistants who can be anywhere, doing whatever is needed. WHY IS MUSICAL THEATRE IMPORTANT?

Musical theatre is unlike any other entertainment medium. Live theatrical experiences not only involve the actors on stage, they engage the audience in ways that film and television cannot. There is no real barrier between the performers and the audience like in film and television. Each performance allows each audience member to become their own editor as they choose which portion of the action to watch. The wonders of movies and television are remarkable, but often they provide an isolated experience. Being part of the communal magic when performers and audience members connect at the theatre cannot be duplicated. How the audience reacts to the show deeply affects the actors. Something seemingly trivial like whispering or eating can distract the actors and alter the tone of their performance. Musical theatre can help students grow academically, artistically, and emotionally. Musical theatre writers, lyricists, and composers have long looked to literature for their inspiration and subject material. As a result, students have the opportunity to engage in literary analysis of both the story and its inspiration. Elementary students can begin to learn about plot and characters, while more advanced students can delve deeper, into theme, symbolism, and the historical context of the piece. Students also have the opportunity to discover how all of the elements of the show contribute to the final product. Musical theatre allows young people to explore the elements of production beyond television and film and to gain a greater appreciation for the performing arts in general. Theatre Etiquette Here are some good tips to look over before you go Diagram of the to the theatre:

1. Arrive to the theatre on time - once the show has Stage started you can’t just barge in! 2. Keep the theatre clean - if for some reason you see trash, pick it up and throw it away. Remember, no snacks at the theatre! 3. Be considerate of others - the people around you want to see the show just as much as you do; don’t disturb them. 4. Don’t distract the actors - if you want to let them know you like what they’re doing, clap for them when appropriate! 5. Turn off all electronic devices - they can disturb both the actors and other patrons 6. Remain seated during performances - if you stand up to see something better, you make it so that the people behind you can’t see at all! 7. No cameras/recordings - these would distract the actors! 8. Stay until the end of the show - clapping during the curtain call is the best way to say “thanks” to the performers for a great show. Audition: to perform in order to get a role in the production; usually includes singing, dancing, and reading scenes from the show Ballad: a slow, romantic song for actors to showcase vocal clarity Blocking: the specific movements of actors on stage Box: a separate compartment of seats usually elevated on the sides of the theatre, for the accommodation of VIPs “Calling the show:” the process of calling out the lighting, sound, and scene-change cues during a performance, usually done by the stage manager Child wrangler: one who works with child performers Dress rehearsal: rehearsal in which performers practice with costumes and props Dresser: one who assists performers with costume changes during dress rehearsals and shows Electrician: one who works with the lighting designer to adjust and operate lighting movements Ensemble/chorus: a group of singers, dancers, or actors who provide the backup during musical numbers; can also include the entire cast in large numbers Flyman: one who pulls the curtain before and after performances and operates the flying system, if used Fourth wall: the imaginary wall at the front of the stage, through which the audience sees the action in the world of the show Gallery: the section of seats in a theatre farthest away from the stage; separated into front and rear gallery Head carpenter: one who builds the sets for the production House left: the left side of the theatre, when facing the stage (audience’s point of view) House right: the right side of the theatre, when facing the stage (audience’s point of view) Makeup artist: one who applies cosmetics to a performer’s face and/or body Mezzanine: the middle section of seats in a theatre between the orchestra and gallery; separated into front and rear mezzanine Orchestra section: the seats immediately behind the orchestra pit Principals: the leading actors, those who portray the major roles Program: a listing of the order of events, names of the cast and crew, and other relevant information Property (props) master: one who manages all items used on stage that cannot be classified as scenery, electrics, or wardrobe Read-through: the cast reads through the script without movement or music Rehearsal pianist: one who plays the piano for early-stage rehearsals Set designer: one who creates the scenery for the stage Sitzprobe: the first rehearsal with both the performers and the orchestra but with no staging or dancing Sound board: a desk comprising of a number of input channels where each sound source is provided with its own control channel through which sound signals are routed into two or more outputs; changes the quality of the sound Sound designer: one who plans and executes the layout of all sound playback and equipment for the show Sound operator: one who handles the sound playback and mixing equipment during the show Sound effects designer: one who creates or enhances sounds that are not part of the music or dialogue Stage left: the left side of the stage, when facing the audience (performer’s point of view) Stage right: the right side of the stage, when facing the audience (performer’s point of view) Swings: one who is prepared to substitute for ensemble or chorus members who are unable to perform Technical rehearsal: rehearsal incorporating the technical elements of a show, such as the scene and property shifts, lighting, sound, and special effects Understudy: one who studies a role and is prepared to substitute for the principal performer when needed Usher: one who guides audience members to their seats Wanderprobe: rehearsal in which the performers practice singing and dancing while the orchestra plays Glossary of Theatre Terms !BOUT THE 3HOW "ACKGROUND (ISTORY AND THE 0EOPLE "EHIND ,ES -ISERABLES On October 8, 1985 Les Misérables opened at the Barbican Theatre, London and musical theatre history was made. It then moved to the Palace Theatre in New York on December 4, 1985. On March 12, 1987, the American version opened at the Broadway Theatre. Since then, Les Misérables by Alain Boublil and Claude-Michel Schönberg with lyrics by Herbert Kretzmer has travelled the globe and won numerous major awards throughout the world, including eight Tony awards, including Best Musical. Les Misérables has touched the heart of its international audience as few shows in history have ever done. This power derives both from the enormous strength of the theatrical adaptation and from the timeless reality of the titanic novel upon which the show is based, Victor Hugo’s classic, Les Misérables. More than 130 years later, “huge sores” still litter the world, and Hugo’s words still describe the undying message of his novel. Les Misérables reminds us that we are each part of the same human family, and that whatever our outward differences may be, our longings for individual liberty and peace are the same. Around the world, performers and audience members alike have been deeply moved by their exposure to Les Misérables. With each new cast and each new audience, the power and the magic of the show continues to grow.

