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Home , Battle of Buena Vista, California Republic, Mexican Cession

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SECTION 3 The Mexican- TEKS 1A, 6A, 6B, 6C, 6D, 6E, 7D, 10A, 10B, 10C, 11A, 11B, 12A, 12D, American War 22B, 23C, 23D What You Will Learn… If YOU were there... Main Ideas Your family are , Spanish settlers who have lived in 1. Many believed for many years. You raise horses on your ranch. So far, you that the nation had a to claim new lands in have gotten along with American settlers. But it has become clear the West. that the American government wants to take over California. You 2. As a result of the Mexican- American War, the United hear that fighting has already started. States added territory in the Southwest. How might life change under American rule? 3. American settlement in the Mexican Cession produced conflict and a blending of cultures. BUILDing BACKGROUND Mexican independence set the stage for conflict and change in the West and Southwest. At the same The Big Idea time, Americans continued to move westward, settling in the Mexican The ideal of manifest destiny ­territories of , New , and California. American ambitions led and the outcome of the Mexi- to clashes with Mexico and the people who already lived in Mexico’s can-American War led to U.S. territories. expansion to the Pacific Ocean.

Key Terms and People Manifest Destiny manifest destiny, p. 355 We have it in our power to start the world over again. James K. Polk, p. 355 “ ” —Thomas Paine, from his pamphlet Common Sense vaqueros, p. 357 Californios, p. 357 Americans had always believed they could build a new, better Bear Flag Revolt, p. 358 society founded on democratic principles. In 1839 writer John Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, p. 361 O’Sullivan noted, “We are the nation of human progress, and who , p. 361 will, what can, set limits to our onward march?” Actually, there was one limit: land. From the beginnings of the colonies, Americans had been moving west in search of land and economic opportunity. At the end of the Revolution, the Land Ordi- Use the annotation tools in your nance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established eBook to take notes on manifest the method for dividing and governing new territories. By the destiny and the Mexican-American the had a booming economy and population. War. Barely 70 years old, the nation needed even more room for farms, ranches, businesses, and ever-growing families. Americans looked West to what they saw as a vast wilderness, ready to be taken. The regions of , , and Texas were being settled by Americans, and the national government worked to annex those lands to the United States.

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Manifest Destiny John Gast’s 1872 painting American Progress shows the spirit of manifest destiny lead- ing settlers westward. What in this painting shows The how settlers traveled west? River is in the background as settlers push farther west.

The woman represents America, moving west and bringing sunlight, settlers, and telegraph Native Americans wires to the new lands. and buffalo are pushed away by the approaching settlers.

Some people believed it was America’s Texas might become an ally of Britain. These manifest destiny, or obvious fate, to settle concerns helped Polk narrowly defeat Clay. land all the way to the Pacific Ocean in order to spread democracy. O’Sullivan coined the Acquiring New Territory term in 1845. He wrote that it was ­America’s President Polk quickly set out to fulfill his “manifest destiny to overspread and to ­possess promise to annex Oregon and Texas.­ Russia the whole continent which ­Providence [God] and had given up their claims to Ore- has given us for the development of the great gon Country. Britain and the United States experiment of liberty . . . ” had agreed to occupy the territory together. In the 1840s and 1850s, manifest destiny As more Americans settled there, they was tied up with the slavery issue. If America began to ask that Oregon become part of the expanded, would slavery be allowed in the United States. Polk wanted to protect these new territories? Several presidents became settlers’ interests. Some politicians noted that involved in the difficult issue. Among them would provide a Pacific port was President John Tyler. A pro-slavery Whig, for the growing U.S. trade with China. Tyler wanted to increase the power of the Meanwhile, Britain and the United States southern slave states by annexing Texas. His disagreed over how to draw the United States– fellow Whigs disagreed. Canadian border. American expansionists In 1844, the Whig Party passed up Tyler cried, “Fifty-four forty or fight!” This slogan and chose Senator as its presiden- referred to 54°40' north latitude, the line tial candidate. At first opposing , to which Americans wanted their northern Clay changed his mind due to pressure from territory to extend. southern politicians. The Democratic Party Neither side really wanted a war, though. chose former James K. In 1846 Great Britain and the United States Polk to oppose Clay. Both candidates strong- signed a treaty that gave the United States all ly favored acquiring Texas and Oregon. Oregon land south of the forty-ninth parallel.­ Southerners feared the loss of Texas, a This treaty drew the border that still exists possible new slave state. Others worried that today. Oregon became an organized U.S. terri- tory in February 1848.

