DOCSLIB.ORG

Liability of the Crown

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Liability of the Crown Liability of the Crown: Are Immunities Unnecessary in Québec? By Nicholas Jobidon A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. in Law Faculty of postdoctorate and graduate studies University of Ottawa © Nicholas Jobidon, Ottawa, Canada, 2020 Abstract The Crown has extensive powers and can sometimes cause injuries to those it governs through the use or misuse or these powers. Since there is no legislative scheme in place in Québec to create a specific regime for compensating these injured parties, the Crown is generally subject to the law of the land just like any other subject of the law. The separation of powers in Canada limits the power of the courts to review and evaluate Crown actions. The deference they must exercise in this review ensures that courts do not encroach on the legislative’s will to endow the Crown with its sovereign powers. This deference is relatively well understood in public law when it comes to declaring whether the use of these sovereign powers by the Crown was legal and within its mandate. The same principle of deference also applies to civil lawsuits in compensation. In Québec, the current form this deference takes is that the Crown is immune from normal rules of civil liability when it uses its core policy powers (such as regulatory powers), unless these powers were exercised in bad faith. This judicial scheme, however, appears unnecessary and needlessly complex. The definition of bad faith has been construed by the Supreme Court to include any action that would constitute a gross fault under the Québec civil law regime; in practice, the exercise of policy powers would command deference even if the standard was that of a simple fault. This means that the immunity only protects the Crown from injuries caused by the sort of action that it would not be liable for under the private law regime, making the immunity unnecessary. ii Résumé La Couronne dispose de pouvoirs étendus et peut parfois causer préjudice à ses sujets par l’utilisation à bon ou mauvais escient de ces pouvoirs. Puisqu’il n’y existe pas de régime législatif spécifique au Québec visant la compensation de ces préjudices, la Couronne est généralement assujettie au régime de droit commun comme tout autre sujet de droit. Au Canada, le principe de séparation des pouvoirs impose une limite au pouvoir des cours de justice de réviser les actes de la Couronne. La déférence dont ils doivent faire preuve dans l’exercice de ce pouvoir de révision empêche les tribunaux d’empiéter sur la volonté législative d’octroyer des pouvoirs souverains à la Couronne. Cette déférence est relativement bien comprise en droit public et est utile pour déterminer quand l’utilisation de ces pouvoirs souverains est effectivement légale et à l’intérieur du mandat de la Couronne. Le même principe de déférence est également applicable aux recours de droit civil en compensation contre la Couronne. Au Québec, la déférence prend la forme d’une immunité empêchant l’application des règles usuelles de responsabilité civile à l’encontre des décisions de politique générale (comme par exemple les pouvoirs réglementaires), à moins que ces décisions ne soient empreintes de mauvaise foi. Ce régime juridique semble toutefois superflu et inutilement complexe puisque la définition de mauvaise foi a été interprétée par la Cour Suprême comme incluant toute action qui constituerait une faute lourde en vertu du régime de droit commun québécois de la responsabilité civile; en pratique toutefois, même le standard de faute simple pourrait suffire. Cela signifie que l’immunité protège la Couronne uniquement contre les dommages causés par le type d’actions qui n’engageraient pas sa responsabilité en vertu du régime de droit commun, ce qui rend l’immunité superflue. iii To the friends and family who were part of this journey, With thanks to my mentors and advisors. iv Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Part 1 The Crown, The Courts, and Deference ................................................................ 14 Chapter 1 The Crown as a Special Subject of the Law ............................................................. 14 Section 1 The Ineffable Nature of the Crown ............................................................................................... 15 Section 2 The Legal Status of the Crown ......................................................................................................... 23 Chapter 2 The Rule of Law .............................................................................................................. 27 Section 1 Public Law and the Extraordinary Powers of the Crown .................................................. 28 § 1 Tethered powers: Discretion, Arbitrariness, and the Role of the Judiciary ................................... 29 § 2 Untethered, or Prerogative powers ............................................................................................................. 35 Section 2 Private Law: the Idea of Equality and Ordinary Powers of the Crown ...................... 37 § 1 Dicey’s Idea of Equality in Québec and Canada ....................................................................................... 