THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC Volume 1, Number 1, Pages 1-18 ISSN 1087-7142 Copyright © 2002 The International Film Music Society, Inc.
EDITORIAL
Film Music—What’s in a Name?
WILLIAM H. ROSAR
Picture music—a new art form—is coming into its own. George Antheil, Modern Music (1937)
Prolegomena to the encouraged within the academic not realize that. No doubt this is Study of Film Music: community, the study of film to a greater or lesser extent true of Terminology music has become a burgeoning most interdisciplinary fields, espe- multidisciplinary if not trans- cially in their early stages.2 disciplinary endeavor. The reader, if not the writer, is Twenty years ago musicologist Today writers utilize not only thus faced with the prospect of Martin Marks identified the prin- the concepts and technical vocabu- learning something of those con- cipal disciplinary challenge to the laries of music and film making, cepts and vocabularies in order to scholarly study of film music when but variously terms and concepts understand the diverse perspec- he wrote: “Because film communi- from musicology, film theory, tives on film music today, as there cates (at least potentially) through media and communication studies, is no lingua franca. Though there a conjunction of visual and audi- cultural studies, comparative are now explicit references to “film tory signals, research into film literature, literary criticism, criti- music studies,” the study of music music requires an understanding cal theory, philosophy, semiotics, in films remains less a coherent of not one but two non-verbal psychology, cognitive science, soci- field than a rapidly growing com- systems of communication, as well ology, feminist theory, gender munity of writers in various as the problematical jargons with studies, and marketing research— disciplines, with almost as many which we attempt to describe each and that is probably not an interests as there are writers. The of them in speech. In this age of exhaustive list of all the disci- disciplinary plurality and diversity specialized studies, few scholars plines and areas represented. With of interests poses a challenge to have been able to master more the resulting profusion of techni- finding common ground, let alone than half of the subject.”1 Now cal language there is the potential a common domain of discourse. twenty years later, in a time when for a veritable Babel. Like different Exemplifying this state of the value of cross-disciplinary and languages, two disciplines may, for affairs is the fact that the term film interdisciplinary studies has been instance, have different terms for music itself has come to have two recognized and, to some extent the same thing, and writers may definitions that are incommensur- able.3 If writers cannot agree on the meaning of film music as a term we obviously face a fundamental problem in defining the field to 1Martin Marks, “Film Music: The Material, incommensurability, see Dudley Shapere, s.v. Literature and Present State of Research,” Journal “Incommensurability,” Routledge Encyclopedia of which the term applies. Therefore of the University Film and Video Association 34 Philosophy (1998). Originating in the philoso- one of the goals of The Journal of (1982): 4. phy of science, incommensurability has also 2Cf. Claire McInerney, “An Interdisciplinary been seen as relevant to problems in aesthet- Film Music will be to foster a ser- Perspective of Classificatory Structures,” www. ics. See Oscar Kenshur, “The Rhetoric of viceable parlance for the study of scils.rutgers.edu/~clairemc/classify.html. Incommensurability,” The Journal of Aesthetics 3For a discussion of the philosophical notion of and Art Criticism 42 (1984): 375-81. film music. 2 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
Film Music and its and use in the English language, Britain in 1936, it was the stan- Synonyms as well as its relationship to sev- dard text on the subject in English eral synonyms and associated for many years. London, a German As a first step towards this terms. Not surprisingly the history expatriate, wrote the book in goal then, let us examine film music of film music as a term reflects German while living in France, but as a term, taking a lesson from virtually the whole history of film it was translated for publication.10 linguistic philosophy as to the itself. Consulting Steven Wescott’s Prior to that articles he had value of defining terms so as to Comprehensive Bibliography of Music published in German used the avoid the pitfall philosophers call for Film and Television (published in unhyphenated form Filmmusik.11 verbal disputes (also known as 1985) it is interesting to find that In 1941 the first magazine semantic or definitional disputes), in while film music was already in the devoted to film music commenced this instance, confusion and argu- English language by 1940 it does publication in America under the ments arising out using different not appear in the titles of American title Film Music Notes.12 No doubt meanings of the same word. As publications much before that.6 providing as it did a unique and the philosopher Garth Kemerling It seems likely that film music enduring forum in which to pub- notes, “Needless controversy is is an English cognate modeled on lish serious writing on the subject, sometimes produced and perpet- the German Film-Musik or it served at the same time to re- uated by an unacknowledged Filmmusik.7 Though the German inforce the use of the term film ambiguity in the application of key term was in use before 1920, the music by scholarly writers rather terms.” 4 A verbal dispute can be corresponding term in American than its synonyms. prevented or eliminated by agree- usage from the same period was ing on the definition of a term. moving picture or motion picture mu- One way of reaching agreement is sic, or, more commonly just picture Film Music as a Musical to start with a lexical definition that music, with movie music, cinema mu- Style or Technique simply reports how a term is al- sic and screen music being later ready used and accepted, rather synonyms.8 Film music as such may The music or musical practice than how it could or should be have entered the English language that was known during the silent used. (Such definitions are thus by way of Britain, initially in hy- era (roughly 1895-1928) as film also often called customary or phenated form as film-music.9 The music was the live music per- reportive definitions.)5 title of Kurt London’s influential formed to accompany theatrical Though lexicological research monograph Film Music: A Summary silent films. Though there was has apparently not been done on of the Characteristic features of its much interest in having original the combination of the words film History, Aesthetics, Technique; and music specially composed for si- and music resulting in the attribu- Possible Developments may have lent films, due to time constraints tive noun film music, it is nonethe- been partly responsible for the relatively little music was actually 13 less possible to discern from the unhyphenated film music coming written for individual films. In- literature something of its origins into English usage. Published in stead, silent films were mainly
4Garth Kemerling, “Definition and Meaning,” synonymously: motion picture music, screen ed., Behind the Screen (London, Barker, 1938), Philosophy Pages.