Victor Hugo (original novelist) was born on February 26, 1802. His father, General Joseph Leopold Hugo, was the son of a carpenter who rose through the ranks of Napoleon’s citizen army. However, Victor’s mother decided not to subject her three sons to the difficulties of army life, and settled in Paris to raise them. Madame Hugo became the mistress of her husband’s commanding officer, General Lahorie, who was a father figure to Hugo and his brothers until the General’s execution in 1812. Victor was an excellent student who excelled in mathematics, physics, philosophy, French literature, Latin, and Greek. He won first place in a national poetry contest when he was 17. He won a pension of 1,000 francs a year from Louis XVIII for his first volume of verse. Barely out of his teens, Hugo became a hero to the common people as well as a favorite of heads of state. Throughout his lifetime, he played a major role in France’s political evolution from dictatorship to democracy. In 1822, he married Adele Foucher, who became the mother of his children, Leopold-Victor, Charles-Victor, Francois-Victor, Adele, and Leopoldine. In 1830, Victor became one of the leaders of a group of Romantic rebels who were trying to loosen the hold of classical literature in France. His play Hernani, whose premiere was interrupted by fist-fights between Hugo’s admirers and detractors, took a large step towards a more realistic theatre and made him a rich man. During the next 15 years he produced six plays, four volumes of verse, and the romantic historical novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame, establishing his reputation as the greatest writer in France. In 1831, Adele Hugo became romantically involved with a well known critic and good friend of Victor’s named Sainte-Beuve. Victor became involved with the actress Juliette Drouet, who became his mistress in 1833. Supported by a small pension from Hugo, Drouet became his unpaid secretary and traveling companion for the next fifty years. He lived in Brussels for a time after having disagreements with the French government. When Les Misérables was published in 1862, it was an immediate popular success in spite of negative reaction by critics, who considered it overly sentimental, and the government, who banned it. After the Franco- Prussian War and the fall of the Empire in 1870, Hugo made a triumphant return to Paris. He remained there through the siege of the city and contributed portions of his royalties to purchase weapons. He lost two sons, one in 1871 and one in 1873. Although he was elected to the Senate in 1876, poor health caused him to return to Guernsey. Madame Hugo died in 1868 and Madame Drouet in 1882. Hugo died in 1885 at the age of eighty-three. Although he left instructions that his funeral be simple, over three million spectators followed his cortege to the Pantheon, where he was buried amid France’s great men. Alain Boublil (Conception, Book and Original French Lyrics) Born in Tunisia, Alain Boublil emigrated to Paris at the age of 18. He worked in music publishing before writing his first lyrics for the French pop song world. After discovering the existence of musical theatre, he started working with Claude-Michel Schönberg, another composer inhibited by the three-minute song format. Over 20 years, their partnership gave birth to La Revolution Française and the award-winning Les Misérables, Miss Saigon and Martin Guerre. He has also produced with Claude-Michel the major cast albums for all their shows. He lives in London and is the proud father of four sons.

Claude-Michel Schönberg (Music and Book) Born in 1944 of Hungarian parents, Claude-Michel Schönberg began his career a singer, writer and producer of popular songs. He wrote the musical score of La Revolution Française (Paris, 1973), Les Misérables (Palais des Sports, Paris 1980 and London 1985) and Miss Saigon (1989). Since then he has also supervised overseas productions of Les Misérables and Miss Saigon and co-produced several international cast albums of his shows. Martin Guerre opened at The Prince Edward Theatre, London in July 1996. A new version premiered at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in December 1998, which had its U.S. premiere at The Guthrie Theatre in Minneapolis in September 1999 and subsequently toured America. He lives in Paris with his wife and two children.

Herbert Kretzmer (Lyrics) was born in South Africa, where he began his journalistic career. He has lived in London since the mid- fifties, pursuing twin careers as a newspaperman and lyricist. In 1960, he joined the staff of the Daily Express and later became its chief drama critic, a post he held for 18 years. From 1979 to 1987 he wrote television criticism for the Daily Mail. As a lyricist for three decades, he has worked with the French star Charles Aznavour and together they wrote such enduring standards as “She” and “Yesterday When I Was Young.” Kretzmer wrote the book and lyrics of the West End musical Our Man Crichton and the lyrics for The Four Musketeers which ran for more than a year at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane. He has been elected a Chevalier of L’Ordre Des Arts Et Des Lettres and received the Jimmy Kennedy Award (a division of the Ivor Novello Awards) for services to songwriting. Cast of Characters

~ Javert - respecting the law above all else, Javert relentlessly pursues Valjean, hoping to bring justice to the escaped convict ~ Jean Valjean - released from jail after spending nineteen years there for stealing a loaf of bread and multiple escape attempts. He breaks his parole and changes his identity, becoming mayor of a small town. He later adopts Cosette, the daughter of Fantine. ~ The Bishop of Digne - the bishop who houses Valjean after his release from jail and gives him the gifts of silver and absolution ~ Fantine - a worker who loses her job and becomes a prostitute in order to pay the Thénardiers for the welfare of her daughter ~ Madame Thénardier - the unscrupulous wife of Monsieur Thénardier who forces Cosette to work for their inn as a young child ~ Monsieur Thénardier - a second-rate thief, Monsieur Thénardier runs a small inn ~ Gavroche - a street-wise urchin who helps the university students at the barricade ~ Enjolras - leads Marius and the rest of the student revolutionaries ~ Marius Pontmercy - a student revolutionary who is close to Éponine, but in love with Cosette ~ Éponine Thénardier - daughter to the Thénardiers, Éponine grew up with Cosette and is in love with the same man. She has a good heart, however, whereas her parents do not. ~ Cosette - the daughter of Fantine who was raised by Jean Valjean. She returns Marius’ love

