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The Role of Single-Nucleotide Variants of NOS1, NOS2, and NOS3 Genes in the Comorbidity of Arterial Hypertension and Tension-Type Headache

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The Role of Single-Nucleotide Variants of NOS1, NOS2, and NOS3 Genes in the Comorbidity of Arterial Hypertension and Tension-Type Headache molecules Review The Role of Single-Nucleotide Variants of NOS1, NOS2, and NOS3 Genes in the Comorbidity of Arterial Hypertension and Tension-Type Headache Natalia A. Shnayder 1,2,*, Marina M. Petrova 1, Polina V. Moskaleva 1,*, Pavel A. Shesternya 1, Elena A. Pozhilenkova 1 and Regina F. Nasyrova 2,* 1 V. F. Voino-Yasenetsky Krasnoyarsk State Medical University, 660022 Krasnoyarsk, Russia; [email protected] (M.M.P.); [email protected] (P.A.S.); [email protected] (E.A.P.) 2 V.M. Bekhterev National Research Medical Center for Psychiatry and Neurology, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected] (N.A.S.); [email protected] (P.V.M.); [email protected] (R.F.N.); Tel.: +7-(913)-535-47-77 (N.A.S.); +7-(983)-147-03-61 (P.V.M.); +7-(981)-109-71-34 (R.F.N.) Abstract: Patients with tension-type headache (TTH) have an increased risk of developing arterial hypertension (AH), while hypertensive subjects do seem to have an increased risk of TTH. We searched for full-text English publications in databases using keywords and combined word searches over the past 15 years. In addition, earlier publications of historical interest were included in the review. In our review, we summed up the single nucleotide variants (SNVs) of Nitric Oxide Citation: Shnayder, N.A.; Synthases (NOSs) genes involved in the development of essential AH and TTH. The results of studies Petrova, M.M.; Moskaleva, P.V.; we discussed in this review are contradictory. This might be due to different designs of the studies, Shesternya, P.A.; Pozhilenkova, E.A.; small sample sizes in some of them, as well as different social and geographical characteristics. Nasyrova, R.F. The Role of Single- Nucleotide Variants of NOS1, NOS2, However, the contribution of genetic and environmental factors remains understudied. This makes and NOS3 Genes in the Comorbidity the issue interesting for researchers, as understanding these mechanisms can contribute to a search of Arterial Hypertension and Tension- for new approaches to pathogenetic and disease-modifying treatment of the AH and TTH phenotype. Type Headache. Molecules 2021, 26, New drugs against AH and TTH can be based on inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production, blockade 1556. https://doi.org/10.3390/ of steps in the NO-cGMP pathway, or NO scavenging. Indeed, selective neuronal NOS (n-NOS) and molecules26061556 inducible NOS (i-NOS) inhibitors are already in early clinical development. Academic Editors: Cristina Maccallini Keywords: nitric oxide; nitric oxide synthase; single nucleotide variants; polymorphisms; genes; and Rosa Amoroso NOS1; NOS2; NOS3; arterial hypertension; tension-type headache Received: 16 February 2021 Accepted: 9 March 2021 Published: 12 March 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Arterial hypertension (AH) is a prevalent condition worldwide and is the key risk with regard to jurisdictional claims in factor for non-fatal and fatal cardiovascular complications [1]. Tension-type headache (TTH) published maps and institutional affil- is the most common type of primary headache and is considered a common everyday iations. headache [2]. Many studies support the hypothesis that TTH patients have an increased risk of developing AH, while hypertensive subjects do seem to have an increased risk of TTH. The relationship between AH and TTH is potentially of great pathophysiological and clinical interest, but it is poorly understood [3]. This allows us to hypothesize the presence of the AH and TTH phenotype. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The pathophysiological patterns are significantly different in the setting of chronic This article is an open access article pain, in which the adaptive relationship between blood pressure and pain sensitivity is distributed under the terms and reversed. The connection between acute or chronic pain and cardiovascular changes is conditions of the Creative Commons supported observationally [4], but some of this indirect evidence is confirmed by experi- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// mental animal models and human studies. AH and TTH may share common mechanisms creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ like endothelial dysfunction, deficiency of autonomic cardiovascular regulation, and renin 4.0/). angiotensin system involvement. Molecules 2021, 26, 1556. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061556 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules Molecules 2021, 26, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15 Molecules 2021, 26, 1556 perimental animal models and human studies. AH and TTH may share common mech-2 of 15 anisms like endothelial dysfunction, deficiency of autonomic cardiovascular regulation, and renin angiotensin system involvement. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important autocrine and paracrine signaling molecule that plays Nitrica crucial oxide role (NO) in cardio is an importantvascular physiology autocrine andand paracrine pathology signaling regulation. molecule NO is that an importantplays a crucial molecule role involved in cardiovascular in regulation physiology of cerebral and and pathology extra cerebral regulation. cranial NO blood is an important molecule involved in regulation of cerebral and extra cerebral cranial blood flow and arterial diameters [5]. Reduced bioavailability of NO in the endothelium is an flow and arterial diameters [5]. Reduced bioavailability of NO in the endothelium is an important precursor for impaired vasodilation and AH. Furthermore, NO is involved in important precursor for impaired vasodilation and AH. Furthermore, NO is involved in nociceptive processing. A NO-induced biphasic response with an immediate and a de- nociceptive processing. A NO-induced biphasic response with an immediate and a delayed layed headache is common to chronic TTH in humans [6]. headache is common to chronic TTH in humans [6]. NO-synthases (NOSs) are expressed in three isoforms, including neuronal NOS NO-synthases (NOSs) are expressed in three isoforms, including neuronal NOS (nNOS, (nNOS, NOS1), inducible NOS (iNOS, NOS2), and endothelial NOS (eNOS, NOS3) [7]. NOS1), inducible NOS (iNOS, NOS2), and endothelial NOS (eNOS, NOS3)[7]. All NOS All NOS isoforms can catalyze the conversion of l-arginine to L-citrulline and NO (Figure isoforms can catalyze the conversion of l-arginine to L-citrulline and NO (Figure1). The 1). The active NOSs form a homodimer and convert the amino acid L-arginine to active NOSs form a homodimer and convert the amino acid L-arginine to L-citrulline L-citrulline and NO. The NOS monomer contains a C-terminal reductase domain and a and NO. The NOS monomer contains a C-terminal reductase domain and a N-terminal N-terminal oxygenase domain, which are linked by the calmodulin (CaM) binding re- oxygenase domain, which are linked by the calmodulin (CaM) binding region. The N- gion.terminal The oxidaseN-terminal domain oxidase contains domain the contains heme, tetrahydrobiopterin the heme, tetrahydrobiopterin cofactors (BH4), cofactors and (theBH4 binding), and the site binding for the site substrate for the arginine. substrate The arginine. oxidase The domain oxidase is thedomain active is sitethe ofactive NO site of NO synthesis. Production of NO requires O2 as an electron acceptor. NO diffuses synthesis. Production of NO requires O2 as an electron acceptor. NO diffuses freely across freelythe plasma across membrane. the plasma Therefore, membrane. NO Therefore, can be transported NO can be to transported effector proteins to effector in the proteins adjacent incells the and adjacent exert itscells effects and exert (e.g., endothelialits effects (e.g. NO, endothelial targets soluble NO guanylate targets soluble cyclase guanylate (sGC) in cyclasesmooth (sGC muscle) in tosmooth accomplish muscle vasodilation) to accomplish [8]. vasodilation) [8]. FigureFigure 1. 1. SchemeScheme of of nitric nitric oxide oxide ( (NO)NO) formation formation from from L L-arginine-arginine in in humans. humans. NOS1NOS1 andand NOS3NOS3 areare commonly commonly associated associated with with low low levels levels of of NO NO production production,, which which NOS1 NOS3 mediatemediatess intracellular intracellular signaling signaling processes processes ( (NOS1)) and and vascular homeostasis ( (NOS3)).. In In addition to NO production, eNOS can function in an uncoupled manner and produce ROS addition to NO production, eNOS can function in an uncoupled manner and produce when the available stores of BH4 are removed or oxidized, l-arginine is depleted, or the ROS when the available stores of BH4 are removed or oxidized, l-arginine is depleted, or eNOS inhibitor asymmetric dimethyl-l-arginine is overexpressed [9,10]. nNOS and eNOS the eNOS inhibitor asymmetric dimethyl-l-arginine is overexpressed [9,10]. nNOS and are most commonly found in non-immunological cells (e.g., neurons, muscle, endothelium). eNOS are most commonly found in non-immunological cells (e.g., neurons, muscle, en- As their NO output is relatively low, these isoforms are considered less immunologically dothelium). As their NO output is relatively low, these isoforms are considered less important than their inducible counterpart, iNOS [7]. immunologically important than their inducible counterpart, iNOS [7]. NO and NOSs play an important role in the pathogenesis and treatment of both AH NO and NOSs play an important role in the pathogenesis and treatment of both AH and TTH. In particular, NOSs affect the sensitivity of the brain to stress and changes in and TTH. In particular, NOSs affect the sensitivity of the brain to stress
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