accompanied by existing music characteristics possessed by a compilation. There arose a borrowed from other musical thing, one is unique and hierarchi- new style, which absorbed all genres along with a large repertory cally superior in that it states (a) the earlier individuality of of music specially composed for the most important characteristic the single pieces in favour of use in silent films, so-called of the thing, and/or (b) that char- a new collective character. “Kinothek” music.14 With the ad- acteristic upon which the others This went so far that even vent of sound films the use of depend for their existence.”17 The the rhythm, tempo, key, existing music, whether from essence of film music came to be form, instrumentation, and other genres or Kinothek, rapidly thought of as a compositional actually the melody of a declined, and original music be- technique, or style in the broadest piece of music had to be came the order of the day.15 At the sense, rather than the use to remodelled.18 same time “score” soon replaced which it was put in films, its func- the term “accompaniment.” tion. Strange as it may seem, An abundance of anecdotal As a consequence there was a already in the silent days some- evidence exists to suggest that this narrowing in the meaning of film thing in the nature of a musical sense of a film music style or music/picture music and it came style began to emerge out of the “collective character” that London to connote scores composed for practice of so-called musical “illus- observed in the 1930s endured for films—film scores or movie scores— tration,” in spite of the fact that most of the twentieth century and as mainly composed by specialists most of the music used to accom- continues to the present day. One called film composers (or movie com- pany silent films was existing humorous aside will serve to posers), such as the six men music. As London observed: illustrate this. Hollywood film commemorated in 1999 by the composer Hugo Friedhofer in con- U.S. Postal Service with its Holly- The compiler had to weld fessing his great liking for the first wood Composers stamp series: together his material on the two movements of Hindemith’s Max Steiner, Dimitri Tiomkin, basis of the film, and bring Mathis der Maler symphony (1934) Bernard Herrmann, Franz order into chaos. In this commented that the last move- Waxman, Alfred Newman, and sense, he could to a certain ment sounded “a little too much Erich Wolfgang Korngold.16 The degree be rated equally with like movie battle music.”19 Despite resulting circumscribed definition an original composer. Even all its stylistic variability through- of film music was what philoso- pieces which were character- out the decades—whether the phers call an essential definition (or istic in themselves could often cited “late Romantic” style essence or real definition). In an have their nature trans- or passing trends in musical fash- essential definition, “among the formed in the melting-pot of ion—there was and remains a film
Music,” The Moving Picture World 6 (April 30, Rosar, “Music for the Monsters: Universal recording, Hollywood, CA, July 8, 1975. Iron- 1910): 676; for a later one made at the dawn of Pictures’ Horror Film Scores of the Thirties,” The ically Mathis der Maler was an influence on sound films, see “Movie Music,” National Board of Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress 40 Friedhofer and some of his colleagues. Oscar Review Magazine 3 (May 6, 1928): 3. (1983): 391-421. Levant recalled, “There was a communal approach 14“Kinothek” is a contraction of 16As Levant observed in 1940, “There are now to ... keeping abreast of developments elsewhere “Kinobibliothek,” translated as “cinema library.” few pictures of any kind that do not utilize music in the musical world. The boys obtained every For a discussion of Kinothek music, see London, to some degree, and in a considerable majority of important new score as soon as it was available, Film Music, 50-61. them the score is credited to a musician of with the result that Hindemith’s ‘Mathis der 15Cf. ibid., 136: “Such sound-film compositions specialized, if not general reputation. Offhand, in Maler’ was known in Hollywood before it was are invariably original music: when the mechani- the last year, I have seen films from Hollywood played in Carnegie Hall. They frequently had cal interlude between silent and sound-films had with scores attributed to Richard Hageman, meetings at each other’s houses, where they once come to an end, the use of existing music Louis Gruenberg, Ernst Toch, Kurt Weill, W. would play records, break down instrumentation was finally abandoned, and although at first this Franke Harling, George Antheil, Erich Korngold of certain passages, discuss the technique of the mainly meant the song hit and its variations, and Werner Janssen, all composers of general writing and make notes on the effects that were composers did at last begin to exercise an in- reputation; as well as by such specialists as introduced in the scores. The effect of this was creased influence.” This generalization is not Steiner, Newman, Stothart, Franz Waxman, not invisible in their own scores.” Levant, ibid., quite accurate, as a good deal of existing music Edward Ward, Hugo Friedhofer and Edward 122. Hindemith completed Mathis February 27, continued to be used in scoring films for the first Powell, to mention only the more familiar 1934 and it premiered March 12, 1934 under the several years after the coming of sound. For names.” Oscar Levant, A Smattering of Ignorance baton of Wilhelm Furtwängler conducting the example, of the dozen horror films produced (Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing, 1942), Berlin Philharmonic. Hindemith himself then under Carl Laemmle by Universal Pictures 108. recorded it for Telefunken April 9, 1934, with the between 1930-36, two used only existing music 17Angeles, ibid., 57. Berlin Philharmonic. Some time between the and six made use of existing music in addition to 18London, Film Music, 53-4. release of the recording and the American original music composed for them. William H. 19Hugo Friedhofer, interview by the author, tape premiere of the work with the New York Phil- 4 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
music sound, elusive though it may composition, i.e., music specially film term. It was in the music be to define. 20 In the 1980s musi- composed for a given film. Thus world, or its domain of discourse, cologist Fred Steiner, himself a Clifford McCarty stipulated the that the term film music was film and TV composer, observed meaning of film score for his book intended to designate and distin- the “tendency of film music to Film Composers in America: A Filmog- guish it from music composed for sound like itself.” In Steiner’s raphy 1911-1970 (2000): “The film other genres, such as chamber view changes in film music style score...is the original or adapted music, incidental music for the are somehow superficial, resulting background score, composed theater, ballet music, opera, in “new wine in old bottles.” 21 expressly for a particular film.” 25 operetta, and church music. Pre- Like the proverbial blind men From a musical standpoint, the sumably the term was primarily seeking to describe an elephant by common denominator is that film used to distinguish film music touch, different writers have music is inspired by films, much as relative to the concert hall and sought to express this peculiarity incidental music for the theater theater, as it is from that milieu or particularity of film music in could be said to be inspired by the from which film music practitio- various ways. Most frequently film plays for which it is written, or ners originally came—orchestra music has been seen as a musical tone poems by poetry, or opera by conductors, organists, pianists, technique or technique of compo- libretti, or songs by lyrics. Film composers, and arrangers alike. sition, more than a style as composers themselves have fre- With the advent of sound films London suggested.22 Some have quently described their work as a virtually all the movie studios claimed it is a unique art form. sort of musical “reaction” or “re- established music departments Film critic Gerald Pratley declared sponse” to the films they score. So that employed staffs of composers that “Film music should be recog- it is perhaps the intimate relation- 365 days a year. Just as these de- nized by the musical world as a ship between film scores and the partments were not called film new form of composition, equal in films for which they are composed music departments, the terms rank to the older-established that is somehow responsible for used in the film world by the film schools . . ..”23 Within little over a film music embodying a distinct industry were not film music but decade after the coming of sound, quality as a musical idiom, what background music, or later, under- English composer laureate can perhaps only be characterized scoring, both terms reflecting how Vaughan Williams was saying that as a cinematic quality. music was initially regarded as “film music is capable of becom- being subordinate to dialog and ing, and to a certain extent already sound effects.26 The resulting work is, a fine art, but it is applied art, Music Terms and Film was called a musical score in the and a specialized art at that.” 24 Terms film world, corresponding to the Others have stressed originality as terms film score and movie score in a factor, though not in a stylistic From the outset “film music” the music world. sense, but in terms of “special” was a musical term rather than a In film industry terminology