Act One Act Two

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1823, MONTFERMEIL Young Cosette has been lodged for five years with the Thenardiers who run an inn, horribly abusing the little girl whom they use as a skivvy while indulging their own daughter, Eponine. Valjean finds Cosette fetching water in the dark. He pays the Thernardiers to let him take Cosette away and takes her to Paris. But Javert is still on his tail... PARIS, 1832 Nine years later, there is a great unrest in the city because of the likely demise of the popular leader General Lamarque, the only man left in the Government who shows any feeling for the poor. The urchin Gavroche is in his element mixing with the whores and beggars of the capital. Among the street gangs is one led by Thernardier and his wife, which sets upon Jean Valjean and Cosette. They are rescued by Javert, who does not recognize Valjean until after he has made good his escape. The Thernardiers’ daughter Eponine, who is secretly in love with the student Marius, reluctantly agrees to help him find Cosette, with whom he has fallen in love. At a political meeting in a small cafe, a group of idealistic students prepare for the revolution they are sure will erupt on the death of General Lamarque. When Gavroche brings the news of the General’s death, the students, led by Enjolras, stream out into the streets to whip up popular support. Only Marius is distracted by thoughts of the mysterious Cosette. Cosette is consumed by thoughts of Marius, with whom she has fallen in love. In spite of her own feelings for Marius, Eponine sadly brings him to Cosette and then prevents an attempt by her father’s gang to rob Valjean’s house. Valjean, convinced it was Javert who was lurking outside his house, tells Cosette they must prepare to flee the country. On the eve of the revolution the students and Javert see the situation from their different viewpoints; Cosette and Marius part in despair of ever meeting again; Eponine mourns the loss of Marius; and Valjean looks forward to the security of exile. The Thernardiers, meanwhile, dream of rich pickings underground from the chaos to come. The students prepare to build the barricade. Marius, noticing that Eponine has joined the insurrection, sends her with a letter to Cosette, which is intercepted at the Rue Plumet by Valjean. Eponine decides, despite what he has said to her, to rejoin Marius at the barricade. The barricade is built and the revolutionaries defy an army warning that they must give up or die. Gavroche exposes Javert as a police spy. In trying to return to the barricade, Eponine is shot and killed. Valjean arrives at the barricades in search of Marius. He is given the chance to kill Javert, but instead lets him go. The students settle down for a night on the barricade and, in the quiet of the night, Valjean prays to God to save Marius from the onslaught which is to come. The next day, with ammunition running low, Gavroche runs out to collect more and is shot. The rebels are all killed, including their leader, Enjolras. Valjean escapes into the sewers with the unconscious Marius. After meeting Thernardier, who is robbing the corpses of the rebels, he emerges into the light only to meet Javert once more. He pleads for time to deliver the young man to a hospital. Javert decides to let him go and, his unbending principles of justice having been shattered by Valjean’s own mercy, he kills himself by throwing himself into the swollen River Seine. A number of Parisian women come to terms with the failed insurrection and its victims. Unaware of the identity of his rescuer, Marius recovers in Cosette’s care. Valjean confessed the truth of his past to Marius and insists that after the young couple are married, he must go away rather than taint the sanctity and safety of their union. At Marius’ and Cosette’s wedding the Thernardiers try to blackmail Marius. Thernardier says Cosette’s “father” is a murderer and, as proof, produces a ring which he stole from the corpse in the sewers the night the barricades fell. It is Marius’ own ring, and he realizes it was Valjean who rescued him that night. He and Cosette go to Valjean, where Cosette learns for the first time of her own history before the old man dies, joining the spirits of Fantine, Eponine and all those who died on the barricades. Review Activities 1. Describe the major plot of Les Misérables in one or two sentences.

2. Using the synopsis, identify the five most important plot points in Les Miserables. Explain the importance of each event to the story in one sentence and create a chronological timeline using pictures to illustrate each event.

3. Become familiar with the meaning of exposition. In Les Miserables, what information was given that helped you understand the action of the story? If the information were not given, how hard would it have been to understand the plot? Explain something you wouldn’t know if you hadn’t seen the exposition.

4. Read the lyrics to “Do You Hear The People Sing?” What is the main message behind this song? Can you see yourself relating to the lyrics at some point in your life? Why or why not?

5. Become familiar with the meaning of resoulution. Identify and describe events in the story that can be considered part of the resolution. Why do you think the ending happened the way it did?

