Lesson 1 Architecture

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Temple Architecture ...... 2 Why do we study chola in temple architecture? ...... 7 Emergence & Early Stages of Development ...... 2 Natraj...... 7 Early Stages of Development ...... 2 Important Features of Natraj Sculpture ...... 8 Panchayatan Style of Temple Architecture ...... 2 Other Important Schools of Temple Architecture Major Components of Hindu ...... 3 ...... 8 ...... 3 Nayaka School of Temple Architecture ...... 8 ...... 3 General Features ...... 8 ...... 3 Schoo l of Temple Architecture ...... 9 ...... 3 General Features ...... 9 Major Styles of Temple Architecture ...... 3 Vijayanagar School of Temple Architecture ...... 9 Nagara School of Temple Architecture ...... 3 General Features ...... 9 General Facts ...... 3 Hoysala School of Temple Architecture ...... 10 Characteristic Features of Nagara School ...... 3 General Features ...... 10 Ground Plan - Panchayatan Style ...... 3 Pala & Sena Tempe Architecture ...... 10 Structural Features ...... 3 General Features ...... 10 Types of Shikhars ...... 4 Main Characteristics...... 10 Internal Features ...... 4 Important Temples outside ...... 11 School of Temple Architecture ...... 4 Vat, Cambodia ...... 11 General Features ...... 4 Temple, Java-Indonesia ...... 11 Khajuraho School of Temple Architecture ...... 5 , Kathmandu, Nepal ...... 12 General Features ...... 5 Preah Vihear Temple, Cambodia ...... 12 Solanki School of Temple Architecture ...... 5 Katas Raj Temple, Pakistan ...... 12 General Features ...... 5 Aditya of Multan, Pakistan ...... 12 Temple Architecture in ...... 6 , Sri ...... 12 Temple Architecture under Cholas...... 7 Previous Year questions ...... 13 ...... 7

Major Characteristics of Dravidan Architecture ..... 7 High Boundary Walls ...... 7 Gateways ()...... 7 Panchyatan Style ...... 7 & Shikhara ...... 7 ...... 7 Water Tank...... 7 Chola Sculpture ...... 7

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE • Emergence of (low & Third almost square). • Panchyatan Style EMERGENCE & EARLY STAGES OF Introduced. DEVELOPMENT Dashavatar temple, Deogarh ▪ Temple architecture emerged during the period of Guptas when simple structures • Main Shine became consisting of square sanctum and a pillared Fourth more rectangular

porticos began to be used for ritualistic and Ter Temple, religious purpose. ▪ Gradually with time, these structures evolved • Introduction of circular Temples with from flat-roofed, monolithic temples in the Fifth shallow rectangular Maniyar Math at initial stages to the sculptured ‘shikhara’ in the projections later years. Rajgir

▪ Based on certain characteristics that got evolved, we can classify this evolution into 5 PANCHAYATAN STYLE OF TEMPLE stages. ARCHITECTURE

EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT ▪ In the Panchayatan style of temple making, there were four subsidiary shrines along ▪ There were five stages of development in with the temple of the principal . Temple Architecture which have been ▪ The main temple was square with an identified and each stage is identified with elongated mandap in front of it, giving it a certain distinctive characteristics which can be rectangular shape. summarised in the table below: ▪ The subsidiary shrines were placed Stage Distinctive Characteristic Example • Flat Roof opposite to each other on either side of the • Square Shaped mandap, giving the ground plan a crucified Temples shape. First • Porticos on shallow ▪ Examples: Dashavatar temple at Deogarh Pillars • Structure on Low Temple No. 17 at (Uttar Pradesh), temple at Platform (), etc.

• Raised Platforms • Few instances of two- storied temples Second • Covered Ambulatory passage-way (used as temple at Pradakshina Path) Nachna kuthara in . Crusified Shape in Panchayatan Style

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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF HINDU NAGARA SCHOOL OF TEMPLE TEMPLES ARCHITECTURE SANCTUM SANCTORUM ▪ Also known as Garbhagriha (literally womb- GENERAL FACTS house) is a small room, generally cubicle, which houses the principal deity of the temple. ▪ A distinctive style of architecture that developed in the Northern part of India, came MANDAPA to be known as the Nagara Style of ▪ The entrance to the temple. It may be a Architecture. portico or a hall and is generally designed to ▪ Within the Nagara school too, different sub- house a large number of worshippers. schools emerged in western, central and SHIKHARA eastern parts of the country. ▪ It is a mountain like spire. The shapes varies from pyramidal to curvilinear.