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By March 1845, Congress had approved New Mexico, where settlers lived in small the annexation of Texas and needed only the villages. In California, however, missions support of the . Americans remained the focus of everyday life. Missions continued to pour into Texas. Texas politicians under later Spanish rule carried out huge hoped that joining the United States would farming and ranching operations using the help solve the republic’s financial and mili- labor of Native Americans. Some of the Indi- tary problems. The Texas Congress approved ans came willingly to the missions. Others annexation in June 1845. Texas became part were brought by force. Usually, they were not of the United States in December. This action allowed to leave the mission once they had angered the Mexican government, which arrived. They had to adopt the clothing, food, considered Texas to be a “stolen province.” and religion of the Spaniards. As a result, some Native American groups moved and settled in The Mexican Borderlands different areas to avoid being controlled by Though it had lost Texas, Mexico still had the missions. One effect of these migrations settlements in other areas of the present-day was more conflicts over land. Southwest to govern. New Mexico, with its Missions often sold their goods to local capital at Santa Fe, was the oldest settled area pueblos, or towns, that arose near the mis- and had the most people. Mexico also had sions and presidios. One wealthy California settlements in present-day , , settler, Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, remem- and California. bered the early days. During early Spanish rule, the mission We were the pioneers of the Pacific coast, system had dominated much of the present- “ building towns and missions while General day American Southwest. Over time, it had [George] was carrying on the war become less important there, especially in of the Revolution.” —Mariano Guadalupe History Close-up Vallejo, quoted in Eyewitnesses and Others Ranch Life Spanish and Mexican vaqueros, or cowboys, were expert horse riders. They used their horses to herd cattle on the ranches of the Spanish Southwest. Vaqueros were known for their specially designed hats that protected them from the harsh sun and rain.

Saddles like these were highly prized by vaqueros. and analysis became the model skill Analyzing Visuals Leather chaps for the protected riders from saddle we know What features of the vaqueros’ life are dust and scrapes. today. shown in this painting?

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After winning independence from Spain B iographY in 1821, Mexico began to change old Spanish policies toward California and Texas. By the Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo 1830s, Mexico ended the mission system in 1808–1890 the region. In California, mission lands were Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo was born to an broken up, and huge grants were given to influential Californio family in Monterey. He some of the wealthiest settlers, including joined the shortly after Mexi- Vallejo. They created vast ranchos, or ranch- co’s independence from Spain. He was soon es, with tens of thousands of acres of land. put in charge of Mexico’s efforts to increase Vaqueros­ , or cowboys, managed the large settlement in . Vallejo eventually became the richest man in herds of cattle and sheep. Cowhides were so California, owning enormous amounts of valuable that they were called “California land and livestock. He welcomed American banknotes.” Hides were traded for household rule of California, believing it would result in items and luxury goods with ship captains self-government for Californios. He eventually from the . Some settlers lost most of his wealth fighting Anglos who also made wine and grew citrus fruits. claimed his land. Vallejo served at the state Although they had been freed from constitutional convention as well as in the first the missions, for most California Indians the state senate. elements of life changed very little. They continued to herd animals and do much Analyzing Why did Vallejo encourage American rule of California? of the hard physical labor on ranches and farms. Some, however, ran away into the wil- derness or to the nearby towns of the United States. They were called Anglos and . by the Californios. Although there were few Anglo settlers in California, their calls for The Californios independence increased tensions between Because of the great distance between Mexico and the United States. AC ADEMIC California and the center of Mexico’s govern- VOCY ABULAR element a basic ment, by the early 1820s California had only Reading Check Drawing Inferences How part of an did manifest destiny affect Spanish and Mexican around 3,200 colonists. These early Califor- individual’s nia settlers, called Californios, felt little con- rule in California? surroundings nection to their faraway government. Californios developed a lasting reputation for hospitality and skilled horse riding. In Two Mexican-American War Years Before the Mast, American novelist Rich- Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the ard Henry Dana Jr. wrote about his encoun- United States became increasingly strained. ters with Californio culture. He described, for U.S. involvement in California and Texas con- example, what happened after a Californio tributed to this tension. served a feast to Dana and a friend. Conflict Breaks Out We took out some money and asked him how “ Mexico had long insisted that its northern much we were to pay. He shook his head and crossed himself, saying that it was charity—that border lay along the Nueces River and refused the Lord gave it to us.” to accept the U.S. annexation of Texas. The —Richard Henry Dana Jr. , from Two United States said the border was farther Years Before the Mast south, along the . In June 1845 In addition to traders and travelers, a President Polk ordered General Zachary Tay- small number of settlers also arrived from lor to lead an army into the disputed region.