Writing Exercise

Think back through the whole performance and find the character you are most like. In a journal entry, explain why you are similar to this particular character. What types of problems do they get into? Could you see yourself getting into a similar position? Write about how you would handle the situation differently, or why you would do the same. Finally, no one is going to be exactly like the characters in this musical, so talk about what makes you different from the character. Afterwards, talk as a class to find out who was the most and least likely character to be chosen. ! ,ESSON IN (ISTORY 4HE "ACKGROUND OF ,ES -ISERABLES The story of Les Miserables begins in 1815 with Jean Valjean being released on parole after being arrested 19 years prior for stealing a loaf of bread. Jean Valjean was arrested during the end of the French Revolution (1789–1799), a period of political and social upheaval in the history of France, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change based on Enlightenment principles of nationalism, citizenship, and inalienable rights. These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including the trial and execution of the king, vast bloodshed during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include: the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. Some economic factors that contributed to the onset of the revolution: ‡ Louis XV fought many wars, bringing France to the verge of bankruptcy, and Louis XVI supported the colonists during the American Revolution, exacerbating the precarious financial condition of the government. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the monarchy’s military failures and ineptitude, and the lack of social services for war veterans. ‡ An inefficient and antiquated financial system unable to manage the national debt, both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation. ‡ The continued conspicuous consumption of the noble class, especially the court of Louis XVI and Marie- Antoinette at Versailles, despite the financial burden on the populace. ‡ High unemployment and high bread prices, causing more money to be spent on food and less in other areas of the economy. ‡ Widespread famine and malnutrition, which increased the likelihood of disease and death, and intentional starvation in the most destitute segments of the population in the months immediately before the Revolution. The famine extended even to other parts of Europe, and was not helped by a poor transportation infrastructure for bulk foods. There were also social and political factors, many of which involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals: ‡ Resentment by the ambitious professional and mercantile classes towards noble privileges and dominance in public life, many of whom were familiar with the lives of their peers in commercial cities in The Netherlands and Great Britain. ‡ Resentment by peasants, wage-earners, and the middle class toward the traditional privileges possessed by nobles. ‡ Resentment of clerical privilege (anti-clericalism) and aspirations for freedom of religion, and resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy. ‡ Continued hatred for Catholic control and influence on institutions of all kinds by the large Protestant minorities. ‡ Aspirations for liberty and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism. ‡ Anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker and A.R.J. Turgot (among other financial advisors), who were popularly seen as representatives of the people. ‡ Finally, perhaps above all, was the almost total failure of Louis XVI and his advisors to deal effectively with any of these problems. On August 4, 1789, the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism in what is known as the August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. Looking to the Declaration of Independence of the United States for a model, on August 26, 1789, the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a legislature, but also as a body to draft a new constitution. Fueled by rumors of a reception by the King’s bodyguards in which the public had been trampled upon, on October 5, 1789, crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The women first marched to the Hôtel de Ville, demanding that city officials address their concerns. The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to Royalist efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty. Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them pieces of cannon and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing two guards. La Fayette ultimately convinced the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris. On October 6, 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the protection of the National Guards, thus legitimizing the National Assembly. Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. The Legislative Assembly first met on October 1, 1791 and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: “In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot.” The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330 Girondists (liberal republicans) and Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with any faction. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels. The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King expected war would increase his personal popularity. France declared war on Austria (April 20, 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The invading Prussian army faced little resistance until checked at the Battle of Valmy and forced to withdraw. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past. On the night of August 10, 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune, assailed the Tuileries. The King and Queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. The Commune sent gangs into the prisons to try to arbitrarily butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example. The Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until a new constitution was written on September 20, 1792 and the authors became the new de facto government of France. The next day they abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of Year One of the French Republican Calendar. After a time, the Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). According to archival records, at least 16,594 people died under the guillotine or otherwise after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. A number of historians note that as many as 40,000 accused prisoners may have been summarily executed without trial or died awaiting trial. The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of Jacques Hébert, revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and trials did not always proceed according to contemporary standards of due process. On June 2, 1793, Parisian factions — encouraged by the enragés (“enraged ones”) Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert — called for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to the lower classes alone. With the backing of the National Guard, they managed to convince the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on June 10, installing the revolutionary dictatorship. On July 13, the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat—a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric—by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the King, having the image of a man who enjoyed luxuries, was removed from the Committee and on July 27, Robespierre, “the Incorruptible,” made his entrance, quickly becoming the most influential member of the Committee as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution’s domestic and foreign enemies. Meanwhile, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, variously referred to as the French Constitution of 1793 or Constitution of the Year I. It was ratified by public referendum, but never applied, because normal legal processes were suspended before it could take effect. Facing local revolts and foreign invasions in both the East and West of the country, the most urgent government business was the war. On August 17, the Convention voted for general conscription, the levée en masse, which mobilized all citizens to serve as soldiers or suppliers in the war effort. On September 5, the Convention, pressured by the people of Paris, institutionalized The Terror: systematic and lethal repression of perceived enemies within the country. The result was a policy through which the state used violent repression to crush resistance to the government. Under control of the effectively dictatorial Committee, the Convention quickly enacted more legislation. On September 17, the Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the charging of counter- revolutionaries with vaguely defined crimes against liberty. The Convention also extended price-fixing from grain and bread to other essential goods, and fixed wages. The guillotine became the symbol of a string of executions. The Revolutionary Tribunal summarily condemned thousands of people to death by the guillotine, while mobs beat other victims to death. Sometimes people died for their political opinions or actions, but many for little reason beyond mere suspicion, or because some others had a stake in getting rid of them. The Reign of Terror enabled the revolutionary government to avoid military defeat. The Jacobins expanded the size of the army, and Carnot replaced many aristocratic officers with younger soldiers who had demonstrated their ability and patriotism. The Republican army was able to throw back the Austrians, Prussians, British, and Spanish. At the end of 1793, the army began to prevail and revolts were defeated with ease. Because dissent was now regarded as counterrevolutionary, extremists such as Hébert and moderate Montagnard indulgents such as Danton were guillotined in the spring of 1794. Robespierre, who had previously condemned the Cult of Reason, advocated a new state religion and recommended that the Convention acknowledge the existence of God. On the next day, the worship of the deistic Supreme Being was inaugurated as an official aspect of the Revolution. Compared with Hébert’s popular festivals, this austere new religion of Virtue was received with signs of hostility by an amazed Parisian public. In 1794, Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed, markedly eroding his own popular support. The Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre and Louis de Saint-Just. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and who took revenge by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the White Terror. Investigating Plot Elements

1. Describe the main plot of the story in a brief paragraph. Next, identify a subplot, and summarize it and its relationship to the main plot.

2. Using the synopsis, categorize the important moments of the story into rising action, the climax, falling action, and the resolution. Briefly explain why you chose each moment in one or two sentences.

