THE MYTHS OF THE exist. The conflict between Buddhism and indigenous beliefs is reflected in the myth’s BUDDHA’S RELICS OF plot, motif and character behaviour, which is THE TAI PEOPLE: due to the conflicting behaviour of the two REFLECTIONS ON THE completely opposite belief systems in the myths. The acceptance of each offer between RELATIONSHIP the two belief systems is reflected in certain BETWEEN BUDDHISM sets of motifs and character behaviour. The AND INDIGENOUS study of the integration of the two belief 1 systems shows the development of the BELIEFS mythical characters and their behaviour, thus reflecting the religious thoughts and beliefs of Pathom Hongsuwan2 the Tai people.
Introduction Abstract The integration of Buddhism and indigenous This article intends to analyze the beliefs has been evident in Thai culture since relationship between Buddhism and the long ago, be it in the form of architecture, indigenous beliefs that are evident in the mural art, customs and rituals as well as Tai myths of the Buddha’s relics. From myths, beliefs and religion. Various forms of the analysis of the characters and their the culture reflect the relationship between symbolic behaviour, we can see that the Buddhism and indigenous beliefs and the religious beliefs of the Tai people were complexity of two religious systems. Thus, it very complex. The relationship between can be seen that the majority of Thai people religious beliefs shown in the myths of the are Buddhist whilst continuing to adhere to Tai people shows various characteristics their indigenous beliefs. and can be categorized into three groups: first, the conflict between Buddhism and Scholars in the field of Thai studies indigenous beliefs; second, the integretion generally agree that the religious system of of indigenous beliefs into Buddhism; and the Tai people is a mixture of indigenous third, the integration of Buddhism into beliefs and Buddhism. Thomas Kirsch indigenous beliefs. The kind of relationship (1977) addressed the complexity of the that occurs in each group is due to the Thai religious system in his article entitled variety of aspects of these beliefs that co- “Complexity in the Thai Religious System: An Interpretation”. He stated that 1 indigenous beliefs have effectively been This article is a part of a Ph.D. thesis entitled, swallowed up by Buddhism, this despite “The Buddha Relics Myths of the Tai Peoples: the difference between Buddhism and Significance and Interaction between Buddhism and Indigenous Beliefs”, at Department of Thai, these once popular beliefs. This is in Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University. I would agreement with the view of Charles Keyes like to thank my adviser, Associate Professor Dr. (1987: 35), who observes that despite Siraporn Nathalang for her guidance and her following Buddhism, the Thai people have kindness in supervising my thesis. not dismissed their indigenous beliefs in
2 Lecturer, Department of Thai and Oriental spirits, supernatural forces and charms. Languages, Faculty of Humanities and Social Thus, even though the Tai people regard Sciences, Mahasarakham University. Buddhism as their main religion, this is
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
not their only religion, as non-Buddhist related to beliefs in sacred and supernatural beliefs are blended into their belief power, as stated by Siraporn Nathalang structure. (2002: 190):
Myths, beliefs and rituals are forms of …Myth is a kind of folklore that is cultural evidence used to highlight the regarded as a sacred narrative. Myth characteristic relationship between Buddhism generally refers to God, deities and and indigenous beliefs that have been those possessing supernatural powers preserved throughout time. The myths of and is usually used to explain the the Buddha’s relics illustrate the influence origin of the world and the origins of of Buddhist religious sites upon the our various cultures. Sociologists widespread thoughts and beliefs of the Tai such as Malinowski, Leach and people both inside and outside Thailand. Kluckhohn believe that myth and ritual are interrelated. Myth explains By considering the contents of the Tai our origins and provides the myth of the Buddha’s relics, the author reasoning behind rituals, myth thus found that despite the differing characteristics relates to religious belief, sacred of the indigenous beliefs and Buddhism, things or beliefs in supernatural they can co-exist. Even though the content forces in a given society. Therefore, is generally related to Buddhism, the myth we are able to analyze religious of the Buddha’s relics indicates many beliefs in a society from the content aspects of the stories that are not related to of the myth. Buddhism, such as those concerning spirits, ogres, mythical serpents and local This article then intends to analyse the people. Furthermore, the behaviour inter-relationship between Buddhism and featured in those dramas is also evident in the indigenous beliefs that are reflected in a form of cannibalism, fighting with the the Tai myths of the Buddha’s relics,3 Buddha, the destruction of the Buddha’s particularly motifs and character behavior. stupa and a show of miraculous powers. The analysis of the relationship between These characteristics provoke the question: Buddhism and the indigenous beliefs Why are there traces of non-acceptance reflected in the myth of the Buddha’s relics towards Buddhism present in the myth of will help us see and understand the reasons the Buddha’s relics?. Also, other questions, for the co-existance between different such as What is the myth trying to say and religious beliefs and the characteristics of how are the various beliefs related ? may the relationship between Buddhism and the be raised. If we assume that myth and indigenous beliefs. ritual are a special language that man uses to convey certain messages to future The author used 105 stories of the myth of generations, it can then be stated that myth the Buddha’s relics known amongst the is a form of communication for mankind (G.S. Kirk, 1970: 42, Claude Levi-Strauss, 1969: 210-211) and can portray cultural 3 The information portrayed in the Tai myths of meaning (Roland Barthes, 1996: 3-5). This the Buddha’s relics and applied to the author’s is particularly so for stories relating to analysis and discussion in this article is only religious belief since myths are closely partial and not complete. Further information can be obtained in the author’s full dissertation.