harmonic October 4, 1934, under Otto records to supply him with “everything interest- and John Huntley, The Technique of Film Music Klemperer, the Hindemith recording was pur- ing,” and didn’t know about Mathis until he got (New York: Hastings House, 1957). chased by Edward B. Powell, a member of the it from the dealer. Edward B. Powell, conversa- 23Pratley as quoted in Manvell & Huntley, ibid., 281. coterie Levant referred to as “the boys.” In fact, tion with author, Woodland Hills, CA, January 24Ralph Vaughan Williams, quoted in Manvell & Levant himself was a member of the group, 29, 1977. It was some ten years after the premier Huntley, ibid., 197. which as well as Friedhofer also included of Mathis that Friedhofer overtly imitated Hinde- 25Clifford McCarty, Film Composers in America: A Herbert Spencer, Conrad Salinger, and David mith: “The first sort of partially Hindemithian Filmography 1911-1970 (New York: Oxford Raksin—all men who at the time were working score that I did was The Lodger [Fox, 1944]. The University Press, 2000), 4. mainly as orchestrators and/or uncredited staff main title tune in that is almost straight Hinde- 26For a discussion of the inadequacy of the term composers. “All were keenly avid for learning as mith.” Friedhofer, interview, ibid. “background music,” see Manvell & Huntley, much as we could about whatever contemporary 20For a discussion of film music as a Stilbegriff ibid., 72. They suggest instead the term “func- music was available on records and mini-scores, (style concept), see Helga de la Motte-Haber and tional music.” Similarly Kracauer analyzed film and please to remember that this was about 15 Hans Emons, Filmmusik: Eine systematsiche music from the standpoint of “physiological or 16 years before the advent of the LP.” Hugo Beschreibung (Munich: Karl Hanser Verlag, 1980), functions” and “aesthetic functions.” Siegfried Friedhofer, letter to author, August 25, 1975. 107-13. Kracauer, Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Powell had a standing order with a record dealer 21Fred Steiner, Personal communication, n.d. Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, in Los Angeles who specialized in imported 22Consider the title of the book by Roger Manvell 1960), 133-56. EDITORIAL 5 there is often a difference between case Roemheld did not receive edited from already recorded film technical terms and technical credits. screen credit for musical score but music by movie studio personnel Whereas a technical credit is typi- as “Musical Director,” unlike other (typically music editors), usually cally given in film publicity and in Universal films at the time, where due to budgetary constraints.29 To screen credits, the technical terms screen credit for musical score was complicate matters, sometimes in are mainly just the “shop talk” given.27 In the heyday of the movie talking about film music, industry used in the movie business. Such studio system the term “music people have added the word “film” is the case with the industry terms director” in screen credits some- to “score” in this usage, just to “score” and “scoring” used both as times signaled that the score was make it clear they are speaking of nouns and verbs. The terms score composed by more than one com- music in films. Today this practice and scoring are not synonymous poser, or in other instances that is most prevalent in film trailers with musical score which is a the score did not consist of origi- that more often than not are technical credit. Unlike the nar- nal music written for the film. As scored with existing music. rowed meaning of “film music” in McCarty noted with the case of So odd as it may seem then the music world that more-or-less musicals, “A [film] composer from a compositional standpoint, coincided with the coming of usually receives credit for ‘musical where a “score” is something com- sound films, “score” and “scoring” direction,’ a term described by posed by a composer, scores for never narrowed in the film world Adolph Deutsch as including ‘all films were—and are—not neces- so as to become coextensive in such musical functions as adapt- sarily composed, but edited or meaning with film music defined ing, arranging, conducting, compiled, even by non-musicians. as original composition in the composing background music, and What still remains one of the most music world. That is because even general responsibility for the entire popular and striking examples of after the end of the silent era musical content of the picture scoring a film with existing music music from both other genres and with the exception of composing is Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space existing music composed for films the songs.’ However, the term Odyssey (1968) which was scored has to some extent always been ‘musical direction’ does not mean with music from phonograph used (or reused) to score films. the same at all studios. Its appear- records of “classical” music. In a Heinz Roemheld’s skillful score ance on the screen as the sole very real sense, Kubrick the cinema for Universal’s The Black Cat music credit does not imply that auteur par excellence, scored the (1934) is an early example that the musical director also com- film himself, as it was he who illustrates this practice well be- posed the score, though this often selected, spotted, and edited the cause it combines both the use of is the case, just as credit for the music. “classical” music Roemheld score does not necessarily mean Two decades ago the term adapted to fit the film (reminis- that the composer conducted his “song score” was coined for scores cent of silent film accompaniment) own music, though this is not that use recordings of popular with music he wrote based on uncommon.”28 songs as scoring. The term “song classical themes and completely It is also the case that from the score,” though, is not a technical original music he had composed beginning of sound films, a signifi- credit, and so does not appear in previously. Significantly in this cant number of scores have been screen credits. Rather, each song is credited individually in the end credits of films by its title, writers, recording artists, recording label, and music publishers. Typically the 27For example in the case of Universal’s White gether out of scraps of sound-track. It takes a Hell of Pitz Palu (1930) Roemheld’s screen credit real composer, however, to fulfill those func- person responsible for compiling read “Original Musical Score Composed by Heinz tions with good music.” Lawrence Morton, the “song score” receives a screen Roemheld.” “Confession,” Frontier (May 1955), p. 21. 28Clifford McCarty, Film Composers in America: A Morton, a noted music critic in Los Angeles, credit as “Music Supervisor,” a Checklist of Their Work (Los Angeles: Clifford was the brother of Hollywood composer- technical credit that formerly had McCarty, 1953), xvii-xviii. orchestrator Arthur Morton. Lawrence Morton 29See Rosar, ibid., 398. Cf. Lawrence Morton, himself occasionally worked as an orchestrator an entirely different meaning. “From time to time it has seemed possible that in Hollywood, mainly for Walter Schuman. To (Music Supervisors were usually a film music might lift itself even beyond respect- this day some still regard him as the best critic ability to the status of an honorable category of film music ever had, though he ultimately music department head at a movie the art of music. [L]et us observe that the became disenchanted with film music as this studio or television production functions of film music are well understood, excerpt from one of his late writings on the even by the film cutters who piece scores to- subject reveals. company. For example, for many 6 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
years Lionel Newman was music “Source music” has not been used use in accompanying the film.31 supervisor of 20th Century-Fox as a technical credit.30 In the music The term “accompaniment” was Television). “Score” and “scoring” world, songs written for films thus something of a misnomer, as technical terms therefore actu- were not designated as film music because the music was not merely ally subsume film music as a but were called film songs, movie a concomitant to the picture, but musical genre (i.e., original back- songs, cinema songs, etc. In the film part of the integral whole that was ground music or underscoring or world they were called theme the silent cinema. To therefore musical scores) but are not limited songs—or just songs—a musical speak of a film medium in the silent to that. form apart from the specialized era does not do justice to the fact The apparent paradox that genre (or technique) of composi- that the silent cinema was in real- score and scoring are more com- tion known as film music in the ity a multimedia form, whether it be prehensive terms than film music, music world, or, background film with live music or accompa- illogical as that may seem, is be- music and underscoring in the nied by phonograph recordings. cause film music is not a film film world. This distinction was This multimedia union of cinema- industry term whereas score and quite evident soon after the arrival tography and musical practice scoring are. This paradox can how- of sound because the movie stu- became literally (and physically) ever be quickly disposed of when dios gave separate screen credits bonded together with the advent the terms are viewed in part-whole for songs and musical scores in of optical “sound-on-film” record- relationships: In musical termi- the same film. ing, and in the process became the nology, film music as a musical From a historical perspective it medium of sound film we have genre—a sort of repertoire—is the is obvious why after the advent of known ever since. Even with that whole of which a film score is a sound the term film music was technological development, the part, whereas in film terminology, reserved for instrumental music silent tradition persisted through the whole of which a score or scor- composed for films, inasmuch as the transition to sound because ing is a part is the individual film theatrical silent films were almost some of the first “sound” films in which it is heard. invariably accompanied by instru- were little more than silent films mental music, not vocal music. with recorded music, having no Even in the silent days the movie recorded dialog, but instead, full- Musical Scores vs. companies themselves came to length recorded accompaniments “Source” Music regard the instrumental music that (scores), as for example, Warner accompanied films as being more Bros.’ Don Juan (1926).32 The so- In distinction to musical score than just a facet of film exhibition, called “part-talkies” such as the term source music was coined by but rather as an indispensable part Warner’s The Jazz Singer (1927) the film industry to designate mu- of cinema itself, as evidenced by also preserved and perpetuated the sic where the “source” of the the lists of “musical suggestions” silent tradition to the extent that music was seen or implied in the or “cue sheets” they issued to the “silent” portions of them film, whether a vocalist, instru- movie theaters when a film was (where there was no recorded mentalist, ensemble, or radio. released which specified pieces to “dialog”) were accompanied by
30By 1932 movie studio music departments had 32The score for Don Juan was by William Axt and versal’s General Music Director (music depart- instituted a classification scheme for cue sheets David Mendoza. The term synchronization is ment head) David Broekman conducted which indicated the manner in which each cue another term in need of lexicological study, Roemheld’s score for The White Hell of Pitz Palu (piece of music) in a film was used. Each cue because before it was used to refer specifically to but rather than receiving screen credit for con- was given a number, following which was the the matching of sound with picture (especially ducting, he is credited with “Synchronization.” title of the piece, its composer(s) and lyricist(s), dialog), it referred to the pairing of music with For other nuances of this term, cf. Roemheld: the name of the publisher or owner of the music picture in the silent days. For example, see “[T]he scene is the Kentucky Derby. The furious rights, and then abbreviations, either “inst” for Stephen W. Bush, “Possibilities of Musical tempo of the orchestra’s gallop considerably instrumental music, or “vocal” for music featur- Synchronization,” The Moving Picture World, enhances the apparent speed of the horses and ing a vocal, “bkgr” for background and “vis” for September 2, 1911, 608. After sound came, the suspense on the last lap. If ... this music is visual, meaning that it was source music. studio music departments continued to use the synchronized [italics added] on the film, its 31See Gillian Anderson, Music for Silent Films: A term synchronization to refer to the process of source, quite naturally, seems to be the ... race- Guide (Washington DC: Library of Congress, fitting music to picture but mainly with regard to track. It is questionable if this type of synchronization 1988). recording music to picture. For example, Uni- [italics added] is truly satisfactory, yet if done EDITORIAL 7 continuous recorded music.33 With The terms background music and and scoring being different rather dialog, the notion of musical ac- underscoring have since largely than being two “types” of scoring companiment took on another fallen into disuse with musical score as he had intended to show.37 He significance, because in accompa- remaining in use in the film indus- further introduces the paradoxical- nying the spoken word in sound try, corresponding to the terms sounding term source scoring as an films, instrumental music qua movie score or film score long used in additional term to those of scoring background music was considered the music world. Often the three and source music. “Source scor- analogous to instrumental accom- terms are just abbreviated as ing,” Hagen explains, “is one of paniment in vocal music. “score,” which leads to some am- the most valuable techniques in Hollywood film composer Herbert biguity, because the term “score” the picture business. This kind of Stothart was one who professed in the music world has the conno- music is like source in its content, that idea, “I play for a picture, as a tation of original music, whereas but tailored to meet scoring re- good accompanist plays for a in film industry parlance it quirements. The trick is to make voice.”34 John Williams expressed doesn’t, as discussed above. it...a combination of source and a similar view to Stothart’s in say- Rather unfortunately, film scoring.” Though Hagen says that ing, “I think a composer should composers themselves and other this is a type of scoring, he once think of the dialogue as part of the film industry people have taken again distinguishes source music score; he could write it as accom- certain liberties with this termi- from scoring in defining source paniment for a violin concerto nology to describe the varied and scoring as a technique. He gives as rather than compose a score to sometimes subtle ways in which an example of source scoring the exist on its own.”35 scores and source music may be use of popular songs in films, for From the inception of sound interrelated in films. For example instance songs sung in main titles films, source music in general and in his textbook Scoring for Films, that are then used instrumentally songs specifically were regarded veteran film and TV composer throughout the rest of the film. more as the contents of some films Earle Hagen considers source But usually such songs in main (especially musicals), than as be- music to be one of “three basic titles have no source, even an im- ing virtually a component of types of scoring.” But in seeking to plied one, so by definition they do cinema itself, as musical accompa- explain how source music can be not constitute source music. If niment had become during the used effectively, and how it can be source scoring is a “combination” silent era. In a critique of early related to and integrated with the of source music and scoring, then musicals and the use of songs in other types of scoring, Hagen gets it is not just a “type of scoring” as them, Heinz Roemheld alluded to into something of a verbal muddle. Hagen claims, and the term this distinction when he wrote in He writes, “[Source music] suc- amounts to an oxymoron, if an 1930, “Music is inseparably affili- ceeds in many instances where unintentional one. Obviously ated with motion pictures, but scoring fails,” and where he talks source music cannot both be a differently; its purpose one of the of using “transition[s] from source “type of scoring” and at the same mysterious secrets of showman- to scoring and vice versa” clearly time be something different from ship—important, but subtle.”36 he is talking about source music scoring. Ordinary Language philosophy has often enough demonstrated how merely misusing or altering the meaning of commonly under- stood words can create needless discreetly—that is, scarcely and softly—it can be 34W. E. Oliver, “Stothart Provides Score,” Los effective and practical.” Heinz Roemheld, Angeles Herald and Express, July 19, 1942. puzzles and even nonsense. It “Music and Motion Pictures,” The Film Spectator Stothart, who had come to Hollywood from the would seem that the main cause of 10 (November 22, 1930), 87. world of operetta and musical comedy, first 33What original music there was in The Jazz worked at MGM as a song writer before embark- the verbal muddle in Hagen’s text- Singer was composed by Louis Silvers. In 1930- ing on a career as a film composer. book is his inconsistent use of the 31, prior to the advent of dubbing, so-called 35John Williams in Irwin Bazelon, Knowing the “non-dialog” versions were prepared by the Score: Notes on Film Music (New York: Van word “scoring,” first, in a general Hollywood movie studios for the foreign market. Nostrand Reinhold, 1975), 200. way, to mean more or less the Instead of recorded dialog, these versions had 36Heinz Roemheld, “Musicals,” Hollywood dialog inter-titles (as in silent films) in the Filmograph (November 8, 1930), 21. selection or composition and appropriate language, and were accompanied 37Earle Hagen, Scoring for Films (N.p.: E.D.J. placement of any and all music in with full-length recorded scores. See Rosar, Music, 1971), 192. ibid., 393. a film, and second, to specifically 8 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