3. Become familiar with the meaning of exposition. In Les Miserables, what information was given that helped you understand the action of the story? In what ways did the show communicate this information? If the information were not given, how hard would it have been to understand the plot?

4. Is there an antagonist of the story? Who would be if you think so? If you don’t think there is an antagonist, why do you believe this?

5. What, in your opinion, is the first aspect of rising action in the show? Compare with your classmates and decide as a group what event spurs on the plot of the story.

Investigating Thematic Elements

Les Misérables is one of the most widely read novels of all time, and the show has been received with immense success around the world. How do you explain its great appeal to so many different kinds of audiences over more than 130 years?

1. List the universal themes in Les Misérables.

2. What makes a theme “universal?”

3. Name some universal themes in one of the following works (or pick one more familiar to you): Hamlet, The Red Badge of Courage, Great Expectations, Julius Caesar, The Scarlet Letter, Of Mice and Men, Macbeth, A Tale of Two Cities Why have these works stood the test of time, while other works have been forgotten?

4. What themes do they share with Les Misérables?

5. Relate the themes of Les Misérables to events occuring in your community, America, or the world today. After reading or seeing Les Misérables, describe how it has changed the way you think about these events. ! ,ESSON IN 3OCIOLOGY 0OLITICAL %CONOMY AND THE 3TUDY OF 0OVERTY