VAHANA ▪ It is the mount or vehicle of the main deity and is placed just before the sanctum sanctorum.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF NAGARA SCHOOL

GROUND PLAN - PANCHAYATAN STYLE MAJOR STYLES OF TEMPLE ▪ The temples generally followed the ARCHITECTURE Panchayatan style of temple making, which consisted of subsidiary shrines laid out in a Nagara Style crucified ground plan with respect to the

Dravidan Style principal shrine.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES Nayaka Style ▪ There was a p resence of assembly halls or

Major Forms of Vesara Style mandaps in front of the principal shrine. Temple Architecture ▪ Outside the garbhagriha, images of the river

Hoysala Style goddesses, and Yamuna, were placed. ▪ There were no water tanks or reservoirs Vijayanagar Style present in the temple premises. ▪ The temples were generally built on upraised Pala & Sena School platforms.

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▪ A pillared approach was followed for the INTERNAL FEATURES porticos. ▪ Inside the temple, the wall was divided into three vertical planes called . These were TYPES OF SHIKHARS known as triratha temples. ▪ Additionally, there were 3 main types of ▪ Later, , saptaratha and even Shikharas in the Nagara School of Architecture. navaratha temples came into existence. The ▪ The vertical end of the shikhara ended in a vertical planes were used as different panels horizontal fluted disc, known as the Amalak. to make narrative . On top of that, a spherical shape was placed ▪ The ambulatory passageway or the known as the kalash. pradakshina path around the sanctum OR REKHA-PRASAD sanctorum was covered. ▪ They were square at the base and the walls ▪ Generally, the temple premises did not have curve inward to a point on the top. elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

ODISHA SCHOOL OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Rekha Prasad

PHAMSANA GENERAL FEATURES ▪ They had a broader base and were shorter ▪ The exterior walls were lavishly decorated in height than the Latina ones. They slope with intricate carvings, but interior walls were upwards on a straight line. plain. ▪ There was no use of pillars in the porch. Iron VALABHI girders were used instead to support the roof. ▪ They had a rectangular base with the roof ▪ The shikharas in the Odisha school were known rising into vaulted chambers. They were as rekhadeuls. They were almost vertical roofs also called wagon-vaulted roofs. which suddenly curved inwards sharply. ▪ The mandap was known as jagmohan in this region. ▪ The ground plan of the main temple was square. ▪ Temples were surrounded by a boundary wall as in Dravidian style of temple architecture

Valabhi

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PROMINENT EXAMPLES ▪ In these temples, both the interior and ▪ Sun Temple at (also known as Black exterior walls were lavishly decorated with as the first rays of the Sun entered the carvings. garbhagriha through the sea-facing pagoda) ▪ The sculptures were generally erotic in their ▪ Temple at themes and drew inspiration from ▪ Lingaraj temple at , etc Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra. ▪ The temples were made of sandstone. ▪ The temples had three chambers – garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa. Some temples had a vestibular entrance to the garbhagriha known as antarala. ▪ The temples were generally north or east facing. ▪ Panchayatan style of temple making was followed. Even the subsidiary shrines had rekhaprasad shikharas. This created an impression of a mountain range. ▪ The temples were built on relatively high platform and belong to Hindu as well as Jain religion.

PROMINENT EXAMPLES ▪ Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Lakshman General Features of Odisha Schol Temples temple at Khajuraho KHAJURAHO SCHOOL OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE SOLANKI SCHOOL OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE GENERAL FEATURES GENERAL FEATURES ▪ In cental part of ▪ This school of Temple Architecture flourished India, temple in the north-western part of India including the architecture was regions of and Rajasthan. It had some being patronised distinctive features such as: by Chandela ▪ The temple walls were devoid of any carvings. rulers and it came ▪ The garbhagriha is connected with the to be known as mandapa both internally as well as externally.

Khajuraho School Erotic Theme in Khajuraho Temples of Architecture.