mean underscoring as a technique terms (or coining of them, if he case of researching and finding and style of composing, i.e., under- coined the term “source scoring”), historically authentic “period” scoring. By using the same term to and says nothing about the aes- music or ethnic music to use as mean two different things, in this thetic significance of what he calls source music.39 case, one more specific than the source scoring nor whether in Like Hagen, Irene Kahn Atkins other, Hagen actually hampers practice it is effective dramatically writes in her groundbreaking understanding of the techniques as he claims. This has all the mak- monograph Source Music in Motion he endeavors to describe. He ings of a verbal dispute due to Pictures (1983) that “Source music further complicates matters by Hagen’s inconsistent and neo- is a type [italics added] of motion equating source music with popu- logistic use of terms that leads to picture music that has been heard lar music: “Source music is usually self-contradiction, as we have in countless films,” and that “The popular in style. In the earlier days seen. The examples from Hagen’s categories of background scoring of the motion picture business, book could readily provide the and source music are logical ones elaborate devices were used to basis for an aesthetic argument into which all film music can be qualify source music. A scene over what scoring “really is” as divided.”40 While the distinction would start on a close up of a opposed to what source music between background scoring and record spinning and pull back and “really is”—the very things that source music was long established pan to two people sitting on a sofa Hagen was at pains to differen- in film industry terminology by playing a love scene. This was the tiate, were he not hindered by his the time Atkins wrote her book, directors [sic] way of saying that idiosyncratic use of terminology. her formulation leads to the same he wanted this scene played in a For example, in explaining how sort of perplexing situation seen in popular style. What he was really film composers sometimes also Hagen’s “types of scoring,” be- doing was qualifying the source of compose source music one might cause there is no precedent, let the music.”38 conclude from Hagen that film alone an established one, in the By implication, rightly or composing is not limited to under- use of either the term film music wrongly, it follows that scoring scoring. While this is certainly or motion picture music, respec- (underscoring) is (or was) gener- true in a literal sense, when func- tively, for source music to be ally not in the style of popular tioning in this capacity the film regarded as film scoring.41 music, at least in Hagen’s view. composer is really serving as a For that matter source music Hagen also speaks of music being musical director on the film, be- had never been previously consid- “source-like,” by which he seems cause just as often the composer ered a “type” of film music at all, to mean two things: (1) that the merely selects or adapts existing because film music as a term in music is in the style of popular music to function as source music the music world was not thought music, and (2) that ordinarily one rather than composing it. Even to consist of different “types” as would hear music of that style more commonly source music is Atkins posits (background and only as source music. The term selected and sometimes even source). Atkins, who was the “source-like” conflates musical adapted by someone else before daughter of songwriter Gus Kahn, style with how music is used in the composer is hired to score the had been a film and music editor films, even though Hagen may film. Historically, in the studio for motion pictures and TV prior have accurately described actual system music department librar- to her work as a film historian. practice. These considerations ians and/or arrangers were Given that experience and the therefore only pertain to Hagen’s typically entrusted with this func- extensive annotated bibliography conceptual analysis and use of tion, especially librarians in the of the literature she provides in her book, it is puzzling as to why she chose to depart from accepted usage and use “motion picture music” or “film music” as a ge- 38Hagen, ibid., 190. University Presses, 1983), 13-4. neric label for music in films 39Cf. MGM music librarian George Schneider 41Admittedly there is something of a historical [Monachus Minor, pseud.], “Music Library in the irony here when one recalls that the “source” of rather than as terms for a special Film Studios,” Music Publishers Journal 4, no. 1 music in silent films was almost invariably form (or technique) of musical (1946): 35, 67-8. visible, whether it be an orchestra in the pit, an 40Irene Kahn Atkins, Source Music in Motion organ, a piano, or even a phonograph. composition as it had by then long Pictures. (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated been understood. One can only EDITORIAL 9 surmise that perhaps—some- this conclusion in the several film music would be rather like how—Atkins was unaware of the decades since the film’s release, denying that Tchaikovsky’s 1812 long accepted circumscribed usage mistakenly thinking that it was Overture and Marche Slav are these terms had as musical terms just another movie “theme song” concert works because, Tchaikovsky and assumed instead that “motion as were commonplace in those like Steiner, quotes “La Marseil- picture music” or “film music” days. In any case, by Atkins’ defi- laise” in them. The on screen were labels for music in films as a nition, Wilson’s singing of “As singing of “La Marseillaise” as category. Time Goes By” in the film consti- source music in Casablanca is a Adopting Hagen’s paradoxical tutes film music simply because it performance of the song, whereas terminology, Atkins cites Max is heard as source music. Steiner’s and Tchaikovsky’s use of Steiner’s use of Herman But “As Time Goes By” is not it is a quotation in a new work, Hupfield’s song “As Time Goes the only piece of source music in namely, a film score.44 By” in his score for Casablanca Casablanca whose theme Steiner Even the “more precise” defi- (1943) as being a “famous ex- incorporates in his score. Atkins nition (or redefinition) of source ample” of “source scoring,” but in doesn’t mention the highly dra- music offered by Atkins to distin- so doing changes Hagen’s defini- matic use of “La Marseillaise,” guish it from scoring seems tion of it. She writes that “A sung proudly and defiantly by the inadequate to explain its myriad subtype of background scoring French patriots in Rick’s Café to dramatic functions (let alone its that is closely allied to source mu- drown out the German military musical nature): “[M]usic that, sic is source scoring. Source singing “Die Wacht am Rhein.” whether emanating from a source scoring is music, often a song, that Steiner’s score actually ends with visible on the screen (such as a is heard first as source music and a triumphant statement of “La musical instrument or ensemble, a subsequently as background mu- Marseillaise.” Would it make vocalist, a radio, a record player, or sic, usually reorchestrated in sense though, following Atkins’ a television receiver) or not, as- greatly expanded form.”42 Hagen, definition, to call the French sumed to be audible to the however, did not say that source national anthem and the old patri- characters in the film.” But how scoring involves music first heard otic German ballad “film music” often do the characters in films as source music, nor that it was a just because they are source music appear to be listening to the “subtype of background scoring,” in the film? Surely even most lay source music? As with everything but was instead a “type of scor- people would not likely construe in a film, source music is mainly ing.” Thus the use of “As Time these familiar songs as being film intended for the audience’s ears.45 Goes By” in Casablanca does not music, though they might mistak- It should not be necessary to rede- exemplify what Hagen meant by enly assume “As Time Goes By” to fine “source” music, since it source scoring. be a “theme song” written for already has a definition. Though composed for a mu- Casablanca if they didn’t recognize More than not, source music is sical show produced in 1931, “As it. Conversely, probably no one just “there,” like musical scores Time Goes By” is sung in the film would deny that Steiner’s end title are just “there” in films, the main by Dooley Wilson, who ostensibly is film music, even though he difference in its presence being accompanies himself at the piano.43 quotes “La Marseillaise,” as do that the visual “source” of the Because of the strong sentimental countless other film scores of the music is shown or implied. Source significance of this song for the period and later. To deny that music, like underscoring, usually two central characters in the story Steiner’s use of it in his score is serves some purpose other than (Rick and Ilsa), Steiner utilized it as a theme in his score, what Atkins offers as an example of “source scoring.” Unless recog- nized from having heard it 42Atkins, ibid., 14. Howard, “On Musical Quotation,” The Monist 58 elsewhere one might assume 43Atkins, ibid. As Dooley could not play the (1974): 309. 45 wrongly that the song had been piano his keyboard performance was dubbed by Atkins, ibid., 13. McCarty defines film scores as pianist Elliot Carpenter. See Rudy Behlmer, the converse of how Atkins defines source written for the film, especially “Liner Notes,” Casablanca. Los Angeles: Rhino music, i.e., as “the only element of a film’s since it is also in Steiner’s score. Entertainment, Compact disc. R2 72911, 1997. soundtrack that cannot be heard by the film’s 44For a discussion of Tchaikovsky’s use of “La characters but only by the audience.” McCarty, Undoubtedly many have drawn Marseillaise” in the 1812 Overture, cf. V. A. Film Composers in America: A Filmography, ibid., 3. 10 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