As major countries like France began to grow in population and industrialize, due to improvements in technology. These improvements, however, came with some decreases in the quality of life for the lower classes, and for the first time ever there was more than one class of people above the lowest class. In the Middle Ages, when feudalism still ruled the land, there were two classes of people: the landowners, who were at the top and ruled their lands as they wished, and the serfs, who worked the fields in exchange for protection from the landowners in case of invasion by neighboring lands or barbarians. As technology increased and people moved into the cities, a middle class of merchants emerged, leaving the lowest class of the poor without any landowners to fall back on for Adam Smith protection and no work to do but whatever they could find (which was usually nothing). Many intellectuals of the time debated what could and should be done about the plight of the poor in society; this study eventually came to be known as the study of political economy. Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government. It originated in moral philosophy (e.g. Adam Smith was Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow), and it developed in the 18th century as the study of the economies of states — polities, hence political economy. Two main political economists in the nineteenth century, during the time of Les Misérables, were Thomas Malthus and Harriet Martineau. In contradiction to the theory of the Physiocrats, wherein land was the source of all wealth, some political economists proposed the labour theory of value (introduced by John Locke, developed by Adam Smith, and later by Karl Marx), according to which labour is the true source of value. Many political economists also noted the accelerating development of technology, whose role in economic and social relations was important (Joseph Schumpeter). In late nineteenth century, the term “political economy” was generally replaced by the term economics, used by those seeking to place the study of economy upon mathematical and axiomatic bases, rather than the structural relationships of production and consumption (cf. marginalism, Alfred Marshall). Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production was organized in the nation-states. The phrase économie politique (translated in English as political economy) first appeared in France in 1615 with the well known book by Antoyne de Montchrétien: Traicté de l’oeconomie politique. In 1805, Thomas Malthus became England’s first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire. The world’s first professorship in political economy was established in 1763 at the University of Vienna, Austria; Joseph von Sonnenfels was the first tenured professor. In the United States, political economy first was taught at the College of William and Mary; in 1784 Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations was a required textbook. Contemporarily, political economy refers to different, but related, approaches to studying economic and political behaviours, ranging from the combining of economics with other fields, to the using of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge orthodox economic assumptions. Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system — capitalist, socialist, mixed — influence each other. When narrowly construed, it refers to applied topics in economics implicating public policy, such as monopoly, market protection, government fiscal policy, and rent seeking. Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests. “International political economy” (IPE) is an interdisciplinary field comprising approaches to international trade and finance, and state policies affecting international trade, i.e. monetary and fiscal policies. In the U.S., these approaches are associated with the journal International Organization, which, in the 1970s, became the leading journal of international political economy under the editorship of Robert Keohane, Peter J. Katzenstein, and Stephen Krasner. They are also associated with the journal The Review of International Political Economy. Economists and political scientists often associate the term with approaches using rational choice assumptions, especially game theory, in explaining phenomena beyond economics’ standard remit, in which context, the term “positive political economy” is common. Contemporary political economy students treat economic ideologies as the phenomenon to explain, per the traditions of Marxian political economy without its deterministic class war assumptions. Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives: ‡ Sociology studies the effects of persons’ involvement in society as members of groups, and how that changes their ability to function. Many sociologists start from a perspective of production-determining relation from Karl Marx. ‡ Political science focuses on the interaction between institutions and human behavior, the way in which the former shapes choices and how the latter change institutional frameworks. Along with economics, it has made the best works in the field by authors like Shepsle, Ostrom, Ordeshook, among others. ‡ History documents change, using it to argue political economy; historical works have political economy as the narrative’s frame. ‡ Economics focuses on markets by leaving the political - governments, states, legal frameworks - as givens. Economics dropped the adjective political in the 19th century, but works backwards, by describing “The Ideal Market,” urging governments to formulate policy and law to approach said ideal. Economists and political economists often disagree on what is preeminent in developing production, market, and political structure theories. ‡ Law concerns the creation of policy and its mediation via political actions that have specific results, it deals with political economy as political capital and as social infrastructure - and the sociological results of one society upon another. ‡ Human Geography is concerned with politico-economic processes, emphasizing space and environment. ‡ Ecology deals with political economy, because human activity has the greatest effect upon the environment, its central concern being the environment’s suitability for human activity. The ecological effects of economic activity spur research upon changing market economy incentives. ‡ International Relations often uses political economy to study political and economic development. Thomas Malthus: political economist Thomas Robert Malthus, the second son of eight children born to Daniel and Henrietta Malthus near Guildford, Surrey, came into a prosperous family, with his father a personal friend of the philosopher David Hume and an acquaintance of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The young Malthus received his education at home until his admission to Jesus College, Cambridge in 1784. There he studied many subjects and took prizes in English declamation, Latin and Greek, but he majored in mathematics. He earned a masters degree in 1791 and won election as a fellow of Jesus College two years later. In 1797, he took orders and became an Anglican country parson. Malthus married Harriet Eckersall, on April 12, 1804, and had three children: Henry, Emily and Lucy. In 1805, he became Britain’s first professor in political economy at the East India Company College (now known as Haileybury) in Hertfordshire. In 1818, Malthus became a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Between 1798 and 1826 Malthus published six editions of his famous treatise, An Essay on the Principle of Population, updating each edition to incorporate new material, to address criticism, and to convey changes in his own perspectives on the subject. He wrote the original text in reaction to the optimism of his father and his father’s associates, regarding the future improvement of society. Malthus also constructed his case as a specific response to writings of William Godwin and of the Marquis de Condorcet. Malthus regarded ideals of future improvement in the lot of humanity with scepticism, considering that throughout history a segment of every human population seemed relegated to poverty. He explained this phenomenon by pointing out that population growth generally preceded expansion of the population’s resources, in particular the primary resource of food: “...in all societies, even those that are most vicious, the tendency to a virtuous attachment is so strong that there is a constant effort towards an increase of population. This constant effort as constantly tends to subject the lower classes of the society to distress and to prevent any great permanent amelioration of their condition.” “The way in which these effects are produced seems to be this. We will suppose the means of subsistence in any country just equal to the easy support of its inhabitants. The constant effort towards population... increases the number of people before the means of subsistence are increased. The food therefore which before supported seven millions must now be divided among seven millions and a half or eight millions. The poor consequently must live much worse, and many of them be reduced to severe distress. The number of labourers also being above the proportion of the work in the market, the price of labour must tend toward a decrease, while the price of provisions would at the same time tend to rise. The labourer therefore must work harder to earn the same as he did before. During this season of distress, the discouragements to marriage, and the difficulty of rearing a family are so great that population is at a stand. In the mean time the cheapness of labour, the plenty of labourers, and the necessity of an increased industry amongst them, encourage cultivators to employ more labour upon their land, to turn up fresh soil, and to manure and improve more completely what is already in tillage, till ultimately the means of subsistence become in the same proportion to the population as at the period from which we set out. The situation of the labourer being then again tolerably comfortable, the restraints to population are in some degree loosened, and the same retrograde and progressive movements with respect to happiness are repeated.” To give a mathematical perspective to his observations, Malthus proposed the idea that population, if unchecked, increases at a geometric rate (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.), whereas the food supply grows at an arithmetic rate (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.). In the first edition, Malthus suggested that only natural causes (such as accidents and old age), misery (war, pestilence, plague, and above all famine), and vice (which for Malthus included infanticide, murder, contraception and homosexuality) could check excessive growth. In the second and subsequent editions, Malthus raised the possibility of moral restraint (marrying late or not at all, coupled with sexual abstinence prior to, and outside of, marriage) as a check on the growth of population. He also proposed the gradual abolition of poor laws that gave no incentive to birth control, supporting instead private charity. Harriet Martineau: political economist The sixth of eight children, Harriet Martineau was born in Norwich, England, where her father was a manufacturer. The family was of Huguenot extraction and professed Unitarian views. The atmosphere of her home was industrious, intellectual and austere; she herself was clever, but weakly and unhappy; she had no sense of taste or smell, and moreover grew deaf while young, having to use an ear trumpet. At the age of sixteen, the state of her health and nerves led to a prolonged visit to her father’s sister, Mrs Kentish, who kept a school at Bristol. Here, in the companionship of amiable and talented people, her life became happier. Here, also, she fell under the influence of the Unitarian minister, Dr Lant Carpenter, from whose instructions, she says, she derived “an abominable spiritual rigidity and a truly respectable force of conscience strangely mingled together.” From 1819 to 1830, she again resided chiefly at Norwich. About her twentieth year her deafness became confirmed. In 1821 she began to write anonymously for the Monthly Repository, a Unitarian periodical, and in 1823 she published Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns. In 1826 her father died, leaving a bare maintenance to his wife and daughters. His death had been preceded by that of his eldest son, and was shortly followed by that of a man to whom Harriet was engaged. Mrs Martineau and her daughters soon after lost all their means by the failure of the house where their money was placed. Harriet had to earn her living, and, being precluded by deafness from teaching, took up authorship in earnest. Besides reviewing for the Repository she wrote stories (afterwards collected as Traditions of Palestine), gained in one year (1830) three essay-prizes of the Unitarian Association, and eked out her income by needlework. In 1831, she was seeking a publisher for a series of tales designed as Illustrations of Political Economy. After many failures she accepted disadvantageous terms from Charles Fox, to whom she was introduced by his brother, the editor of the Repository. The sale of the first of the series was immediate and enormous, the demand increased with each new number, and from that time her literary success was secured. As early as 1831, Martineau began her work under the social science title of “Political Economy”. This was nearly a decade before Auguste Comte published “The Positive Philosophy”. In 1838 she drafted the first text of sociological research techniques “How to Observe Morals and Manners”. Her belief was that the life of any society is influenced by some very general social laws, including the principle of progress, the emergence of science as the most advanced product of human intellectual endeavor, and the significance of population dynamics and the natural physical environment. Auguste Comte was known as the founder of sociology due to the fact that not only was Martineau deaf but she was also a woman and unable to obtain a degree to back her theories. After the publication of Comte’s Cours de Philosophie Positive, Martineau undertook a translation that was published in two volumes in 1853 as The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau). It was a remarkable and difficult achievement, but a successful one. Comte himself recommended these volumes to his students instead of his own. Some writers regard Martineau herself as “the first woman sociologist”. Her introduction of Comte to the English-speaking world and the elements of sociological perspective that may be found in her original writings argue for her recognition as a kindred spirit if not a significant contributor. Review Activities

The basic problem of Hugo’s work is stated in its title: Les Misérables, or “the miserable ones.” Today, we would call them the poor, or the homeless. Poverty is an international problem which continues to grow every year.