2
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
ethnic groups of Thailand, such as the Tai encounters ogres waiting to catch Yai, Tai Lue, Tai Khoen, and the Laos- humans, the ogre thus attempts to Thai in the north, and the Thais of the catch and eat the Buddha. northeast, central and southern regions. - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, The author categorised the relationship Don Tao, between Buddhism and the indigenous (ตํานานพระธาตุดอนเตา-Lampang). beliefs in the myth of the Buddha’ relics Many ogres fight with the Buddha, the into 3 groups: first, conflict between Buddha exerting his miraculous Buddhism and the indigenous beliefs, powers in the form of heavy rain, the second, integration of the indigenous ogres becoming fearful of his power. beliefs into Buddhism, and third, - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, integration of Buddhism into the Doi Yuak, indigenous beliefs. (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยหยวก-Payao). The Buddha encounters the mythical Conflict between Buddhism and serpent known as Phayanaak. The Indigenous beliefs mythical serpent thinks that the Buddha is the mythical bird known The content of certain myths of the as Phayakrut, who is his enemy so Buddha’s relics of the Tai people who are Phayanaak flees into a tunnel. Buddhist reflects signs of conflict between - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Buddhism and the indigenous beliefs, Bua Bok, showing characteristics of “binary (ตํานานพระธาตุบัวบก-Udon Thani) opposition”, that is the content of the myth The Buddha travels to Kuuwian showing a conflicting relationship between Mountain and fights with the golden the two belief systems. The author will serpent known as Phayasuvannaak show two examples of such an opposing who is the owner of the territory. relationship: first, the Buddha – spirits; and - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, second, acceptance – conflict. Phanom, (ตํานานพระธาตุพนม-Nakon Phanom). Conflict between Buddhism and indigenous The Buddha travels to Kampra beliefs arose when a new belief was Mountain on the edge of the indoctrinated into existing beliefs, thus Mekhong River and sights a group there a conflict between characters of ghosts living there. When the representing Buddhism and those in local ghosts see the Buddha they run religion. The myth content refers to the away in fear and flee into the non-acceptance of the local people towards Mekhong River, hiding in the Lii Pii Buddha and thus portrays the Buddha rapids. displaying his almighty power in order to gain acceptance and respect, (such as in the The apparent behaviour in these myths, following examples). regardless of whether catching, fighting or fleeing from the Buddha, shows the - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, resistance towards Buddha and his status as Jom Thong representative of the belief in Buddhism. (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมทอง-Chiang Rung). However, the author found that despite the The Buddha travels to earth to the city resistance shown in the myth and the conflict of Alawii. Upon his visit he between indigenous beliefs and Buddhism,
3
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
Buddhism was eventually victorious and should they worship between Buddha and accepted by the local people. The concept of the local spirits?” At this point we should conflict later giving way to acceptance can bear in mind that the Tai people believed be found in many Tai myths, such as the that disaster or some form of natural disaster myth of Phayakhankaak telling the story of would strike if they did not pay respect to the reincarnation of Buddha as the local spirits. Phayakhankaak and his defeat over Phayathaen, thus leading to the acceptance The early myths generally portray a conflict of Phayakhankaak. The myth of between the two belief systems and show the Yakhwankhaow, rice Goddess, tells the story fear of the power and presence of the of the struggle of power between the Buddha Buddha by the local people, ogres, mythical and Yakhwankhaow and their eventual serpent and spirits. This fear caused the acceptance of mutual power. These local people to dislike the Buddha, and their characteristics show signs of non-acceptance actions of avoidance, resistance and lack of towards Buddhism and conflicting assistance showed the local people’s lack of behaviour between Buddhism and the acceptance towards this new belief at that indigenous beliefs represented in the myths. time.
