Daniel M. Shafer* Controller Required? The Impact Corey P. Carbonara Baylor University of Natural Mapping on Department of Communication Interactivity, Realism, Presence, Waco, TX 76798 and Enjoyment in Motion-Based Lucy Popova Video Games University of California at San Francisco San Francisco, CA Abstract In three experiments with U.S. undergraduates, effects of three levels of naturally mapped control interfaces were compared on a player’s sense of presence, interactiv- ity, realism, and enjoyment in video games. The three levels of naturally mapped con- trol interfaces were: kinesic natural mapping (using the player’s body as a game con- troller), incomplete tangible mapping (using a controller in a way similar to a real object), and realistic tangible mapping (using a controller or an object that directly relates to the real-life activity the game simulates). The results show that levels of interactivity, realism, spatial presence, and enjoyment were consistent across all conditions. However, when performing activities such as table tennis or lightsaber dueling with objects in-hand (incomplete tangible or realistic tangible conditions), perceived reality was a more important predictor of spatial presence. When perform- ing the same activities with empty hands, interactivity emerged as the more important direct predictor of spatial presence. Control interface, therefore, matters greatly to the route by which cognitive processing of games takes place and how enjoyment is produced. 1 Introduction Over the past four to five years, academic study of controller naturalness and motion-based video games has become increasingly rich. Grounded in and expanding upon traditional entertainment theories, studies in this vein offer increasingly detailed explanations of the processes behind enjoyment of games played with the newest gaming technology. The present study seeks to add to the scholarly conversation on the impact of naturally mapped controllers on players’ perceptions of interactivity, reality, spa- tial presence, and, above all, enjoyment. This study grows from the psychologi- cal theory of play, which Vorderer (2001) first applied to the experience of entertaining media. It also builds upon previous empirical work that utilized early motion control devices (e.g., Wii) investigating the impact of natural con- troller mapping on perceived interactivity, perceived reality, spatial presence, and enjoyment in the context of the latest motion-based control systems, such Presence, Vol. 23, No. 3, Summer 2014, 267–286 doi:10.1162/PRES_a_00193 ª 2014 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology *Correspondence to [email protected]. Shafer et al. 267 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/PRES_a_00193 by guest on 23 September 2021 268 PRESENCE: VOLUME 23, NUMBER 3 as the Move for the PlayStation 3 (PS3) and the Kinect several studies, e.g., Klimmt & Vorderer; Steuer, 1992; add-on for the Xbox 360. Wirth et al.). By extending the arguments of Vorderer’s applica- 2 Theoretical Background and Literature tion of the psychological theory of play, it becomes Review clear that perceptions of realism (i.e., perceived reality) also impact players’ feelings of spatial presence. Playing video games has been shown to be an Busselle and Bilandzic (2008) explain the concepts entertaining and enjoyable activity according to much of internal and external realism. Internal realism is the academic research and documented success of the video idea that the fictional world has a consistent narrative game industry. Part of the success of video games as an structure that is not in violation of its own laws. Exter- entertainment medium can no doubt be attributed to nal realism simply means that the fictional world has a the fact that they create alternate realities for their users degree of similarity to and consistency with the real to explore (Vorderer, 2001; Klimmt & Vorderer, 2003). world; so that when obviously unrealistic elements are Klimmt and Vorderer relate the outcomes experienced introduced, they can be accepted without dislodging by users to the psychological theory of play, which the viewer from the experience. With enough internally explains many of the criteria needed for the production and externally realistic elements, it is not necessary for of enjoyment via video games. the viewer (or, in the case of the present study, the First, play is interactive; the player is in control and has player) to make active judgments about perceived real- power to influence the outcome of the game and the vir- ity(Busselle&Bilandzic). Therefore, if there are tual environment (Grodal, 2000; Klimmt, Hartmann, & enough realistic elements in the game, and interaction Frey, 2007). Furthermore, through action, the