43 § 2 Public Law, the Idea of Equality, and the Civil Code of Québec .......................................................... 48 § 3 Ordinary Powers – the Crown Acting as a Citizen .................................................................................. 52 Section 3 Distinguishing Between the Application of Private and Public law ............................ 55 Chapter 3 Judicial Deference ......................................................................................................... 59 Section 1 Deference and Justiciability .............................................................................................................. 60 § 1 Qualifying Deference......................................................................................................................................... 61 § 2 Justiciability ......................................................................................................................................................... 65 Section 2 Judicial Review: In matters regarding the legality of its decisions .............................. 67 § 1 When Judicial Review Applies ....................................................................................................................... 67 § 2 Arbitrariness, Competence, and the Control of Public Authority ...................................................... 70 § 3 Public Law Remedies ........................................................................................................................................ 74 Section 3 Crown Liability: In matters regarding the injuries caused by its decisions ............ 76 Part 2 Deference in Extra-Contractual Liability of the Crown .................................... 82 Chapter 1 The Law of the Land: NorMal Rules of Extracontractual Liability ................... 83 Section 1 The Role of Extracontractual Liability ........................................................................................ 83 Section 2 Civil Law Extracontractual Liability ............................................................................................. 86 § 1 Fault ........................................................................................................................................................................ 87 § 2 Injury ...................................................................................................................................................................... 99 Section 3 Common Law Torts............................................................................................................................ 101 § 1 The Tort of Negligence ................................................................................................................................... 102 § 2 The Tort of Abuse of Power and Misfeasance in Public Office.......................................................... 112 Section 4 Significant Points of Comparison Between Common Law and Civil Law .............. 118 Chapter 2 IMMunities as a ForM of Deference in Private Law .......................................... 122 Section 1 History of Solutions in Extracontractual Liability ............................................................. 123 § 1 The King Can Do No Wrong .......................................................................................................................... 124 § 2 Crown Servants and Designated Defendant ........................................................................................... 129 § 3 Immunity for Discretionary Actions .......................................................................................................... 139 § 4 The Policy/Operational Distinction ........................................................................................................... 148 § 5 Core Policy Decisions ...................................................................................................................................... 174 Section 2 Current Solution in Extracontractual Crown Liability: Immunities ......................... 184 § 1 Statutory Immunities.....................................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • RTS Proofs NH
    THE RIGHT TO STRIKE IN THE ELECTRICITY SECTOR IN EU COUNTRIES Peter Fairbrother, David Hall, Steve Davies, Nikolaus Hammer, and Emanuele Lobina THE RIGHT TO STRIKE IN THE ELECTRICITY SECTOR IN EU COUNTRIES Peter Fairbrother***, David Hall*, Steve Davies**, Nikolaus Hammer***, and Emanuele Lobina* A study commissioned by the Enérgeia Foundation May 2002 *** Critical Research on Economic and Social Transformation, Cardiff School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University * Public Services International Research Unit, University of Greenwich ** Public Services International Research Unit, Cardiff University *** Critical Research on Economic and Social Transformation, Cardiff School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University * Public Services International Research Unit, University of Greenwich Professor Peter Fairbrother, Cardiff University School of Social Sciences, Glamorgan Building, King Edward VII Avenue, CARDIFF CF10 3WT, UK Email: [email protected] Website: www.cf.ac.uk/socsi Tel: + 44 (0) 29 20 875155 David Hall, Director, Public Services International Research Unit (PSIRU), School of Computing and Mathematics, University of Greenwich, Park Row, London SE10 9LS, UK Email: [email protected] Website: www.psiru.org Tel: +44 (0)208 331 9933 ISBN: 1-872330-71-1 Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................5 2 INTERNATIONAL AND EU LAW.........................................................................................6 2.1 ILO Convention