The success of these mythical structures lies Analysis of the characters appearing in the in the creation of scenes with the local Tai myths of the Buddha’s relics showed people becoming “bad people” and the that certain characters are representatives of Buddha simultaneously becoming “the star” the supernatural forces involved with the and able to successfully be victorious over indigenous beliefs, such as spirits, the the indigenous beliefs of the local people. mythical serpent and ogres, while others are These stories created a hero figure in the representatives of the tribes of this region, Buddha and enabled the conflict between the such as the Lua, Mon and Karen and also local people to subside and the word of the representatives of Buddhism such as the Buddha to be widespread. This was a direct Buddha, Indra, deities, Asoka. development in belief, a direct shift from the indigenous beliefs to a belief in Buddhism, The behaviour of the characters in the forming new boundaries for the beliefs and myths, such as hunting the Buddha for food, religion of the Tai people who tried to adopt chasing away the Buddha and not giving the this new belief as a mark of being Thai Buddha food and water, were all behavioural Buddhists. patterns of resistance by the local people towards the Buddha. This behaviour later The binary relationship between acceptance changed after the acceptance of the Buddha and conflict became a two-way thought by the local people, the local people paying struggle and was a conflicting problem for respects to the Buddha, making donations the Tai people. Siraporn Nathalang’s (2548: of food and water to the Buddha, taking care 293) observation was related to a most of the Buddha and asking for hair relics. interesting issue relevant to the conflict These aforementioned characteristics between Buddhism and indigenous beliefs, highlight the extended influence of that being, “The doubt in the hearts of the Buddhism in the region of the Tai people, Thai - Tai people relates to a choice of the extension of Buddhism as a slow and religion, i.e. should they follow indigenous inconsistent process. Some areas were beliefs or Buddhism. In other words, who immediately able to accept the influence of
4
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
Buddhism, whereas some areas were not were recorded in the myths of the Buddha’s accepting of Buddhism due to strong belief relics so as to inform future generations and and widespread faith in indigenous beliefs. create awareness and understanding as to the past of the Tai people. To this day the Tai It has been observed that the ogre known as people are Buddhist but in the past they may Alawaka appearing in the myth of the Tai have believed that Buddhism was from Lue people also appears in the Tripitaka, the another place, alien and far removed from Buddhist scriptures, regarded as the main their indigenous beliefs. This led to conflict, text of the teachings of the Buddha to be denial and rejection of Buddhist concepts used in the guidance for beliefs and practices until the eventual acceptance of Buddhism. in Buddhist society. In the Tripitaka (1996: In relation to the conflict between these two 351-354) it is written that the Buddha differing beliefs, Siraporn Nathalang (2005: sufficiently answered the ogre Alawaka’s 309-310) has researched and studied many queries relating to Dhamma such that the Tai myths and concludes that the important ogre accepted the Dhamma and teachings of point that the Tai forefathers are trying to tell the Buddha. Previously the ogre Alawaka future generations is that of the system of was without reasoning, showing depravity religious belief of the Tai people. and using aggressive force in solving problems. After listening to the teachings of …In the traditional society of the the Buddha Alawaka adopted Buddhist Thai – Tai there was conflict in the morals. These characteristics show the truth system of belief, between the of one aspect of Buddhism, that a code of indigenous beliefs and supernatural ethics and morality may be a determining forces and the Buddhist belief that factor in the change from one type of person was accepted by the ruling classes. into another. The previously sinful and The belief of Buddhism eventually deprave ogre became a moral being and was became part of the daily lifestyle of able to rid itself of depravity and desire. the local people in conjunction with the supernatural forces thus leading Many Tai myths continue to portray the to a battle between the two beliefs. worship and belief in deities and sacred Thus a choice was to be made objects as were ever present in their between Buddhism and the Lord indigenous beliefs. Known as polytheism, Buddha in his many forms or the there are spirits of the sky, water, mountain, indigenous beliefs relating to earth, town and house as well as deities and mythical serpents, ogres and various sacred objects. After the widespread spirits. Eventually, what happened acceptance of Buddhism, efforts were made in Thai – Tai society was that there to spiritually develop the Tai people to was a combination of the two beliefs, believe in only one deity of the highest the indigenous beliefs generally order, monotheism. That deity was to be the giving way to Buddhism. Buddha. This signifies the efforts made to create the understanding that the Buddha is Integration of the Indigenous the one and only sacred being for the Tai Beliefs into Buddhism people to worship. Another group of myths portrays the As stated above, we can see that the conflict attempt of Buddhism to adjust itself to the between indigenous beliefs and Buddhism indigenous beliefs as “Folk Buddhism.”