player is on the part of players is believable and effective, players impacting an alternate reality. To the extent that the can become immersed more fully into the virtual player feels effective in this activity (i.e., how interactive world, fostering a sense of involvement (see McMahan, the game is perceived to be), the more realistic the alter- 2003). nate reality—or, in the present study’s case, the virtual In addition to arguing that interactive media enhance world—will seem. In addition to the relationship spatial presence and perceptions of realism, Klimmt and between perceived interactivity and perceived reality, Vorderer (2003) suggest that spatial presence impacts Vorderer’s application of the psychological theory of play enjoyment of the mediated experience. The authors note points out another crucial relationship. The more inter- that past theoretical work has argued, and empirical active a player perceives the game, the more likely the studies have demonstrated, that affective reactions such player is to become deeply immersed in the game world as delight, joy, and fascination are ‘‘closely connected to, because he or she wants the experience to continue or even identical with the experience of presence’’ (Klimmt & Vorderer, 2003). This process leads to a (Klimmt & Vorderer, p. 356). Therefore, theory sug- greater sense of presence. Presence, or more specifically gests spatial presence should positively impact enjoy- spatial presence, is the sense of being located within a ment. All of the theoretical arguments offered here have virtual world (Wirth et al., 2007). The player’s sense of been confirmed in several empirical studies (Klimmt self is enveloped by the game world such that it, not the et al., 2007; Shafer, Carbonara, & Popova, 2011; Skal- real world, takes up the primary position in conscious- ski, Tamborini, Shelton, Buncher, & Lindmark, 2011; ness. This process results in the game world becoming Wirth et al., 2007). Other theoretical perspectives that what Wirth and colleagues call the Primary Egocentric lend insight to the processes surrounding experiential Reference Frame (PERF; Wirth et al.). Video games, reactions to video games are the mental models approach because of their interactive nature, are especially effective (Brewer, 1987) and the common coding framework at creating or promoting a sense of spatial presence, de- (Chandrasekharan, Mazalek, Nitsche, Chen, & Ranjan, spite the lack of full-body tactile feedback (as noted in 2010). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/PRES_a_00193 by guest on 23 September 2021 Shafer et al. 269 2.1 Mental Models and Common Coding physiologically to perform the action. Essentially, the mind simulates the observed action. When this happens, The mental models approach provides insight as to overt execution is inhibited until the appropriate time how individuals process and interpret the information for action is apparent (Chandrasekharan et al.). they receive from video games. Mental models or sche- Central to the argument for common coding is the mas are constructed cognitive representations of real or notion that people are considered to be action-based sys- mediated people, objects, events, situations, and so on. tems. Both sensory and cognitive systems occupy a com- When judging the reality of a media message or a video mon coding neural network. This network encodes both game, people compare the object or the experience to a action and perception; either can automatically activate preexisting mental model for the object or experience, the other in an associative priming state where the activa- that is, to their expectations of what this object or expe- tion of one element (e.g., observation) triggers the other rience should be. The closer the match between the two elements (e.g., imagination, action; Chandrase- expectations (mental model) and the object or experi- kharan et al., 2010). The synergy between elements is ence, the greater the perceived reality. disrupted when one is observing a noncongruent action Along similar lines, cognitive psychologists (Chandra- (Chandrasekharan et al.). In terms of video games, diffi- sekharan, Mazalek, Nitsche, Chen, & Ranjan, 2010) culty would arise when on-screen actions do not closely have argued that common coding exists between an match the actions the player is expected to take (e.g., action and a cognitive representation of an action. The pressing a key on a keyboard to turn a steering wheel in a concept of common coding is linked to the ‘‘ideomotor driving game). Therefore, motion-based control sys- principle’’ (James, 1890; Chandrasekharan et al.). The tems, or Natural User Interfaces (NUIs), as argued ideomotor principle is described by James (1890): ‘‘Ev- below, should offer