    [Show full text]
  • Better Defending and Promoting Trade Union Rights in the Public Sector
    European Trade Union Institute Bd du Roi Albert II, 5 1210 Brussels Belgium Tel.: +32 (0)2 224 04 70 Fax: +32 (0)2 224 05 02 [email protected] www.etui.org ..................................................................................................................................... Better defending and promoting trade union rights in the public sector Part II Country reports — Edited by Wiebke Warneck and Stefan Clauwaert with Marina Monaco, Victorita Militaru and Isabelle Schömann ..................................................................................................................................... Report 108 D-2009-10.574-05 € 20 ISBN 978-2-87452-140-9 ................. 9 782874 521409 Better defending and promoting trade union rights in the public sector Part II Country reports Edited by Wiebke Warneck and Stefan Clauwaert with Marina Monaco Victorita Militaru Isabelle Schömann European Federation of Public Service Unions (EPSU) European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) Brussels, 2009 Brussels, 2009 © Publisher: ETUI aisbl, Brussels All rights reserved Print: ETUI Printshop, Brussels D/2009/10.574/05 ISBN: 978-2-87452-140-9 (print version) ISBN: 978-2-87452-141-6 (pdf) The ETUI is financially supported by the European Community. The European Community is not responsible for any use made of the information contained in this publication. Table of contents Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • MOD Police Committee Independant Members
    Ministry of Defence Police Committee -Independent Members- Code of Conduct Author: Clerk to the MOD Police Committee Date created: February 2014 Frequency/Review Due: Quarterly/Review Mar 2015 Version: 1.1 Current version date: 28 Mar 14 1 CODE OF CONDUCT Scope 1. A member must observe the Police Committee’s Code of Conduct whenever they conduct business on behalf of the Committee or act as a representative of the Committee. Conduct and the Seven Principles of Public Life 2. Attention is drawn to the conduct expected under the Seven Principles of Public Life and in the Civil Service Code. A member is expected to adhere to the principles of these even though they are not formally designated as a Civil Servant. 3. The Seven Principles of Public Life is provided at Annex A and the Civil Service Code is at Annex B Confidentiality of information 4. The Official Secrets Act 1989 will apply to independent members of the MOD Police Committee and will continue to apply after their appointments have ended. Members are asked to sign a declaration under the Official Secrets Act, if they have not already done so. 5. In addition, members will be under a duty to keep confidential and not use, except for the purposes of this agreement, any information from any source, acquired by them in confidence. 6. A basic guide to the Official Secrets Act 1989 including a declaration is provided at Annex C Register of Members’ interests 7. It is a condition of this appointment that members must not be able to profit personally or corporately, or to derive benefit for other employers or the like, from information revealed or deduced during Police Committee business.
    [Show full text]
  • University of Birmingham Employment Relations in the UK Civil Service
    University of Birmingham Employment relations in the UK civil service Hodder, Andrew DOI: 10.1108/PR-09-2013-0160 License: Unspecified Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (Harvard): Hodder, A 2015, 'Employment relations in the UK civil service', Personnel Review, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 930 - 948. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-09-2013-0160 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. The express permission of the copyright holder must be obtained for any use of this material other than for purposes permitted by law. •Users may freely distribute the URL that is used to identify this publication. •Users may download and/or print one copy of the publication from the University of Birmingham research portal for the purpose of private study or non-commercial research. •User may use extracts from the document in line with the concept of ‘fair dealing’ under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (?) •Users may not further distribute the material nor use it for the purposes of commercial gain. Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document. When citing, please reference the published version. Take down policy While the University of Birmingham exercises care and attention in making items available there are rare occasions when an item has been uploaded in error or has been deemed to be commercially or otherwise sensitive.