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Polk sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico The Bear Flag Revolt City to try to settle the border dispute. Slidell In 1846, only about 500 Americans lived in came with an offer to buy New Mexico and the huge province of California, in contrast to California for $30 million. Mexican officials about 12,000 Californios. Yet, in the spirit of refused to speak to him. manifest destiny, a small group of American In March 1846, General Taylor led his settlers seized the town of Sonoma, north of troops to the Rio Grande. He camped across , on . Hostilities began from Mexican forces stationed near the town between the two sides when the Americans of Matamoros, Mexico. In April, the Mexican took some horses that were intended for commander told Taylor to withdraw from the Mexican militia. In what became known Mexican territory. Taylor refused. The two sides as the Bear Flag Revolt , the Americans de- clashed, and several U.S. soldiers were killed. clared California to be an independent In response, Polk said to Congress: nation. Above the town, the rebels hoisted “Mexico has passed the boundary of the United a hastily made flag of a facing a States, has invaded our territory, and shed red star. Californios laughed at the roughly- American blood upon the American soil . . . The made bear, thinking it “looked more like a two nations are now at war.” pig than a bear.” —James K. Polk, from his address to Congress, May 11, 1846 John C. Frémont, a U.S. Army captain,­ Polk’s war message was persuasive. Two days was leading a mapping expedition across the later, Congress declared war on Mexico. when he heard of the possible War Begins war with Mexico. Frémont went to Sonoma and quickly joined the American settlers in At the beginning of the war with Mexico, the their revolt against the Californios.­ Because U.S. Army had better weapons and equipment. war had already broken out between the Unit- Yet it was greatly outnumbered and poorly ed States and Mexico, Frémont’s actions were prepared. The government put out a call for seen as ­beneficial to the American cause in the 50,000 volunteers. About 200,000 responded. region. His stated goal, however, was Califor- Many were young men who thought the war nian ­independence, not to annex California would be a grand adventure in a foreign land. to the United States. During the revolt, ­several On the home front, many Americans important Californios were taken ­prisoner, supported the war. However, many Whigs including Mariano Vallejo. Governor­ thought the war was unjustified and avoid- Vallejo and his brother were held at an able. Northern abolitionists also opposed the Anglo settlement for two months without conflict. They feared the spread of slavery any formal charges being brought against into southwestern lands. them. Long after his release, Vallejo wrote While Americans debated the war, fight- a that included an ing proceeded. General Taylor’s soldiers won account of his time as a bear flag prisoner. battles south of the Nueces River. Taylor But the bear flag was quick to fall. In then crossed the Rio Grande and occupied July, U.S. naval forces came ashore in Califor- Matamoros, Mexico. While Taylor waited for nia and raised the stars and stripes. Kearny’s more men, Polk ordered General Stephen army arrived from the East. The towns of San Kearny to attack New Mexico. On August 18, Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco fell rap- 1846, Kearny took Santa Fe, the capital city, idly. In August, U.S. Navy commodore Robert without a fight. He claimed the entire prov- Stockton claimed California for the United ince of New Mexico for the United States and States. Some Californios continued to resist marched west to California, where another until early 1847, when they surrendered. conflict with Mexico was already under way.