5
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
That is, the Buddhist myths show responsible for creating the Mekhong River acceptance of the role of indigenous beliefs, and the Naan River. particularly in their fertility function as shown below. Other than this, the author also found that other myths tried to explain that if people - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, came to worship and take care of the Doi Noi, Buddha’s relics, rain would fall and create a (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยนอย-Chiang Mai) bountiful land for the people of the region. The Buddha allowed Phayanaak and The myth of Saen Hai, ( ตํานานพระธาตุแสนไห - Indra to watch over the relics of the Chiang Mai) tells that when the local people Buddha. When people came to pray came to pay respect and clean the Buddha’s and pay their respects and request relics, the power of the relics would protect water, Phayanaak would call for the people and also call for rain at the rain to fall. appropriate time. There would be plentiful - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, rice, fish and food, similar to the myth of Jae Wo, Don Tao, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอนเตา -Lampang), (ตํานานพระธาตุแจโหว-Payao) which tells that the land was arid and the The Buddha and his disciples came people were poor due to their negligence of upon Phayanaak on their travels. the Buddha’s relics. Later, when taking After eating their food and realising good care of the relics, the lands became they had no water, the Buddha arable with plentiful rice harvests. These allowed his disciples to request water characteristics show the thinking behind the from Phayanaak. acceptance of the indigenous beliefs, that being, a symbol of Buddhism was taken and The above examples of the myths show that applied to a new role in accordance with the Buddhism accepts the fertility role of the tradition and culture of the Tai people. Now indigenous beliefs and supernatural forces. the Buddha’s relics could call for rains, as For example, the call for water and bounty could Phayanaak in indigenous belief. This from Phayanaak reflects upon the shows the Buddha’s acceptance of sacred acceptance of the power of Phayanaak, objects and the people’s widespread belief in Phayanaak symbolic of the original beliefs Payanaak and its worldly powers. and something already long sacred to the Tai people. Phayanaak possessed the ability and The myth of Doi Yuak, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยหยวก - power to call for rain and was regarded as Payao) tells the story of the Buddha on his the deity of water. Thus Phayanaak was travels to Doi Yuak and his encounter with related to water and bounty in the indigenous Phayanaak. Upon seeing the Buddha, beliefs of the Tai, be it rain, rivers, streams, Phayanaak became very frightened, thinking lakes, ponds or swamps. This can be seen in the Buddha a mythical bird known as the myths of Suwannakhomkham and Payakrut. Phayanaak thus fled and hid in a Prathatphanom, both referring to the role of tunnel. The Buddha later came to apologise Phayanaak in the origin of the Mekhong for scaring Phayanaak and from that River, Payanaak said to have “pulled out moment the Buddha was able to ask the earth” until the river was born. This is Phayanaak for water. This shows the similar to the myth of Phadaeng Naang Ai Buddha’s acceptance of the power of (Northeastern region), the myth stating that Phayanaak in providing water. The two mythical naga or Phayanaak were acceptance of the Buddhist concept towards
6
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
the indigenous beliefs is also evident in other without war; similarly, by neglecting Tai stories, such as the myth of the Buddha’s relics the kingdom Yakhwankhaow (ตํานานยาขวัญขาว-Tai Lue), would experience great hardship. which tells of the Buddha following - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Doi Yakhwankhaow back to earth as she was the Dinjii, mother of crops that the Buddha could not (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยดินจี่-Tak). create. The Buddha instructed the people to The site of the Buddha’s relics would worship Yakhwankhaow (Siraporn Na have sacred water constantly flowing, Thalang, 2545: 117-118). Thus, both the water created by the power of the Yakhwankhaow and Phayanaak played relics. It was believed that this sacred important roles as deities in the indigenous water could cure disease and illness. beliefs of the Tai people. Therefore, in the process of adjusting Buddhism to be The above examples all show the changing “popular Buddhism,” the deities, once of a role of Buddhism one similar to that of the completely separate belief, were accepted indigenous beliefs. Furthermore, the myth into the system of Buddhism. of Jom Kham, (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมคํา-Tai Khoen) tells of the Buddha travelling to Nong Tung Other than the call for rain and bountiful and his encounter with Nang Naakmali, the harvests, the author also found myths protective spirit of the town of Chiang Tung. explaining the Buddha’s acceptance of The Buddha gave a hair relic to Nang indigenous beliefs and his extraordinary Naakmali so that she could give it to the powers. Not only could the Buddha predict sage who was to build the city. This shows the future but it was told that his relics were the reliance of the Buddha upon Nang also able to cure disease and illness, produce Naakmali as a medium in passing the fine crops and preserve peace for the people. Buddha’s relics onto the local people, as For example: Nang Naakmali was the representative of the local beliefs and a highly respected - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, protective spirit of the city. This indicates Khaam Kaen, the Buddha’s realisation of the sacred nature (ตํานานพระธาตุขามแกน-Khon Kaen). of Nang Naakmali to the local people and Upon placing the relics of the Buddha the need to depend upon her to initiate the on a dead tree, the tree was brought Buddha’s relics into the community much back to life and grew to great beauty. more smoothly. - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Doi Tung Not only was Phayanaak highly respected, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง-Chiang Rai). but so were the ogres and sacred spirits, The Buddha predicted that the region which were also feared. The myth of Jom he was visiting would become a Thong, (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมทอง-Chiang Rung) civilised kingdom of Buddhism and tells about the fear of Alawii, the ruler of would be forever protected. Chiang Rung, towards the ogre Alawaka - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Don and the sending of human sacrifices to Tao, appease the ogre. The myth of Prabaht (ตํานานพระธาตุดอนเตา-Lampang). Rangrung, (ตํานานพระธาตุพระบาทรังรุง -Tai Yai) The local people believed that by tells about Phayanaak, ogres and deities taking care of the Buddha’s relics the dedicating themselves to the upkeep of the kingdom would remain strong and be Buddha’s relics. The myth of Phanom,
7
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
(ตํานานพระธาตุพนม-Nakorn Phanom) tells about the construction of Wat Chedi Luang (Peter the travel of the Buddha to the region of Kunstadter, 1965: 1-2). Similarly, the myth Kampra Mountain, the original home of of Doi Kham, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยคํา -Chiang Phayanaak, spirits and many ogres. The Mai) relates the story of two great ancestors Buddha brought his hair relic to be of the Lua, Pu sae and Yaa Sae, and their enshrined and the aforementioned took care care for the Buddha’s relics, the promotion of the relics. The vision of Phayanaak, of Buddhism throughout Lanna and the spirits and ogres assisting the Buddha is bountiful harvests. Simultaneously, the testament of the efforts of Buddhism in myth of Jom Doi, (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมดอย -Chiang adapting itself to the role of indigenous Tung) tells about the Lua ancestors and beliefs that were present in the Tai their construction of Jom Doi temple for the communities. The eventual creation of a Tai people to pay their respect to the Buddhist community reflects upon the Buddha. power of things sacred that were still so influential to the Tai people, these sacred The article entitled “The Cosmology of things later attributed as part of the Power in Lanna” (Michael R. Rhum, 1987: Buddhist belief. 99) studies the myth of Pu Sae and Yaa Sae (ตํานานปูแสะยาแสะ), the content very similar to Some myths tell about the change of the that in the myth of Doi Kham, (ตํานานพระธาตุ Buddha into a regular man so as not to ดอยคํา- Chiang Mai). The article shows that create the impression that Buddhism was so far removed from the people and also to the worship of the Buddha as one with seem more connected to the original almighty power is tantamount to the beliefs. This is another indication of the worship of the spirits of Pu Sae and Yaa acceptance of Buddhism towards the Sae. In this myth Pu Sae and Yaa Sae are indigenous beliefs as shown in the myth of regarded as the founders of “nature” or Doi Tung, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง -Chiang Rai) representatives of nature as they are spirits living in the mountain forest. Eventually, which tells about the reincarnation of Pu Sae and Yaa Sae became representative Prayasinghanawatiraach as the Buddha of Buddhism as guardians of the Buddha’s and his travels to the mountain Kichakut. relics. Traces of these thoughts reflect upon The myth of Bua Bok , (ตํานานพระธาตุบัวบก- the development of the thinking of Tai Udon Thani) states that in a former life the Buddhists, that is the development of Buddha was once Phayasuwannaak, a worshipping supernatural forces to a more dweller of the region of Nong Haan Luang. traditional way of thinking and the worship of Buddha. Other than the human myths foretold, there are many other stories relating to original Thus, Phayanaak, ogres, spirits and the Lua ethnic groups such as the Lua, who had are representatives of the indigenous beliefs never previously accepted Buddhism and or the supernatural forces involved in the were later converted to Buddhism. The Lua protection of the people and the land. At have been responsible for the spread of the same time, these characters can create Buddhism throughout the Tai communities trouble and danger and are thus highly to this very day. The myth of Chedi Luang, regarded by the Tai people, regardless of (ตํานานพระธาตุเจดียหลวง -Chiang Mai) tells about their new association with Buddhism. The the Lua ancestors and their presence in the many myths mentioned above create a region long before the Tai and also tells of
8
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
picture of these sacred things being Phayanaak and the protective spirits accepted as a part of Buddhism and used as brought fruit and honey to the guardians of the Buddha’s relics. Buddha, the Buddha thus gave a hair Buddhism thus allows these protective relic to Phayanaak and the protective supernatural forces that appear in spirits and ordered them to take care indigenous beliefs. The efforts by the Tai of the relics. people to strengthen the worship of these - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Doi indigenous beliefs under the belief of Suthep. Buddhism are an interesting indication of (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยสุเทพ -Chiang Mai) the important role of the indigenous beliefs Pu Sae and Yaa Sae gave up eating and their influence upon the lifestyle of the human meat and followed the path of Tai people. Buddhism, their children