    [Show full text]
  • TOUR DE TABLE (GRECO 34, 16-19 October/Octobre 2007)
    DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND LEGAL AFFAIRS DIRECTORATE OF MONITORING Strasbourg, 25 March 2007 Greco (2007) 23E English/French Rules and guidelines regarding revolving doors /pantouflage Presentations and summary record TOUR DE TABLE (GRECO 34, 16-19 October/octobre 2007) Règles et lignes directrices en matière de pantouflage/ revolving doors Présentations et compte rendu sommaire Secretariat du GRECO GRECO Secretariat www.coe.int/greco Conseil of l’Europe Council of Europe F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex +33 3 88 41 20 00 Fax +33 3 88 41 39 55 INTRODUCTION At its 34 th Plenary Meeting (Strasbourg, 16-19 October 2007) GRECO held a tour de table on Rules and guidelines regarding revolving doors /pantouflage . The tour de table was structured by presentations by representatives from four countries which have detailed regulations in this field: Serge MAUREL, Service Central de Prévention de la Corruption (France), Inese GAIKA, Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB) (Latvia), Sally PUGH and Lisa HARLOW, Propriety and Ethics Team, Cabinet Office (United Kingdom) and Jane LEY, Office of Government Ethics (United States of America). They presented the plenary with the approach taken in their respective countries with regard to definitions, the positions and situations subject to regulations as well as various good practices for regulating this issue. Subsequently, a number of delegations informed the plenary of specific matters which had been examined in their respective countries and obstacles faced when dealing with recommendations on revolving doors /pantouflage issued by GRECO during its Second Evaluation Round. PRESENTATIONS UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Jane LEY, Office of Government Ethics In addition to the presentation which can be found in Appendix I , Ms Ley provided the following information: History of Revolving Door legislation/regulation In the mid-19 th Century, the United States began enacting conflict of interest laws applicable to the activities and financial interests of individuals who moved in and out of public service.
    [Show full text]
  • Prerogative in Private and Public Employment
    Prerogative in Private and Public Employment Douglas Stanley * It has often been noted that there is a difference between public and private employment. It is my contention that all the differences frequently cited are but manifestations of one essential difference. That difference is that, though there are elements of contract and status in each, in private employment the contractual element predominates, while in public employment status predominates. One appreciates the full significance of this fact when an attempt is made to trace the history of management's right to direct its employees and the development of what is often referred to as management prerogatives. If management does exercise some inherent authority in unchartered areas, that authority can only come from the exercise of some power or contractual right over employees. In the private sector, management exercises contractual rights over employees but in some instances also exercises a power over em- ployees that has no relationship to the contractual arrangement between the employer and his employee. On the other hand, in public employment, the essence of the relationship resides in the exercise of power inherent in the public employer, with the caveat that there may be contractual or legislative limitations on the exercise of this power. Private Employment The modern law of private employment has evolved as a result of the changing human relationships brought on by the development of a class of freemen, as distinct from serfs, and the Industrial Revo- lution.' The modem, legal concept of employment was a result of applying contract doctrine to the older relationship of master and servant.2 This relationship developed out of serfdom and status rather than contract 3 and some aspects of status remained in the • Faculty of Law, University of New Brunswick.
    [Show full text]
  • Incidents of the Crown-Servant Relationship - 427
    Incidents of the Crown- Servant Relationship IVOR L. M. RICHARDSON Christchurch, NZ. Introduction The relation between the Crown and its servants is an employment relation. As we shall see, the public interest in the proper function- ing of the executive government requires certain terms to be implied in the relationship for the benefit of the Crown. Nevertheless, the Crown servant does have some rights with respect to typical inci- dents of an employment relation. It is important for him to know the circumstances in which he may be dismissed from the govern- ment service and the procedures, if any, which must be followed by the Crown in exercising the powers of dismissal. Other aspects of the Crown-servant relationship may be of even greater importance to the civil servant in practice. For instance, what are his legal rights to his salary or to his pension if the government refuses to pay? Can he secure redress if he is transferred against his wishes to another department or ifhe is suspended from the service? Is the government obliged to grant him annual leave? It is the purpose ofthis paper to consider therights ofthe Crown servantwith regardto these matters. Even at the present time there are few statutes which govern the employment of Crown servants_in the United Kingdom. The struc- ture of the civil service in the United Kingdom rests upon regula- tions issued under the prerogative powers of the Crown. On the other hand, in the Commonwealth countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa conditions of service under the Crown are regulated by statute and the rights and duties of the Crown and its servants are mainly questions of statutory construct- ion.