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Mexican-American War, 1846–1847

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WW EE geography SS skills INTERPRETING MAPS 1. Location What Mexican city did Scott’s forces attack in March 1847? 2. Movement Which U.S. commander led forces from Santa HRW Middle School American History Fe to San Diego? ah06se_c10leg008aa.ai The Mexican War 1846–1847 expanding west 359 F3 - 11/04/04 Approved:11/10/04 Updated:11/11/04, 12/16/04

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American soldier

War’s End Veracruz fell. Scott moved on to the final In Mexico General Taylor finally got the rein- goal, , the capital. Taking a route forcements he needed. He drove his forces similar to one followed by Spanish conquis- deep into enemy lands. Santa Anna, thrown tador Hernán Cortés in 1519, the Americans from office after losing Texas, returned to pushed 200 or so miles inland. Santa Anna power in Mexico in September 1846. He tried to stop the U.S. forces at Cerro Gordo quickly came after Taylor. in mid-April, but failed. By August 1847, U.S. The two armies clashed at Buena Vista in troops were at the edge of Mexico City. February 1847. After a close battle with heavy After a truce failed, Scott ordered a mas- casualties on both sides, the Mexican Army sive attack on Mexico City. Mexican soldiers retreated. The next morning, the cry went and civilians fought fierce battles in and up: “The enemy has fled! The field is ours!” around the capital. At a military school atop Taylor’s success made him a war hero the steep, fortified hill of Chapultepec, young back home. The general’s popularity troubled Mexican cadets bravely defended their hope- President Polk, and when Taylor’s progress less position. At least one soldier jumped stalled, Polk gave the command to General to his death rather than surrender to the Winfield Scott. A beloved leader, he was invading forces. Finally, on September 14, known by his troops as “Old Fuss and Feath- 1847, Mexico City fell. Santa Anna soon fled ers” because of his strict military discipline. the country. Scott sailed to the port of Veracruz, where the strongest fortress in Mexico was located. Reading Check Sequencing In chronological On March 29, after an 88-hour artillery attack, order, list the key battles of the Mexican-American War.

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Battle of Buena Vista more than $3 million held by American citi- zens against the Mexican government. The After the two-day Battle of Buena Vista, the treaty also addressed the status of American army gained in the Mexican Cession. The treaty provided control of northern that they would be “protected in the free Mexico. At the beginning of the battle, Mexican enjoyment of their liberty and property, and forces outnumbered the secured in the free exercise of their religion.” Americans. But the The Senate passed the treaty in March 1848. Mexicans suffered more than twice as After the war with Mexico, some Ameri- many casualties. cans wanted to guarantee that any south- Why was the Battle ern railroad to California would be built of Buena Vista a completely on American soil. James Gads- turning point in the den, U.S. minister to Mexico, negotiated Mexican-American War? an important agreement with Mexico in December 1853. Under the terms of the Gadsden Purchase, the U.S. government paid Mexico $10 million. In exchange, the United States received the southern parts of what are now Arizona and New Mexico. With this purchase, the existing boundary with Mexican soldier Mexico was finally fixed. Surge of American Settlers After the Mexican-American War, a flood American Settlement in the of Americans moved to the Southwest. American newcomers struggled against Mexican Cession longtime residents to control the land and The war ended after Scott took Mexico City. other valuable resources, such as water In February 1848, the United States and Mex- and minerals. Most Mexicans, Mexican

ico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , Americans, and Native Americans faced which officially ended the war and forced legal, economic, and social discrimina- Mexico to turn over much of its northern ter- tion. As a result, they found it difficult to ritory to the United States. Known as the Mex- protect their rights. ican Cession, this land included the present- The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo prom- day states of California, Nevada, and . ised to protect Mexican American residents’ In addition, it included most of Arizona and property rights. Yet differences between Mexi- New Mexico and parts of and Wyo- can and U.S. land laws led to great confusion. ming. The United States also won the area The U.S. government often made Mexican claimed by Texas north of the Rio Grande. American landowners go to court to prove The Mexican Cession totaled more than that they had titles to their land. Landowners 500,000 square miles and increased the size of had to pay their own travel costs as well as the United States by almost 25 percent. those of witnesses and interpreters. They also had to pay attorneys’ and interpreters’ fees. Agreements and Payments These legal battles often bankrupted land- In exchange for this vast territory, the United owners. New settlers also tended to ignore States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. In Mexican legal concepts, such as community addition, the United States assumed claims of property or community water rights.

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linking TO Today Today Today Mexican Americans make up about 11 percent of the U.S. population, or just over 34 million people. Mexican Americans live in all 50 states, though most live in the West and Southwest. Many Mexican Americans in these areas are descended from people who lived there long before the region became part of the United States.