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▪ The porticos have decorative Different Stages of Pallava Temples Distinctive arched gateways known as Stage Examples torans. Characteristic • First Stage of ▪ A unique feature of this school Pallava is the presence of step-tank, Architecture. known as -kund in the • Temples were Mahendra basically rock-cut proximity of the temple. Group temples Temple, ▪ The steps of the tank are full • Temples were of small temples. known as ▪ The Solankis used a variety of material to make temples including sandstone, black basalt and • Rock-cut temples began to be softmarble. decorated by ▪ Most of the temples are east-facing and intricate designed such that every year, during the sculptures. • Mandapas were equinoxes, the sunrays fall directly into the Narsimha divided into central shrine. Group separate rathas. Pancharatha Temples at PROMINENT EXAMPLES • Biggest Mahaballiuram ▪ Modhera Sun temple, Gujarat was Dharmaraj Ratha. Smallest was Draupadi TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH Ratha. INDIA

▪ Temple architecture in South India began under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman. • Rock-cut style Rajasimha was replaced with ▪ The temples developed during the Pallava Kailashnath Group Physical dynasty reflected the stylistic taste of the Temple at Structure. individual rulers and can be classified into four stages chronologically. (Narsimhavarman II)

South Indian Temple Architecture Mukteswara • Relatively Temple & smaller sized Vaikunt-Perumal, Mahendra Narsimha Rajsimha Nandivarman Group Group Group Group Nandivarman temples are Kanchipuram Group characteristic The characteristic feature of each stage have been feature of this group. summarised in the following table.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE UNDER GATEWAYS (GOPURAM) ▪ The front wall had a high entrance gateway CHOLAS known as the gopuram.

DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE PANCHYATAN STYLE ▪ The temple premise was laid out in the ▪ A very distinctive form of temple architecture panchayatan style with a principal temple known as Dravidian form of architecture came and four subsidiary shrines. to be developed under Cholas. VIMANA & SHIKHARA ▪ It was a continuation of the previous Pallava ▪ Linearly rising spire in form of stepped architecture, with some variations. pyramid was known as Vimana. ▪ The in dravidan temple was known Shikhara and was Octagonal. ▪ Only one vimana in the Dravidian architecture on top of the main temple. (L)Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore | (R) Gangaikondacholapuram temple (built by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in the Gangetic delta) GARBHAGRIHA

▪ The assembly hall was connected with the MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF garbhagriha by a vestibular tunnel known as DRAVIDAN ARCHITECTURE antarala ▪ The entrance of the garbhagriha had sculptures of Dwaarpal, mithun and High Boundary Walls WATER TANK ▪ Presence of a water tank inside the temple Gateways Water Tank (Gopuram) enclosure was a unique feature of the Dravidian style Dravidian Architecture CHOLA SCULPTURE

Panchyatan Garbhagriha Style WHY DO WE STUDY CHOLA SCULPTURE IN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE?

Vimana & ▪ The importance placed on the decoration Shikhara through sculptures was an important feature of the Chola temples. Consequently, it is HIGH BOUNDARY WALLS pertinent for us to study it as an essential ▪ Unlike the Nagara temples, the Dravidian feature of Temple Architecture under Cholas. temples were surrounded by high boundary NATRAJ walls. ▪ An important piece of Chola sculpture was the sculpture of in the dance posture. Visit: www.courses.civilstap.com For Any Query Mail us: [email protected] or call us at - (+91)-8146207241 7 CivilsTap Crash Course for UPSC Prelims 2020| Ancient Indian History by Chandan Sharma Sir©

▪ Though the earliest known Nataraja sculpture, ▪ is dancing on the figure of a small dwarf. which has been excavated at phadi The dwarf symbolises ignorance and the ego of cave at Aihole, was made during the early an individual. Chalukya rule, the sculpture reached its peak ▪ The matted and flowing locks of Shiva under the Cholas. represent the flow of river Ganges. ▪ In ornamentation, one ear of Shiva has a male earring while the other has female. This represents the fusion of male and female and is often referred to as ardhanarishwar. ▪ A snake is twisted around the arm of Shiva. The snake symbolises the kundalini power, which resides in the human spine in dormant stage. If aroused, one can attain true consciousness. ▪ The Nataraja is surrounded by a nimbus of glowing lights which symbolises the vast unending cycles of time. OTHER IMPORTANT SCHOOLS OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Nayaka IMPORTANT FEATURES OF NATRAJ SCULPTURE ▪ The upper right hand holds the drum, which Vesara signifies the sound of creation. All creations Other Important spring from the great sound of the damru. Vijayanagar Schools of Architecture ▪ The upper left hand holds the eternal fire, which represents the destruction. Destruction is the precursor and inevitable counterpart of Hoysala creation. ▪ The lower right hand is raised in the gesture of Pala & Sena abhay mudra.