being ordained as monks. Integration of Buddhism into the - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Indigenous Beliefs Jom Thong. (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมทอง -Chiang Rung) Another group of myths reflect efforts to The Buddha travelled to the kingdom integrate the indigenous beliefs with the of Alawii and found the ogre power of Buddhism. This group of myths Alawaka waiting to catch and eat applies Buddhist behaviour to the characters humans. The Buddha gave a sermon of the indigenous beliefs, be it making merit, to the ogre and asked it to cease the entering the monkhood, paying respect or consumption of human meat and following the path of Buddhism. This follow the path of Buddhism. The shows the combination of the two belief ogre took out his fangs and the systems as one, that being, “the spirits and Buddha gave the ogre a hair relic and the Buddha”, known as syncretism. These asked the ogre to build a stupa to myths often give the picture of the local keep the relics. people as caretakers of the Buddha’s relics, supporters of the construction of religious The behaviour of making merit, offering buildings. The local people eventually then donations, entering the monkhood and follow the path of Buddhism, as shown in refraining from killing were an “upgrade” the examples below. in the level of ethics for the characters of the indigenous beliefs. The Buddhist-like - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Doi behaviour was symbolic of the behavioural Tung. change from “evil to good”, from (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง-Chiang Rai). “incomplete to complete”. It showed The Buddha travelled through the air development of thinking and the principles with his alms bowl to the house of of Buddhism as a learning process of the the Lua chief known as Pu Jao Buddha’s teachings. The myths of the Tai Laojok. The chief placed food in the people thus reflect the behavioural changes alms bowl and the Buddha gave a of the characters representing indigenous sermon. beliefs. - The myth of the Buddha’s relics, Tham Nompha. The offerings to the Buddha by the local (ตํานานพระธาตุถ้ํานมผา-Chiang Mai). people in the myths were usually fruit and vegetables. For example, the myth of Chaw
9
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
Hae, (ตํานานพระธาตุชอแฮ-Prae) telling of the It has also been observed that the myth of Lua ruler Ay Khom making offerings of Pu Sae and Yaa Sae shows their inability to betel nut to the Buddha. The myth of Doi refrain from killing animals and the Tung, (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง-Chiang Rai) says consumption of meat. Thus, they asked the that Pu and Yaa Jao Laojok made offerings Buddha’s permission that once a year, the of rice and fruit, and in the myth of Jom local people could make offerings of Kaeng, (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมแกง-Chiang Mai), a animal meat to them instead of human sacrifice. This is another reflection upon the village head made offerings of vegetable antagonism towards Buddhism that curry and rice to the Buddha and his regardless of Pu Sae and Yaa Sae becoming disciples. It can be observed that at the guardians of the relics, they still continued beginning of the myth the offerings were their original ritual practice of slaying made to the Buddha due to his great power animals. This shows the binary opposition and presence, but later on in the story, the between indigenous beliefs and Buddhism people brought food and fruit to the that appear in these two myths. Buddha not as a representative of
Buddhism but because they respected the In the beginning of several myths, it is Buddha as somebody with extraordinary often stated that the Buddha and his power. This characteristic is in accordance disciples traveled through the air in order to with the indigenous worship patterns of the bring peace to the land of the Tai. For local people, that they usually offer food to example, the myth of Yang Hae (ตํานานพระธาตุ spirits and supernatural forces. ยางแฮ-Chiang Rai) tells that the Buddha If we consider the offerings made to the traveled and encountered Phayanaak, and Buddha, it can be seen that the offerings the myth of Phanom (ตํานานพระธาตุพนม-Nakon were mainly vegetarian, in contrast to the Phanom) that the Buddha traveled through offerings made to the ogres and spirits, the air to a hill near Nong Khan Tae Seua which were usually raw meat. For example, Nam (หนองคันแทเสื้อน้ํา). The Buddha’s flight to the myth of Jom Thong, (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมทอง- the land of the Tai people is an indication Tai Lue) tells about the ruler of Alawii of the presence and power of the Buddha’s placing a sacrificial virgin into the hands of supernatural forces. Many of the myths tell the ogre for his consumption. The myths of about the Buddha attaining enlightenment Doi Suthep (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยสุเทพ - Chiang and walking through the air to the Land of Mai) and Doi Kham (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยคํา - the Tai, and then he would show his power Chiang Mai) both tell about the sacrificial to suppress the ogres that refused to slaughter made to Pu Sae and Yaa Sae. worship him. This act of flying in the air is Thus we can see the complete change in the symbolic of the supernatural power shown behaviour between indigenous beliefs and by the Buddha, which resembles that of Buddhism, from “himsa” to “ahimsa”, the indigenous supernatural forces. The meaning not hurting any other party in Buddha was capable of living on earth accordance with Buddhist ethics, which is with humans and also of flying, and thus in “binary opposition” to the indigenous can be seen as a medium between the beliefs and the ritual sacrifice required for supernatural world and the earth. the peace and prosperity of the lives and communities of the local people. The repeated appearance of the Buddha in the land of the Tai is an indication of the purity of Buddhism in the Tai region. The