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0 150 300 Kilometers geography � skills INTERPRETING MAPS � � 1. Region In what region does the largest � percentage of Mexican Americans live? 2. Place Which two states have the highest concentrations of Mexican Americans?

8_STXESE320284_576Mba White settlers also battled with American Diego, and Santa Barbara—showHMH SS Texas Hispanic 2016 SE, Gr 8 Indians over property rights. In some areas, heritage. Other place-names,US Mexican such American as Taos Population, 2010--legend new white settlers outnumbered Native and Tesuque, are derived from Native Ameri- IMA second pass 10/30/2016 Americans. Anglo settlers often tried to take can words. Communities throughout the The Impact control of valuable water resources and graz- Southwest regularly celebrated both Mexican Today ing lands. In addition, settlers rarely respected and American holidays. Mexican holidays Indian holy places. Native American peoples Mexican and Native American know- like Cinco de such as the and the tried to ledge and traditions also shaped many local Mayo and Día de los Muertos protect their land and livestock from the set- economies. Mexican Americans taught ­Anglo are still popular tlers. Indians and settlers alike attacked one settlers about mining in the mountains. Many holidays in the another to protect their interests. ranching communities were first­ started by Southwest. Mexican settlers. They also introduced new Cultural Encounters types of saddles and other equipment to Despite conflicts, different cultures shaped American ranchers. Adobe, developed by the one another in the Southwest. In settlements Anasazi Indians, was adopted from the Pueblo with large Mexican populations, laws were people by the Spanish. It is still commonly often printed in both English and Spanish. used by American residents in New Mexico, Names of places—such as , San Arizona, and California.

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Trade also changed the Southwest. required to direct scarce water to fields. This For example, the Navajo created handwo- need ­conflicted with the accepted eastern ven woolen blankets to sell to Americans. tradition of equal access to water. Americans in turn brought manufactured established a strict code goods and money to the Southwest. Due regulating water rights for the Mormon com- to exchanges like these, the economies of munity. In any dispute over water use, the many Mexican American and Native Ameri- good of the community would outweigh the can communities in the Southwest began to interests of individuals. Young’s approach change. stood as an example for modern water laws throughout the West. Water Rights Eastern water-use laws commonly required Reading Check Summarizing What were owners whose land bordered streams or riv- some of the early agreements between the United ers to maintain a free flow of water. These States and Mexico, and why were they significant? restrictions generally prevented landown- ers from constructing dams because doing SUMMARY AND PREVIEW America’s west- so would infringe upon the water rights of ward expansion continued rapidly after neighbors downstream. the Mexican-American War. In the next In the typically dry climate of the West, section you will learn about the California large-scale agriculture was not possible . without irrigation. Dams and canals were

Section 3 Assessment ONLINE QUIZ Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People d. Evaluate In your opinion, what was the most 1. a. Analyze What was manifest destiny and how did important effect of the Mexican‑American War and it influence westward expansion? the annexation of the Mexican Cession? b. Explain What plan did new territories and states Critical Thinking follow to establish their political structures? 4. Identifying Cause and Effect Review your notes c. Make Inferences Why was westward expansion on manifest destiny and U.S. territorial expansion. such an important issue in the election of 1844? Then use the graphic organizer below to show how d. Evaluate Do you think California benefited from ­Americans’ expansion into California caused war, as Mexican independence? Why or why not? well as the effects of the war. 2. a. Recall Why did the United States declare war on Mexico? b. Summarize What was General Winfield Scott’s Causes strategy for winning the war with Mexico? Mexican-American War c. Elaborate Would you have sided with those who opposed the war with Mexico or with those who Effects supported it? Why? 3. a. Define What was the Mexican Cession? Where was it located? Focus on Writing b. Describe What conflicts did American settlers, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans in the 5. Explaining the Mexican-American War How Mexican Cession experience? How were these will you convey ideas, such as manifest destiny, in resolved? a film? How will you explain to your audience the c. Draw Conclusions What were the cultural Mexican-American War’s role in expansion of the ­differences between the eastern United States and United States? Consider these questions and make the American Southwest? What were the economic a note of your answers. differences? expanding west 363