▪ signifying benediction and reassuring the devotee to not be afraid. NAYAKA SCHOOL OF TEMPLE ▪ The lower left-hand points towards the ARCHITECTURE upraised foot and indicates the path of GENERAL FEATURES salvation. ▪ The Nayaka school of architecture flourished under the Nayaka rulers in the period between 16th centuries and 18th centuries A.D. Visit: www.courses.civilstap.com For Any Query Mail us: [email protected] or call us at - (+91)-8146207241 8 CivilsTap Crash Course for UPSC Prelims 2020| Ancient Indian History by Chandan Sharma Sir©

▪ It was also knows as Madurai school. ▪ Influence of Nagara style is in Curvilinear ▪ It was architecturally similar to the Dravidian Shikhara and square base of Vesara style, but much larger in scope. temples. ▪ It also has Islamic influence ▪ Influence of Dravida style is seen in intricate carvings and sculptures, design of PARAKRAMS ▪ Presence of Prakarms or huge corridors in Vimana and Step or terraced Shikara of the portico, around the garbhagriha, along Vesara temples with roofed ambulatory passageways. VIJAYANAGAR SCHOOL OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE ▪ The gopurams built under the Nayaka GENERAL FEATURES rulers were some of the largest gopurams. ▪ The rulers of the Empire (1335- ▪ The temple in Madurai has the 1565 AD) were great patrons of art and tallest gopuram in the world. architecture with capital at (Karnataka). ▪ The art of gopuram reached its climax in They combined the features of Chola, the Nayaka style Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas architectural INTRICATE CARVINGS styles. ▪ The temple structure was filled with ▪ Under them, the architectural style started to intricate carvings be influenced by the Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur. VESARA SCHOO L OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE NATURE OF TEMPLE COMPLEX ▪ Temple complex is enclosed by boundaries. GENERAL FEATURES ▪ The concept of secular buildings inside the ▪ It is also known as the Karnataka school of temple premises was introduced during this architecture. period. ▪ It was conceptualised under the later Chalukya rulers in the mid-seventh WALLS & GOPURAMS ▪ century A.D. The walls of the temples were highly ▪ It combined the features of both Nagara decorated with carvings and geometrical school and Dravidian school and resulted patterns. The enclosing walls were larger. ▪ in a hybridised style. Goupurams, which were previously present on the front side, were now built on all the sides. ASSOCIATED DYNASTIES ▪ Chalukyas of and Kalyani. MANDAPS ▪ ▪ Rashtrakutas (750-983 AD). For Example, More than one mandaps were built in each Kailashnath temple in Ellora, etc. temple. The central mandap came to be known ▪ Hoysala Dynasty (1050-1300 AD). For as kalyan mandap. example, temples at Halebid, Belur etc.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

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PILLARS PALA & SENA TEMPE ARCHITECTURE ▪ Monolithic rock pillars were employed and generally, temple pillars had a mythical GENERAL FEATURES creature (Horse) engraved in them. ▪ In region, the style of architecture came to be known as Pala and Sena School HOYSALA SCHOOL OF TEMPLE of Architecture. ARCHITECTURE ▪ It developed in the period between 8th and 12th century A.D. under the patronage of GENERAL FEATURES Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty. GROUND PLAN – STELLATE PLAN ▪ Multiple shrines were built around a central GENERAL FACTS ABOUT PALAS ▪ The Palas were primarily Buddhist rulers pillared hall. following Mahayana tradition, but were ▪ The temples were built on an upraised very tolerant and patronized both the platform known as Jagati, which was about 1 religions. metre high. ▪ Pala Kings built lots of , ▪ Unlike the crucified ground plan of the and Stupas. Panchayatan style, the shrines led out in the shape of an intricately designed star. This was GENERAL FACTS ABOUT SENAS known as the Stellate plan. ▪ The Senas were and built temples ▪ The walls and stairs of the temple followed a of Hindu , and also sustained Buddhist zigzag pattern. architectures. ▪ Thus, the architecture reflected the MATERIALS USED influence of both the religions ▪ Soft sope stone (Chorite schist) was the main building material. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