Questions / Discussion Ideas ‡ How do you feel about the homeless and the poor? ‡ Who do you feel is responsible for their problems? Themselves? The Government? Society in general? Why? ‡ How do you think poor people feel about the way they are treated? ‡ In Les Misérables, the beggars sing “When’s it going to end? When we gonna live? Something’s gotta hapen now or something’s gonna give”; what do they mean by this? ‡ In the story of Les Misérables, what reforms does Victor Hugo indirectly or directly advocate to fight social injustice? ‡ How do Hugo and the creators of the musical show the audience what social action is needed to correct these evils? ‡ Each of the characters in the story deal with the problem of “Les Misérables” (the poor) in a different way. Describe how each of these characters see the poor: Jean Valjean, The Bishop of Digne, Javert, Enjolras, Thenardier ‡ Which of these viewpoints do you agree with? Which do you think Victor Hugo agreed with?

Assignments / Research And Writing Projects

‡ Hugo attempted to convince his audience that the poor and the outcast are worth saving. In our society, is this belief commonly held? Why or why not? ‡ Explore the conditions under which most common people worked in Hugo’s time. What kinds of factory conditions were they forced to endure? How do they differ from conditions workers deal with today? Explore the influences of unions, child labour laws, environmental protection laws. ‡ Alain Boublil was influenced to begin the musical of Les Misérables after the character of the Artful Dodger in the musical Oliver! (based on Charles Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist) brought to mind a singing Gavroche. Trevor Nunn and John Caird used techniques on Les Misérables they developed while directing Nicholas Nickleby, an adaptation of Dickens’ novel. Compare Dickens and Hugo as authors and social crusaders. ‡ Compare the social problems and solutions in Les Misérables to situations addressed in works of Dickens such as: A Tale of Two Cities, Great Expectations, Hard Times, A Christmas Carol. ‡ Compare Victor Hugo and his work in Les Misérables with the work of one of these modern social crusaders: George Bernard Shaw, Henrick Ibsen, Arthur Miller, John Steinbeck. ! ,ESSON IN 0HILOSOPHY 4HE IDEALS BEHIND THE &RENCH 2EVOLUTION The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (French: Déclaration des droits de l’Homme et du citoyen) is a French political document, adopted August 26 or August 27, 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for the Republic of France. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793 was later adopted. The 1789 Declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all Estates of the realm. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.” The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, “All the citizens, being equal in [the eyes of the law], are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents,” eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy. While it set forth fundamental rights, not only for French citizens but for “all men without exception,” it did not make any statement about the status of women, nor did it explicitly address slavery (which was soon outlawed under the French First Republic). The principles set forth in the declaration are of constitutional value in present-day French law and may be used to oppose legislation or other government activities. The Declaration is considered to be a precursor to modern international human rights instruments. The Declaration transitioned France from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Many of the principles in the declaration directly oppose the institutions and usages of the ancien régime of pre-revolutionary France. France soon became a republic, and this document remains fundamental. The concepts in the declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the Age of Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the English philosopher John Locke and developed by Jean Jacques Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment, and by Enlightenment principles of human rights contained in the U.S. Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), of which the delegates were fully aware. It might also be noted that Thomas Jefferson, primary author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, was at the time in France as a U.S. diplomat, and was in correspondence with members of the French National Constituent Assembly. This statement of principles was the beginning of a much more radical re- ordering of society. Six weeks after the storming of the Bastille, and barely three weeks after the abolition of feudalism, the Declaration put forward a doctrine of popular sovereignty and equal opportunity: “(From Article III) – The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it.” This contrasts with the pre-revolutionary situation in France, where the political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the divine right of kings. (From Article VI) – “All the citizens, being equal in [the eyes of the law], are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.” Again, this strikingly contrasts with the pre-revolutionary division of French society in three estates (the clergy, the aristocracy, and the rest of the populace, known as the Third Estate), where the first two estates had special rights. Specifically, it contradicts the idea of people being born into a nobility or other special class of the population, and enjoying (or being deprived of) special rights for this reason. All citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression”. The Declaration argues that the need for law derives from the fact that “...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights.” Thus, the declaration sees law as an “expression of the general will,” intended to promote this equality of rights and to forbid “only actions harmful to the society.” During the Old Regime the laboring class was unfairly represented because their representatives were concerned only with personal agendas and not the desires of those they were meant to represent. Article XII of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen states “The guarantee of the rights of man and citizen requires a public force; this force then is instituted for the advantage of all and not for the personal benefit of those to whom it is entrusted.” This article guarantees the protection of the people’s rights and also guarantees that, unlike in the Old Regime, people in positions of power will not abuse their positions for personal gains. The declaration then goes on to address another primary concern of the working class citizens, taxes. Article XIII of the declaration introduces a new, more equal approach to taxes: “A general tax is indispensable for the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration; it ought to be equally apportioned among all citizens according to their means.” This new tax policy greatly benefited the working class because not only did it split up taxation among all French citizens, it also assured the less fortunate that their taxes would not be too high. Instead they would be taxed according to their financial situation. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen offered working men basic liberties that they were previously denied, eliminated the threat of corrupt and self-serving positions of power at any level, and gave them their individual rights and no longer treated the lower class workers as a mob that could be oppressed and controlled. The declaration prohibits ex post facto application of criminal law and proclaims the presumption of innocence, prohibiting undue duress to the suspect. In pre-revolutionary France, while technically one was considered guilty only after having been sentenced by the appropriate authorities, the royal courts, known as parlements, made ample use of torture to extract confessions, and gave few rights to the defense — therefore, it would have been very likely that one would have been convicted and sentenced, if one had been suspected. It provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and a slightly weaker guarantee of freedom of religion — “provided that [...the] manifestation [...of their religious opinions] does not trouble the public order established by the law.” The Declaration, as originally understood, recognized most rights as belonging only to males; the declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery as the colonial discourse never acknowledged the humanity of African slaves or conquered Indians. Sometime after The March on Versailles on October 5, 1789, the women of France presented the Women’s Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equality. The Declaration’s failure to include women was objected to by Olympe de Gouges in her 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. Women were finally given these rights with the adoption of the 1946 Constitution of the French Fourth Republic. Similarly, despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, the slave revolt on Saint-Domingue that became the Haitian Revolution took inspiration from its words.