    [Show full text]
  • Law of Crown Privilege in Canada and Elsewhere-Part I
    THE LAW OF CROWN PRIVILEGE IN CANADA AND ELSEWHERE PART 1 * Stephen G. Linstead ** This article examines, with particularreference to Canada, that aspect of the law which permits ministers of the Crown to withhold evidence from the courts. The subject falls under two headings, that of Crown immunity from discovery and Crown privilege proper. Although the doc- trine on Crown immunity was finalized at a fairly early stage in the nine- teenth century, the law of Crown privilege has undergone major fluctua- tions over the last 150 years. Despite these fluctuations, which at one stage resulted in a conflict of views between the House of Lords and the Judicial Committee, Canadian courts have, with some exceptions, tended to follow the current English jurisprudence. A recent judgment of the House of Lords seems likely to reinforce the determination of Canadian courts to place some limits on the exercise of Crown privilege by the executive. After consideration of practice in some other common-law countries and in France, the author suggests a scheme which might satisfy both the need of the executive for administrative secrecy and the need of the litigant to secure evidence vital for his case. I. PROBLEMS AND METHODS OF SECURING EVIDENCE AT COMMON LAW AND EQUITY A. Definition of Terms Of the many problems of administrative law which have occupied judges and lawyers alike throughout the common-law world this century, that of Crown privilege has been among the most controversial. The judge-made law on this subject has now been a matter of dispute for over a hundred years, and the dispute shows no signs of being settled.
    [Show full text]
  • Università Di Bologna DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN
    Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN ISTITUZIONI E MERCATI DIRITTI E TUTELE Ciclo XXVIII Settore Concorsuale di afferenza: 12/D1 – DIRITTO AMMINISTRATIVO Settore Scientifico disciplinare: IUS/10 DIRITTO AMMINISTRATIVO PRINCIPIO DEMOCRATICO E AUTONOMIA DELLA DIRIGENZA AMMINISTRATIVA. PER UN BINOMIO POSSIBILE Presentata da: Dott. Edoardo Nicola Fragale Coordinatore Dottorato Relatore Chiar.mo Prof. Giulio Illuminati Chiar.mo Prof. Luciano Vandelli Chiar.mo Prof. Gianluca Gardini Esame finale anno 2016 Principio democratico e autonomia della dirigenza amministrativa. per un binomio possibile di Edoardo Nicola Fragale “Qui ad Atene noi facciamo così... Noi crediamo che la felicità sia il frutto della libertà, ma la libertà sia solo il frutto del valore”. Pericle - Discorso agli Ateniesi, 431 a.C. “Allora noi daremo agli uomini la tranquilla, umile felicità degli esseri deboli, quali essi sono per natura. Oh noi li indurremo finalmente a non essere orgogliosi giacché tu li innalzasti e quindi insegnasti loro a essere orgogliosi; invece noi dimostreremo che sono deboli, che sono soltanto dei poveri bambini, ma che la loro felicità infantile è la più dolce di tutti” Fëdor Dostoevskij, i Fratellli Karamazov, La leggenda del grande inquisitore INDICE OBBIETTIVI DELLA RICERCA CAPITOLO I LA SEPARAZIONE TRA POLITICA ED AMMINISTRAZIONE:… il dibattito storico dallo Stato liberale all’epoca repubblicana 1. Politica e burocrazia al tempo dello Stato liberale p. 11 2. L’avvento della Costituzione repubblicana p. 32 3. La necessaria discontinuità: verso il superamento del modello accentrato p. 37 4. Prime forme di decentramento nei provvedimenti istitutivi della dirigenza pubblica p. 49 5. Il principio di efficienza nell’organizzazione p.