being heard by the characters, ingly, composed some of the 1960s,” but then explains that “It often functioning more-or-less like source music himself). As Ross was with the advent of pop music a musical prop helping to establish Care notes in his analysis of the as a replacement for film music [ital- a location (thus its other name music in Rear Window, “[W]hen ics added] in The Graduate (1967) “realistic music”). sound design is combined with an and Easy Rider (1969) that the film The most discerning film innovative use of music, when music paradigm [italics added] that music critics have long been cogni- music is sometimes actually used had been weathered but had per- zant of this typical role played by as sound, the two components can sisted since the 1930s was source music on film sound tracks. fuse into one of the most potent broken.”48 On the face of it For example in his review of Hugo and evocatively atmospheric Donnelly’s meaning is clear Friedhofer’s score for Edge of Doom elements in either medium.”47 enough, but if his words are taken (1950), a shadowy urban melo- Indeed, composers and film mak- literally, they involve a reductio ad drama about a young man who ers alike (as in the case of Rear absurdum because pop music can- kills a priest, William Hamilton Window) have not infrequently not both at the same ‘replace film also observed, “[T]here is a variety used source music to create a music’ and be a ‘model of film of natural sounds in the scenes mood or achieve a dramatic effect music,’ ‘breaking’ the prevailing which are done with great imagi- as an alternative to underscoring. ‘film music paradigm.’ If pop nation. There are the usual street But it is nonetheless arguable that music be a ‘replacement’ for film noises, a funeral at J.T. Murray’s creating a mood or achieving a music in Donnelly’s view, then it (“Thoughtful Service”), and par- dramatic effect with music is only cannot logically also be film music, ticularly striking: the halls and a necessary but not sufficient condi- otherwise this would entail film stairways of the house where tion for music in films to consti- music being used to break its own Martin [the murderer] lives. Im- tute film scoring, because by paradigm and replace itself. mediately the front door is open, definition, underscoring is not Obviously this is not what we are greeted by a magnificent source music. Donnelly has in mind, though it melange of screaming children, does seem that in some sense he is four or five radio programs, and saying that pop music or the way someone practicing arpeggios.”46 Film Music and Popular it was used in these films is not In a similar way the use of Music film music. That is, pop music “realistic music” in Hitchcock’s “replaces” film music, but only in Rear Window (1956) is highly ef- Academia has not been exempt the sense of being used instead of fective in musically establishing from contributing to potential or in lieu of underscoring. But not the locale, as the film takes place confusion resulting from the use all films, past and present, have entirely in an apartment building. (or misuse) of terminology, even if scores, and some films have no In this case the use of source mu- it be accidental. Film historian K.J. music at all. sic represents an unusual extreme Donnelly writes in his insightful For that matter there is no for music in films because it con- discussion of the film Performance reason to believe that the films stitutes the only music in the film (1970) that it “presents a model of Donnelly cites would have even besides the main title composed film music [italics added] that arose been well suited to “film music” as by Franz Waxman (who, interest- as a particular aesthetic in the he defines it (namely, “a single coherent underscore,” with “melodic cohesion and harmonic movement that was and is still a trademark of orchestral film music.”)49 Moreover it is difficult 46William Hamilton, “Edge of Doom,” Film Music also taught courses in film music, expressed a to imagine that anyone would Notes 10, no. 1 (1950): 6. similar view in 1974, only four years after 47Ross Care, “Rear Window: The Music of Sound,” Performance was released: “There are times have considered scoring these Scarlet Street, No. 37 (2000): 60. these days when I suspect that my students at films with an orchestral score of 48 K. J. Donnelly, “Performance and the Composite USC and UCLA are trying to provoke me into 50 Film Score,” in Film Music: Critical Approaches, ed. ‘putting down’ Rock or Pop film scores indis- the kind Donnelly characterizes. K. J. Donnelly (Edinburgh: Edinburgh criminately. And I feel absurdly virtuous when It is therefore puzzling why University Press, 2001), 152-53. I ask them whether they can imagine pictures 49Ibid.,153. like Easy Rider or The Last Picture Show or Donnelly doesn’t say that the use 50Hollywood film composer David Raksin, who American Graffiti with any other kind of music. of the pop music in these films EDITORIAL 11 simply constitutes what is today or set of functions served by music become his Second Rhapsody for a called a song score, rather than in films, that is, a functional defini- Manhattan montage in Fox’s Deli- comparing and contrasting, as he tion, as philosophers would say. cious (1931). There was also the does, the music in these films Put schematically, it is film music widespread use and influence of with conventional underscoring, as musical technique opposed to the Big Band style in the scores to when to do so is like comparing film music in terms of filmic func- Hollywood films of the 1930s and apples and oranges. This is all the tion—a dichotomy akin to the ‘40s, and not just musicals but more apparent when Donnelly venerable “form vs. function” in dramatic films as well. A striking claims that the “musical collage” architecture and the plastic arts. In early example is Bernhard Kaun’s in Performance “replaces the func- this case, though, Donnelly is jazzy main title for Warner Bros.’ tions [italics added] of the claiming that the music he dis- stark prison drama 20,000 Years in dominant tradition” (i.e. the cusses is both different in form Sing Sing (1932). A few years later “single coherent orchestral under- and function. at Warners Heinz Roemheld used score”).51 But if the music in In reality such departures from the Charleston in his main title for Performance is not only in a differ- what Donnelly calls the “dominant the Bette Davis film Front Page ent style from the “dominant tradition” were a regular occur- Woman (1935), not to mention the tradition” and also ‘functions’ rence well before the films he cites countless Warner Bros. main titles differently than underscoring, were made, for example, the intro- from the period scored with fox- what is the point of comparing it duction of contemporary jazz in trots composed and/or arranged with how ‘coherent’ orchestral Leith Stevens’ score for The Wild by Roemheld and other Warner underscoring ‘functions’? It is like One (1953) and Elmer Bernstein’s Bros. staff composers, often with- comparing the use of plainchant in for The Man with The Golden Arm out receiving screen credit. These the liturgy with the arias that (1955). These scores set a trend are just some instances among came to be played in churches for using jazz in films that contin- hundreds—if not thousands— during the nineteenth century. It ued well into the 1960s and after, reflecting the prevalent use of would seem that musical styles something for which perhaps popular idioms in Hollywood and their use or “function” in Henry Mancini was best known.52 scores. Indeed some of the most films are not interchangeable, and Therefore the use of popular famous popular music in the twen- thus cannot really replace one music in general can scarcely “re- tieth century originated in films, another, except in the sense of one place” film music because as the more than a little of it having been kind of music being used instead authors of Soundtrack Available: written by those who also scored of another. Essays on Film and Popular Music the films in which it was heard. What gives rise to the apparent (2001) have convincingly shown, Again, Henry Mancini’s work is contradiction in terms here is that popular music has always been an probably the most famous example Donnelly uses film music to mean integral part of music in films, of this. two different things: Film music as whether scores or source music. To show how thoroughly a musical technique, as discussed For example, by 1932 the pervasive the influence of popular above in terms of its essential defini- great popularity and individual music was in American film music tion, and film music as a function influence of George Gershwin’s prior to the present day, long-time music was already evident. Not Hollywood composer-arranger- only was his Rhapsody in Blue used orchestrator Marlin Skiles, who in the early Universal musical King came from a jazz background, of Jazz (1930), featuring Paul observed that the recognizable The fact is that the music in those films was Whiteman and his orchestra (who “Hollywood style” that had just what it should have been. But I do not find had originally performed the pre- emerged by the 1940s was an this to be equally true of all films in which such music is used.” David Raksin, “Whatever miere of the piece in New York in amalgam of European “classical” Became of Movie Music?” Film Music Notebook 1924), but his style was imitated music tradition and American jazz (Autumn 1974), 23. It is interesting to note that Raksin uses the term “film score” when by Alfred Newman, for one, in his (and thus also an early example of today such compilations are called “song scores.” scores for United Artists’ Street “crossover” music in American 53 51Donnelly, ibid, 153. Scene (1931) and Universal’s Night musical culture). The music of 52See Tony Thomas, Music for the Movies (New York: A.S. Barnes and Co., 1973), 195-203. World (1932). Gershwin himself George Gershwin is perhaps the 53Marlin Skiles, Personal communication, n.d. composed a piece that would later main prototype for the Hollywood 12 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