Review Activities

Questions / Discussion Ideas

‡ The students in Les Misérables believe that there are things worth fighting for. Do you agree with them? Why? ‡ The students are taking the law into their own hands. Do you think they are right or wrong? Is such action ever justified? ‡ Did the students at the barricade die in vain? How do you measure whether the death of a young person in such a circumstance is “worthwhile?”

Assignments/Research And Writing Projects

‡ Can you imagine ever taking the law into your own hands? Why or why not? If you can envision such a possibility, describe the circumstances. ‡ What is a value or a belief that you might fight for? How would you go about it? ‡ Research the methods and philosophies of the civil rights leaders Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. Which do you agree with? Which would you think the student revolutionaries in Les Misérables might agree with? Which would you think Jean Valjean might agree with? ‡ Research a 20th Century student rebellion, such as the American student movement of the 1960s or the Chinese pro-democracy movement of May/June 1989 in Beijing. Compare the motivations of the students - and the outcome - to the experience of the student rebels in Les Misérables. ! ,ESSON IN #ULTURE !N INTRODUCTION TO &RANCE

France is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in Western Europe and that also comprises various overseas islands and territories located in other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. French people often refer to Metropolitan France as L’Hexagone (“The Hexagon”) because of the geometric shape of its territory. France is a unitary semi- presidential republic. Its main ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is bordered by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. Due to its overseas departments, France also shares land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana) , and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin). France is also linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel. France has been one of the world’s foremost powers since the latter half of the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, France built one of the largest colonial empires of the time, stretching across West Africa and Southeast Asia, prominently influencing the cultures and politics of the regions. France is a developed country, with the sixth (nominal Gross Domestic Product) largest economy in the world. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually (including business visitors, but excluding people staying less than 24 hours). France is one of the founding members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. France is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. France is the home of the International System of Units (the metric system). The Imperial System is almost completely ignored in France. Some pre-metric units are still used, essentially the livre (a unit of weight equal to half a kilogram) and the quintal (a unit of weight equal to 100 kilograms). 24-hour clock time is used, with h being the separator between hours and minutes (for example 2:30 p.m. is 14h30). The all-numeric form for dates is in the order day-month-year, using a slash as the separator (example: 31/12/2008 or 31/12/08). Popular sports include football, both codes of rugby football and in certain regions basketball and handball. France has hosted events such as the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and hosted the 2007 Rugby Union World Cup. France also hosts the annual Tour de France, the most famous road bicycle race in the world. Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments. France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who suggested the Games’ revival, at the end of the 19th century. After Athens was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Greek origins of the ancient Olympics, Paris hosted the second Games in 1900. Paris was also the first home of the International Olympic Committee, before it moved to Lausanne. Since that 1900 Games, France has hosted the Olympics on four further occasions: the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris and three Winter Games (1924 in Chamonix, 1968 in Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville). There is, technically speaking, no architecture named French Architecture, although that has not always been true. Gothic Architecture’s old name was French Architecture (or Opus Francigenum). The term “Gothic” appeared later as a stylistic insult and was widely adopted. Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d’Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre- Dame de Reims. Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon. The end of the Hundred Years’ War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy and Spain were invited to the French court; many residential palaces, Italian-inspired, were built, mainly in the Loire Valley. Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d’Amboise. Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque Architecture replaced the gothic one. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in the religious one. In the secular domain the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart can be said to be the most influential French architect of the baroque style, with his very famous baroque dome of Les Invalides. Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses of Europe and became a very influential military architect. In the 20th century the Swiss Architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is a good example of modern architecture added to an older building. Certainly the most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. France’s largest financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located. Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; a good example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel or Paul Andreu. The Louvre Museum in Paris, France, is one of the world’s most visited art museums, a historic monument, and a national symbol. The collection’s nearly 35,000 pieces are displayed over 60,000 square metres (650,000 sq ft). The museum lies between the Seine and the Rue de Rivoli on the Right Bank in the 1st arrondissement neighborhood. A central landmark in Paris, the Louvre is slightly askew of the axe historique (historical axis), a roughly eight-kilometre (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. The museum, which contains some of the world’s most celebrated artworks, is divided among eight curatorial departments. The exhibits represent nearly every artistic genre and provenance including works of Egyptian, Oriental, and Islamic origin. The collections of French paintings and sculptures are among the world’s most notable, as are a large number of other pieces, including Leonardo Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, The Virgin and Child with St. Anne, and Madonna of the Rocks; Jacques Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii, Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People, and Alexandros of Antioch’s Venus de Milo.