DECORATION OF TEMPLES BANGLA ROOFS ▪ Massive emphasis was laid on the decoration ▪ The buildings had a curve or sloping roof, as in of the temple through sculptures. bamboo huts. This became popularly known as ▪ Both the interior and exterior walls, even the “Bangla roof” and was later adopted by the jewelleries worn by the were Mughal architects. intricately carved. TALL CURVING SHIKHAR CHARACTERISTIC SHAPE OF SHIKHAR ▪ The temples of this region had a tall, curving ▪ All the chambers had Shikharas which were shikhara crowned by a large , similar interconnected by an arrangement of to the Odisha School. horizontal lines and mouldings. MATERIAL USED ▪ This resolved the tower into an orderly ▪ Burnt bricks and clay, known as terracotta succession of tires. bricks, was the principal building material used.

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SCULPTURE ▪ For the sculptures of this region, both stone as IMPORTANT TEMPLES OUTSIDE well as metal was used. Stone was the major INDIA component. ▪ The figures were unique in their highly lustrous ANGKOR VAT, CAMBODIA finish. ▪ Deep in the jungles of Cambodia, the world’s

largest – the Angkor Vat is

situated. SOME MATERIAL FOR REFERENCE – SUN ▪ However, it is just one of the many Hindu TEMPLES IN INDIA temples in South East Asia. The sea-faring ➢ Sun Temples in India: 1. of Odisha- It is a world heritage site activities of the Chola Empire, Kaling Empire and also listed as one of the Seven Wonders of India etc. brought the religion in these parts and 2. Sun Temple, Modhera- It is situated on the bank of the gave rise to many Hindu dynasties – the Pushpavati river in Mehsana district of Gujarat. civilisation in Vietnam, the Khmer 3. Sun Temple, Martand- It is located five miles from Anantnag city of Jammu and Kashmir. The temple is now empire in Indochina and the Majapahit Empire in ruins but the site is listed as national importance in in Java. Jammu and Kashmir and protected monuments of India. ▪ The Angkor group of temples were built in the 4. Sun Temple, Gwalior- This holy temple is similar to the Sun temple of Konark. period between 800- 1300 A.D. by the Khmer 5. Sun Temple, Unao- It is famous and rare sun temple in rulers. India, situated in Unao town of Datia district. The ▪ Suryavarman II is however credited with temple is known for unique architecture and design. building most of the monuments. 6. Sun Temple, Ranchi ▪ The architecture is very closely related to the 7. Sun Temple, - Surya temple of Katarmal is an monument of national importance and noted for its Chola architecture, but has some distinct local magnificent carved pillars and wooden doors. flavours as well. 8. Surya Pahar Temple, Assam - Surya Pahar is an ancient sun worship center and the complex has several rock- PRAMBANAN TEMPLE, JAVA- cut Shivalingas,sculpture of twelve-armed Vishnu and INDONESIA remains of the and Hara. 9. Surya Narayan Temple, Domlu - Surya Narayana ▪ The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, a Temple in Domlu is located in Bangalore city. 10. Sun Temple, Gaya - Dakshinaarka Sun temple in Gaya is UNESCO World Heritage Site, is dedicated to an ancient Sun temple and has been mentioned in the the ‘’ gods of pantheon epics. namely (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver) 11. Surya Narayan Temple, Arasavalli- Shri Surya Narayana and Shiva (Destroyer). Swami Temple is among the famous Sun temples in our country. ▪ It has around 240 small temples and shrines in 12. Suryanar Temple, - It is dedicated to Sun its compound. and one of the nine temples in Tamil ▪ It was built in 9th Century AD by the Nadu. Kings of the Mataram or Medang Kingdom who

were mainly Shiva worshippers.