style. Skiles’ own score for Gallant that a new American concert work cited.)57 They fault film music Journey (1946) is a good example sounded like movie music, and it criticism and histories of film of this synthesis, especially because was no doubt the “Hollywood music for “largely ignoring” popu- Skiles felt he was influenced by style” critics had in mind, as it was lar music in films, and cite Mark the piano music of Bix Beider- by far the most familiar. It was Evans’ Soundtrack: The Music of the becke and Eastwood Lane, rather thus that Ernest Gold’s piano con- Movies and Roy Prendergast’s Film than by Gershwin. Sounding like a certo was dismissed by the critics Music: A Neglected Art as being blend of jazz and Wagner, Hinde- when it debuted in New York in “typical” in this regard. Evans can mith, Honegger and Copland (!), 1945. When Gold came to Holly- hardly be accused of “ignoring” the well-crafted score featured wood shortly thereafter and played popular music in his book, since Harry James-style trumpet solos his concerto for various studio he devotes a chapter to it, outlin- played by jazz trumpeter, Manny music department heads they, too, ing and discussing most of the Klein, then a contract musician in said “It sounds like movie music,” points of contention that continue Columbia Pictures’ studio orches- but in this case, that was what to be debated today. Entitled “The tra. The film, directed and they wanted, and his career as a Rise of Popular Music” the chapter co-written by William Wellman, film composer was launched.55 begins, “Until the recent rise of was about pioneer American avia- It was because of such snobbery in pop music, few motion picture tor John Montgomery in the late the world of concert music that scores received much attention 1800s. So the influence of jazz on André Previn abandoned film from the general public.”58 Pren- the musical style was unrelated to composing to pursue a career as a dergast also discusses the use of source music, let alone the histori- conductor. As he lamented in jazz in film scores and some of the cal period in which the film was 1974, “Some critics...will forgive same issues raised by Evans as set, just as the influence of jazz on you for being an axe murderer, but well.59 Alex North’s score for Spartacus never for scoring a film. There But as it was neither Evans’ (1960) hardly reflected music from ought to be a statute of nor Prendergast’s purpose to write the time of the Roman Empire. limitations.”56 about popular music and source The existence of the “Hollywood Like Hagen and Atkins, film music per se, to criticize their style” was corroborated by David scholars Pamela Robertson Wojcik books for not adequately covering Raksin, a colleague of Skiles’ and and Arthur Knight, who edited those topics is irrelevant. Evans North’s who, however, claimed to Soundtrack Available, consider and Prendergast were simply writ- have never written in that style, source music to be film scoring, ing about what has long been strange as that may seem consider- though not for musical reasons, accepted as the meaning of film ing the jazzy Hollywoodish “big but because of its dramatic or music: film scores. Apparently, theme” in his score for MGM’s The “narrative” function in films (curi- too, the editors of Soundtrack Avail- Bad and the Beautiful (1950).54 ously, although the volume is able failed to realize that the sheer Not so long ago it was the kiss mainly devoted to source music in volume of writing published on of death for a music critic to say films, nowhere is Atkins’ book popular music in films since the
54David Raksin, Personal communication, n.d. It Walton’s first symphony, a Coplandesque excla- Fidelity Magazine 24 (November 1974), 27: “For should not be assumed that the “Hollywood mation (with chimes) follows, leading into the heaven’s sake . . . there ought to be a statute of style” was unvarying. On the contrary, Skiles’ jazzy “big theme.” “Big theme” was a term used limitations. I haven’t done a Hollywood film observation implies an eclectic synthesis of in Hollywood for the main themes that domi- since 1962, and I only see movies on aircraft.” disparate stylistic elements. Lawrence Morton, nated most Hollywood scores from the 1930s In fact Previn’s last Hollywood film was in 1968, who was one of the orchestrators on Raksin’s through the 1960s. See Marlin Skiles, Music United Artists’ The Fortune Cookie. score for The Bad and the Beautiful referred to this Scoring for TV & Motion Pictures (Blue Ridge 57Pamela Robertson Wojcik and Arthur Knight, in terms of the “spirit of electicism [sic]” in Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1976), 241, 247-48, and eds., Soundtrack Available: Essays on Film and Hollywood film music. Lawrence Morton, “The 250. Popular Music (Durham, NC: Duke University Music of ‘Objective: Burma’,” Hollywood Quarterly 55Thomas, ibid., 24-25. Cf. Ernest Gold, “A Con- Press, 2001). 1 (1946): 394. Within its opening few bars, versation with Ernest Gold,” Cinemascore, no. 10 58Mark Evans, Soundtrack: The Music of the Movies Raksin’s main title to The Bad in the Beautiful (fall 1982), 13. (New York: DaCapo Press, 1979), 190. undergoes at least three stylistic modulations (a 56Previn quoted by Daniel Cariaga, “Andre Previn 59See Prendergast’s discussion of The Man with neologism for which I am indebted to musicolo- to Direct LA Philharmonic,” Los Angeles Times, 30 the Golden Arm and Mancini. Roy M. Prendergast, gist Anatoly Leikin): After a bravura flourish of April 1984, part 1, p. 16. Cf. Edward Greenfield, Film Music: A Neglected Art (New York: W.W. contrary motion through the orchestra, which “The Metamorphosis of André Previn,” High Norton, 1977), 108-19, 146-47. Raksin himself said was inspired by a passage in EDITORIAL 13 advent of sound (especially musi- new ways that can so readily result debate.”62 ) Gebrauchsmusik was cals) far exceeds that written in self-contradiction. This is epito- antithetical to the prevailing aes- about film scores, especially in the mized by the fact that as already thetic in art music of autonomous film literature (even a cursory intimated, certain writers, such as music, or ‘music for music’s sake,’ glance through the Reader’s Guide to Atkins, have in the past twenty and promoted the exploitation of Periodical Literature bears this out). years or so come to use film music music’s use and utility in everyday But then what is one to make of as a convenient label rather than as life. Traditional notions of musical Soundtrack Available as a scholarly the established musical term for a form were challenged by the expo- work when the editors list among technique or genre of musical nents of Gebrauchsmusik. Heinz the “songs” used in the film composition. While “film music” Roemheld, who had studied in Wayne’s World (1992) Tchaikovsky’s had sometimes previously been Germany only to become one of Romeo and Juliet and Lalo Schifrin’s used loosely to denote music in Hollywood’s most prolific film instrumental title theme for films, this was the exception not composers, did not value under- Mission Impossible?60 the rule.61 Ostensibly this usage scoring qua music because is just for the sake of having one traditional notions of musical catchall term for music in films. form were invariably compromised Film Music and Music in Notwithstanding the potential or abandoned altogether in com- Films semantic confusion engendered by posing to film action, and this different use of the term (or development in the symphonic Were it the case that the au- broadening of its meaning, as sense was almost impossible for thors above intentionally twisted some apparently see it), the proper the same reason. For Roemheld the meaning of words to argue study of film music for a number film music had no aesthetic value their positions and deliberately of writers today is the various away from films, except in the case confuse readers, they would be ways music functions in films, of a good melody that could stand guilty of equivocation. But as whether musical scores or source on its own, such as his own jazzy should be obvious, sophistry is music, such that this all-purpose hit song “Ruby” from Ruby Gentry not at issue here. Rather, it may definition is primarily a functional (1952). “It’s got to help the pic- well be that at present there is not definition, as noted already with ture!” was Roemheld’s dictum, a sufficiently rich technical vo- regards K.J. Donnelly’s two uses and that purely musical concerns cabulary for film music studies per of the term. had to be subordinate to that pre- se, in spite of the profuse technical This functional approach tends cept. “It’s what you might call language already found in the lit- to view music in films rather the Gebrauchsmusik—it’s functional erature. Once again this serves to way it was regarded in Germany in music. You can’t go anywhere with highlight the importance of accu- the 1920s, as Gebrauchsmusik it, because something happens on rately using terminology—even if (“utility music,” i.e. music “that is the screen and you have to, for it be inadequate—and the needless socially useful and relevant, in- example, underscore a pratfall or a semantic problems that can arise cluding music for films and radio, kiss or something, just after you from the imprecise use of existing mechanical instruments, for ama- get started singing a melody—it terms or from redefining terms in teurs and to stimulate political doesn’t work [as music].”63 (It is