    [Show full text]
  • Glossario Eipa
    GLOSSARIO EIPA LEGENDA GLOSSARIO EIPA • COLORE NERO = Laddove la traduzione italiana coincide in almeno due lingue Nel caso in cui le traduzioni dalle tre lingue non coincidono, ogni lingua mantiene il proprio colore: • BLU = Lingua inglese • ROSSO = Lingua francese • VERDE = Lingua tedesca Sono stati utilizzati, inoltre, i seguenti simboli e le seguenti abbreviazioni: 1) 2) } Campi semantici diversi 3) / = Sinonimi, dal più generico al più tecnico Corsivo: Termini stranieri mantenuti in italiano Assic. = Assicurazioni Econ. = Economia Inform. = Informatica Previd. Soc. = Previdenza Sociale 1 English French German Italian Abuse of office Abus (m) de pouvoir Amtsmissbrauch (m) Abuso di ufficio Abuso di potere Abuse of public trust Abus (m) de la confiance publique Missbrauch (m) des öffentlichen Abuso di fede pubblica Vertrauens Abuso di fiducia pubblica Accountability Obligation (f) de rendre compte / Rechenschaftspflicht (f)/ 1) Responsabilità "Imputabilité" (f) Zurechenbarkeit (f) / 2) Il dover render conto Verantwortung (f) Accounting officer Comptable ordonnateur (m) Rechenschaftsableger (m) Responsabile della contabilità Active card Carte (f) active aktive Karte (f) Carta attiva Agencification Création (f) d'agences Agenturbildung (f) / Einrichtung (f) Istituzione di agenzie von Agenturen Allocation Affectation (f) Zuweisung (f) Stanziamento / Allocazione / Assegnazione Zuschlag (m) 1) Sussidio Allowance Allocation (f) / Indemnité (f) 2) Indennità 3) Assegno Analytical accounting system Système (m) de comptabilité System (n) analytischer
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of the Federal Public Sector Lawyer: from Polyester to Silk
    THE ROLE OF THE FEDERAL PUBLIC SECTOR LAWYER: FROM POLYESTER TO SILK Deborah MacNair* Government lawyers are bound to adhere to standards of conduct as high as those required by rules of professional conduct of lawyers engaged in private practice. Many of the ethical problems they encounter, however, are peculiar to public service. These include such fundamental issues as, who is the client of government lawyers? Are government lawyers limited in their choice of forensic strategies in ways in which lawyers in private practice are not?1 Introduction The role of public sector lawyers has evolved in the last twenty years. There has been a noticeable coming together of professional practices, customs and beliefs for those who identify themselves professionally as public sector, or “government,” lawyers. The image of the public servant lawyer has changed for various reasons, including how government conducts business and the increased awareness of this practise of law as a career.2 While some knowledge and professional standards are shared among all members of the legal profession, whatever is the nature of their practice, there are some differences. The purpose of this paper is to explore these similarities and differences further in order for members of the legal profession to learn more about the role of the public sector lawyer. Why the change? Some might say that the change is the result of the maturing * Ms. MacNair is a Corporate Counsel with the Department of Justice in Ottawa. 1 G. MacKenzie, Lawyers & Ethics, Professional Responsibility and Discipline (Toronto: Carswell, 1993) at 21-1. 2 “Public sector lawyer” is often synonymous with “government lawyer*’ or “Crown lawyer.” The expression includes lawyers employed by municipal, provincial, territorial and federal governments.
    [Show full text]
  • Employment and Industrial Relations in Europe. Volume I
    Employ 22/11/99 1:41 pm Page 1 Employ Relations B5 1/2/99 5:43 PM Page i Employment and Industrial Relations in Europe Employ Relations B5 1/2/99 5:43 PM Page ii The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions is an autonomous body of the European Union, created to assist the formulation of future policy on social and work-related matters. Further information can be found at the Foundation web site: http://www.eurofound.ie/ Employ Relations B5 1/2/99 5:43 PM Page iii Employment and Industrial Relations in Europe Volume 1 Edited by Michael Gold and Manfred Weiss EUROPEAN FOUNDATION for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Co. Dublin, Ireland. Tel: +353 1 204 3100 Fax: +353 1 282 6456 E-mail: [email protected] Employ Relations B5 1/2/99 5:43 PM Page iv Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998 ISBN 92-828-5386-1 © European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 1998 For rights of translation or reproduction, applications should be made to the Director, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Co. Dublin, Ireland. Printed in Ireland The paper used in this publication is chlorine free and comes from managed forests in Northern Europe. For every tree felled, at least one new tree is planted. Employ Relations B5 1/2/99 5:43 PM Page v Foreword European economic, monetary and social integration have seen substantial progress in the last 15 years.
    [Show full text]