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PASHUPATINATH TEMPLE, ▪ It is mentioned in the travelogues of Hiuen KATHMANDU, NEPAL Tsang, the 7th century Chinese traveller. ▪ The complex has ’Satgraha’ (seven temples), a ▪ The temple is built in the Nepalese Pagoda sacred lake and ruins of a Buddhist stupa. style of architecture on the banks of River

Bagmati. It is dedicated to Lord Pashupatinath or Shiva. ADITYA SUN TEMPLE OF MULTAN, ▪ Its shape is cubical and is two-tiered. It has two PAKISTAN -Inner and Outer. Inner sanctum contains Shiva linga with four faces. ▪ It is one of the oldest and revered temples of ▪ The temple compound also houses Vasukinath and was mentioned by the 5th temple and sacred Arya Ghat. It is not clear as century historian Herodotus, Chinese traveller to who constructed the temple. Hsuan Tsang and 10th century Persian geographer al-Istakhri. PREAH VIHEAR TEMPLE, CAMBODIA ▪ The temple famous for its riches was raided constantly by invaders, and notably Mahmud ▪ The temple is dedicated to mountain gods of Ghazni. Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara (manifestations ▪ It had an idol of Sun god made up in gold with of Lord Shiva). eyes of beautiful red rubies. ▪ The temple symbolically represents the mythological ””, the abode of MUNNESWARAM TEMPLE, gods. Although the construction began in the ▪ It is believed to thousand years old with re- 9th century AD, it was mainly built by the construction done in phases by Sri Lankan kings Khmer kings Suyavarman I and Suryavarman II in 15th century and 16th century following in 11th and 12th centuries. destruction done by Portuguese Jesuits in early ▪ It is included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage 16th century. Site list. ▪ It is mainly dedicated to Shiva with shrines of ▪ Being located on the border, its ownership and Ganesha, and Ayyanayake (Sinhalese management was a matter of dispute between Buddhist deity) also present. Thailand and Cambodia with ICJ ruling in

favour of Cambodia in 1962. UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE TEMPLES KATAS RAJ TEMPLE, PAKISTAN ▪ Sun Temple: Konark ▪ Group of Monuments of Mahabalipuram: ▪ The ancient temple is dedicated to Shiva and is ▪ Ratha Temples built in the Kashmiri architectural style of ▪ Arjuna’s Penance Varma and Karkota dynasties. ▪ Descent of Ganges ▪ Khajuraho Group of Monuments: ▪ It is made up of soft sandstone and has trefoil ▪ Kandariya Temple arches, dentiles & pointed roofs. ▪ Group of Monuments at Hampi: ▪ It is believed that visited the temple ▪ Virupaksha Temple during their exile. ▪ Temple Visit: www.courses.civilstap.com For Any Query Mail us: [email protected] or call us at - (+91)-8146207241 12 CivilsTap Crash Course for UPSC Prelims 2020| Ancient Indian History by Chandan Sharma Sir©

▪ Vitthala Temple (d) Shravanabelagola ▪ Achyutaraya Temple Answer: A ▪ Group of Monuments at : ▪ Virupaksha Temple ▪ Papanatha Temple Q4. Which of the following is/are famous for Sun ▪ Jain Narayana Temple temples? (2017) ▪ Great Living Chola Temples: 1. Arasavalli ▪ Brihadeswara Temple, ▪ Brihadeswara Temple, 2. Amarakantak Gangaikondacholisvaram 3. Omkareshwar ▪ Airavateswara Temple, Select the correct answer using the code given ▪ complex at Bodh Gaya below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Q1. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are Answer: A the (2012) (a) three main racial groups of the Indian Q5. Where is the famous Virupaksha temple subcontinent located? (2009) (b) three main linguistic divisions into which the (a) languages of India can be classified (b) (c) three main styles of Indian temple (c) Hampi architecture (d) Srikalahasti (d) three main musical gharanas prevalent in Answer: C India Answer: A

Q2. With reference to the cultural , the term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to (2014) (a) an assembly of village elders (b) a religious sect (c) a style of temple construction (d) an administrative functionary Answer: C

Q3. In which one of the following cities is the located? (2001) (a) Bhubaneshwar (b) Bijapur (c) Kolkata Visit: www.courses.civilstap.com For Any Query Mail us: [email protected] or call us at - (+91)-8146207241 13