60Arthur Knight and Pamela Robertson Wojcik, loss of meaning because its inclusion is The producer says, ‘I want forty seconds of “Overture,” in Soundtrack Available: Essays on Film redundant, i.e. he is only talking about music music here.’ This means forty, not thirty-nine or and Popular Music, ibid., 1. Schifrin’s name isn’t in films, not music in general. Nat Shilkret, forty-one. The picture rolls on relentlessly, like even given though he is probably best known for “Some Predictions for the Future of Film fate. If the music is too short it will stop dead Mission Impossible. Music,” Music Publishers Journal 4, no. 1 (1946): just before the culminating kiss; if it is too long 61For example Hollywood composer Nat Shilkret 47. it will still be registering intense emotion while wrote in 1946, “Effective use of film music is not 62“Gebrauchsmusik,” in Norton/Grove Concise the screen is already showing the comic man limited to pictures of a dramatic nature. It is in Encyclopedia of Music (New York: W.W. Norton , putting on his mother-in-law’s breeches.” Ralph ‘musicals’ that film music has had its greatest 1988), 285. Vaughan Williams, “Film Music,” Royal College of use and development. In these pictures music is 63Heinz Roemheld, interview by the author, Music Magazine 40, no. 1 (1944). See Manvell & an integral part of the story. And for obvious tape recording, Laguna Hills, CA, January 21, Huntley who also discuss film music in terms of reasons the principal performers are singers, 1976. Cf. Vaughan Williams, “When the film “functional music.” Manvell & Huntley, ibid., 71- instrumentalists, or dancers.” If the word “film” composer comes down to brass tacks he finds 177. is omitted from what Shilkret wrote there is no himself confronted with a rigid time sheet. 14 THE JOURNAL OF FILM MUSIC
perhaps no coincidence that in their relationship to films, as the meaning of film music as being contrast to his film music, use of film music as a musical obsolete in favor of the newer Roemheld’s own art music was term would suggest. definition, so that all music in virtually neo-classical in its strict films would be considered film adherence to musical form.)64 In music. It is likely though that this his critique of Gebrauchsmusik as an Incommensurability of could only happen over time as a aesthetic viewpoint, Stephen Meanings result of deliberate disuse. This is Hinton notes, “The same piece of not likely to happen because there music can be viewed both in terms Ordinarily a lexical definition will doubtless continue to be wri- of its use-value and in terms of its (as noted above, reporting how ters who will use film music to autonomous features.”65 This ap- terms are already used and accep- denote film scores. Regardless of plies to the study of film music as ted) is adopted for the purpose of this the more general use (the well: It can be studied in relation- avoiding pointless verbal disputes. “functional” definition) has not ship to the film in which it is This presents a special problem superseded the specific use (the heard (it’s function or “use”) or as when a term has two meanings in “essential” definition), and both music. In this regard, Sir Arthur use as is now the case with film uses of the term are currently Bliss once remarked, “My argu- music. Already in 1980 musicolo- found in the literature. In some ment is that in the last resort film gist Helga de la Motte-Haber was instances they are even used by music should be judged solely as evidently aware of the semantic the same author, as we have seen music—that is to say, by the ear problem and proposed that in in the case of K. J. Donnelly’s dis- alone, and the question of its value German Film-Musik be used to cussion of Performance. depends on whether it can stand denote music in films from the Be that as it may, I stated ear- up to this test.”66 standpoint of function (i.e. music lier that the two definitions of film In any case, the more general in films), and that Filmmusik be music are incommensurable. Sub- functional definition of film music reserved for film music as a musi- suming all music in films under and the viewpoint it represents, cal genre (Gattung).67 This could the term “film music” is problem- might succinctly be called ‘film readily be rendered in English as atic because if film music is from the perspective of music,’ “film-music” vs. “film music”—or defined as a technique or genre of much in the same way that films even filmmusic or filmusic—all of musical composition as the term are examined from the standpoint which have been used in English has long been used, how can, say, of screenwriting, or acting, or already. Max Steiner’s score for Casablanca direction, or cinematography— However it is probably too late be compared—especially on mu- that is, from the standpoint of the to institute this usage in English sical grounds—with an existing specific contribution of an art or now, because film music as a syno- piece used in the same film as craft to a film. As we have seen nym for music in films has become source music such as the singing there are those who hold that this established in some circles, and of “La Marseillaise”? That is, it approach is what should consti- once a term has come to be used would seem conceptually impos- tute film music studies as a in a more general way it is difficult sible to extend or modify the scholarly pursuit, rather than it to restrict its meaning. This is definition of film music as a tech- being the study of film scores and ironic considering the narrowing nique of musical composition to we saw in the history of film include the performance of a stan- music as a term with the coming dard work in a film. of sound and concomitant move- Now long valued worldwide by ment towards original scores. In the film industry and moviegoers 64William H. Rosar. “Roemheld, Heinz (Heinrich Erich).” The New Grove Dictionary of that case, however, the semantic alike, some might argue that the Music Online. ed. L. Macy. [May 6, 2002], narrowing directly mirrored a value of original background music
films”? In spite of the current music-industry-driven trend for so-called “song scores” or “compi- I wish to express my heart- sion we received; Lon Sobel, lation scores” that consist mainly felt gratitude and thanks to Distinguished Scholar at the of existing recorded music, by far several individuals who have University of California’s most music in films has been com- been instrumental in bringing Berkeley Center for Law and posed for films. Most of this music The Journal of Film Music to fru- Technology, and editor and consists of musical scores, not ition through its decade-long founder of the Entertainment source music, and there is no indi- gestation: Former editor of Law Reporter, in addition to cation that original scores will Current Musicology, Karen Lindsay counseling us on Copyright ultimately become passé, perhaps Painter of Harvard University Law and related matters, because they have so long been a Department of Music, lent persuaded us to pursue self part of cinema itself. As a histori- much needed practical advice publishing as the path of least cal point of reference, the great and guidance on how to start a resistance; David Smith of the preponderance of music in the scholarly journal (as well as Department of Sociology at the thousands of American films listed sharing my conviction as to the University of California at in McCarty’s Film Composers in scholarly value of publishing Irvine, as outgoing editor of America was composed by the hun- interviews with composers and Social Problems has shared his dreds of composers he credits. It musicians); David Neumeyer, invaluable experience with the seems a fair assumption that this of the University of Texas at peer review process; James is also true historically of interna- Austin School of Music, from Wierzbicki has served well tional cinema as well. the beginning not only pro- above the call of duty as a From its inception, my inten- vided strategic suggestions and “hands on” Associate Editor; tion has been that The Journal of recommendations towards and last but hardly least our Film Music be devoted to the art defining editorial function and Managing Editor, Leslie and craft of film scoring, and the shaping editorial policy, but for Andersen, has made the Journal varied roles played by musical a time reviewed every submis- a reality. scores in films. It was this music that musicologist Manfred Bukofzer referred to when writing over half a century ago that “Possi- bly fifty years hence, this may be regarded as the most characteristic music of the 20th century.”70 In spite of that, as film scoring is more and more being viewed today by scholars in the larger context of music in films, it is only appropri- ate that the Journal should represent that perspective as well, though with film scoring—more- over music—remaining its primary focus.
70Manfred F. Bukofzer, “Forms and Functions of the Music Library,” Notes: Supplement for Members, No. 3 (1948): 4. EDITORIAL 17
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