10
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
myths generally remark upon the Buddha local language to the use of the Pali reaching a state of enlightenment and language, regarded as an upgrading in travelling to far off lands to carry out the status for the location. The decision to important task of teaching the word of the choose the sacred language of Pali (Keyes, Buddha. This is especially so of the region 1987: 33, Tambiah S.J, 1970: 258) is of Suvannabhumi, mainland Southeast regarded as a powerful media and further Asia, which was believed to have had a increased the efficiency of building up the highly developed level of Buddhism due belief and faith of the local people. This is to the influence and teachings of the many because the Tai people thought of the Pali previous Buddhas that had visited the language as the actual words of the region in the past. For example, the myth Buddha and were the words of one with of Doi Tung (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง - Chiang Rai) real power. tells about the Buddha and his travels to this region following the original plan and Furthermore, the construction of stupas practice of the previous Buddha. This is in could reflect the relationship between accordance with the myth of Phanom Buddhism and indigenous beliefs. Many (ตํานานพระธาตุพนม-Nakon Phanom) which tells myths mentioned that both local and about the Buddha’s travels to Kampra Buddhist deities assisted in the Mountain for the same reasons as the construction of the stupas, as can be seen previous three Buddhas and that a future in the myth of Prabaht Rangrung (ตํานานพระ Buddha would also travel to this same ธาตุพระบาทรังรุง-Hang, Myanmar). The myth region. The claim that the land of the Tai tells that the Buddha gave locks of his hair was pure, Buddhism was well developed and a footprint to Phayanaak as an object and also visited by the five Buddhas was of worship, with Indra, deities and ogres regarded as confirmation as well as assisting in the construction and protection continuance of Buddhism and also an of the stupa along with Phayanaak. The indication that the region was sacred in the content in this myth shows the presence of past, the present and the future. Each era deities and things sacred from other beliefs was blessed by the visit of the Buddha to in the construction of the Buddha’s stupa. the land of the Tai. This shows the integration of the characters of both belief systems joining together in “The Buddha’s foretelling the future” is the construction and upkeep of the stupa another behaviour in the myths of the and is thus regarded as the taking of sacred Buddha’s relics. These myths mentioned objects and deities of indigenous beliefs for the Buddha’s visions of the future or his the use of Buddhist activities. predictions as to the state of the region and the communities visited by the Buddha. In If we analyse the roles of the characters some versions the Buddha even predicted representing both beliefs, we may refer to the future sites for the construction of Emile Durkheim (1954: 47). He said that stupas. For example, in the myth of Doi religion is a systematic belief and practice Tung (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง-Chiang Rai), the that creates a sense of unity with a Buddha traveled along the Mekhong River relationship to sacred objects. This can be to Doi PuYaa Laojok Mountain after his seen in the integration of spirits and prior prediction that the mountain would Buddhism in the construction of the be known as “Doi Dtayasaket Banphot”. Buddha’s stupa, indicating the creation of a This shows the change from use of the relationship or accord between the two
11
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
belief systems, with the Buddha as the relics that appear as the basis of the medium between the two belief systems. Buddhist beliefs.
The integration of the two belief systems is The idea of creating a stupa as something still evident in the roles and behaviour of sacred is evident in many myths and shows the Tai mythical characters. For example, that the location of the stupa was dependent the myth of Doi Tung (ตํานานพระธาตุดอยตุง- upon the presence of deities or sacred Chiang Rai), Indra sent Laojok to be born objects of the local people. For example, on earth, Laojok thus descending to earth the myth of Dam (ตํานานพระธาตุดํา-Vientiane) via a silver staircase and into the region of states that prior to the construction of the Doi Tung. This is similar to the basis of Dam stupa, the area was formerly the sky spirits and ancestral spirits that sent location of seven Phayanaak. The stupa down spirits to rule the kingdoms. Thus was built over the holes of Phayanaak’s Indra plays a very similar role as the local nest. This is similar to the myth of Nguu deities. This is similar to the myth of Bua Suang (ตํานานพระธาตุงูซวง-Chaiyaphum) Bok (ตํานานพระธาตุบัวบก-Udon Thani) which which tells about the construction of narrates the story of the Buddha blessing Buddha images and a stupa over the hole of Phayanaak with golden scales, and the the snake known as Nguu Suang. The myth place upon which the scales fall would be of Jom Thong (ตํานานพระธาตุจอมทอง-Chiang holy and a place of worship for the people. Rung) states that ogres received the This reflects the adaptation of the myths Buddha’s hair and then built a stupa upon and presents the loss of the golden scales as the site of its former home. The tantamount to being representative of the explanation as to the construction and Buddha’s holy stupa. Thus, we can see an location of the stupa on the land that used interesting integration of the two belief to be the sacred land of the local people systems. highlights the integration of Buddhism and indigenous beliefs, the sacred topography It has been observed that in the myth of used to harmonise and strengthen the Bua Bok (ตํานานพระธาตุบัวบก-Udon Thani), integretion of the two belief systems. Phayasuvannanaak had golden scales, and upon losing its scales in a particular place, The book entitled Sacred Sites, Sacred that place would become a sacred place for Places (David L. Carmichael et. al., 1994: mankind. Thus, the time when the Buddha 2-2) looks at the meaning and importance was not apparent upon earth, Phayanaak of sacred locations. It is postulated that would appear as a deity that would be these sacred locations are able to show the worshipped by the people. Even during changes and cultural harmonisation of each later times and the rise in the popularity of group of people. This explanation shows Buddhism as the main religion, the Tai that the local sacred locations of the Tai people have maintained their belief in the people were adapted as locations for the power and sacredness of Phayanaak to this stupa, a sacred object of the Buddhist very day. The material in this myth belief. This also reflects the positive indicates traces of indigenous beliefs of the integration of Buddhism and indigenous Tai people and their relationship with beliefs and the interesting way of co- things sacred, that being the golden scales existence between the two religious of Phayanaak, a basis of the indigenous systems. beliefs. This is comparable to the Buddha’s
12
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
The Myths of the Buddha’s Relics of the Tai People
Conclusion integrated aspects of the two religious systems. We can thus assume that the Beliefs and religion are of great interest and myths of the Buddha’s relics were created have been used by academics of various after the majority of people had already institutions as issues in their studies and accepted Buddhism and had become analyses. In this paper the author has tried Buddhists. to indicate the significance of the myths of the Buddha’s relics as folklore data so as to References be used in the study of the relationship between the indigenous beliefs and the Barthes, Roland. 1996. “Myth Today,” in Buddhism of the Tai people. The author is Robert A. Segal (ed.). Theories interested in studying the relationship of Myth: Structuralism in Myth between Buddhism and the indigenous Volume 6. New York: Garland beliefs of the Tai people that appear in the Publishing Inc. myths of the Buddha’s relics, both in traditional literary form and the more Carmichael, David L. 1994. Sacred Sites, prevalent traditional oral form. Sacred Places. New York: Routledge.
The study of the characteristic of the relationship between indigenous beliefs and Durkheim, Emile. 1954. The Elementary Buddhism shows that the conflict and Forms of the Religious Life. New integration of Buddhism and indigenous York: The Free Press. beliefs have many different characteristics. These characteristics indicate the Keyes, Charles F. 1987. Thailand: Buddhist development of the Tai religious system Kingdom as Modern through the analysis of the mythical Nation-State. Boulder –Colorado: characters and the apparent behaviour Westview Press. throughout the myths. The strong faith of the Tai people towards indigenous beliefs is Kirk, G. S. 1976. Myth: Its Meaning and still evident as can be seen by their Functions in Ancient and Other presence in Folk Buddhism. This indicates Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge that indigenous beliefs both fortified and University Press. helped promote the acceptance and widespread of Buddhism in the Tai Kirsch, Thomas. 1977. “Complexity in communities to this very day. the Thai Religious System: An Interpretation,” Journal of Asian However, many of the myths show that the Studies xxxvi (February). Buddha held the highest power and no deity possessed power that could rival the Kunstadter, Peter. 1965. The Lua? (Lawa) Buddha’s One important behavioural of Northern Thailand: Aspects pattern that appears in the myths is the of Social Structure Agriculture “subduing of Mara”. Initially the Tai and Religion. S.I.: Center of people believed that the local characters International Studies, Princeton would conquer the Buddha but eventually University. Buddhism conquered. Most of the myths stand in the position of showing the
13
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access
MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities (Special Issue No.9 2005)
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1969. Structural Anthropology. London: Allen Lane the Penguin Press.
Mahachulalongkorn University. 1996. Tripitaka Thai Version. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkorn University.
Rhum, Michael R. 1987. “The Cosmology of Power in Lanna,” Journal of The Siam Society (Volume 75).
Siraporn Nathalang. 2002. ชนชาติไทในนิทาน: แลลอดแวนคติชนและวรรณกรรมพื้นบาน (Tai Peoples in Folklore: An Analysis from Tai Folklore and Literature). Bangkok: Matichon.
Siraporn Nathalang. 2005. ทฤษฎีคติชนวิทยา: วิธีวิทยาในการวิเคราะหตํานาน-นิทานพื้นบาน (Folklore Theories: Methodology in the Analysis of Folktales). Bangkok: Center of Folklore Studies and Department of Thai, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University.
Snodgrass, Adrian. 1994. The Symbolism of the Stupa. Bangkok: Thammasat University Publishing.
Sumit Bitipat. 2002. Religion and Beliefs of the Tai Dam, Communist Republic of Vietnam. Bangkok: Institute of Thai Studies, Thammasat University.
Tambiah, S. J. 1970. Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Terwiel, B. J. 1980. The Tai of Assam and Ancient Tai Ritual Volume I. India: The Catholic Press.
14
Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 10:09:32PM via free access